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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">P9mNxjJYKQ7cxbwpC8Bsjnp</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025000700401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240884</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Medical Reversals, Spins e Resultados Divergentes em Ensaios na Cardiologia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3835-6067</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alencar</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Nunes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito and Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2495-3466</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cavalcanti</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno Robalinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito and Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4112-3600</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Athayde</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme Augusto Teodoro</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito and Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Campina Grande</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campina Grande</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Campina Grande, PB &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires Metropolitan Hospital</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires Metropolitan Hospital, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia</label>: Jos&#233; Nunes de Alencar &#8226; Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia - Rua Dante Pazzanese, 500. CEP 04012909, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>jose.alencar@dantepazzanese.org.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Marcio Bittencourt</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p> N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>15</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>7</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20240884</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A medicina cardiovascular tem testemunhado avan&#231;os not&#225;veis, mas mesmo interven&#231;&#245;es altamente conceituadas podem ser prejudicadas por racioc&#237;nios falhos, suposi&#231;&#245;es mecanicistas excessivas e a apresenta&#231;&#227;o dos dados de maneira seletiva. Este artigo examina armadilhas cruciais na cardiologia contempor&#226;nea, como <italic>medical reversals</italic>, o impacto do <italic>spin</italic> e como os m&#233;todos bayesianos podem oferecer maior clareza na avalia&#231;&#227;o de evid&#234;ncias, ao integrar conhecimento pr&#233;vio com novos dados para gerar conclus&#245;es mais probabil&#237;sticas e baseadas no contexto. Esta revis&#227;o defende uma abordagem cr&#237;tica e ponderada para avalia&#231;&#227;o de pesquisas, alertando os cardiologistas sobre os perigos de aceitar conclus&#245;es de estudos sem questionar. A ado&#231;&#227;o dessa postura vigilante ajudar&#225; a garantir que as terapias e interven&#231;&#245;es emergentes realmente melhorem os resultados dos pacientes, orientando os m&#233;dicos em dire&#231;&#227;o a estrat&#233;gias mais confi&#225;veis, transparentes e ben&#233;ficas no campo da medicina cardiovascular, em constante evolu&#231;&#227;o. Essa vigil&#226;ncia &#233; importante para preservar a integridade da investiga&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica e o progresso significativo no cuidado ao paciente. Essa abordagem promove a confiabilidade dos dados publicados.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central:</label>
            <caption>
              <title><italic>Medical Reversals, Spins</italic> e Resultados Divergentes em Ensaios na Cardiologia</title>
            </caption>
            <alternatives>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/P9mNxjJYKQ7cxbwpC8Bsjnp/65c2f1f86fa364c19367acec6bf61c9ddca3548d.tif"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/P9mNxjJYKQ7cxbwpC8Bsjnp/cc052827396e84d973321f72891b6bf33c0411f6.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/P9mNxjJYKQ7cxbwpC8Bsjnp/a79d853047240cad236deb211a014fbb343020fb.jpg" specific-use="scielo-web" content-type="scielo-267x140"/>
            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Cardiologia Baseada em Evid&#234;ncias</kwd>
        <kwd>Revers&#245;es M&#233;dicas</kwd>
        <kwd>Vi&#233;s de <italic>Spin</italic></kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="44"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, a medicina cardiovascular testemunhou progressos not&#225;veis, apoiados por rigorosos ensaios cl&#237;nicos e diretrizes abrangentes. Esses avan&#231;os melhoraram, de forma inequ&#237;voca, os resultados dos pacientes, reduzindo a mortalidade e aumentando sua qualidade de vida. No entanto, essa evolu&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica n&#227;o esteve livre de erros, controv&#233;rsias e reviravoltas surpreendentes que desafiam nossas no&#231;&#245;es preconcebidas de fisiopatologia e a efic&#225;cia de certas interven&#231;&#245;es. Suposi&#231;&#245;es mec&#226;nicas que antes pareciam evidentes cederam sob o escrut&#237;nio de evid&#234;ncias robustas, ilustrando os perigos de confiar apenas na l&#243;gica sem testar hip&#243;teses por meio de desenhos de estudo rigorosos. Interven&#231;&#245;es iniciais que prometiam melhorar a sobreviv&#234;ncia com base apenas na plausibilidade mecanicista, por vezes, levaram a reviravoltas cl&#237;nicas inesperadas quando submetidas a investiga&#231;&#245;es rigorosas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A import&#226;ncia da avalia&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica e da interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados cl&#237;nicos na cardiologia n&#227;o pode ser subestimada. Os m&#233;dicos precisam navegar em um panorama cada vez mais complexo de evid&#234;ncias m&#233;dicas, que inclui estudos com resultados conflitantes, poss&#237;veis distor&#231;&#245;es nos resultados relatados, e padr&#245;es de rigor metodol&#243;gico em evolu&#231;&#227;o. Avaliar a validade, aplicabilidade e relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica de novos dados tornou-se uma habilidade essencial para o cardiologista moderno.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Tal avalia&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica promove decis&#245;es individualizadas e adaptadas, seja considerando os riscos e benef&#237;cios de interven&#231;&#245;es coronarianas, selecionando candidatos para abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) ou determinando quando iniciar terapias avan&#231;adas para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Este artigo examina como a depend&#234;ncia em suposi&#231;&#245;es mecanicistas n&#227;o testadas, a suscetibilidade &#224; distor&#231;&#227;o e os desafios na interpreta&#231;&#227;o de resultados complexos ou conflitantes podem comprometer a integridade da cardiologia baseada em evid&#234;ncias. Com base em casos emblem&#225;ticos, destaca como reviravoltas m&#233;dicas, manipula&#231;&#227;o de desfechos, e a apresenta&#231;&#227;o seletiva de resultados podem distorcer a tomada de decis&#227;o cl&#237;nica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Defini&#231;&#245;es chave: revers&#245;es m&#233;dicas, <italic>spin</italic>, e resultados divergentes</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Termo</th>
                <th>Defini&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>Considera&#231;&#245;es chave /exemplos</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td><italic>Medical reversals</italic> ou revers&#245;es m&#233;dicas</td>
                <td align="center">Ocorrem quando uma interven&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica amplamente aceita &#8211; geralmente baseada incialmente em estudos observacionais ou racional mecanicista &#8211; &#233; posteriormente refutada com base em ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados</td>
                <td align="center">Por exemplo, o uso inicial de antiarr&#237;tmicos da classe IC para suprimir arritmias ventriculares foi refutado pelo ensaio CAST, que demonstrou aumento na mortalidade.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>Spin</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center">Refere-se &#224; apresenta&#231;&#227;o seletiva ou ao enquadramento dos resultados de estudos para acentuar desfechos favor&#225;veis, enquanto minimiza ou obscurece achados adversos ou neutros.</td>
                <td align="center">Um exemplo &#233; o estudo RITA-2, onde a melhora sintom&#225;tica precoce foi destacada para a angioplastia coronariana transluminal percut&#226;nea, apesar do desfecho composto geral favorecer a terapia m&#233;dica otimizada.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Resultados divergentes</td>
                <td align="center">Descreve situa&#231;&#245;es em que estudos de alta qualidade que investigam a mesma quest&#227;o cl&#237;nica geram desfechos conflitantes, em geral por diferen&#231;as no delineamento, popula&#231;&#245;es ou defini&#231;&#245;es de desfechos.</td>
                <td align="center">Um claro exemplo inclui os resultados contrastantes do COAPT e do MITRA-FR avaliando o uso do MitraClip para regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral funcional.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Nem tudo &#233; como parece: revers&#245;es m&#233;dicas na cardiologia</title>
