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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">wWH5KzYs6bqpJSGmgYkdx9w</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025000300401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240811</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Sete Pecados Mortais no Manejo da Hipertens&#227;o: Uma An&#225;lise Aprofundada dos Erros em uma Jornada de Riva-Rocci &#224; Fibrose Mioc&#225;rdica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4200-9380</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pinho</surname>
            <given-names>Claudio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6330-697X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Saraiva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Francisco Kerr</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Consolim-Colombo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Marciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas &#8211; Cardiologia, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Cl&#237;nica Pinho</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Valinhos</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica Pinho &#8211; Cardiologia, Valinhos, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia</label>: Claudio Pinho &#8226; Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas &#8211; Cardiologia &#8211; Av. John Boyd Dunlop, s/n. CEP 13086-900, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>drcpinho@uol.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Paulo B. Veiga Jardim</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>02</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20240811</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A medicina &#233; talvez a &#250;nica ci&#234;ncia que valoriza mais o conhecimento das publica&#231;&#245;es cient&#237;ficas mais recentes do que sua hist&#243;ria ao longo do tempo. A epistemologia m&#233;dica mostra que alguns erros e acertos est&#227;o t&#227;o pr&#243;ximos que muitas vezes n&#227;o os diferenciamos prontamente. A produ&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento m&#233;dico nos faz entender que o conhecimento &#233; transit&#243;rio e as teorias precisam ser revalidadas, retificadas ou lapidadas, quando n&#227;o destru&#237;das e reconstru&#237;das sobre outras bases; paradigmas que se renovam movimentam a ci&#234;ncia. Com essa vis&#227;o cr&#237;tica, tornou-se necess&#225;rio acessar quanto conhecimento sobre hipertens&#227;o arterial foi constru&#237;do ao longo dos &#250;ltimos 130 anos, desde que a aferi&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial come&#231;ou a ser difundida e se tornou rotina na pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica at&#233; os dias atuais. A presente revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica focou em erros na interpreta&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento adquirido, sete dos quais foram identificados, profundamente discutidos e condenados como pecados devido &#224; demora em serem reconhecidos, permitindo assim que a vida das pessoas com esta patologia cardiovascular fosse encurtada.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Sete Pecados Mortais no Manejo da Hipertens&#227;o: Uma An&#225;lise Aprofundada dos Erros em uma Jornada de Riva-Rocci &#224; Fibrose Mioc&#225;rdica</title>
            </caption>
            <alternatives>
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              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/wWH5KzYs6bqpJSGmgYkdx9w/2d85ac5887b5e72e5c2158d2a26c806976d67281.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
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            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Vi&#233;s</kwd>
        <kwd>Ci&#234;ncia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="71"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>&#8220;O objetivo da Ci&#234;ncia n&#227;o &#233; abrir a porta para a sabedoria sem fim, mas estabelecer um limite para o erro sem fim&#8221; (de <italic>Leben des Galilei</italic>, 1938). Essa cita&#231;&#227;o instigante de Bertolt Brecht prepara o cen&#225;rio para o texto de Marvin Moser de 1997 sobre a &#8220;Evolu&#231;&#227;o do Tratamento da Hipertens&#227;o da d&#233;cada de 1940 at&#233; o JNC V&#8221;, no qual ele afirma que &#8220;Existem poucas hist&#243;rias na hist&#243;ria da Medicina que s&#227;o repletas de mais erros ou equ&#237;vocos do que a hist&#243;ria da hipertens&#227;o e seu tratamento&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Uma d&#233;cada depois, Moser revisitou o assunto em &#8220;Perspectivas Hist&#243;ricas sobre o Manejo da Hipertens&#227;o&#8221;,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> abordando o per&#237;odo entre 1950 e 2006. Na ci&#234;ncia, os erros geralmente precedem os acertos, oferecendo li&#231;&#245;es valiosas para avan&#231;os futuros.</p>
      <p>Os erros t&#234;m sido parte integrante de nossas vidas desde a inf&#226;ncia. O &#8220;jogo dos sete erros&#8221;, no qual comparamos meticulosamente duas imagens para identificar sete discrep&#226;ncias, chamadas de &#8220;erros&#8221;, cativava as nossas mentes jovens. Inspirando-nos nesse conceito, apresentamos uma revis&#227;o abrangente que explora sete equ&#237;vocos significativos encontrados ao longo dos 130 anos de evolu&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento em torno da hipertens&#227;o arterial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>). Nosso objetivo &#233; atualizar esses &#8220;erros&#8221; para alinh&#225;-los ao estado atual do entendimento cient&#237;fico.</p>
      <p>A presente revis&#227;o aprofundada, motivada pela import&#226;ncia cr&#237;tica do assunto, expande a cita&#231;&#227;o de Bertolt Brecht, sugerindo que o objetivo da ci&#234;ncia n&#227;o &#233; apenas limitar erros infinitos, mas tamb&#233;m evitar que eles se tornem pecados mortais. A escolha de enquadrar erros como pecados decorre da percep&#231;&#227;o de que atrasos na aquisi&#231;&#227;o de conhecimento levaram a in&#250;meras perdas de vidas evit&#225;veis devido &#224; patologia em quest&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os significativos em nossa compreens&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o, v&#225;rias quest&#245;es permanecem sem resposta, por exemplo: as metas ideais de press&#227;o arterial para diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es de pacientes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> o papel de novos biomarcadores e t&#233;cnicas de imagem na detec&#231;&#227;o precoce e no tratamento de danos a &#243;rg&#227;os relacionados &#224; hipertens&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> e o impacto dos determinantes sociais da sa&#250;de e das disparidades de sa&#250;de nos desfechos da hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>&#192; medida que navegamos pelas complexidades da pesquisa sobre hipertens&#227;o, &#233; crucial reconhecer as li&#231;&#245;es aprendidas com equ&#237;vocos do passado, ao mesmo tempo em que permanecemos abertos a novas descobertas que poder&#227;o desafiar nossa compreens&#227;o atual. Ao fazer isso, podemos continuar a refinar nossas abordagens para preven&#231;&#227;o, diagn&#243;stico e tratamento, melhorando os desfechos para pacientes com essa condi&#231;&#227;o prevalente e potencialmente mortal.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Os sete pecados mortais</title>
        <p>1) A cren&#231;a de que a hipertens&#227;o era um mal necess&#225;rio para manter a perfus&#227;o adequada de &#243;rg&#227;os vitais e que a redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial poderia ser prejudicial</p>
        <p>O primeiro pecado, em nossa opini&#227;o, ocorreu por volta de 1895, quando Scipione Riva-Rocci publicou seu &#8220;novo esfigmoman&#244;metro&#8221; na <italic>Gazzetta Medica di Torino</italic>. Na mesma &#233;poca, a vasculopatia da hipertens&#227;o arterial foi descrita por Clifford Albutt com o termo alem&#227;o &#8220;<italic>Essentielle Hypertonie</italic>&#8221;, traduzido para o ingl&#234;s como &#8220;<italic>essential hypertension</italic>&#8221; (hipertens&#227;o essencial), carregando consigo o conceito de que altos n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial eram essenciais para superar a resist&#234;ncia das arter&#237;olas comprometidas e perfundir os tecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Portanto, diminuir a press&#227;o teria, supostamente, o efeito de piorar a perfus&#227;o tecidual e, consequentemente, n&#227;o seria prudente faz&#234;-lo. Embora Nikolai Sergeyevich Korotkov tenha descrito em 1905 que a ausculta acoplada a um esfigmoman&#244;metro poderia acrescentar informa&#231;&#245;es sobre os n&#237;veis diast&#243;licos e a dissemina&#231;&#227;o rotineira na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica de medi&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial, sua redu&#231;&#227;o era aconselhada apenas em casos de hipertens&#227;o maligna.</p>
        <p>O conceito de n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos elevados como um processo de defesa para evitar a diminui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo tecidual permaneceu arraigado at&#233; a d&#233;cada de 1960.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Prova disso &#233; a publica&#231;&#227;o em 1955 de George A. Perera, que descreveu as complica&#231;&#245;es de 500 pacientes hipertensos n&#227;o tratados e sua sobrevida m&#233;dia em anos ap&#243;s o acometimento de les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo aos n&#237;veis card&#237;aco (4 a 8 anos), renal (1 a 5 anos) e cerebral (1 a 4 anos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Na &#233;poca, o entendimento era de que a hipertens&#227;o arterial, que reduziria a sobrevida em cerca de 15 a 20 anos em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes normotensos, tinha uma fase descomplicada e assintom&#225;tica, em que a orienta&#231;&#227;o educacional sobre a patologia era a &#250;nica recomenda&#231;&#227;o, sem interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica, e uma fase complicada e sintom&#225;tica em que a tentativa de redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial deveria ser feita com muito cuidado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No final da d&#233;cada de 1960, come&#231;ou a se tornar robusto o conceito de que n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos elevados eram respons&#225;veis pela agress&#227;o e n&#227;o um mecanismo de defesa contra a perfus&#227;o comprometida. Os respons&#225;veis por essa mudan&#231;a de paradigma foram inicialmente dados obtidos do Framingham Heart Study, cujo acompanhamento prospectivo havia come&#231;ado em 1948,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> e do Veterans Administration Study Group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A quest&#227;o mudou de &#8220;Quanto de acometimento da Hipertens&#227;o Arterial justifica seu tratamento?&#8221; para &#8220;Qu&#227;o cedo se deve iniciar o tratamento para evitar ou reduzir significativamente a ocorr&#234;ncia de danos irrevers&#237;veis?&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> As evid&#234;ncias come&#231;aram a mostrar definitivamente que quanto maior o n&#237;vel de press&#227;o arterial, maior o risco, independente de outras vari&#225;veis, de ser acometido por complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares como insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, eventos coron&#225;rios, acidente vascular cerebral e danos &#224;s fun&#231;&#245;es renais. Se associado a comorbidades como diabetes, aterosclerose, tabagismo e obesidade, esse risco seria aumentado. Com essas informa&#231;&#245;es e ainda em mem&#243;ria &#224; perda do presidente dos Estados Unidos Franklin D. Roosevelt devido a complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas e neurol&#243;gicas da hipertens&#227;o em 1945,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> foram propostas for&#231;as-tarefas para orientar o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento de pacientes com essa relevante patologia.</p>
