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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">CPPMTN5MpdHNzN6GbDZk6nw</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025000200302</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00302</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240159</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Potencial Terap&#234;utico da Vortioxetina: Respostas Card&#237;acas ao Estresse Cr&#244;nico Moderado Imprevis&#237;vel em um Modelo de Rato</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1835-1082</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ozmen</surname>
            <given-names>Ozlem</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tasan</surname>
            <given-names>Serife</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6750-468X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Unal</surname>
            <given-names>Gulin Ozdamar</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Pathology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Burdur</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="TR">Turquia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University &#8211; Department of Pathology, Burdur &#8211; Turquia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Suleyman Demirel University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Psychiatry</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Isparta</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="TR">Turquia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Suleyman Demirel University &#8211; Department of Psychiatry, Isparta &#8211; Turquia</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia</label>: Ozlem Ozmen &#8226; Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Department of Pathology, Istiklal Yerle&#351;kesi, 15030, Burdur &#8211; Turquia E-mail: <email>ozlemozmen@mehmetakif.edu.tr</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Okoshi, Marina</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
          <p> N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20240159</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> O estresse surge em resposta a amea&#231;as ou desafios, afetando a sa&#250;de f&#237;sica e mental. Embora seus efeitos nocivos ao cora&#231;&#227;o sejam amplamente reconhecidos, as investiga&#231;&#245;es em n&#237;vel celular permanecem limitadas. Antidepressivos, incluindo vortioxetina (VOR), s&#227;o conhecidos por impactar o sistema cardiovascular. VOR, usado para tratar transtorno depressivo maior, &#233; considerado uma op&#231;&#227;o promissora para pacientes com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca devido &#224;s suas propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias e antioxidantes, que podem reduzir danos card&#237;acos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos do estresse cr&#244;nico moderado imprevis&#237;vel (ECMI) em cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos e avaliar os potenciais efeitos protetores do VOR contra danos card&#237;acos induzidos por estresse.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Vinte e oito ratos Wistar Albino machos foram divididos em quatro grupos. O grupo ECMI experimentou estresse di&#225;rio aleat&#243;rio por 6 semanas, enquanto o grupo ECMI+VOR recebeu tratamento VOR junto com estresse. Os grupos VOR e controle n&#227;o foram expostos ao estresse. Amostras de cora&#231;&#227;o foram examinadas histopatologicamente e imuno-histoquimicamente.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> O grupo ECMI apresentou aumento de hemorragia, edema, degenera&#231;&#227;o vacuolar e infiltra&#231;&#245;es de c&#233;lulas mononucleares, com redu&#231;&#227;o de troponina e IL-10 e aumento de express&#245;es de caspase-3 e NF-&#954;B em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle (p&#8804;0,001). O tratamento com VOR melhorou esses achados, normalizando os resultados histopatol&#243;gicos e imuno-histoqu&#237;micos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p> O ECMI causou danos card&#237;acos significativos em ratos, enquanto o tratamento com VOR mostrou efeitos protetores ao aliviar essas altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Potencial Terap&#234;utico da Vortioxetina: Respostas Card&#237;acas ao Estresse Cr&#244;nico Moderado Imprevis&#237;vel em um Modelo de Rato</title>
              <p>Mecanismo patog&#234;nico esquem&#225;tico do dano do ECMI no cora&#231;&#227;o.</p>
            </caption>
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              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/CPPMTN5MpdHNzN6GbDZk6nw/e5190754ae54302cde64391946ddbfcaf2508663.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
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            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Vortioxetina</kwd>
        <kwd>Cora&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Imuno-Histoqu&#237;mica</kwd>