        <p>A cardiologia est&#225; repleta de estudos que desafiam expectativas l&#243;gicas e destacam como a medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias pode reverter o que antes parecia ser verdades indiscut&#237;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Um exemplo marcante est&#225; no tratamento de arritmias ventriculares ap&#243;s infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM). Nas d&#233;cadas de 1970 e 1980, a cria&#231;&#227;o de unidades de cuidados coronarianos reduziu drasticamente a mortalidade hospitalar de pacientes com IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Posteriormente, tornou-se evidente que muitos sobreviventes passaram a apresentar arritmias ventriculares, que foram identificadas em v&#225;rias investiga&#231;&#245;es como preditores de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Com base nesse entendimento te&#243;rico, uma equipe de pesquisadores nos Estados Unidos prop&#244;s que as taxas de sobreviv&#234;ncia poderiam ser melhoradas para pacientes com miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica que apresentavam alto risco de morte por arritmias ventriculares, caso esses batimentos card&#237;acos irregulares fossem suprimidos. O primeiro passo na avalia&#231;&#227;o dessa hip&#243;tese foi o Estudo Piloto de Arritmia Card&#237;aca (CAPS, <italic>Cardiac Arrhythmia Pilot Study</italic>), conduzido em 1986. Este estudo demonstrou que os medicamentos antiarr&#237;tmicos da classe IC, que funcionam como bloqueadores de canais de s&#243;dio, eram capazes de praticamente eliminar as arritmias ventriculares nesses indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Com isso, parecia l&#243;gico adicionar esses agentes ao arsenal terap&#234;utico; se as arritmias pudessem ser suprimidas, a mortalidade deveria ser reduzida.</p>
        <p>No entanto, o Estudo de Supress&#227;o de Arritmia Card&#237;aca (CAST, <italic>Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial</italic>) contrariou essas suposi&#231;&#245;es. O estudo incluiu 1498 pacientes randomizados para receber flecainida/encainida ou placebo. Ap&#243;s 10 meses, o ensaio foi interrompido devido ao excesso de mortes &#8212; especialmente mortes arr&#237;tmicas &#8212; no grupo que recebeu os medicamentos antiarr&#237;tmicos. Essa revers&#227;o tornou-se uma das mudan&#231;as cient&#237;ficas mais marcantes da &#233;poca e limitou drasticamente o uso de antiarr&#237;tmicos da classe IC em pacientes com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca estrutural, devido ao seu potencial pr&#243;-arr&#237;tmico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro achado inesperado foi observado no contexto da triagem e tratamento da FA. A FA &#233; a arritmia sustentada mais comum na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e est&#225; associada &#224; mortalidade e eventos tromboemb&#243;licos (ETs), particularmente acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) e IC. Al&#233;m disso, a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o pode reduzir significativamente e com seguran&#231;a o risco de ETs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Parecia evidente que a identifica&#231;&#227;o e a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o precoces em pacientes com FA resultariam em benef&#237;cios inequ&#237;vocos. No entanto, o estudo LOOP, publicado em 2021, desafiou essa ideia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Nesse ensaio, 6205 pacientes com idades entre 70 e 90 anos, com pelo menos um fator de risco adicional para AVC, foram randomizados para o manejo convencional ou monitoramento eletrocardiogr&#225;fico subcut&#226;neo cont&#237;nuo e de longo prazo para a detec&#231;&#227;o de FA. Pacientes com epis&#243;dios de FA com dura&#231;&#227;o igual ou maior que seis minutos iniciaram anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. Ap&#243;s mais de cinco anos, o diagn&#243;stico de FA foi tr&#234;s vezes mais comum no grupo monitorado, e a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o foi iniciada com maior frequ&#234;ncia. No entanto, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as nas taxas de AVC ou sangramento entre os grupos. Os resultados do estudo est&#227;o alinhados com os de outros ensaios, como o GUARD-AF, que tamb&#233;m n&#227;o encontraram redu&#231;&#227;o significativa nas taxas de AVC com a triagem de FA, sugerindo que nem toda FA detectada pode ser clinicamente significativa o suficiente para justificar a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma cr&#237;tica &#233; que a popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo LOOP pode n&#227;o ter sido selecionada de forma ideal para se beneficiar da triagem de FA. As an&#225;lises de subgrupos sugeriram benef&#237;cios potenciais em popula&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas, como aquelas sem doen&#231;a cardiovascular pr&#233;via, mas esses achados n&#227;o foram definitivos e exigem investiga&#231;&#227;o adicional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, preocupa&#231;&#245;es foram levantadas sobre a metodologia do estudo e a decis&#227;o de iniciar anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para epis&#243;dios de FA com dura&#231;&#227;o de apenas seis minutos ou mais, j&#225; que permanece incerto se epis&#243;dios t&#227;o breves requerem tratamento.</p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o a outra reviravolta m&#233;dica importante, estudos observacionais iniciais sugeriram que a terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal (TRH) para mulheres ap&#243;s a menopausa poderia reduzir o risco cardiovascular. Esses estudos indicaram potenciais vantagens, incluindo a diminui&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) e das taxas de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados, notadamente o WHI (<italic>Women&#8217;s Health Initiative</italic>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> contradisseram esses achados ao mostrar um aumento no risco de eventos cardiovasculares, incluindo DAC e AVC, em mulheres que recebiam TRH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Os ensaios WHI foram interrompidos precocemente devido a esses riscos aumentados, levando a uma mudan&#231;a significativa na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, e n&#227;o se utilizando a TRH para prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup>Investiga&#231;&#245;es mais recentes revelaram que, para mulheres que entraram na menopausa nos &#250;ltimos 10 anos, a TRH oferece vantagens terap&#234;uticas sem aumentar os perigos cardiovasculares. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> e meta-an&#225;lises<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> forneceram evid&#234;ncias que apoiam essas observa&#231;&#245;es. Este grupo se enquadra na &#8220;janela de oportunidade&#8221; para a prescri&#231;&#227;o de TRH, que tem sido recomendada por diretrizes internacionais e nacionais, particularmente para mulheres sem alto risco ou eventos cardiovasculares pr&#233;vios. Essas diretrizes recomendam que a TRH seja iniciada dentro de 10 anos ap&#243;s a menopausa e/ou antes dos 60 anos de idade; iniciar a terapia ap&#243;s os 60 anos ou mais de 10 anos ap&#243;s a menopausa pode elevar o risco absoluto de eventos adversos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Interpreta&#231;&#245;es distorcidas: <italic>spin</italic> na pesquisa cardiovascular</title>
        <p>Alguns estudos tiveram suas conclus&#245;es sutilmente distorcidas pelos pr&#243;prios autores, lan&#231;ando uma luz mais favor&#225;vel sobre um determinado tratamento do que os dados justificam. Essa pr&#225;tica, conhecida como <italic>spin</italic>, pode enganar leitores e cl&#237;nicos, influenciando potencialmente as decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um exemplo not&#225;vel de <italic>spin</italic> pode ser encontrado no contexto da DAC. O estudo RITA-2, publicado em 1997, randomizou 1018 pacientes com angina est&#225;vel para angioplastia com bal&#227;o &#8211; angioplastia transluminal percut&#226;nea (PTCA, <italic>percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty</italic>) ou terapia m&#233;dica otimizada (TMO).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> O desfecho composto prim&#225;rio &#8212; morte por qualquer causa e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM) n&#227;o fatal &#8212; foi avaliado ao longo de cinco anos (seguimento m&#233;dio de 2,7 anos). Os resultados mostraram que a PTCA aumentou o risco do desfecho composto prim&#225;rio em compara&#231;&#227;o com a TMO, impulsionado principalmente por IM n&#227;o fatal. Embora ambos os grupos tenham inicialmente experimentado melhora nos sintomas, a signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica a favor da PTCA sobre a TMO diminuiu ap&#243;s tr&#234;s anos. No entanto, os autores enfatizaram uma melhora precoce nos sintomas nos pacientes submetidos &#224; PTCA e sugeriram que os cl&#237;nicos ponderassem esse benef&#237;cio contra um &#8220;pequeno&#8221; risco excessivo do procedimento. Essa abordagem n&#227;o refletiu com precis&#227;o o desfecho prim&#225;rio, no qual a PTCA piorou os resultados. Com um n&#250;mero necess&#225;rio para prejudicar de 33 em 2,7 anos, o <italic>spin</italic> do estudo desviou a aten&#231;&#227;o do resultado negativo do desfecho prim&#225;rio.</p>