        <p>Devemos enfatizar o papel fundamental que o Veterans Administration Cooperative Study (VACS) de 1967 e 1970 desempenhou no refinamento e redirecionamento de nossa compreens&#227;o e gest&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Esses ensaios cl&#237;nicos emblem&#225;ticos forneceram a primeira evid&#234;ncia definitiva de que tratar pacientes com altos valores de press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (PAD) poderia reduzir significativamente a incid&#234;ncia de acidente vascular cerebral, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva e outras complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares. Esses achados desafiaram a no&#231;&#227;o predominante de que a hipertens&#227;o era um mal necess&#225;rio para manter a perfus&#227;o adequada dos &#243;rg&#227;os e que reduzir a press&#227;o arterial poderia ser prejudicial. Em vez disso, o VACS estabeleceu os benef&#237;cios do tratamento da hipertens&#227;o e forneceu os fundamentos para o desenvolvimento de diretrizes baseadas em evid&#234;ncias para o manejo da hipertens&#227;o. Os resultados desses ensaios tamb&#233;m estimularam mais pesquisas sobre a fisiopatologia da hipertens&#227;o e o desenvolvimento de novos medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, preparando o cen&#225;rio para o progresso not&#225;vel que temos feito na redu&#231;&#227;o do fardo das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares ao longo das &#250;ltimas cinco d&#233;cadas.</p>
        <p>Com essa nova concep&#231;&#227;o, nasceu o Joint National Committee (JNC), o primeiro sendo lan&#231;ado em 1977,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> e o segundo em 1980.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2) A interpreta&#231;&#227;o de que o aumento dos valores press&#243;ricos com o envelhecimento era um processo fisiol&#243;gico normal</title>
        <p>Existe uma cren&#231;a de longa data na comunidade m&#233;dica de que a press&#227;o arterial aumenta naturalmente com a idade e que esse aumento &#233; benigno. A origem desse equ&#237;voco pode ser rastreada at&#233; estudos anteriores, como o relato de Fisher, de 1911, que sugeriu que uma press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) de 100 mmHg somada &#224; idade do indiv&#237;duo era considerada normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> De fato, ap&#243;s a idade de 40 anos, era normal adicionar 10 mmHg para cada d&#233;cada da vida de uma pessoa. Assim, n&#237;veis de 160 mmHg eram considerados normais para a faixa et&#225;ria de 60 anos, 170 mmHg para a faixa et&#225;ria de 70 anos, e assim por diante (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>). Esse conceito concordava com a ideia de que uma press&#227;o arterial mais alta era necess&#225;ria para manter a perfus&#227;o adequada para &#243;rg&#227;os vitais em resposta a mudan&#231;as relacionadas &#224; idade no sistema cardiovascular, como aumento da rigidez arterial e diminui&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco. No entanto, evid&#234;ncias mais recentes demonstraram claramente que o aumento da press&#227;o arterial relacionado &#224; idade n&#227;o &#233; uma necessidade fisiol&#243;gica, mas sim um processo patol&#243;gico que contribui para o aumento do risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Publica&#231;&#227;o alem&#227; de 1936 diferenciando n&#237;veis &#8220;normais&#8221; em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; idade.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-03-e20240811-40811-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>O Framingham Heart Study, que come&#231;ou em 1948, foi um dos primeiros estudos a desafiar a no&#231;&#227;o de que o aumento da press&#227;o arterial seria &#8220;normal&#8221; com o passar da idade. O estudo mostrou que indiv&#237;duos com press&#227;o arterial mais alta tinham um risco maior de desenvolver doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, independentemente da idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Estudos subsequentes mostraram consistentemente que o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o, mesmo em adultos mais velhos, pode reduzir significativamente o risco de eventos cardiovasculares e mortalidade. O Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial (HYVET) demonstrou que o tratamento anti-hipertensivo em indiv&#237;duos com 80 anos ou mais reduziu o risco de acidente vascular cerebral, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e mortalidade por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, o Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT) mostrou que o controle intensivo da press&#227;o arterial (visando PAS &lt; 120 mmHg) reduziu o risco de eventos cardiovasculares e mortalidade por todas as causas em adultos com 50 anos ou mais, incluindo aqueles com 75 anos ou mais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As diretrizes atuais para o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial enfatizam a import&#226;ncia do tratamento da hipertens&#227;o com base no perfil de risco cardiovascular de um indiv&#237;duo, em vez de limites espec&#237;ficos da idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> As diretrizes recomendam uma press&#227;o arterial alvo de &lt; 140/90 mmHg para a maioria dos adultos, com uma meta menor de &lt; 130/80 mmHg para aqueles com alto risco cardiovascular, como indiv&#237;duos com diabetes, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica ou doen&#231;a cardiovascular estabelecida. Al&#233;m disso, evid&#234;ncias atuais demonstram claramente que tratar a hipertens&#227;o, mesmo em pacientes idosos, pode reduzir significativamente a morbimortalidade cardiovascular. Profissionais de sa&#250;de devem se concentrar em avaliar e manejar a hipertens&#227;o com base no perfil geral de risco cardiovascular de cada indiv&#237;duo, em vez de confiar em limites arbitr&#225;rios de press&#227;o arterial espec&#237;ficos para cada idade.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3) A falta de reconhecimento da import&#226;ncia da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica alta como um fator de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, focando principalmente na press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica</title>
        <p>Nos dois primeiros documentos do JNC (1977 e 1980),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> o diagn&#243;stico e a orienta&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica foram baseados apenas nos n&#237;veis de PAD. Aqui, nos deparamos com o terceiro erro, que foi a desconsidera&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de PAS para classifica&#231;&#227;o, avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco e decis&#227;o terap&#234;utica.</p>
        <p>As seguintes consequ&#234;ncias de n&#227;o reconhecer a import&#226;ncia da PAS como um fator de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e focar principalmente na PAD podem ser significativas: a) Subestima&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular: Ao enfatizar a PAD em vez da PAS, os m&#233;dicos podem subestimar o risco cardiovascular geral dos pacientes, particularmente em indiv&#237;duos mais idosos, que s&#227;o mais propensos a ter hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada. Isso pode levar &#224; estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco inadequada e ao manejo sub&#243;timo da hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> b) In&#237;cio tardio do tratamento: Se as decis&#245;es de tratamento forem baseadas principalmente na PAD, os pacientes com PAS elevada, mas PAD normal, podem n&#227;o receber interven&#231;&#245;es oportunas para reduzir sua press&#227;o arterial. Esse atraso no in&#237;cio do tratamento pode permitir a progress&#227;o de danos cardiovasculares e aumentar o risco de resultados adversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> c) Controle inadequado da press&#227;o arterial: Focar somente na PAD pode levar ao controle inadequado da press&#227;o arterial em pacientes com PAS elevada. Isso &#233; particularmente preocupante porque a PAS demonstrou ser um preditor mais forte de eventos cardiovasculares do que a PAD, especialmente em indiv&#237;duos mais idosos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> d) Aumento da morbimortalidade cardiovascular: A falha em controlar adequadamente a PAS pode resultar em uma maior incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular cerebral, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a renal. Esse aumento da morbimortalidade coloca um fardo significativo sobre os pacientes, fam&#237;lias e sistemas de sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> e) Aloca&#231;&#227;o inapropriada de recursos de sa&#250;de: Ao n&#227;o identificar e tratar efetivamente os pacientes com PAS elevada, os recursos de sa&#250;de podem ser mal direcionados, levando ao aumento dos custos de sa&#250;de e &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia geral dos programas de manejo da hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Reconhecer a import&#226;ncia da PAS como um fator chave de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares &#233; crucial para uma avalia&#231;&#227;o precisa do risco, um in&#237;cio oportuno do tratamento apropriado e um controle otimizado da press&#227;o arterial. Essa compreens&#227;o levou a uma mudan&#231;a de foco em dire&#231;&#227;o &#224; PAS nas diretrizes recentes sobre hipertens&#227;o, enfatizando a necessidade de uma abordagem abrangente ao manejo da press&#227;o arterial para reduzir o risco cardiovascular e melhorar os desfechos dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4) Inconsist&#234;ncias entre as diretrizes na defini&#231;&#227;o de limiares de press&#227;o arterial para diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o e in&#237;cio do tratamento</title>