        <kwd>Patologia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="16"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="61"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O estresse &#233; um problema psicol&#243;gico significativo e crescente que impacta a vida di&#225;ria de indiv&#237;duos globalmente. Ao mesmo tempo, depress&#227;o e ansiedade se destacam como os transtornos psiqui&#225;tricos mais prevalentes em muitas sociedades em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Esses transtornos psicol&#243;gicos emergem de intera&#231;&#245;es complexas envolvendo fatores neurobiol&#243;gicos, gen&#233;ticos e eventos comuns da vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O c&#233;rebro, juntamente com os sistemas cardiovascular e imunol&#243;gico, constitui alvos comuns de estresse. Pesquisas indicam que fatores psicossociais desempenham um papel fundamental na origem e progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a card&#237;aca coron&#225;ria. Quando certas regi&#245;es do c&#233;rebro s&#227;o ativadas devido ao estresse, a resposta &#233; gerada atrav&#233;s do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico ou horm&#244;nios, consequentemente influenciando as fun&#231;&#245;es normais do cora&#231;&#227;o. O estresse cr&#244;nico moderado imprevis&#237;vel (ECMI) leva a aumentos significativos nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de corticosterona, resultando em um perfil lip&#237;dico aterog&#234;nico exacerbado que acelera a aterosclerose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Gu et al., em particular, observaram que o ECMI induz altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas e fisiol&#243;gicas que podem contribuir para a aterosclerose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A ativa&#231;&#227;o do eixo hipot&#225;lamo-hip&#243;fise-adrenal e o consequente aumento da libera&#231;&#227;o de glicocorticoides, desencadeados por situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse imprevis&#237;veis e repetitivas, podem resultar em uma produ&#231;&#227;o amplificada de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio e estresse oxidativo nas c&#233;lulas do sistema nervoso central.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O estresse oxidativo desempenha um papel fundamental na patog&#234;nese de dist&#250;rbios do sistema cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os modelos ECMI t&#234;m sido amplamente utilizados como modelos de depress&#227;o em animais experimentais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Esses modelos replicam estressores ambientais sociais, espelhando de perto o desenvolvimento da depress&#227;o em humanos, tornando-os mais adequados para fins investigativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Comportamentos aned&#244;nicos, caracterizados por uma redu&#231;&#227;o na prefer&#234;ncia por sacarose em roedores expostos ao estresse, s&#227;o caracter&#237;sticas-chave deste modelo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A validade do modelo &#233; ressaltada pela reversibilidade desta redu&#231;&#227;o no efeito hed&#244;nico com tratamento cr&#244;nico envolvendo agentes antidepressivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Grippo et al. relataram que ratos expostos a estresse cr&#244;nico moderado apresentaram aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, redu&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, t&#244;nus card&#237;aco simp&#225;tico elevado, anedonia e diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de atividade em uma roda de corrida. Suas descobertas sugerem que ratos submetidos a ECMI s&#227;o vulner&#225;veis a eventos arr&#237;tmicos, o que pode levar a resultados card&#237;acos ainda mais prejudiciais, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ou morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, foi relatado que aumenta a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca devido ao estresse cr&#244;nico, contribui para a hipertens&#227;o e eleva as concentra&#231;&#245;es de cortisol s&#233;rico, s&#243;dio e horm&#244;nio adrenocorticotr&#243;fico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> No entanto, h&#225; informa&#231;&#245;es limitadas sobre os achados histol&#243;gicos e imuno-histoqu&#237;micos nos cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos expostos a ECMI.</p>
      <p>Os efeitos adversos dos antidepressivos no sistema cardiovascular s&#227;o conhecidos h&#225; muito tempo. Embora os antidepressivos sejam geralmente eficazes na redu&#231;&#227;o da depress&#227;o, seu uso em pacientes com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca coron&#225;ria permanece controverso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Portanto, h&#225; uma necessidade de explorar antidepressivos que n&#227;o tenham efeitos prejudiciais no sistema cardiovascular. A vortioxetina (VOR), um antidepressivo multimodal, &#233; empregada no tratamento da depress&#227;o e dist&#250;rbios cognitivos associados &#224; depress&#227;o. O tratamento com VOR tem o potencial de normalizar as mudan&#231;as neurocomportamentais induzidas por estressores da vida di&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> No entanto, os mecanismos neurobiol&#243;gicos que sustentam os efeitos antidepressivos e cognitivos do VOR permanecem incompletamente compreendidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Acredita-se que o VOR tenha efeitos positivos no cora&#231;&#227;o devido &#224;s suas propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias e antiapopt&#243;ticas.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, embora o impacto do estresse em doen&#231;as coron&#225;rias seja bem conhecido, seus efeitos espec&#237;ficos no mioc&#225;rdio permanecem pouco explorados. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo &#233; examinar histopatologicamente e imuno-histoquimicamente os efeitos danosos do ECMI no cora&#231;&#227;o, com foco particular na avalia&#231;&#227;o do papel protetor do VOR na mitiga&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es card&#237;acas induzidas por ECMI em um modelo de rato.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Materiais e m&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Animais</title>