        <p>Um exemplo semelhante surgiu com o estudo EXCEL, publicado em 2016, que avaliou a interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea (ICP) com <italic>stents</italic> de segunda gera&#231;&#227;o liberadores de everolimus em compara&#231;&#227;o com a cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio (CABG) para doen&#231;a da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria principal esquerda de complexidade anat&#244;mica baixa a intermedi&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> O desfecho composto prim&#225;rio &#8212; morte, IM e AVC &#8212; foi metodologicamente question&#225;vel. Sabe-se que a CABG aumenta o risco de acidente vascular cerebral em compara&#231;&#227;o com a PCI, enquanto a PCI pode estar associada a taxas mais altas de IM espont&#226;neo. Combinar esses eventos em um &#250;nico desfecho composto significava que as duas interven&#231;&#245;es puxavam os resultados em dire&#231;&#245;es opostas. Tamb&#233;m surgiram preocupa&#231;&#245;es sobre o uso da an&#225;lise por inten&#231;&#227;o de tratar em vez do protocolo, dado o cruzamento substancial, e as defini&#231;&#245;es em evolu&#231;&#227;o de IM durante o estudo. Tais mudan&#231;as podem ter favorecido a PCI. Como resultado, uma abordagem mais transparente separaria o IM relacionado ao procedimento e o AVC como desfechos de seguran&#231;a e focaria exclusivamente no IM espont&#226;neo como desfecho prim&#225;rio, como o estudo NOBLE eventualmente fez.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>An&#225;lises de subgrupos representam outra via comum para <italic>spin</italic>. O estudo ISIS-2, um ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado, controlado por placebo e com desenho fatorial 2x2, com mais de 17 000 pacientes, testou estreptoquinase e um m&#234;s de aspirina a 162,5 mg/dia no contexto de IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> O estudo demonstrou uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 20% na mortalidade vascular com aspirina, 23% com estreptoquinase e uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 40% com a combina&#231;&#227;o de ambos ao longo de cinco semanas. A redu&#231;&#227;o absoluta do risco com o uso de aspirina sozinha foi de 2,4 mortes por 100 pacientes tratados, correspondendo a um n&#250;mero necess&#225;rio para tratar de 42. Apesar desses resultados impactantes, os editores de revistas na &#233;poca exigiram an&#225;lises de subgrupos. Em uma resposta deliberadamente ir&#244;nica, os autores relataram resultados por signos astrol&#243;gicos, descobrindo, por exemplo, que pacientes nascidos sob G&#234;meos e Libra aparentemente n&#227;o se beneficiaram da aspirina. Essa demonstra&#231;&#227;o bem-humorada destacou a insensatez de confiar excessivamente em achados arbitr&#225;rios de subgrupos e enfatizou a necessidade de interpretar essas an&#225;lises com ceticismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro meio sutil, mas impactante, de moldar a narrativa de um ensaio est&#225; na altera&#231;&#227;o dos desfechos predefinidos ou suas defini&#231;&#245;es durante a investiga&#231;&#227;o. O estudo ISCHEMIA &#233; um exemplo emblem&#225;tico. Este estudo de refer&#234;ncia, com custo aproximado de 100 milh&#245;es de d&#243;lares, foi publicado em 2020 e incluiu 5179 pacientes com isquemia moderada a grave, randomizando-os para TMO sozinha ou TMO mais cateterismo card&#237;aco seguido de ICP, se indicado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Inicialmente, o desfecho composto prim&#225;rio era morte cardiovascular e IM. No entanto, devido &#224; incid&#234;ncia menor que a esperada desses eventos, os investigadores adicionaram hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e IC ao desfecho composto prim&#225;rio.</p>
        <p>Embora os investigadores tenham definido essa modifica&#231;&#227;o <italic>a priori</italic>, a decis&#227;o acabou enfraquecendo a clareza interpretativa do estudo. A incorpora&#231;&#227;o de desfechos subjetivos, tais como angina inst&#225;vel ou hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC, juntamente com desfechos objetivos, como morte e IM, diluiu a clareza e a confiabilidade das conclus&#245;es. Os resultados do estudo ISCHEMIA demonstraram que n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre as estrat&#233;gias invasivas e conservadoras, refor&#231;ando o entendimento de que, mesmo em pacientes com isquemia moderada ou grave, a DAC est&#225;vel frequentemente apresenta um progn&#243;stico favor&#225;vel a longo prazo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A sele&#231;&#227;o de desfechos &#8212; e suas suposi&#231;&#245;es subjacentes &#8212; pode criticamente moldar os resultados de um estudo. Considere o estudo OPTION, recentemente introduzido, e patrocinado pelo fabricante de um dispositivo usado para oclus&#227;o do Ap&#234;ndice Atrial Esquerdo (AAE) juntamente com abla&#231;&#227;o de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> O estudo OPTION compara abla&#231;&#227;o de FA mais AAE concomitante &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o de FA mais anticoagulantes orais diretos cont&#237;nuos. &#192; primeira vista, o objetivo do estudo &#8212; potencialmente reduzir ou eliminar a necessidade de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o a longo prazo &#8212; pode atrair pacientes e cl&#237;nicos. No entanto, uma an&#225;lise mais detalhada do design do OPTION levanta v&#225;rias preocupa&#231;&#245;es. O estudo emprega um modelo de n&#227;o inferioridade e inclui mortalidade por todas as causas, um desfecho conhecido por permanecer inalterado tanto pela abla&#231;&#227;o quanto pelo AAE, como parte de uma medida de efic&#225;cia composta. Essa abordagem, juntamente com um tamanho de amostra relativamente pequeno e uma margem de n&#227;o inferioridade escolhida com base em suposi&#231;&#245;es otimistas de taxa de eventos, facilita que o AAE alcance a n&#227;o inferioridade sem demonstrar vantagens significativas na preven&#231;&#227;o de AVC ou embolia sist&#234;mica. Outras preocupa&#231;&#245;es surgem da escolha de conduzir a an&#225;lise prim&#225;ria na popula&#231;&#227;o por inten&#231;&#227;o de tratar &#8212; menos apropriada para estudos de n&#227;o inferioridade &#8212; e excluir sangramentos procedimentais do desfecho prim&#225;rio de seguran&#231;a, subestimando assim os verdadeiros riscos procedimentais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Reconciliando resultados divergentes em ensaios cl&#237;nicos</title>
        <p>&#192;s vezes, ensaios cl&#237;nicos de alta qualidade produzem resultados conflitantes sobre a mesma quest&#227;o m&#233;dica, tornando dif&#237;cil para os profissionais de sa&#250;de determinarem a melhor forma de aplicar esses achados na pr&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>Um caso representativo envolve a repara&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea da regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral secund&#225;ria, usando o dispositivo MitraClip. Dois ensaios cl&#237;nicos de refer&#234;ncia, o COAPT<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> e o MITRA-FR,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> ambos publicados em 2018, examinaram o impacto cl&#237;nico de se adicionar o MitraClip &#224; terapia m&#233;dica orientada por diretrizes em pacientes com regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral funcional. Enquanto o COAPT tenha focado na hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC em um ano, o MITRA-FR avaliou o desfecho composto de morte e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC em um per&#237;odo de tempo semelhante. Apesar de metodologias similares, os resultados divergiram significativamente. No COAPT, o MitraClip reduziu significativamente as hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es e a mortalidade geral, enquanto o MITRA-FR n&#227;o mostrou melhorias. Quando ensaios cl&#237;nicos produzem resultados divergentes, &#233; essencial realizar uma an&#225;lise aprofundada para entender as raz&#245;es subjacentes a essas discrep&#226;ncias. V&#225;rios fatores-chave devem ser examinados:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Delineamento e popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo</bold>: Diferen&#231;as no desenho do estudo, tais como crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o e exclus&#227;o, podem levar a varia&#231;&#245;es nas popula&#231;&#245;es de pacientes. Por exemplo, o COAPT e o MITRA-FR tiveram crit&#233;rios diferentes para a gravidade da regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, o que influenciou significativamente seus resultados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Defini&#231;&#245;es de desfechos</bold>: Varia&#231;&#245;es na forma como os desfechos prim&#225;rios e secund&#225;rios s&#227;o definidos e medidos podem levar a diferentes interpreta&#231;&#245;es de efic&#225;cia. O estudo COAPT teve crit&#233;rios mais rigorosos para o sucesso do procedimento e durabilidade da redu&#231;&#227;o da regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral em compara&#231;&#227;o ao MITRA-FR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Protocolos de tratamento</bold>: Diferen&#231;as na implementa&#231;&#227;o dos protocolos de tratamento, incluindo o uso da terapia m&#233;dica orientada por diretrizes, podem afetar os resultados dos estudos. O