        <p>Ao longo dos anos, ap&#243;s v&#225;rios relat&#243;rios do JNC, diferentes diretrizes publicadas por v&#225;rias sociedades cient&#237;ficas de hipertens&#227;o arterial, cardiologia e nefrologia, al&#233;m de documentos dos Comit&#234;s de Especialistas da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de, notamos diverg&#234;ncias nos valores de normalidade e alvos terap&#234;uticos que foram adotados ao longo do tempo. Em nossa opini&#227;o, o quarto pecado no manejo da hipertens&#227;o &#233; a inconsist&#234;ncia na defini&#231;&#227;o de limiares de press&#227;o arterial para diagn&#243;stico e in&#237;cio do tratamento entre as diretrizes, o que resultou em confus&#227;o, cuidados sub&#243;timos e desfechos desfavor&#225;veis. Esse problema &#233; ainda mais agravado pela falta de aten&#231;&#227;o &#224;s interven&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas, como modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida, durante esse per&#237;odo crucial.</p>
        <p>As discrep&#226;ncias nos limiares de press&#227;o arterial entre diferentes diretrizes, como as diretrizes ACC/AHA de 2017 (130/80 mmHg)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> em compara&#231;&#227;o com as diretrizes ESC/ESH de 2018 e as Diretrizes Brasileiras (140/90 mmHg),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> criaram inconsist&#234;ncia na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, potencialmente negligenciando a oportunidade de intervir com modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o lim&#237;trofe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O foco no tratamento farmacol&#243;gico nas diretrizes pode inadvertidamente levar a uma &#234;nfase exagerada na medica&#231;&#227;o, particularmente no que diz respeito a pacientes com hipertens&#227;o leve e baixo risco cardiovascular, que podem se beneficiar mais de mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Brunstr&#246;m e Carlberg (2018)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> sugeriram que o tratamento anti-hipertensivo nessa popula&#231;&#227;o pode n&#227;o fornecer benef&#237;cios significativos e pode at&#233; causar danos, destacando a necessidade de uma abordagem mais equilibrada que priorize mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida.</p>
        <p>&#201; compreens&#237;vel e saud&#225;vel que as sociedades cient&#237;ficas possam divergir em rela&#231;&#227;o a valores ou limites considerados aceit&#225;veis para o tratamento de v&#225;rias doen&#231;as. Por&#233;m, de uma perspectiva de sa&#250;de populacional, seria oportuno e extremamente &#250;til para as equipes de sa&#250;de se sociedades especializadas lideradas por entidades cient&#237;ficas globais pudessem se alinhar com recomenda&#231;&#245;es convergentes.</p>
        <p>Apesar dos benef&#237;cios bem estabelecidos das modifica&#231;&#245;es de estilo de vida no manejo da hipertens&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> sua incorpora&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica permanece sub&#243;tima.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida, como modifica&#231;&#245;es da dieta, aumento da atividade f&#237;sica, controle do estresse e cessa&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo, podem efetivamente reduzir a press&#227;o arterial e melhorar a sa&#250;de cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> A falta de &#234;nfase nessas interven&#231;&#245;es nas diretrizes e na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica pode levar a uma depend&#234;ncia excessiva da farmacoterapia e a desfechos sub&#243;timos para os pacientes. As diretrizes variam em suas recomenda&#231;&#245;es para iniciar a medica&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva, com algumas preconizando n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos mais baixos em pacientes de alto risco e outras sugerindo uma abordagem mais conservadora. H&#225; uma necessidade de maior clareza e consenso sobre quando e como iniciar interven&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida, pois elas podem ser eficazes na preven&#231;&#227;o ou no atraso da necessidade de farmacoterapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Concluindo, abordar as inconsist&#234;ncias na defini&#231;&#227;o de limiares de press&#227;o arterial para diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o e in&#237;cio do tratamento em todas as diretrizes, combinadas com a falta de aten&#231;&#227;o &#224;s interven&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas, requer um esfor&#231;o concentrado para harmonizar as diretrizes, priorizar modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida e fornecer orienta&#231;&#227;o clara sobre quando e como iniciar interven&#231;&#245;es farmacol&#243;gicas e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas. Ao fazer isso, podemos otimizar os cuidados da hipertens&#227;o e melhorar os desfechos dos pacientes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5) A abordagem de &#8220;cuidados escalonados&#8221; no tratamento farmacol&#243;gico da hipertens&#227;o</title>
        <p>O quinto pecado &#233; a abordagem de &#8220;cuidados escalonados&#8221; (&#8220;<italic>stepped care</italic>&#8221;) para o manejo da hipertens&#227;o, conforme preconizada pelas diretrizes iniciais do JNC, que envolvia iniciar o tratamento com um &#250;nico agente anti-hipertensivo, normalmente um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico, e adicionar gradualmente outros medicamentos de forma escalonada se a press&#227;o arterial permanecesse descontrolada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Essa abordagem presumia que a maioria dos pacientes poderia atingir o controle adequado da press&#227;o arterial com um &#250;nico agente e que adicionar v&#225;rios medicamentos aumentaria o risco de efeitos colaterais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> No entanto, essa estrat&#233;gia &#250;nica n&#227;o levou em considera&#231;&#227;o as caracter&#237;sticas individuais dos pacientes, como idade, comorbidades e fisiopatologia subjacente, que podem influenciar a escolha da terapia inicial e a necessidade de tratamento combinado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudos subsequentes mostraram que uma propor&#231;&#227;o significativa de pacientes, particularmente aqueles com hipertens&#227;o mais grave ou fatores de risco cardiovascular adicionais, podem exigir terapia combinada desde o in&#237;cio para atingir o controle otimizado da press&#227;o arterial e reduzir o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> O ensaio Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT), publicado em 1998, demonstrou que uma PAD alvo mais baixa (&#8804; 80 mmHg) alcan&#231;ada por meio da terapia combinada foi associada a um risco reduzido de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes de alto risco com hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> O ensaio ACCOMPLISH, publicado em 2008, mostrou que uma combina&#231;&#227;o de um inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA) e um bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio foi mais eficaz na redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares do que uma combina&#231;&#227;o de um IECA e um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico, destacando a import&#226;ncia de combina&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas de medicamentos no manejo da hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A abordagem de tratamento escalonado tamb&#233;m pode levar a atrasos no alcance das metas de press&#227;o arterial e pode contribuir para uma ades&#227;o sub&#243;tima ao tratamento devido &#224; necessidade de ajustes frequentes de medicamentos. O ensaio STITCH, publicado em 2003, verificou que uma combina&#231;&#227;o de um &#250;nico comprimido de um IECA e um bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio resultou em melhor controle da press&#227;o arterial e ades&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o a uma abordagem de tratamento escalonado usando os mesmos medicamentos separadamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Essas limita&#231;&#245;es levaram a uma mudan&#231;a em dire&#231;&#227;o a uma abordagem mais personalizada para o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o, que enfatiza a sele&#231;&#227;o individualizada do tratamento com base nas caracter&#237;sticas do paciente e o uso de terapia combinada quando necess&#225;rio para atingir o controle oportuno e eficaz da press&#227;o arterial. Diretrizes recentes recomendam iniciar o tratamento com uma combina&#231;&#227;o de dois medicamentos para a maioria dos pacientes com hipertens&#227;o, particularmente aqueles com PAS &#8805; 150 mmHg ou PAD &#8805; 90 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6) A premissa de que a fisiopatologia e o tratamento otimizado da hipertens&#227;o poderiam ser determinados apenas pela avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade da renina plasm&#225;tica</title>