        <p>Neste estudo, tecidos card&#237;acos foram obtidos de um projeto originalmente focado na investiga&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos de ECMI no tecido cerebral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Durante o exame histol&#243;gico, achados not&#225;veis foram observados nos tecidos card&#237;acos, o que motivou uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais aprofundada com a aprova&#231;&#227;o do comit&#234; de &#233;tica. O estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica Local em Pesquisa Animal da Universidade Suleyman Demirel (Aprova&#231;&#227;o n&#186;: SDU HADYEK 01/02, datado de 06.01.2022). Todos os experimentos foram conduzidos em conformidade com as diretrizes ARRIVE para pesquisa animal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Usando o software GPower 3.1.9.7, um estudo foi planejado em 4 grupos, cada um consistindo de 7 ratos (tamanho total da amostra de 28), considerando os par&#226;metros relevantes (&#945;=0,06, 1-&#946;=0,90, tamanho do efeito=0,5). Nesta pesquisa, 28 ratos Wistar Albino machos foram adquiridos do Centro de Pesquisa e Produ&#231;&#227;o Animal Experimental da Universidade Suleyman Demirel, localizado na Universidade Suleyman Demirel, T&#252;rkiye. Os ratos tinham 4 semanas de idade, pesavam entre 150-200 gramas e foram confirmados como saud&#225;veis pelo veterin&#225;rio supervisor na unidade relevante. Os ratos receberam um per&#237;odo de aclimata&#231;&#227;o de uma semana antes do in&#237;cio do experimento. Ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de adapta&#231;&#227;o, eles foram divididos aleatoriamente (atribui&#231;&#227;o aleat&#243;ria simples) em quatro grupos, cada um consistindo de sete ratos. O grupo controle n&#227;o passou por nenhum estresse, enquanto o grupo ECMI passou pelo procedimento de ECMI. O grupo ECMI+VOR foi submetido ao procedimento ECMI e recebeu 10 mg/kg de VOR intraperitonealmente durante as &#250;ltimas tr&#234;s semanas do experimento. O grupo VOR recebeu 10 mg/kg de VOR intraperitonealmente durante as &#250;ltimas tr&#234;s semanas sem exposi&#231;&#227;o ao estresse.</p>
        <p>Os grupos controle e VOR foram alojados em salas separadas dos grupos ECMI e ECMI+VOR e n&#227;o foram expostos a nenhum estresse. Os ratos foram alojados em gaiolas Euro-tipo 4 padr&#227;o usando aparas de madeira como cama. Todos os ratos foram mantidos sob condi&#231;&#245;es laboratoriais padr&#227;o (temperatura: 21&#176;C &#177; 2&#176;C; umidade: 60% &#177; 5%; ciclo claro-escuro de 12/12 h) e tiveram acesso ad libitum a uma dieta comercial padr&#227;o (Korkuteli Yem, Antalya, T&#252;rkiye) e &#225;gua, exceto durante os per&#237;odos de estresse para os grupos ECMI.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Modelo ECMI</title>
        <p>O modelo ECMI foi implementado com base em um m&#233;todo descrito anteriormente com algumas modifica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Os ratos foram alojados individualmente e submetidos a v&#225;rios estressores como parte do protocolo ECMI ao longo de 6 semanas. Esses estressores inclu&#237;ram 4 horas em uma gaiola inclinada a 45&#176;, 24 horas de priva&#231;&#227;o de &#225;gua, 24 horas de jejum, ilumina&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua, 4 horas em uma gaiola com cama molhada, 4 horas de restri&#231;&#227;o comportamental, 4 horas de estresse social colocando os ratos em gaiolas sujas de outros ratos, 4 horas de estresse h&#237;drico em uma gaiola vazia com 1 cm de &#225;gua no fundo e 4 horas em uma gaiola vazia. Uma sala dedicada no laborat&#243;rio foi designada para implementar o protocolo ECMI. Todos os estressores foram aplicados individualmente e continuamente, dia e noite. Os animais de controle foram deixados intactos em suas gaiolas, exceto para manuseio durante a limpeza regular da gaiola.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Teste de prefer&#234;ncia de sacarose</title>
        <p>A prefer&#234;ncia por sacarose &#233; usada como um indicador de anedonia, um dos principais sintomas da depress&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Para o teste de prefer&#234;ncia por sacarose (TPS), os animais receberam duas garrafas de solu&#231;&#227;o de sacarose 1% p/v e 100 g <italic>ad libitum</italic> no primeiro dia para familiariz&#225;-los com o sabor da sacarose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> No segundo dia, uma das garrafas foi substitu&#237;da por &#225;gua. No terceiro dia, os ratos foram privados de comida e &#225;gua por 23 horas. Uma garrafa continha 100 ml de solu&#231;&#227;o de sacarose 1%, enquanto a outra continha um volume igual de &#225;gua pot&#225;vel. Os ratos tiveram uma hora para escolher entre os dois l&#237;quidos. Para evitar potenciais efeitos de prefer&#234;ncia, as posi&#231;&#245;es das garrafas foram trocadas ap&#243;s 30 minutos. A porcentagem de prefer&#234;ncia por sacarose foi calculada usando a seguinte f&#243;rmula: porcentagem de prefer&#234;ncia por sacarose = consumo de sacarose/(consumo de sacarose + consumo de &#225;gua).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento com Vortioxetina</title>