COAPT garantiu que os pacientes estivessem recebendo a terapia m&#233;dica m&#225;xima tolerada antes da inscri&#231;&#227;o, o que n&#227;o foi rigorosamente aplicado no MITRA-FR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Experi&#234;ncia do centro e dos operadores</bold>: A experi&#234;ncia dos centros e dos operadores que realizam as interven&#231;&#245;es pode impactar as taxas de sucesso do procedimento e os resultados. O COAPT foi conduzido em centros com significativa experi&#234;ncia na repara&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea da valva mitral, o que pode ter contribu&#237;do para seus resultados positivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e interpreta&#231;&#227;o</bold>: Os m&#233;todos estat&#237;sticos usados para analisar os dados, incluindo dados falante e ajustes quanto a compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas, podem influenciar os resultados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Um desafio similar surgiu em 2023 com dois ensaios avaliando a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para FA subcl&#237;nica detectada por dispositivos card&#237;acos implant&#225;veis. O NOAH-AFNET 6 incluiu 2356 pacientes com idade &#8805;65 anos com um ou mais epis&#243;dios de FA subcl&#237;nica com dura&#231;&#227;o de seis minutos ou mais, al&#233;m de um fator de risco tromboemb&#243;lico adicional, randomizando-os para placebo ou edoxabana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> O desfecho prim&#225;rio foi um composto de morte cardiovascular, AVC ou embolia sist&#234;mica. No ARTESIA, 4012 pacientes com pelo menos um epis&#243;dio de FA subcl&#237;nica com dura&#231;&#227;o de seis minutos ou mais (mas &#8804;24 horas), foram randomizados para apixabana ou aspirina (81 mg) e avaliados quanto &#224; incid&#234;ncia de AVC ou embolia sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> O NOAH-AFNET 6 foi interrompido precocemente por futilidade, sem diferen&#231;a no desfecho prim&#225;rio e com aumento de sangramentos no grupo edoxabana. No ARTESIA, a apixabana reduziu ETs, mas com taxas mais altas de sangramento. Ao examinar as poss&#237;veis causas desse resultado divergente, podemos concluir que:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Delineamento e popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo</bold>: O NOAH-AFNET 6 focou em pacientes com epis&#243;dios de alta frequ&#234;ncia atrial, detectados por dispositivos eletr&#244;nicos card&#237;acos implant&#225;veis, utilizando edoxabana como anticoagulante. O ARTESIA avaliou a apixabana em uma popula&#231;&#227;o semelhante, mas incluiu pacientes com fatores de risco adicionais para AVC, como uma maior preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a vascular. O estudo ARTESIA tamb&#233;m teve um tamanho de amostra maior, incluindo 4012 pacientes em compara&#231;&#227;o com 2534 no NOAH-AFNET 6.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Defini&#231;&#245;es de desfechos</bold>: Ambos os estudos definiram seu desfecho prim&#225;rio de efic&#225;cia como um composto de AVC, embolia sist&#234;mica, IM, embolia pulmonar ou morte cardiovascular. No entanto, o ARTESIA incluiu ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio com evid&#234;ncia de infarto cerebral em resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica ponderada por difus&#227;o como parte de seu desfecho prim&#225;rio, o que n&#227;o foi explicitamente mencionado no NOAH-AFNET 6.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Protocolos de tratamento</bold>: Os protocolos de tratamento foram diferentes quanto &#224; escolha do anticoagulante &#8211; edoxabana no NOAH-AFNET 6 e apixabana no ARTESIA. No NOAH, edoxabana foi comparada a placebo, e no ARTESIA, &#224; aspirina.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Quando os dados s&#227;o divergentes, uma meta-an&#225;lise pode ajudar. Uma meta-an&#225;lise de dois ensaios demonstrou que a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral reduziu o risco de AVC isqu&#234;mico (RR 0,68, IC95% 0,50-0,92) e aumentou o risco de sangramentos maiores (RR 1,62; IC 95% 1,05-2,50). A meta-an&#225;lise tamb&#233;m destacou uma baixa heterogeneidade (I<sup>2</sup> = 0%), indicando consist&#234;ncia nos achados entre os ensaios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outra abordagem para reconciliar resultados divergentes e aprimorar a interpreta&#231;&#227;o de ensaios cl&#237;nicos reside no racioc&#237;nio Bayesiano. M&#233;todos Bayesianos integram cren&#231;as pr&#233;vias com novas evid&#234;ncias adquiridas para gerar probabilidades posteriores, proporcionando uma interpreta&#231;&#227;o mais intuitiva e clinicamente relevante em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; estat&#237;stica frequentista tradicional. Ao focar na probabilidade de que uma determinada interven&#231;&#227;o seja realmente ben&#233;fica, em vez de confiar apenas em valores de p ou em limites bin&#225;rios de signific&#226;ncia, o pensamento Bayesiano permite uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais flex&#237;vel e sens&#237;vel ao contexto das evid&#234;ncias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A estat&#237;stica Bayesiana come&#231;a com uma probabilidade pr&#233;via de que um dado tratamento &#233; eficaz.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> No contexto de um ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado comparando uma nova Terapia (T) com um Controle (C), a suposi&#231;&#227;o inicial pode ser de equil&#237;brio: P(T &gt; C) = 0,5. Ap&#243;s coletar e analisar os dados do estudo, os resultados observados s&#227;o combinados com essa probabilidade anterior para gerar uma probabilidade posterior. Se a probabilidade posterior de que T seja superior a C ultrapassar um determinado limite (por exemplo, 0,975), pode-se ter mais confian&#231;a de que a interven&#231;&#227;o &#233; genuinamente eficaz.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup>No entanto, se os dados sugerirem nenhuma vantagem significativa, o framework Bayesiano expressa prontamente como esses resultados modificam a cren&#231;a na efic&#225;cia do tratamento. Diferentemente dos m&#233;todos frequentistas, em que um intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% n&#227;o atribui uma probabilidade ao par&#226;metro de interesse, o intervalo de credibilidade Bayesiano de 95% fornece uma declara&#231;&#227;o direta de probabilidade sobre o par&#226;metro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Em vez de afirmar que um resultado &#233; estatisticamente significativo, os m&#233;todos Bayesianos permitem que os m&#233;dicos discutam a probabilidade de que uma diferen&#231;a nos desfechos (por exemplo, uma redu&#231;&#227;o de IM ou AVC) seja real e clinicamente relevante. Dessa forma, o racioc&#237;nio Bayesiano vai al&#233;m dos valores de p, direcionando interpreta&#231;&#245;es mais aplic&#225;veis que podem orientar a tomada de decis&#245;es centrada no paciente.</p>
        <p>Um bom exemplo de como a an&#225;lise Bayesiana pode oferecer uma interpreta&#231;&#227;o distinta dos resultados &#233; sua aplica&#231;&#227;o no estudo MINT. Este estudo incluiu 3504 pacientes com IM e anemia (hemoglobina &lt;10 mg/dL), que foram randomizados para estrat&#233;gias restritivas de transfus&#227;o &#8211; transfundindo apenas quando os n&#237;veis de hemoglobina estavam abaixo de 7-8 mg/dL &#8211; ou estrat&#233;gias liberais (transfundindo quando a hemoglobina &lt;10 mg/dL). O desfecho prim&#225;rio, um composto de IM e morte em 30 dias, foi semelhante entre os grupos, com um intervalo de confian&#231;a de 0,99 a 1,34; p=0,07. Apesar disso, houve uma forte tend&#234;ncia para um maior n&#250;mero de eventos no grupo restritivo (o que poderia ter sido confirmado com um tamanho de amostra maior), incluindo tanto mortes quanto IM, juntamente com uma taxa muito baixa de eventos adversos associados &#224; transfus&#227;o. Diante desses achados, analisar os resultados sob a perspectiva do equil&#237;brio entre benef&#237;cio e risco da estrat&#233;gia nesta popula&#231;&#227;o &#8212; com base no conhecimento existente &#8212; &#233; crucial para identificar subgrupos de pacientes que poderiam se beneficiar da transfus&#227;o, mesmo no contexto de um estudo &#8220;negativo&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nas an&#225;lises frequentistas tradicionais, a signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica &#233; geralmente determinada por um valor de p inferior a 0,05. Essa abordagem pode levar a interpreta&#231;&#245;es bin&#225;rias, &#8220;positivo vs. negativo&#8221;, negligenciando toda a distribui&#231;&#227;o de probabilidade do efeito verdadeiro. Da mesma forma, embora um estudo adequadamente dimensionado (com poder = 1 &#8211; &#946;) minimize o risco de um erro tipo II (n&#227;o detectar um efeito verdadeiro), nem os valores de p nem as considera&#231;&#245;es de poder garantem sozinhos resultados significativos na presen&#231;a de vieses. De fato, erros do tipo I (&#945;) e tipo II (&#946;) s&#227;o amplificados em contextos com m&#250;ltiplos vieses ou quando v&#225;rios estudos abordam a mesma quest&#227;o, aumentando a probabilidade de resultados significativos falsos. A analogia com testes diagn&#243;sticos &#233; esclarecedora; assim como sensibilidade e especificidade dependem da probabilidade pr&#233;-teste e da precis&#227;o do teste, os valores de p e o poder estat&#237;stico dependem do delineamento do estudo, do rigor metodol&#243;gico e da aus&#234;ncia de vieses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>Essa compreens&#227;o est&#225; alinhada com a percep&#231;&#227;o de Ioannidis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> que, por meio de modelagem matem&#225;tica, concluiu que &#8220;a maioria dos achados de pesquisa publicados s&#227;o falsos&#8221;. Seu artigo seminal enfatiza que metodologias falhas, baixas probabilidades pr&#233;-estudo das hip&#243;teses testadas e vieses de publica&#231;&#227;o coletivamente corroem a confiabilidade de muitos achados relatados. Consequentemente, nenhuma &#250;nica m&#233;trica &#8211; sejam valores de p, intervalos de confian&#231;a ou mesmo probabilidades posteriores Bayesianas &#8211; pode capturar completamente o verdadeiro valor de um resultado se os dados subjacentes ou as suposi&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o forem confi&#225;veis.