        <p>No in&#237;cio da d&#233;cada de 1970, o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA) foi reconhecido como um alvo crucial para o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Essa descoberta levou ao desenvolvimento de v&#225;rios agentes farmacol&#243;gicos que poderiam bloquear diferentes componentes do SRAA, como IECA, bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina e antagonistas da aldosterona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Durante esse per&#237;odo, surgiu o conceito de Laragh ou LARAH (hipertens&#227;o essencial com renina baixa, renina normal ou renina alta), que orientou o tratamento de acordo com os n&#237;veis de renina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Esse conceito foi baseado na premissa de que a fisiopatologia e o tratamento otimizado da hipertens&#227;o poderiam ser determinados pela avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade da renina plasm&#225;tica (ARP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> De acordo com o conceito LARAH, acreditava-se que os pacientes com hipertens&#227;o com renina baixa tinham um volume plasm&#225;tico expandido que responderia melhor aos diur&#233;ticos, que reduzem o volume plasm&#225;tico e aumentam os n&#237;veis de renina. Pacientes com hipertens&#227;o com renina normal foram considerados como tendo um equil&#237;brio entre vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e volume plasm&#225;tico que responderia a uma combina&#231;&#227;o de diur&#233;ticos e vasodilatadores. Em contraste, acreditava-se que pacientes com hipertens&#227;o com renina alta tinham vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o como mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico prim&#225;rio, que se beneficiaria mais de medicamentos que bloqueiam o SRAA, como betabloqueadores ou IECA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Embora o conceito LARAH tenha fornecido um arcabou&#231;o para entender a heterogeneidade da hipertens&#227;o e orientar decis&#245;es de tratamento, sua utilidade cl&#237;nica tem sido questionada ao longo do tempo. V&#225;rias limita&#231;&#245;es dessa abordagem foram identificadas. Primeiro, a acur&#225;cia e a reprodutibilidade das medi&#231;&#245;es de ARP podem ser afetadas por v&#225;rios fatores, como ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio na dieta, posi&#231;&#227;o corporal e hora do dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Segundo, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a ARP e a press&#227;o arterial nem sempre &#233; direta, e h&#225; uma sobreposi&#231;&#227;o consider&#225;vel nos n&#237;veis de ARP entre diferentes subgrupos de pacientes com hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Terceiro, a resposta aos medicamentos anti-hipertensivos n&#227;o &#233; determinada apenas pelos n&#237;veis de ARP; outros fatores como idade, ra&#231;a e comorbidades podem influenciar os desfechos do tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Quarto, o conceito LARAH n&#227;o leva em conta os m&#250;ltiplos mecanismos envolvidos na regula&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial e os benef&#237;cios potenciais da combina&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos com diferentes mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar dessas limita&#231;&#245;es, o conceito LARAH desempenhou um papel significativo no avan&#231;o de nossa compreens&#227;o do SRAA e seu envolvimento na hipertens&#227;o. Tamb&#233;m abriu caminho para o desenvolvimento de terapias direcionadas que se tornaram uma pedra angular do gerenciamento moderno da hipertens&#227;o. Portanto, embora o conceito LARAH tenha fornecido um arcabou&#231;o valioso para entender o papel do SRAA na hipertens&#227;o e orientar decis&#245;es de tratamento com base nos n&#237;veis de renina, sua utilidade cl&#237;nica foi limitada por v&#225;rios fatores. No entanto, continua sendo um conceito hist&#243;rico importante que contribuiu para a evolu&#231;&#227;o do manejo da hipertens&#227;o e para o desenvolvimento de terapias direcionadas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7) A concep&#231;&#227;o de que a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda era uma resposta puramente fisiol&#243;gica ao aumento da p&#243;s-carga</title>
        <p>O s&#233;timo pecado na compreens&#227;o hist&#243;rica da hipertens&#227;o foi o equ&#237;voco de que a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) &#233; uma resposta puramente fisiol&#243;gica ao aumento da p&#243;s-carga causada pela press&#227;o arterial elevada. Essa vis&#227;o simplificada falhou em reconhecer os complexos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos envolvidos no desenvolvimento da HVE e suas potenciais consequ&#234;ncias prejudiciais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nos prim&#243;rdios da pesquisa sobre hipertens&#227;o, a HVE era considerada uma resposta adaptativa que ajudava o cora&#231;&#227;o a lidar com o aumento da carga de trabalho imposta pela press&#227;o alta. Essa vis&#227;o era baseada na observa&#231;&#227;o de que a HVE era um achado comum em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o e que parecia normalizar o estresse da parede e manter o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Sua presen&#231;a era inicialmente reconhecida pela sobrecarga ventricular esquerda vista no ECG ou pelas altera&#231;&#245;es na silhueta card&#237;aca na radiografia de t&#243;rax, com base em informa&#231;&#245;es de correla&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas-cl&#237;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Sabia-se que o envolvimento card&#237;aco da hipertens&#227;o era visualmente expresso macroscopicamente pelo aumento da espessura das paredes ventriculares esquerdas e sob microscopia pela hipertrofia dos cardiomi&#243;citos. Com a introdu&#231;&#227;o da ecocardiografia, foi poss&#237;vel medir essa espessura e aumentar a sensibilidade diagn&#243;stica de danos a &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo ao n&#237;vel card&#237;aco em compara&#231;&#227;o ao ECG e &#224; radiografia de t&#243;rax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pesquisas subsequentes revelaram que a HVE n&#227;o &#233; meramente uma adapta&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica, mas sim um processo complexo que envolve m&#250;ltiplos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos, incluindo ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal, inflama&#231;&#227;o e fatores metab&#243;licos e gen&#233;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> O tecido mioc&#225;rdico &#233; composto de mi&#243;citos, vasos, sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o e arcabou&#231;o contendo fibroblastos e col&#225;geno. No entanto, devemos lembrar que em danos a &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo ao n&#237;vel card&#237;aco, o aumento desses constituintes (mioc&#225;rdio, col&#225;geno e vasos) n&#227;o &#233; proporcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Assim, a predomin&#226;ncia do col&#225;geno pode levar &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica devido a altera&#231;&#245;es no relaxamento ventricular esquerdo e neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o inadequada, o que pode comprometer a reserva da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O SRAA e o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico desempenham um papel crucial no desenvolvimento da HVE promovendo hipertrofia dos cardiomi&#243;citos, fibrose intersticial e deposi&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Hoje sabemos que a HVE &#233; causada por m&#250;ltiplos gatilhos, sendo o SRAA aut&#243;crino e par&#225;crino o mais importante. Portanto, o bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico do SRAA &#233; uma das principais a&#231;&#245;es que previnem danos a &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo ao n&#237;vel card&#237;aco. O SRAA pode manter outros gatilhos liberados ou mesmo potencializar vias de escape, levando &#224; adapta&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com hipertens&#227;o a um novo ambiente onde a matriz extracelular sofreria altera&#231;&#245;es que culminariam em fibrose intersticial mioc&#225;rdica, a saber: est&#237;mulo &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno tipo I e tipo III; aumento de glicoprote&#237;nas, glicosaminoglicanos e proteoglicanos, bem como aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de fatores de crescimento e proteases. O resultado seria predominantemente fibrose reativa e n&#227;o reparadora.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de baixo grau, frequentemente presente em pacientes hipertensos, contribui para o desenvolvimento de HVE ao ativar vias pr&#243;-fibr&#243;ticas e promover a remodela&#231;&#227;o da matriz extracelular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, obesidade e dislipidemia, que s&#227;o comorbidades comuns em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o, podem exacerbar o desenvolvimento de HVE ao induzir estresse oxidativo e alterar o metabolismo do substrato mioc&#225;rdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> De fato, j&#225; h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre fibrose intersticial mioc&#225;rdica e fatores de risco para doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria, como Lp(a), o que aumentaria o risco de desfechos isqu&#234;micos nesses pacientes com hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Finalmente, polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos em v&#225;rias vias neuro-hormonais e de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o foram associados a uma maior suscetibilidade &#224; HVE, sugerindo que o hist&#243;rico gen&#233;tico individual pode modular a resposta hipertr&#243;fica &#224; hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Excelentes revis&#245;es deste assunto t&#234;m sido publicadas recentemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, a no&#231;&#227;o de que a HVE seja uma resposta puramente adaptativa foi desafiada por evid&#234;ncias que demonstram sua associa&#231;&#227;o com desfechos cardiovasculares adversos, como insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, arritmias e morte card&#237;aca s&#250;bita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> A HVE &#233; agora reconhecida como um fator de risco independente para morbimortalidade cardiovascular, e sua regress&#227;o se tornou um alvo terap&#234;utico no manejo da hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> A vis&#227;o inicialmente simplificada falhou em explicar os complexos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos envolvidos no desenvolvimento da HVE e suas potenciais consequ&#234;ncias prejudiciais. O reconhecimento da HVE como um processo mal adaptativo e um fator de risco independente para resultados cardiovasculares adversos levou a uma mudan&#231;a de paradigma no tratamento da hipertens&#227;o, enfatizando a import&#226;ncia de prevenir e reverter a HVE para melhorar os desfechos dos pacientes.</p>
        <p>&#201; importante notar que, na hist&#243;ria da medicina, durante s&#233;culos, vivemos no obscurantismo e muitos dos diagn&#243;sticos e tratamentos foram guiados pelo empirismo, tornando compreens&#237;vel que erros tenham sido cometidos com bastante frequ&#234;ncia nos &#250;ltimos s&#233;culos.</p>
        <p>No entanto, &#233; justo registrar que, na era da medicina moderna, o refinamento esmagador da compreens&#227;o da fisiopatologia das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e a valida&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas foram baseadas na dif&#237;cil constru&#231;&#227;o de conceitos essenciais que sustentaram os sucessos do nosso tempo.</p>