        <p>Vortioxetina sintetizada por H. Lundbeck A/S, Istambul, T&#252;rkiye, foi dissolvida em &#225;gua destilada e administrada em uma dose de 10 mg/kg, conforme descrito anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Os grupos controle e ECMI receberam solu&#231;&#227;o salina est&#233;ril a 0,9%. Solu&#231;&#245;es preparadas recentemente foram injetadas intraperitonealmente em um volume de 1 mL/kg todos os dias no mesmo hor&#225;rio por 3 semanas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Na conclus&#227;o do experimento, todos os ratos foram sacrificados sob anestesia com Xilazina HCl (Xylasinbio %2, Bioveta, Rep&#250;blica Tcheca) + Ketalar HCl (Ketasol, Richter Pharma AG, &#193;ustria). Posteriormente, amostras foram coletadas para an&#225;lises histopatol&#243;gicas e imuno-histoqu&#237;micas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>M&#233;todo histopatol&#243;gico</title>
        <p>Durante a necropsia, amostras de cora&#231;&#227;o foram coletadas e preservadas em formalina tamponada a 10%. As amostras de tecido passaram por processamento padr&#227;o usando equipamento de processamento de tecido totalmente autom&#225;tico e foram embebidas em cera de parafina. Se&#231;&#245;es de 5 m&#237;crons de espessura foram cortadas dos blocos de parafina. Ap&#243;s a secagem, as prepara&#231;&#245;es foram submetidas a s&#233;ries de &#225;lcool e xileno, coradas com hematoxilina-eosina (HE), montadas com uma lam&#237;nula e examinadas sob um microsc&#243;pio de luz.</p>
        <p>Um microsc&#243;pio de luz com uma objetiva de 40x foi usado para avaliar a gravidade das les&#245;es card&#237;acas, com fotos tiradas de cinco regi&#245;es diferentes do cora&#231;&#227;o de cada animal. As les&#245;es foram classificadas com base em hiperemia, hemorragia, edema, ac&#250;mulo de lip&#237;dios, degenera&#231;&#227;o vacuolar, hipereosinofilia no citoplasma das c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas e infiltra&#231;&#245;es de c&#233;lulas mononucleares. A gravidade das altera&#231;&#245;es histopatol&#243;gicas foi avaliada semiquantitativamente como segue: 0, normal; 1, moderado; 2, moderado; e 3, grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Exame imuno-histoqu&#237;mico</title>
        <p>Empregando a t&#233;cnica de estreptavidina-biotina seguindo as instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante, quatro se&#231;&#245;es consecutivas foram montadas em l&#226;minas revestidas de poli-L-lisina de blocos de parafina previamente preparados e coradas imuno-histoquimicamente. Essas se&#231;&#245;es foram utilizadas para a detec&#231;&#227;o de express&#245;es de caspase-3 (Anticorpo anticaspase-3 (E-8): sc-7272, Abcam, Reino Unido), IL-10 (anticorpos IL-10, A16445, Bioscience - EUA), NF-&#954;B (anticorpos anti-NF-&#954;B p65 (ab16502), Abcam, Reino Unido) e troponina card&#237;aca (anticorpo antitroponina I card&#237;aca (FNab09781), FineTest, China). Cada anticorpo prim&#225;rio foi aplicado em uma dilui&#231;&#227;o de 1/100, e as se&#231;&#245;es foram incubadas com esses anticorpos por 60 minutos. A imuno-histoqu&#237;mica foi realizada usando anticorpos secund&#225;rios biotinilados e conjugados de estreptavidina-fosfatase alcalina. O anticorpo secund&#225;rio usado foi o kit EXPOSURE Mouse and Rabbit Specific HRP/DAB Detection IHC (ab80436), e a diaminobenzidina (DAB) serviu como crom&#243;geno (Abcam, Cambridge, Reino Unido). Os controles negativos foram tratados com uma solu&#231;&#227;o de dilui&#231;&#227;o de ant&#237;geno em vez do anticorpo prim&#225;rio. Todos os exames foram conduzidos em esp&#233;cimes cegos por um patologista especializado de outra universidade. Na an&#225;lise imuno-histoqu&#237;mica, cada se&#231;&#227;o foi examinada independentemente para cada anticorpo. Para avaliar a intensidade das rea&#231;&#245;es imuno-histoqu&#237;micas em c&#233;lulas marcadas por esses anticorpos, uma an&#225;lise semiquantitativa foi conduzida, empregando uma pontua&#231;&#227;o de classifica&#231;&#227;o variando de (0) a (3) da seguinte forma: (0) negativo, (1) colora&#231;&#227;o moderado focal, (2) colora&#231;&#227;o moderado difusa e (3) colora&#231;&#227;o marcada difusa. Para avalia&#231;&#227;o, dez &#225;reas diferentes sob amplia&#231;&#227;o objetiva de 40X em cada se&#231;&#227;o foram examinadas. O Database Manual Cell Sens Life Science Imaging Software System (Olympus Co., T&#243;quio, Jap&#227;o) foi empregado para an&#225;lises morfom&#233;tricas e microfotografia. Os resultados foram registrados e analisados estatisticamente. As an&#225;lises de pontua&#231;&#227;o imuno-histoqu&#237;mica foram realizadas usando o ImageJ vers&#227;o 1.48 (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>A an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foi conduzida usando o Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 22.00 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, EUA). Inicialmente, a normalidade da distribui&#231;&#227;o foi avaliada usando o teste de Shapiro-Wilk. Como os dados demonstraram uma distribui&#231;&#227;o normal (p&gt;0,05), as compara&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos foram feitas com uma an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia unidirecional (ANOVA). O teste de Duncan foi usado para identificar diferen&#231;as entre os grupos. Valores de p&lt;0,05 s&#227;o considerados estatisticamente significativos. O software GraphPad foi usado para os gr&#225;ficos.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Achados cl&#237;nicos</title>