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m das considera&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas discutidas, &#233; importante reconhecer que press&#245;es externas &#8211; desde influ&#234;ncias sociol&#243;gicas e interesses econ&#244;micos a imperativos de <italic>marketing</italic> &#8211; tamb&#233;m moldam a interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados de ensaios cl&#237;nicos. Esses fatores podem promover vieses sutis que levam a relatos seletivos e ao enquadramento dos resultados de maneira que favore&#231;a certos desfechos, muitas vezes obscurecendo o verdadeiro valor cl&#237;nico de uma interven&#231;&#227;o. Embora uma explora&#231;&#227;o detalhada dessas influ&#234;ncias esteja al&#233;m do escopo da nossa revis&#227;o, reconhecer seu papel refor&#231;a a necessidade de uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica independente.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Implica&#231;&#245;es para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o rigorosa de evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas n&#227;o &#233; meramente um exerc&#237;cio acad&#234;mico &#8211; &#233; fundamental para aprimorar a tomada de decis&#245;es e a educa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica cotidiana. Em nossa pr&#225;tica, devemos aplicar consistentemente t&#233;cnicas de avalia&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica para dissecar dados de estudos, especialmente quando confrontados com revers&#245;es m&#233;dicas, <italic>spin</italic> ou resultados divergentes.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, devemos sempre valorizar a promo&#231;&#227;o de uma cultura de debate e aprendizado cont&#237;nuo sobre os fundamentos da Medicina Baseada em Evid&#234;ncias. Para traduzir essas percep&#231;&#245;es na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, o uso rotineiro de ferramentas padronizadas de avalia&#231;&#227;o de vieses, como a estrutura GRADE e a ferramenta de risco de vi&#233;s Cochrane, pode ser muito &#250;til.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>A cardiologia contempor&#226;nea prospera em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o rigorosa de evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas, mas permanece vulner&#225;vel &#224;s armadilhas do racioc&#237;nio mecanicista, <italic>spin</italic> e outras distor&#231;&#245;es da validade cient&#237;fica. Os exemplos discutidos &#8211; desde as revers&#245;es inesperadas vistas em estudos como o CAST at&#233; as manipula&#231;&#245;es sutis de desfechos e interpreta&#231;&#245;es &#8211; enfatizam que mesmo pesquisas robustas podem ser suscet&#237;veis a vieses e defici&#234;ncias metodol&#243;gicas. Resultados conflitantes, como os observados com a terapia MitraClip para regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral funcional ou estrat&#233;gias de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para FA subcl&#237;nica, acentuam a necessidade de superar o paradigma bin&#225;rio de &#8220;positivo vs. negativo&#8221; e adotar uma perspectiva mais contextualizada e sens&#237;vel ao interpretar os dados. Os cardiologistas devem cultivar uma mentalidade vigilante, independente e cr&#237;tica ao avaliar ensaios cl&#237;nicos e diretrizes. Devemos tamb&#233;m ter em mente que o m&#233;todo cient&#237;fico &#233; um processo iterativo destinado a alcan&#231;ar respostas v&#225;lidas, em vez de uma verdade absoluta imut&#225;vel; assim, nossas interpreta&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o provis&#243;rias e podem evoluir &#224; medida que novas evid&#234;ncias surgem.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240884i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Medical Reversals, Spins and Divergent Results in Cardiology Trials</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3835-6067</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alencar</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Nunes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2495-3466</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cavalcanti</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno Robalinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4112-3600</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Athayde</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme Augusto Teodoro</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Campina Grande, PB &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Dom Jos&#233; Maria Pires Metropolitan Hospital, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Jos&#233; Nunes de Alencar &#8226; Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia - Rua Dante Pazzanese, 500. Postal Code 04012909, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: jose.alencar@dantepazzanese.org.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p> Marcio Bittencourt</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular medicine has witnessed remarkable breakthroughs, yet even highly regarded interventions can be undermined by flawed reasoning, excessive mechanistic assumptions, and the selective reporting of data. This article examines crucial pitfalls in contemporary cardiology, such as medical reversals, the impact of spin, and how bayesian methods can offer greater clarity in evaluating evidence, as they integrate prior knowledge with new data to generate more probabilistic, context-driven conclusions. This review advocates for a measured, critical approach to research appraisal, cautioning cardiologists against uncritically accepting trial conclusions at face value. Adopting this vigilant stance will help ensure that emerging therapies and interventions genuinely advance patient outcomes, guiding physicians toward more credible, transparent, and beneficial strategies in the ever-evolving field of cardiovascular medicine. Such vigilance is important to preserve the integrity of scientific inquiry and meaningful progress in patient care. This approach promotes reliability of published data.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Medical Reversals, Spins and Divergent Results in Cardiology Trials</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-07-e20240884-40884-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Evidence-based Cardiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Medical Reversals</kwd>
        <kwd>Spin Bias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Over the past decades, cardiovascular medicine has witnessed remarkable progress supported by rigorous clinical trials and comprehensive guidelines. Such advancements have unequivocally improved patient outcomes, reducing mortality and enhancing quality of life. Yet, this scientific evolution has not been free of missteps, controversy, and surprising turnarounds that challenge our preconceived notions of pathophysiology and the efficacy of certain interventions. Mechanical assumptions that once seemed self-evident have given way under the scrutiny of robust evidence, illustrating the hazards of relying on logic alone without testing hypotheses through rigorous study designs. Early interventions that promised improved survival based solely on mechanistic plausibility have at times led to unexpected clinical reversals once subjected to stringent investigation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The importance of critical appraisal and interpretation of clinical data in cardiology cannot be overstated. Clinicians must navigate an increasingly complex landscape of medical evidence, encompassing studies with conflicting findings, potential spin in reported outcomes, and evolving standards of methodological rigor. Assessing the validity, applicability, and clinical significance of new data has become an essential skill for the modern cardiologist.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Such critical evaluation promotes tailored, individualized decision-making, whether considering the risks and benefits of coronary interventions, selecting candidates for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation (AF), or determining when to initiate advanced heart failure (HF) therapies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This manuscript examines how reliance on untested mechanistic assumptions, susceptibility to spin, and challenges in interpreting complex or conflicting findings can compromise the integrity of evidence-based cardiology. Drawing upon emblematic cases, it highlights how medical reversals, endpoint manipulation, and the selective presentation of results may skew clinical decision-making (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Key Definitions: Medical Reversals, Spin, and Divergent Results</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Term</th>