        <p>Considerando esses sete pecados, vamos realizar uma an&#225;lise aprofundada para determinar se ainda h&#225; quest&#245;es importantes relacionadas a cada um deles que permanecem relevantes hoje. &#201; crucial chamar a aten&#231;&#227;o para a possibilidade de que perguntas em aberto possam persistir em cada um desses assuntos.</p>
        <p>
          <bold>1) A cren&#231;a de que a hipertens&#227;o era um mal necess&#225;rio para manter a perfus&#227;o adequada de &#243;rg&#227;os vitais e que a redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial poderia ser prejudicial</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Pergunta: Existem subpopula&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas ou cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos em que a redu&#231;&#227;o agressiva da press&#227;o arterial pode ser prejudicial?</p>
        <p>
          <bold>2) A interpreta&#231;&#227;o de que o aumento dos valores press&#243;ricos com o envelhecimento era um processo fisiol&#243;gico normal</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Pergunta: Quais s&#227;o as metas ideais de press&#227;o arterial para adultos mais velhos, considerando os riscos e benef&#237;cios potenciais do tratamento?</p>
        <p>
          <bold>3) A falta de reconhecimento da import&#226;ncia da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica alta como um fator de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, focando principalmente na press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Pergunta: Existe um fen&#244;meno de curva J para PAS em que valores excessivamente baixos podem estar associados a um risco cardiovascular aumentado?</p>
        <p>
          <bold>4) Inconsist&#234;ncias entre as diretrizes na defini&#231;&#227;o de limiares de press&#227;o arterial para diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o e in&#237;cio do tratamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Pergunta: Como podemos harmonizar as v&#225;rias diretrizes para fornecer recomenda&#231;&#245;es claras e consistentes sobre o manejo da hipertens&#227;o?</p>
        <p>
          <bold>5) A abordagem de &#8220;cuidados escalonados&#8221; no tratamento farmacol&#243;gico da hipertens&#227;o</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Pergunta: Em quais situa&#231;&#245;es uma abordagem de terapia combinada pode ser prefer&#237;vel &#224; abordagem tradicional de tratamento escalonado para controle otimizado da press&#227;o arterial e redu&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular?</p>
        <p>
          <bold>6) A premissa de que a fisiopatologia e o tratamento otimizado da hipertens&#227;o poderiam ser determinados apenas pela avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade da renina plasm&#225;tica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Pergunta: Como podemos integrar novos biomarcadores e abordagens de medicina personalizada para melhor caracterizar fen&#243;tipos individuais de hipertens&#227;o e orientar a terapia direcionada?</p>
        <p>
          <bold>7) A concep&#231;&#227;o de que a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda era uma resposta puramente fisiol&#243;gica ao aumento da p&#243;s-carga</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Pergunta: Quais s&#227;o as estrat&#233;gias mais eficazes para prevenir e reverter a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda patol&#243;gica em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o, al&#233;m do controle da press&#227;o arterial de forma isolada?</p>
        <p>Em resumo, &#233; evidente que, apesar do progresso significativo feito na compreens&#227;o e tratamento da hipertens&#227;o, muitas perguntas importantes permanecem sem resposta. Essas quest&#245;es n&#227;o resolvidas abrangem v&#225;rios aspectos do manejo da hipertens&#227;o, incluindo metas de press&#227;o arterial, estrat&#233;gias de tratamento e a fisiopatologia dos danos aos &#243;rg&#227;os relacionados &#224; hipertens&#227;o. Ao reconhecer essas lacunas de conhecimento e buscar ativamente respostas por meio de pesquisas e ensaios cl&#237;nicos cont&#237;nuos, podemos continuar a refinar nossa abordagem ao manejo da hipertens&#227;o e melhorar os desfechos para pacientes afetados por essa condi&#231;&#227;o prevalente e potencialmente devastadora. &#201; fundamental que permane&#231;amos vigilantes na identifica&#231;&#227;o e no tratamento dessas quest&#245;es persistentes para garantir o tratamento otimizado para indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</label>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</label>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <label>Fontes de financiamento</label>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240811i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Seven Deadly Sins in Hypertension Management: In-Depth Analysis of the Errors on a Journey from Riva-Rocci to Myocardial Fibrosis</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4200-9380</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pinho</surname>
            <given-names>Claudio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6330-697X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Heitor</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Saraiva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Francisco Kerr</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Consolim-Colombo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Marciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas &#8211; Cardiologia, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica Pinho &#8211; Cardiologia, Valinhos, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Claudio Pinho &#8226; Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas &#8211; Cardiologia &#8211; Av. John Boyd Dunlop, s/n. Postal Code 13086-900, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: drcpinho@uol.com.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Paulo B. Veiga Jardim</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Medicine is perhaps the only science that values knowledge of the most recent scientific publications more than its history over time. Medical epistemology shows that some mistakes and successes are so close that we often do not readily differentiate between them. The production of medical knowledge makes us understand that knowledge is transitory and theories need to be revalidated, rectified, or polished, if not destroyed and built again on other bases; paradigms that are renewed move science. With this critical view, it was necessary to access how much knowledge about arterial hypertension has been built over the last 130 years, since the measurement of blood pressure began to be widespread and become routine in medical practice until the present day. This critical review was focused on errors in the interpretation of acquired knowledge, seven of which have been identified, deeply discussed, and condemned as sins due to the delay in being recognized, thus allowing the lives of people with this cardiovascular pathology to be shortened.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Seven Deadly Sins in Hypertension Management: In-Depth Analysis of the Errors on a Journey from Riva-Rocci to Myocardial Fibrosis</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-03-e20240811-40811-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Bias</kwd>
        <kwd>Science</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>&#8220;The aim of Science is not to open a door to endless wisdom, but to put a limit on endless errors&#8221; (from <italic>Leben des Galilei</italic>, 1938). This thought-provoking quote by Bertolt Brecht sets the stage for Marvin Moser&#8217;s 1997 text on the &#8220;Evolution of Hypertension Treatment from the 1940s to JNC V,&#8221; in which he states that, &#8220;There are few stories in the history of Medicine that are filled with more errors or misconceptions than the story of hypertension and its treatment.&#8221;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A decade later, Moser revisits the topic in &#8220;Historical Perspectives on the Management of Hypertension&#8221;,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> covering the period between 1950 and 2006. In science, mistakes often precede successes, offering valuable lessons for future advancements.</p>
        <p>Errors have been an integral part of our lives since childhood. The game of &#8220;spot the difference,&#8221; in which we meticulously compared two images to identify seven discrepancies, playfully termed &#8220;errors,&#8221; captivated us as young minds. Drawing inspiration from this concept, we present a comprehensive review that explores seven significant misconceptions encountered throughout the 130-year evolution of knowledge surrounding arterial hypertension (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>). We aim to update these &#8220;errors&#8221; to align with the current state of scientific understanding.</p>
        <p>This in-depth review, motivated by the critical importance of the topic, expands upon Bertolt Brecht&#8217;s quote, suggesting that the aim of science is not only to limit endless errors but also to prevent them from becoming deadly sins. The choice to frame errors as sins stems from the realization that delays in acquiring knowledge have led to countless preventable losses of life due to this pathology.</p>
        <p>Despite significant advancements in our understanding of hypertension, several questions remain unanswered, for instance: the optimal blood pressure targets for different patient populations,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> the role of novel biomarkers and imaging techniques in the early detection and management of hypertension-related organ damage,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> and the impact of social determinants of health and health disparities on hypertension outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As we navigate the complexities of hypertension research, it is crucial to acknowledge the lessons learned from past misconceptions while remaining open to new discoveries that may challenge our current understanding. By doing so, we can continue to refine our approaches to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, ultimately improving outcomes for patients with this prevalent and potentially deadly condition.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>The seven deadly sins</title>
        <sec>
          <title>1) The belief that hypertension was a necessary evil to maintain adequate perfusion of vital organs and that lowering blood pressure could be harmful</title>