        <p>Todos os ratos foram observados diariamente para mudan&#231;as comportamentais ao longo do estudo. Foi notado que a porcentagem de prefer&#234;ncia por sacarose diminuiu significativamente no grupo ECMI, enquanto os grupos controle, ECMI+VOR e VOR exibiram n&#237;veis igualmente altos. Al&#233;m disso, os ratos no grupo ECMI pareciam mais calmos e mostraram movimentos mais lentos em compara&#231;&#227;o aos outros grupos. Essas descobertas confirmam a presen&#231;a de comportamentos depressivos nos ratos submetidos a ECMI.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Resultados brutos</title>
        <p>Na conclus&#227;o do per&#237;odo experimental, os animais foram sacrificados de acordo com as diretrizes &#233;ticas, e seus cora&#231;&#245;es foram examinados macroscopicamente. Nenhuma altera&#231;&#227;o patol&#243;gica grave foi identificada nos cora&#231;&#245;es dos grupos de controle e de estudo durante a necropsia. Os cora&#231;&#245;es de todos os ratos em todo o grupo exibiram apar&#234;ncias macrosc&#243;picas normais.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Achados histopatol&#243;gicos</title>
        <p>O exame microsc&#243;pico revelou uma arquitetura de tecido normal no grupo controle. Em contraste, o grupo ECMI exibiu hiperemia, edema, ac&#250;mulo de lip&#237;dios, degenera&#231;&#227;o vacuolar, hipereosinofilia no citoplasma de c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas em alguns ratos e infiltra&#231;&#245;es de c&#233;lulas mononucleares em tr&#234;s ratos. Al&#233;m disso, uma leve hemorragia foi notada no mioc&#225;rdio de dois ratos neste grupo. Embora todos os tecidos card&#237;acos tenham sido examinados, as les&#245;es foram particularmente pronunciadas no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Ficou evidente que a administra&#231;&#227;o de VOR melhorou esses achados patol&#243;gicos no grupo ECMI+VOR. Nenhum achado patol&#243;gico foi observado nos grupos VOR e controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>). Os resultados da an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica dos achados histopatol&#243;gicos s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Aspecto histopatol&#243;gico dos cora&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos. A) Histologia card&#237;aca normal no grupo controle; B) Hiperemia, pequenas hemorragias (setas grossas) e infiltra&#231;&#245;es de c&#233;lulas mononucleares (setas finas) no mioc&#225;rdio de um rato no grupo ECMI; C) Histologia normal do mioc&#225;rdio no grupo ECMI+VOR; D) Histologia card&#237;aca normal no grupo VOR, HE, barras de escala=50 &#181;m.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Resultados da an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica dos escores histopatol&#243;gicos. Os valores s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dias &#177; erro padr&#227;o. ANOVA de uma via. *** p&#8804;0,001. ECMI: estresse cr&#244;nico moderado imprevis&#237;vel; VOR: vortioxetina.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Achados imuno-histoqu&#237;micos</title>
        <p>Os achados imuno-histoqu&#237;micos revelaram um aumento nas express&#245;es de caspase-3 e fator nuclear kappa-light-chain-enhancer de c&#233;lulas B ativadas (NF-&#954;B) e uma diminui&#231;&#227;o nas express&#245;es de IL-10 e troponina no grupo ECMI. No geral, os tratamentos VOR melhoraram as express&#245;es (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figuras 3-6</xref> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05"/> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06"/> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07"/>). A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7</xref> mostra os resultados da an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica dos achados imuno-histoqu&#237;micos. O poss&#237;vel mecanismo de cafe&#237;na e hipotireoidismo no cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; mostrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Express&#245;es de caspase-3 de cora&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos. A) Express&#227;o negativa no grupo controle, B) Aumento da imunoexpress&#227;o no mioc&#225;rdio de um rato no grupo ECMI (setas), C) Express&#227;o negativa no grupo ECMI+VOR, D) Express&#227;o negativa no grupo VOR, m&#233;todo da estreptavidina biotina peroxidase, barras de escala=20&#181;m.