                  <th>Definition</th>
                  <th>Key Considerations/Examples</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Medical Reversals</td>
                  <td align="center">Occur when a widely adopted clinical intervention&#8212;often initially supported by observational studies or mechanistic rationale&#8212;is later refuted by robust randomized controlled trials.</td>
                  <td align="center">For instance, the initial use of class IC antiarrhythmics to suppress ventricular arrhythmias was overturned by the CAST trial, demonstrating increased mortality.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Spin</td>
                  <td align="center">Refers to the selective presentation or framing of study results to accentuate favorable outcomes while downplaying or obscuring adverse or neutral findings.</td>
                  <td align="center">An example is the RITA-2 trial, where early symptomatic improvement was highlighted for percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, despite the overall composite outcome favoring optimized medical therapy.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Divergent Results</td>
                  <td align="center">Describe situations in which high-quality studies investigating the same clinical question yield conflicting outcomes, often due to differences in study design, populations, or endpoint definitions.</td>
                  <td align="center">A notable example includes the contrasting results of the COAPT and MITRA-FR trials evaluating MitraClip therapy for functional mitral regurgitation.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Not everything Is as it seems: medical reversals in cardiology</title>
          <p>Cardiology is replete with studies that defy logical expectations and highlight how evidence-based medicine can overturn what once appeared to be indisputable truths.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A striking example lies in the treatment of ventricular arrhythmias following acute myocardial infarction (MI). In the 1970s and 1980s, the advent of coronary care units dramatically reduced in-hospital mortality for MI patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> It then became apparent that many survivors later experienced ventricular arrhythmias, which were identified in several investigations as predictors of mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Drawing on this theoretical understanding, a team of researchers in the United States proposed that survival rates could be improved for patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy who were at elevated risk of death from ventricular arrhythmias if these irregular heartbeats were suppressed. The initial step in evaluating this hypothesis was the Cardiac Arrhythmia Pilot Study (CAPS), conducted in 1986. This study demonstrated that class IC antiarrhythmic medications, which function as sodium channel blockers, were capable of nearly eliminating ventricular arrhythmias in these individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> With that, it seemed logical to add these agents to the therapeutic arsenal; if arrhythmias could be suppressed, mortality should be reduced.</p>
          <p>However, the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) disrupted these assumptions. The study included 1,498 patients randomized to receive flecainide/encainide or placebo. After 10 months, the trial was halted due to excess deaths&#8212;especially arrhythmic deaths&#8212;in the group receiving the antiarrhythmics. This reversal became one of the most striking scientific about-faces of the era and sharply limited the use of class IC antiarrhythmics in patients with structural heart disease due to their proarrhythmic potential.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Another unexpected finding was observed in the context of AF screening and treatment. AF is the most common sustained arrhythmia in clinical practice and is associated with mortality and thromboembolic events (TE), particularly stroke and HF. Furthermore, anticoagulation can significantly and safely reduce TE risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> It seemed self-evident that early identification and anticoagulation in AF patients would yield unequivocal benefits. Yet, the LOOP Study, published in 2021, challenged this notion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> In this trial, 6,205 patients aged 70&#8211;90 years with at least one additional stroke risk factor were randomized to conventional management or continuous long-term subcutaneous electrocardiographic monitoring for AF detection. Patients with AF episodes &#8805; six minutes were started on anticoagulation. After more than five years, AF was diagnosed three times more often in the monitored group, and anticoagulation was initiated more frequently. However, there were no differences in stroke or bleeding rates between the groups. The study&#8217;s results align with other trials, such as GUARD-AF, which also found no significant reduction in stroke rates with AF screening, suggesting that not all detected AF may be clinically significant enough to justify anticoagulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>One critique is that the LOOP Study population might not have been optimally selected to benefit from AF screening. The subgroup analyses suggested potential benefits in specific populations, such as those without prior cardiovascular disease, but these findings were not definitive and require further investigation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Moreover, concerns have been raised about the study&#8217;s methodology and the decision to start anticoagulation for AF episodes lasting only six minutes or more, as it remains uncertain whether such short-lived episodes require treatment.</p>
          <p>Regarding another notable medical reversal, initial observational studies suggested that hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for women after menopause could lower cardiovascular risk. These studies indicated potential advantages, including decreased coronary heart disease (CHD) and reduced mortality rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Randomized controlled trials, notably the Women&#8217;s Health Initiative (WHI),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> contradicted these findings by showing an increased risk of cardiovascular events, including CHD and stroke, in women receiving HRT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The WHI trials were stopped early due to these increased risks, leading to a significant shift in clinical practice away from using HRT for cardiovascular protection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> More recent investigations have revealed that for women who entered menopause within the last 10 years, HRT offers therapeutic advantages without increasing cardiovascular dangers. Clinical trials<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> and meta-analyses<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> have provided evidence supporting these observations. This group falls within the &#8220;window of opportunity&#8221; for HRT prescription, which has been recommended by both international and national guidelines, particularly for women without a high risk of or previous cardiovascular events. These guidelines recommend that HRT be initiated within 10 years of menopause and/or before the age of 60 years; starting therapy after age 60 or more than 10 years after menopause may elevate the absolute risk of cardiovascular adverse events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Distorted interpretations: spin in cardiovascular research</title>
          <p>Some studies have seen their conclusions subtly distorted by the authors themselves, casting a more favorable light on a particular treatment than the data warrant. This practice, known as spin, can mislead readers and clinicians, potentially influencing therapeutic decisions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A notable example of spin can be found in the context of CAD. The RITA-2 trial, published in 1997, randomized 1,018 patients with stable angina to either balloon angioplasty (percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, PTCA) or optimized medical therapy (OMT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> The primary composite endpoint&#8212;death from any cause and nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI)&#8212;was assessed over five years (mean follow-up of 2.7 years). The results showed that PTCA increased the risk of the primary composite outcome compared with OMT, driven primarily by nonfatal MI. Although both groups initially experienced symptom improvement, statistical significance in favor of PTCA over OMT diminished after three years. The authors, however, emphasized the early symptomatic improvement in patients undergoing PTCA and suggested that clinicians weigh this benefit against a &#8220;small&#8221; excess procedural risk. Such framing did not accurately reflect the primary endpoint, where PTCA worsened outcomes. With a number needed to harm (NNH) of 33 over 2.7 years, the study&#8217;s &#8220;spin&#8221; diverted attention from the primary endpoint&#8217;s negative result.</p>