          <p>The first of them, in our opinion, occurred around 1895 when Scipione Riva-Rocci published his &#8220;new sphygmomanometer&#8221; in the <italic>Gazzetta Medica di Torino</italic>. At the same time, the vasculopathy of arterial hypertension was described by Clifford Albutt with the German term &#8220;<italic>Essentielle Hypertonie</italic>,&#8221; translated into English as &#8220;essential hypertension,&#8221; which carried with it the concept that high blood pressure levels were essential to overcome the resistance of compromised arterioles and perfuse the tissues.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Therefore, lowering the pressure would have the effect of worsening tissue perfusion, and consequently, it would not be prudent to do so. Although Nikolai Sergeyevich Korotkov described in 1905 that auscultation coupled to a sphygmomanometer could add information on diastolic levels and routine dissemination in the clinical practice of measuring blood pressure, its reduction was only advised in cases of malignant hypertension.</p>
          <p>The concept of high blood pressure levels as a defense process to prevent a decrease in tissue blood flow remained ingrained until the 1960s.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Proof of this is the publication in 1955 by George A. Perera, which described the complications of 500 untreated patients with hypertension and their average survival in years after the involvement of target organ lesions at the cardiac level (4 to 8 years), renal (1 to 5 years), and cerebral (1 to 4 years).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> At the time, the understanding was that arterial hypertension, which would reduce survival by around 15 to 20 years compared to normotensive patients, had an uncomplicated and asymptomatic phase, where educational guidance on the pathology was the only recommendation without therapeutic intervention, and a complicated and symptomatic phase where the attempt to reduce blood pressure should be done with great care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>At the end of the 1960s, the concept that high blood pressure levels were responsible for aggression and not a defense mechanism against compromised perfusion began to become robust. Those responsible for this paradigm shift were initially data obtained from the Framingham Heart Study, whose prospective follow-up had begun in 1948,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> and from the Veterans Administration Study Group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> The question changed from &#8220;How much hypertensive disability justifies the treatment of hypertension?&#8221; to &#8220;How early must one start treatment in order to avoid or greatly reduce the occurrence of irreversible disabilities?&#8221;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Evidence began to definitively show that the higher the blood pressure level, the greater the risk, independent of other variables, of being affected by cardiovascular complications such as heart failure, coronary events, strokes, and renal functional damage. If associated with comorbidities such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, smoking, and obesity, this risk would be increased. With this information and still in memory of the loss of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt due to cardiac and neurological complications of hypertension in 1945,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> task forces were proposed to guide the diagnosis and treatment of patients with this relevant pathology.</p>
          <p>We must emphasize the pivotal role that the Veterans Administration Cooperative Study (VACS) of 1967 and 1970 played in refining and redirecting our understanding and management of hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> These landmark clinical trials provided the first definitive evidence that treating patients with high diastolic blood pressure (DBP) values could significantly reduce the incidence of stroke, congestive heart failure, and other cardiovascular complications. These findings challenged the prevailing notion that hypertension was a necessary evil to maintain adequate organ perfusion and that lowering blood pressure could be harmful. Instead, the VACS established the benefits of treating hypertension and laid the foundation for the development of evidence-based guidelines for hypertension management. The results of these trials also spurred further research into the pathophysiology of hypertension and the development of new antihypertensive medications, setting the stage for the remarkable progress we have made in reducing the burden of cardiovascular disease over the past five decades.</p>
          <p>With this new conception, the Joint National Committee (JNC) was born, the first being launched in 1977<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> and the second in 1980.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2) The interpretation that increase in blood pressure values with aging was a normal physiological process</title>
          <p>There has been a long-standing belief in the medical community that blood pressure naturally increases with age and that this increase is benign. This misconception can be traced back to early studies, such as the 1911 report by Fisher, which suggested that a systolic blood pressure (SBP) of 100 mmHg plus the individual&#8217;s age was considered normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Indeed, after the age of 40, it was normal to add 10 mmHg for each decade of a person&#8217;s life. Thus, levels of 160 mmHg were considered normal for the 60-year-old age group, 170 mmHg for the 70-year-old age group, and so on (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>). This concept agreed with the idea that higher blood pressure was necessary to maintain adequate perfusion to vital organs in response to age-related changes in the cardiovascular system, such as increased arterial stiffness and decreased cardiac output. However, more recent evidence has clearly demonstrated that the age-related increase in blood pressure is not a physiological necessity, but rather a pathological process that contributes to increased cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; German publication from 1936 differentiating &#8220;normal&#8221; levels in relation to age.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-03-e20240811-40811-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>The Framingham Heart Study, which began in 1948, was one of the first to challenge the notion of &#8220;normal&#8221; blood pressure increasing with age. This study showed that individuals with higher blood pressure had a greater risk of developing cardiovascular disease, regardless of age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Subsequent studies have consistently shown that treating hypertension, even in older adults, can significantly reduce the risk of cardiovascular events and mortality. The Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial (HYVET) demonstrated that antihypertensive treatment in individuals aged 80 years and older reduced the risk of stroke, heart failure, and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Similarly, the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT) showed that intensive blood pressure control (targeting SBP &lt; 120 mmHg) reduced the risk of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in adults aged 50 years and older, including those aged 75 and older.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Current guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension emphasize the importance of treating hypertension based on an individual&#8217;s cardiovascular risk profile rather than age-specific thresholds.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> The guidelines recommend a target blood pressure of &lt; 140/90 mmHg for most adults, with a lower target of &lt; 130/80 mmHg for those at high cardiovascular risk, such as individuals with diabetes, chronic kidney disease, or established cardiovascular disease. Moreover, current evidence clearly demonstrates that treating hypertension, even in the elderly, can significantly reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Healthcare professionals should focus on assessing and managing hypertension based on an individual&#8217;s overall cardiovascular risk profile rather than relying on arbitrary age-specific blood pressure thresholds.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3) The lack of recognition of the importance of high systolic blood pressure as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, focusing mainly on diastolic blood pressure</title>
          <p>In the first two JNC documents (1977 and 1980),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> the diagnosis and therapeutic guidance were based only on DBP levels. Here, we come across the third error, which was the disregard for SBP levels for classification, risk assessment, and therapeutic decision.</p>
          <p>The following consequences of failing to recognize the importance of SBP as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and focusing mainly on DBP can be significant: a) Underestimation of cardiovascular risk: By emphasizing DBP over SBP, clinicians may underestimate the overall cardiovascular risk in patients, particularly in older individuals who are more likely to have isolated systolic hypertension. This can lead to inadequate risk stratification and suboptimal management of hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> b) Delayed initiation of treatment: If treatment decisions are based primarily on DBP, patients with elevated SBP but normal DBP may not receive timely interventions to lower their blood pressure. This delay in treatment initiation can allow the progression of cardiovascular damage and increase the risk of adverse outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> c) Inadequate blood pressure control: Focusing solely on DBP may lead to inadequate blood pressure control in patients with elevated SBP. This is particularly concerning because SBP has been shown to be a stronger predictor of cardiovascular events than DBP, especially in older individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> d) Increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality: Failure to adequately control SBP can result in a higher incidence of cardiovascular complications, such as myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, and kidney disease. This increased morbidity and mortality places a significant burden on patients, families, and healthcare systems.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> e) Misallocation of healthcare resources: By not effectively identifying and treating patients with elevated SBP, healthcare resources may be misdirected, leading to increased healthcare costs, and reduced overall effectiveness of hypertension management programs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Recognizing the importance of SBP as a key risk factor for cardiovascular disease is crucial for accurate risk assessment, timely initiation of appropriate treatment, and optimal blood pressure control. This understanding has led to a shift in focus towards SBP in recent hypertension guidelines, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive approach to blood pressure management to reduce cardiovascular risk and improve patient outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4) Inconsistencies in defining blood pressure thresholds for hypertension diagnosis and treatment initiation across guidelines</title>