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Express&#245;es de IL-10 de cora&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos. A) Express&#227;o normal no grupo controle, B) Imunorrea&#231;&#227;o diminu&#237;da no mioc&#225;rdio em um rato do grupo ECMI (setas), C) Express&#227;o aumentada no grupo ECMI+VOR, D) Express&#227;o normal no grupo VOR, m&#233;todo da estreptavidina biotina peroxidase, barras de escala=20&#181;m.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f06">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Express&#245;es de NF-kB de cora&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos. A) Nenhuma express&#227;o no grupo controle, B) Aumento da imunoexpress&#227;o no mioc&#225;rdio no grupo ECMI (setas), C) Express&#227;o negativa no grupo ECMI+VOR, D) Express&#227;o negativa no grupo VOR, m&#233;todo da estreptavidina biotina peroxidase, barras de escala=20&#181;m.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf05.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f07">
            <label>Figura 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Express&#245;es de troponina dos cora&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos. A) Express&#227;o significativa no grupo controle, B) Imunoexpress&#227;o diminu&#237;da no mioc&#225;rdio no grupo ECMI (setas), C) Express&#227;o significativa no grupo ECMI+VOR, D) Express&#227;o acentuada no grupo VOR, m&#233;todo Streptavidina biotina peroxidase, barras de escala=20&#181;m.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf06.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f08">
            <label>Figura 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Resultados da an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica dos escores imuno-histoqu&#237;micos. Os valores s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dias &#177; erro padr&#227;o. ANOVA unidirecional. *** p&#8804;0,001. ECMI: estresse cr&#244;nico moderado imprevis&#237;vel; VOR: vortioxetina.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf07.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Este estudo demonstrou altera&#231;&#245;es histopatol&#243;gicas nos cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos submetidos a ECMI, incluindo hiperemia, edema, micro-hemorragia, ac&#250;mulo de lip&#237;dios, degenera&#231;&#227;o vacuolar, hipereosinofilia no citoplasma de c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas e infiltra&#231;&#245;es de c&#233;lulas mononucleares. Exames imuno-histoqu&#237;micos revelaram express&#245;es aumentadas de caspase-3 e NF-&#954;B, indicando apoptose e respostas inflamat&#243;rias aumentadas. Ao mesmo tempo, diminui&#231;&#245;es nas express&#245;es de IL-10 e troponina sugeriram respostas anti-inflamat&#243;rias prejudicadas e les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. No entanto, a administra&#231;&#227;o de VOR atenuou significativamente essas altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas. O tratamento com VOR foi associado a redu&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de caspase-3 e NF-&#954;B, indicando seu potencial papel protetor contra apoptose e inflama&#231;&#227;o em tecidos card&#237;acos. Al&#233;m disso, VOR contribuiu para a normaliza&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de IL-10 e troponina, refletindo respostas anti-inflamat&#243;rias e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca melhoradas. Essas descobertas sugerem que o VOR pode servir como uma abordagem terap&#234;utica promissora para o tratamento da disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida pelo estresse, restaurando o equil&#237;brio nas vias inflamat&#243;rias e apopt&#243;ticas.</p>
      <p>Estresse, uma preocupa&#231;&#227;o crescente entre indiv&#237;duos, pode ser definido como a percep&#231;&#227;o subjetiva de uma mudan&#231;a ambiental adversa. Esfor&#231;os para se adaptar a novas situa&#231;&#245;es geralmente desencadeiam uma resposta significativa ao estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Modelos de ECMI em ratos t&#234;m sido amplamente utilizados recentemente para pesquisa sobre o tratamento e patog&#234;nese da depress&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Estudos anteriores relataram que ECMI induz sintomas fisiol&#243;gicos distintos em animais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Embora existam estudos limitados e recentes examinando os efeitos de ECMI no cora&#231;&#227;o, pouca informa&#231;&#227;o foi publicada sobre os achados histopatol&#243;gicos e imuno-histoqu&#237;micos no cora&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> No estudo atual, altera&#231;&#245;es histopatol&#243;gicas e as express&#245;es de caspase-3, NF-&#954;B, IL-10 e troponina foram investigadas em cora&#231;&#245;es expostos a ECMI em um modelo de rato.</p>