          <p>A similar example emerged with the EXCEL trial, published in 2016, which evaluated percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with second-generation everolimus-eluting stents versus coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) for left main coronary artery disease of low-to-intermediate anatomical complexity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> The primary composite endpoint&#8212;death, MI, and stroke&#8212;was methodologically questionable. CABG is known to increase stroke risk compared to PCI, while PCI may be associated with higher rates of spontaneous MI. Combining these events into a single composite endpoint meant that the two interventions pulled the outcomes in opposite directions. Concerns also arose about the use of intention-to-treat analysis instead of per-protocol, given substantial crossover, and the evolving definitions of MI during the trial. Such changes may have favored PCI. As a result, a more transparent approach would separate out procedural MI and stroke as safety endpoints and focus solely on spontaneous MI as a primary outcome, as the NOBLE trial eventually did.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Subgroup analyses represent another common avenue for spin. The ISIS-2 trial, a 2x2 factorial, randomized, placebo-controlled trial with over 17,000 patients, tested streptokinase and one month of aspirin at 162.5 mg/day in the setting of acute MI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> It demonstrated a 20% reduction in vascular mortality with aspirin, 23% with streptokinase, and a 40% reduction with their combination over five weeks. The absolute risk reduction for aspirin alone was 2.4 deaths per 100 treated patients, corresponding to a number needed to treat (NNT) of 42. Despite these impactful results, journal editors at the time required subgroup analyses. In a deliberately ironic response, the authors reported outcomes by astrological signs, finding, for example, that patients born under Gemini and Libra did not seem to benefit from aspirin. This tongue-in-cheek demonstration underscored the folly of overreliance on arbitrary subgroup findings and emphasized the need to interpret these analyses with skepticism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Another subtle yet impactful means of shaping a trial&#8217;s narrative lies in changing the predefined endpoints or their definitions during the investigation. The ISCHEMIA trial is a prime example. This landmark study, costing approximately $100 million, was published in 2020 and enrolled 5,179 patients with moderate-to-severe ischemia, randomizing them to either OMT alone or OMT plus cardiac catheterization followed by PCI if indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Initially, the primary composite endpoint was cardiovascular death and MI. However, due to the lower-than-expected incidence of these events, the investigators added hospitalization and HF to the primary composite outcome.</p>
          <p>While the investigators defined this modification <italic>a priori</italic>, the decision ultimately weakened the study&#8217;s interpretative clarity. Incorporating subjective endpoints such as unstable angina or HF hospitalizations along with objective outcomes such as death and MI diluted the clarity and reliance of the conclusions. The ISCHEMIA trial&#8217;s results demonstrated no significant difference between the invasive and conservative strategies, reinforcing the understanding that even in patients with moderate or severe ischemia, stable coronary artery disease often carries a favorable long-term prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The selection of endpoints &#8212; and their underlying assumptions &#8212; can critically shape the outcomes of a trial. Consider the recently introduced OPTION trial, sponsored by the manufacturer of a device used for left atrial appendage closure (LAAC) alongside AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> OPTION compares AF ablation plus concomitant LAAC against AF ablation plus continued direct oral anticoagulants. At first glance, the trial&#8217;s aim&#8212;potentially reducing or eliminating the need for long-term anticoagulation&#8212;may appeal to patients and clinicians. However, a closer look at OPTION&#8217;s design raises multiple red flags. The trial employs a noninferiority framework and includes all-cause mortality, an endpoint known to remain unaffected by both ablation and LAAC, as part of a composite efficacy measure. This approach, coupled with a relatively small sample size and a noninferiority margin chosen under optimistic event-rate assumptions, makes it easier for LAAC to achieve noninferiority without demonstrating any meaningful advantages in preventing stroke or systemic embolism. Further concerns arise from the choice of conducting the primary analysis in the intention-to-treat population&#8212;less appropriate for noninferiority studies &#8212; and excluding procedural bleeding from the primary safety endpoint, thus underestimating the true procedural risks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Reconciling divergent findings in clinical trials</title>
        <p>Sometimes, high-quality clinical trials yield conflicting outcomes on the same medical issue, making it difficult for healthcare professionals to determine the best way to apply these findings in practice.</p>
        <p>A representative case involves the percutaneous repair of secondary mitral regurgitation using the MitraClip device. Two landmark trials, COAPT<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> and MITRA-FR,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> both published in 2018, examined the clinical impact of adding MitraClip to guideline-directed medical therapy in patients with functional mitral regurgitation. While COAPT focused on HF hospitalization at one year, MITRA-FR assessed the composite of death and HF hospitalization over a similar time frame. Despite similar methodologies, the outcomes diverged markedly. In COAPT, MitraClip significantly reduced hospitalizations and overall mortality, whereas MITRA-FR showed no improvement. When clinical trials yield divergent results, it is essential to conduct a thorough analysis to understand the reasons underlying these discrepancies. Several key factors should be examined:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Study design and population</bold>: Differences in study design, such as inclusion and exclusion criteria, can lead to variations in patient populations. For instance, COAPT and MITRA-FR had different criteria for the severity of mitral regurgitation and left ventricular function, which significantly influenced their outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Outcome definitions</bold>: Variations in how primary and secondary outcomes are defined and measured can lead to different interpretations of efficacy. The COAPT trial had more stringent criteria for procedural success and durability of mitral regurgitation reduction compared to MITRA-FR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Treatment protocols</bold>: Differences in the implementation of treatment protocols, including the use of guideline-directed medical therapy, can affect trial outcomes. COAPT ensured patients were on maximally tolerated medical therapy before enrollment, which was not as rigorously enforced in MITRA-FR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Center and Operator Experience</bold>: The experience of the centers and operators performing the interventions can impact procedural success rates and outcomes. COAPT was conducted in centers with significant experience in transcatheter mitral valve repair, which may have contributed to its positive results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Statistical Analysis and Interpretation</bold>: The statistical methods used to analyze data, including handling of missing data and adjustments for multiple comparisons, can influence the results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>A similar challenge emerged in 2023 with two trials evaluating anticoagulation for subclinical AF detected by implantable cardiac devices. NOAH-AFNET 6 included 2,356 patients aged &#8805;65 years with one or more episodes of &#8805;6 minutes of subclinical AF plus an additional thromboembolic risk factor, randomizing them to placebo or edoxaban.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The primary endpoint was a composite of cardiovascular death, stroke, or systemic embolism. ARTESIA, enrolling 4,012 patients with at least one &#8805;6-minute (but &#8804;24-hour) subclinical AF episode, randomized them to apixaban or aspirin (81 mg) and assessed the incidence of stroke or systemic embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> NOAH-AFNET 6 stopped early for futility, with no difference in the primary endpoint and increased bleeding in the edoxaban arm. In ARTESIA, apixaban reduced TE but at the cost of higher bleeding rates. Examining potential causes of this divergent result, we can conclude that:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Study design and population</bold>: NOAH-AFNET 6 focused on patients with atrial high-rate episodes detected by cardiac implantable electronic devices, using edoxaban as the anticoagulant. ARTESIA evaluated apixaban in a similar population but included patients with additional risk factors for stroke, such as a higher prevalence of vascular disease. The ARTESIA trial also had a larger sample size, enrolling 4012 patients compared to 2534 in NOAH-AFNET 6.