          <p>Over the years, after several JNC reports, different guidelines published by several scientific societies of arterial hypertension, cardiology and nephrology, in addition to documents by World Health Organization Expert Committees, we noticed divergences in the normality values and therapeutic targets that have been adopted over time. In our opinion, the fourth sin in hypertension management is the inconsistency in defining blood pressure thresholds for diagnosis and treatment initiation across guidelines, which has led to confusion, suboptimal care, and poor outcomes. This issue is further compounded by the lack of attention to non-pharmacologic interventions, such as lifestyle modifications, during this crucial period.</p>
          <p>The discrepancies in blood pressure thresholds across different guidelines, such as the 2017 ACC/AHA guidelines (130/80 mmHg)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> compared to 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines and Brazilian Guidelines (140/90 mmHg),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> have created inconsistency in clinical practice, potentially neglecting the opportunity to intervene with lifestyle modifications in patients with borderline hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The focus on pharmacologic treatment in guidelines may inadvertently lead to an overemphasis on medication, particularly concerning for patients with mild hypertension and low cardiovascular risk, who may benefit more from lifestyle changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Brunstr&#246;m and Carlberg (2018)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> suggested that antihypertensive treatment in this population may not provide significant benefits and may even cause harm, highlighting the need for a more balanced approach that prioritizes lifestyle changes.</p>
          <p>It is understandable and healthy that scientific societies may differ regarding values or limits considered acceptable for the treatment of various illnesses. However, from a population health perspective, it would be timely and extremely useful for health teams if specialty societies led by global scientific entities could be aligned with converging recommendations.</p>
          <p>Despite the well-established benefits of lifestyle modifications in hypertension management,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> their incorporation into clinical practice remains suboptimal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Lifestyle changes, such as dietary modifications, increased physical activity, stress management, and smoking cessation, can effectively lower blood pressure and improve cardiovascular health.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> The lack of emphasis on these interventions in guidelines and clinical practice may lead to an overreliance on pharmacotherapy and suboptimal patient outcomes. Guidelines vary in their recommendations for starting antihypertensive medication, with some advocating for lower blood pressure levels in high-risk patients and others suggesting a more conservative approach. There is a need for greater clarity and consensus on when and how to initiate lifestyle interventions, as they can be effective in preventing or delaying the need for pharmacotherapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In conclusion, addressing the inconsistencies in defining blood pressure thresholds for hypertension diagnosis and treatment initiation across guidelines, combined with the lack of attention to non-pharmacologic interventions, requires a concerted effort to harmonize guidelines, prioritize lifestyle modifications, and provide clear guidance on when and how to initiate both pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic interventions. By doing so, we can optimize hypertension care and improve patient outcomes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5) The &#8220;stepped care&#8221; approach in pharmacological treatment of hypertension</title>
          <p>The fifth sin is the &#8220;stepped care&#8221; approach to hypertension management, as advocated by the early JNC guidelines, which involved initiating treatment with a single antihypertensive agent, typically a thiazide diuretic, and gradually adding other medications in a stepwise manner if blood pressure remained uncontrolled.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> This approach assumed that most patients could achieve adequate blood pressure control with a single agent and that adding multiple drugs would increase the risk of side effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> However, this one-size-fits-all strategy failed to consider individual patient characteristics, such as age, comorbidities, and underlying pathophysiology, which may influence the choice of initial therapy and the need for combination treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Subsequent studies have shown that a significant proportion of patients, particularly those with more severe hypertension or additional cardiovascular risk factors, may require combination therapy from the outset to achieve optimal blood pressure control and reduce the risk of complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> The Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) trial, published in 1998, demonstrated that a lower target DBP (&#8804; 80 mmHg) achieved through combination therapy was associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular events in high-risk patients with hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> The ACCOMPLISH trial, published in 2008, showed that a combination of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) and a calcium channel blocker was more effective in reducing cardiovascular events than a combination of an ACEI and a thiazide diuretic, highlighting the importance of specific drug combinations in hypertension management.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The stepped care approach may also lead to delays in achieving blood pressure goals and may contribute to suboptimal adherence to treatment due to the need for frequent medication adjustments. The STITCH trial, published in 2003, found that a single-pill combination of an ACEI and a calcium channel blocker resulted in better blood pressure control and adherence compared to a stepped care approach using the same medications separately.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
          <p>These limitations have led to a shift towards a more personalized approach to hypertension management, which emphasizes individualized treatment selection based on patient characteristics and the use of combination therapy when needed to achieve timely and effective blood pressure control. Recent guidelines recommend initiating treatment with a two-drug combination for most patients with hypertension, particularly those with SBP &#8805; 150 mmHg or DBP &#8805; 90 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6) The premise that the pathophysiology and optimal treatment of hypertension could be determined solely by assessing plasma renin activity</title>
          <p>In the early 1970s, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) was recognized as a crucial target for the treatment of hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> This discovery led to the development of various pharmacological agents that could block different components of the RAAS, such as ACEIs, angiotensin receptor blockers, and aldosterone antagonists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> During this period, the concept of Laragh or LARAH (low-renin, normal-renin, and high-renin essential hypertension) emerged, which guided treatment according to renin levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> This concept was based on the premise that the pathophysiology and optimal treatment of hypertension could be determined by assessing plasma renin activity (PRA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> According to the LARAH concept, patients with low-renin hypertension were thought to have an expanded plasma volume that would respond best to diuretics, which reduce plasma volume and increase renin levels. Patients with normal-renin hypertension were considered to have a balance between vasoconstriction and plasma volume that would respond to a combination of diuretics and vasodilators. In contrast, patients with high-renin hypertension were believed to have vasoconstriction as the primary pathophysiological mechanism, which would benefit most from drugs that block the RAAS, such as beta blockers or ACEIs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
          <p>While the LARAH concept provided a framework for understanding the heterogeneity of hypertension and guiding treatment decisions, its clinical utility has been questioned over time. Several limitations of this approach have been identified. First, the accuracy and reproducibility of PRA measurements can be affected by various factors, such as dietary sodium intake, body position, and time of day.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Second, the relationship between PRA and blood pressure is not always straightforward, and there is considerable overlap in PRA levels among different subgroups of patients with hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Third, the response to antihypertensive medications is not determined solely by PRA levels, and other factors such as age, race, and comorbidities can influence treatment outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Fourth, the LARAH concept does not account for the multiple mechanisms involved in blood pressure regulation and the potential benefits of combining drugs with different mechanisms of action.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite these limitations, the LARAH concept played a significant role in advancing our understanding of the RAAS and its involvement in hypertension. It also paved the way for the development of targeted therapies that have become a cornerstone of modern hypertension management. Therefore, while the LARAH concept provided a valuable framework for understanding the role of the RAAS in hypertension and guiding treatment decisions based on renin levels, its clinical utility has been limited by various factors. Nevertheless, it remains an important historical concept that has contributed to the evolution of hypertension management and the development of targeted therapies.</p>