      <p>O hipot&#225;lamo, a hip&#243;fise e as gl&#226;ndulas suprarrenais constituem os principais componentes do eixo hipot&#225;lamo-hip&#243;fise-adrenal (HPA), envolvendo-se em intera&#231;&#245;es intrincadas relacionadas ao estresse, seja diretamente ou por meio de mecanismos de feedback. Quando o estresse ativa o eixo HPA, ele desencadeia uma secre&#231;&#227;o aumentada de glicocorticoides adrenais, como o cortisol, pelas gl&#226;ndulas suprarrenais. Os n&#237;veis de cortisol plasm&#225;tico podem aumentar mais de dez vezes em condi&#231;&#245;es intensamente estressantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> O horm&#244;nio liberador de corticotropina (CRH) &#233; um dos horm&#244;nios iniciais e cruciais liberados pelo hipot&#225;lamo em resposta ao estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Em estudos com animais, a inje&#231;&#227;o intraventricular de CRH demonstrou induzir comportamentos de resposta ao estresse e elevar a press&#227;o arterial e a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Estudos anteriores relataram que 4 semanas de ECMI aumentaram a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em repouso e reduziram a variabilidade da frequ&#234;ncia em animais experimentais. Al&#233;m disso, a administra&#231;&#227;o repetida de um novo estressor a animais previamente estressados aumentou as respostas da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Em estudos humanos, observou-se que a elimina&#231;&#227;o de est&#237;mulos estressantes restaura as respostas comportamentais, mas as altera&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares relatadas persistem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A sele&#231;&#227;o de marcadores medidos no cora&#231;&#227;o &#8212; caspase-3, NF-&#954;B, IL-10 e troponina &#8212; foi baseada em seus pap&#233;is estabelecidos em processos fisiopatol&#243;gicos relacionados ao estresse. A caspase-3 &#233; um efetor-chave na via apopt&#243;tica, e sua ativa&#231;&#227;o &#233; indicativa de estresse celular e apoptose em tecidos card&#237;acos. O NF-&#954;B, um fator cr&#237;tico de transcri&#231;&#227;o, est&#225; envolvido na resposta inflamat&#243;ria e &#233; frequentemente ativado sob condi&#231;&#245;es de estresse, contribuindo para a inflama&#231;&#227;o e remodela&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio. A IL-10 &#233; uma citocina anti-inflamat&#243;ria que neutraliza os efeitos de mediadores pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios; sua medi&#231;&#227;o reflete o equil&#237;brio entre as respostas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e anti-inflamat&#243;rias no cora&#231;&#227;o. Por fim, a troponina &#233; um biomarcador bem reconhecido para les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e &#233; comumente elevada no soro em eventos card&#237;acos relacionados ao estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Juntos, esses marcadores fornecem uma vis&#227;o abrangente da intera&#231;&#227;o entre apoptose, inflama&#231;&#227;o e dano mioc&#225;rdico, tornando-os adequados para avaliar o impacto do estresse cr&#244;nico na sa&#250;de card&#237;aca.</p>
      <p>Troponina &#233; uma prote&#237;na complexa presente nos filamentos finos do aparelho contr&#225;til do mioc&#225;rdio. Essa prote&#237;na facilita a intera&#231;&#227;o entre actina e miosina e desempenha um papel crucial na contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> No presente estudo, a express&#227;o da troponina card&#237;aca foi examinada nos tecidos mioc&#225;rdicos de ratos submetidos a ECMI. Os achados revelaram uma diminui&#231;&#227;o nas express&#245;es de troponina em ratos no grupo ECMI, mas o tratamento com VOR melhorou significativamente as express&#245;es de troponina card&#237;aca no mioc&#225;rdio. Isso foi interpretado como uma perda de troponina nas c&#233;lulas do mioc&#225;rdio, levando a n&#237;veis elevados de troponina no soro enquanto diminui no tecido card&#237;aco.</p>
      <p>Apoptose &#233; um processo de morte celular regulado, ativo e n&#227;o inflamat&#243;rio induzido por est&#237;mulos fisiol&#243;gicos ou patol&#243;gicos. Estudos recentes demonstraram que ECMI afeta o cora&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> embora o mecanismo patog&#234;nico n&#227;o esteja totalmente elucidado. A perda de c&#233;lulas devido &#224; apoptose em c&#233;lulas maduras pode ter consequ&#234;ncias graves, e a apoptose pode ser particularmente prejudicial para tecidos como o cora&#231;&#227;o. Em estudos envolvendo pacientes humanos e modelos animais, a ativa&#231;&#227;o de caspases no cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; considerada um marcador de dano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> No estudo atual, um aumento nas express&#245;es de caspase-3 foi observado apenas no grupo administrado por ECMI, ressaltando os efeitos prejudiciais de ECMI no mioc&#225;rdio. A apoptose de c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas desempenha um papel crucial na patologia de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas. Os achados deste estudo revelaram que ECMI aumentou a atividade da caspase-3 em c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas; no entanto, VOR foi eficaz na redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade apopt&#243;tica nessas c&#233;lulas em um modelo murino.</p>