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Outcome definitions</bold>: Both trials defined their primary efficacy outcome as a composite of stroke, systemic embolism, MI, pulmonary embolism, or cardiovascular death. However, ARTESIA included transient ischemic attack with diffusion-weighted MRI evidence of cerebral infarction as part of its primary outcome, which was not explicitly mentioned in NOAH-AFNET 6.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Treatment protocols</bold>: The treatment protocols differed in the choice of anticoagulant&#8212;edoxaban in NOAH-AFNET 6 and apixaban in ARTESIA. NOAH compared edoxaban to placebo, but ARTESIA specifically used aspirin as the comparator.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>When data are divergent, a meta-analysis might be helpful. A meta-analysis of the two trials demonstrated that oral anticoagulation reduced ischemic stroke risk (RR 0.68, 95% CI 0.50-0.92) and increased major bleeding risk (RR 1.62, 95% CI 1.05-2.50). The meta-analysis also highlighted a low heterogeneity (I<sup>2</sup> = 0%), indicating consistency in the findings across the trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Another approach to reconcile divergent findings and enhance the interpretation of clinical trials lies in Bayesian reasoning. Bayesian methods integrate prior beliefs with newly acquired evidence to generate posterior probabilities, providing a more intuitive and clinically relevant interpretation than traditional frequentist statistics. By focusing on the probability that a given intervention is truly beneficial, rather than relying solely on p-values or binary significance thresholds, Bayesian thinking permits a more flexible and context-sensitive assessment of evidence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Bayesian statistics begin with a prior probability that a given treatment is effective.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In the setting of a randomized clinical trial comparing a new therapy (T) to a control (C), the initial assumption might be one of equipoise: P(T &gt; C) = 0.5. After collecting and analyzing the trial&#8217;s data, the observed results are combined with this prior to yield a posterior probability. If the posterior probability that T is superior to C surpasses a certain threshold (e.g., 0.975), one can be more confident that the intervention is genuinely effective.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Alternatively, if the data suggest no meaningful advantage, the Bayesian framework readily expresses how these results modify one&#8217;s belief in the treatment&#8217;s efficacy. Unlike frequentist methods, where a 95% confidence interval does not assign a probability to the parameter of interest, the Bayesian 95% credible interval provides a direct probability statement about the parameter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Instead of stating that an outcome is statistically significant, Bayesian methods allow clinicians to discuss the probability that a given difference in outcomes (e.g., a reduction in MI or stroke) is real and clinically relevant. In this way, Bayesian reasoning moves beyond p-values toward more actionable interpretations that can guide patient-centered decision-making.</p>
        <p>A good example of how Bayesian analysis can offer a distinct interpretation of results is its application in the MINT trial. This study included 3,504 patients with MI and anemia (hemoglobin &lt;10 mg/dL), who were randomized between restrictive transfusion strategies&#8212;transfusing only when hemoglobin levels were below 7-8 mg/dL&#8212;and liberal strategies (transfusing when hemoglobin &lt;10 mg/dL). The primary outcome, a composite of MI and death within 30 days, was similar between groups, with a confidence interval of 0.99 to 1.34; p=0.07. Despite this, there was a strong trend toward a higher number of events in the restrictive group (which might have been confirmed with a larger sample size), including both death and MI, coupled with a very low rate of adverse events associated with transfusion. In light of these findings, analyzing the results from the perspective of the benefit-risk balance of the strategy in this population&#8212;based on existing knowledge&#8212;is crucial to identifying subgroups of patients who might benefit from transfusion, even in the context of a &#8220;negative&#8221; study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In traditional frequentist analyses, statistical significance is often determined by whether a p-value is less than 0.05. Such an approach can lead to binary, &#8220;positive vs. negative&#8221; interpretations, neglecting the entire probability distribution of the true effect. Similarly, while an adequately powered study (with power = 1 &#8211; &#946;) minimizes the risk of a Type II error (failing to detect a true effect), neither p-values nor power considerations alone guarantee meaningful results in the presence of bias. In fact, type I (&#945;) and type II (&#946;) errors are amplified in settings with multiple biases or when numerous studies address the same question, increasing the likelihood of spurious significant findings. The analogy with diagnostic tests is illuminating just as sensitivity and specificity depend on the pre-test probability and test accuracy, so do p-values and power depend on study design, methodological rigor, and absence of bias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> This recognition aligns with the insight provided by Ioannidis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> who, through mathematical modeling, concluded that &#8220;most published research findings are false&#8221;. His seminal article emphasizes that flawed methodologies, low pre-study probabilities of tested hypotheses, and publication biases collectively erode the trustworthiness of many reported findings. Consequently, no single metric &#8211; be it p-values, confidence intervals, or even Bayesian posterior probabilities &#8211; can fully capture the true value of a result if the underlying data or assumptions are unsound.</p>
        <p>In addition to the methodological considerations discussed, it is important to recognize that external pressures &#8211; ranging from sociological influences and economic interests to marketing imperatives &#8211; also shape the interpretation of clinical trial data. These factors can foster subtle biases that lead to selective reporting and the framing of results in a way that favors certain outcomes, often obscuring the true clinical value of an intervention. While a detailed exploration of these influences is beyond the scope of our review, acknowledging their role reinforces the necessity for an independent, critical appraisal.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Implications for clinical practice</title>
          <p>The rigorous evaluation of clinical evidence is not merely an academic exercise &#8211; it is central to enhancing everyday clinical decision-making and education. In our practice, we must consistently apply critical appraisal techniques to dissect trial data, particularly when confronted with medical reversals, spin, or divergent outcomes.</p>
          <p>Moreover, we must always place a high value on promoting a culture of debate and continuous learning regarding the fundamentals of Evidence Based Medicine. Additionally, to further translate these insights into clinical practice, the routine use of standardized bias assessment tools, such as the GRADE framework and the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool could be useful.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Contemporary cardiology thrives on the rigorous evaluation of clinical evidence, yet it remains vulnerable to the pitfalls of mechanistic reasoning, spin, and other misrepresentations of scientific validity. The examples discussed &#8211; from the unexpected reversals seen in trials like CAST to the subtle manipulations of endpoints and interpretations &#8211; emphasize that even robust research can be susceptible to biases and methodological shortcomings. Conflicting results, such as those observed with MitraClip therapy for functional mitral regurgitation or anticoagulation strategies for subclinical AF, accentuate the need to move beyond a binary &#8220;positive vs. negative&#8221; paradigm and instead adopt a nuanced, context-sensitive perspective when interpreting data. Cardiologists must cultivate a vigilant, independent, and critical mindset when assessing clinical trials and guidelines. We must also have in mind that scientific method is an iterative process aimed at achieving valid answers rather than an immutable absolute truth; thus, our interpretations are provisional and may evolve as further evidence emerges.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association:</label>
          <p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate:</label>
          <p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
          <p> The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
          <label>Data Availability:</label>
          <p> The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding:</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