        </sec>
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          <title>7) The conception that left ventricular hypertrophy was a purely physiological response to increased afterload</title>
          <p>The seventh sin in the historical understanding of hypertension was the misconception that left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is a purely physiological response to the increased afterload caused by elevated blood pressure. This oversimplified view failed to recognize the complex pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the development of LVH and its potential detrimental consequences.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the early days of hypertension research, LVH was considered an adaptive response that helped the heart cope with the increased workload imposed by high blood pressure. This view was based on the observation that LVH was a common finding in patients with hypertension and that it seemed to normalize wall stress and maintain cardiac output.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Its presence would initially be seen by the left ventricular overload seen on the ECG or changes in the cardiac silhouette on the chest X-ray, based on information from anatomical-clinical correlations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> It was known that the cardiac involvement of hypertension was visually expressed macroscopically by the increase in the thickness of the left ventricular walls and under microscopy by cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. With the introduction of echocardiography, it was possible to measure this thickness and increase the diagnostic sensitivity of cardiac target organ damage compared to ECG and chest radiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Subsequent research revealed that LVH is not merely a physiological adaptation, but rather a complex process involving multiple pathophysiological mechanisms, including neurohormonal activation, inflammation, and metabolic and genetic factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Myocardial tissue is composed of myocytes, vessels, conduction system, and scaffold containing fibroblasts and collagen. However, we must remember that, in cardiac target organ damage, the increase in these constituents (myocardium, collagen, and vessels) is not proportional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Thus, the predominance of the collagen could lead to diastolic dysfunction due to changes in left ventricular relaxation and inadequate neovascularization, which can compromise the coronary artery reserve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The RAAS and the sympathetic nervous system play a crucial role in the development of LVH by promoting cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, interstitial fibrosis, and collagen deposition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Today we know that LVH is caused by multiple triggers, with the autocrine and paracrine RAAS being the most important. Therefore, the pharmacological blockade of the RAAS is one of the main actions that prevent cardiac target organ damage. The RAAS may keep other triggers released or even enhance escape pathways, leading to the adaptation of patients with hypertension to a new environment where the extracellular matrix would undergo changes that would culminate in myocardial interstitial fibrosis, namely: stimulus to the formation of type I and type III collagen; an increase in glycoproteins, glycosaminoglycans, and proteoglycans; as well as an increase in the production of growth factors and proteases. The result would be predominantly reactive and non-reparative fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Moreover, chronic low-grade inflammation, often present in patients with hypertension, contributes to the development of LVH by activating pro-fibrotic pathways and promoting extracellular matrix remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Insulin resistance, obesity, and dyslipidemia, which are common comorbidities in patients with hypertension, can exacerbate the development of LVH by inducing oxidative stress and altering myocardial substrate metabolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Indeed, there is already evidence of an association between myocardial interstitial fibrosis and risk factors for coronary artery disease, such as Lp(a), which would increase the risk of ischemic outcomes in these patients with hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Finally, genetic polymorphisms in various neurohormonal and signaling pathways have been associated with an increased susceptibility to LVH, suggesting that individual genetic background may modulate the hypertrophic response to hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Excellent reviews of this topic have recently been published.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Furthermore, the notion that LVH is a purely adaptive response has been challenged by evidence demonstrating its association with adverse cardiovascular outcomes, such as heart failure, arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> LVH is now recognized as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and its regression has become a therapeutic target in the management of hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> The initial oversimplified view failed to account for the complex pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the development of LVH and its potential detrimental consequences. The recognition of LVH as a maladaptive process and an independent risk factor for adverse cardiovascular outcomes has led to a paradigm shift in the management of hypertension, emphasizing the importance of preventing and reversing LVH to improve patient outcomes.</p>
          <p>It should be noted that, in the history of medicine, for centuries, we lived in obscurantism and many of the diagnoses and treatments were guided by empiricism, making it understandable that mistakes were made quite frequently in recent centuries.</p>
          <p>However, it is fair to record that, in the era of modern medicine, the overwhelming refinement of the understanding of the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases and the validation of therapeutic strategies have been based on the difficult construction of essential concepts that supported the successes of our time.</p>
          <p>Considering these seven sins, let us perform an in-depth analysis to determine if there are still important questions related to each of them that remain relevant today. It is crucial to draw attention to the possibility that unresolved questions may persist within each of these topics.</p>
          <p>
            <bold>1) The belief that hypertension was a necessary evil to maintain adequate perfusion of vital organs and that lowering blood pressure could be harmful</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Question: Are there any specific subpopulations or clinical scenarios where aggressive blood pressure lowering may be detrimental?</p>
          <p>
            <bold>2) The interpretation that an increase in blood pressure values with aging was a normal physiological process</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Question: What are the optimal blood pressure targets for older adults, considering the potential risks and benefits of treatment?</p>
          <p>
            <bold>3) The lack of recognition of the importance of high systolic blood pressure as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, focusing mainly on diastolic blood pressure</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Question: Is there a J-curve phenomenon for systolic blood pressure, where excessively low values may be associated with increased cardiovascular risk?</p>
          <p>
            <bold>4) Inconsistencies in defining blood pressure thresholds for hypertension diagnosis and treatment initiation across guidelines</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Question: How can we harmonize the various guidelines to provide clear and consistent recommendations for hypertension management?</p>
          <p>
            <bold>5) The &#8220;stepped care&#8221; approach in pharmacological treatment of hypertension</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Question: In what situations might a combination therapy approach be preferable to the traditional stepped care approach for optimal blood pressure control and cardiovascular risk reduction?</p>
          <p>
            <bold>6) The premise that the pathophysiology and optimal treatment of hypertension could be determined solely by assessing plasma renin activity</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Question: How can we integrate novel biomarkers and personalized medicine approaches to better characterize individual hypertension phenotypes and guide targeted therapy?</p>
          <p>
            <bold>7) The conception that left ventricular hypertrophy was a purely physiological response to increased afterload</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Question: What are the most effective strategies for preventing and reversing pathological left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with hypertension, beyond blood pressure control alone?</p>
          <p>In summary, it is evident that, despite the significant progress made in understanding and treating hypertension, many important questions remain unanswered. These unresolved issues span across various aspects of hypertension management, including blood pressure targets, treatment strategies, and the pathophysiology of hypertension-related organ damage. By acknowledging these knowledge gaps and actively seeking answers through ongoing research and clinical trials, we can continue to refine our approach to hypertension management and improve outcomes for patients affected by this prevalent and potentially devastating condition. It is imperative that we remain vigilant in identifying and addressing these persistent questions to ensure optimal care for individuals with hypertension.</p>
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          <label>Study association</label>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding</label>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
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