      <p>Os efeitos relatados da ativa&#231;&#227;o do NF-&#954;B no cora&#231;&#227;o destacam seu papel crucial na regula&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup>O mioc&#225;rdio constitui a maioria da massa card&#237;aca e do n&#250;mero de c&#233;lulas, desempenhando assim o papel mais crucial na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a capacidade de regenera&#231;&#227;o dos mi&#243;citos card&#237;acos &#233; extremamente limitada, enfatizando a import&#226;ncia do mioc&#225;rdio para a fun&#231;&#227;o normal ao longo da vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> A ativa&#231;&#227;o e a express&#227;o do NF-&#954;B s&#227;o consideradas marcadores de dano card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> O aumento significativo nas express&#245;es do NF-&#954;B observado neste estudo indica que o ECMI leva a danos nas c&#233;lulas do mioc&#225;rdio. O VOR foi considerado eficaz na inibi&#231;&#227;o das express&#245;es do NF-&#954;B associadas a danos card&#237;acos relacionados ao ECMI.</p>
      <p>Outros estudos relataram que o estresse psicossocial agudo prolongado leva a um aumento nos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios perif&#233;ricos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> No entanto, h&#225; informa&#231;&#245;es limitadas sobre as altera&#231;&#245;es induzidas pelo estresse em citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias, como IL-10. O estudo atual demonstrou uma express&#227;o diminu&#237;da de IL-10 em c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas no modelo de rato ECMI. No entanto, o VOR foi eficaz em aumentar as express&#245;es de IL-10.</p>
      <p>Com base nos achados histopatol&#243;gicos, as altera&#231;&#245;es observadas no tecido card&#237;aco em nosso estudo sugerem uma liga&#231;&#227;o potencial entre essas altera&#231;&#245;es e mecanismos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. A redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de troponina e IL-10 pode ser interpretada como indicadores bioqu&#237;micos de dano card&#237;aco, enquanto o aumento na caspase-3 e NF-&#954;B sugere a ativa&#231;&#227;o de processos apopt&#243;ticos e inflamat&#243;rios. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es nos biomarcadores indicam o envolvimento de mecanismos celulares que desempenham um papel fundamental na fisiopatologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Numerosos estudos na literatura destacam uma forte rela&#231;&#227;o entre esses biomarcadores e disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Embora testes funcionais n&#227;o tenham sido conduzidos em nosso estudo, nossas descobertas ressaltam a signific&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica desses biomarcadores e estabelecem as bases para investiga&#231;&#245;es futuras mais detalhadas desses mecanismos. Os ajustes necess&#225;rios para compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas nas an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas e a adi&#231;&#227;o de intervalos de confian&#231;a para descobertas importantes fortalecem ainda mais a confiabilidade de nossos resultados.</p>
      <p>O NF-&#954;B &#233; respons&#225;vel pela regula&#231;&#227;o de genes envolvidos na inflama&#231;&#227;o e respostas imunes. Foi relatado que o NF-&#954;B desempenha um papel significativo em doen&#231;as como doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs), aterosclerose e diabetes. V&#225;rios agentes terap&#234;uticos usados para o tratamento de DCVs e diabetes, como pimobendan e inibidores do cotransportador de s&#243;dio-glicose 2, exercem efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios ao inibir a ativa&#231;&#227;o do NF-&#954;B, e foi relatado que a terapia anti-inflamat&#243;ria tem efeitos ben&#233;ficos significativos em DCVs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m foi relatado que a inibi&#231;&#227;o da via de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o do NF-&#954;B reduz os danos card&#237;acos causados por ECMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> O aumento significativo nas express&#245;es de NF-&#954;B observado neste estudo indica que o ECMI leva a danos nas c&#233;lulas do mioc&#225;rdio, e nossas descobertas se alinham com as de estudos recentes e novos. Nossos resultados sugerem que o VOR pode ser a melhor escolha para tratar danos card&#237;acos relacionados ao ECMI.</p>
      <p>A DCV &#233; uma fonte prim&#225;ria de morbidade e mortalidade global, tornando crucial entender os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos moleculares envolvidos. Recentemente, in&#250;meras citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias foram associadas a v&#225;rias DCVs, que s&#227;o frequentemente consideradas como representando um estado pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio adverso. Entre essas citocinas, as interleucinas e o TNF-&#945; s&#227;o particularmente proeminentes. A inflama&#231;&#227;o interage de maneiras complexas com processos fisiopatol&#243;gicos, como estresse oxidativo e manuseio incorreto de c&#225;lcio, e tamb&#233;m afeta o equil&#237;brio entre reparo e destrui&#231;&#227;o de tecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, evid&#234;ncias pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicas e cl&#237;nicas demonstraram claramente o papel e a natureza din&#226;mica das citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias em muitas condi&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas; no entanto, a utilidade cl&#237;nica dessas descobertas permanece obscura. Portanto, a busca por marcadores que possam revelar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre sa&#250;de card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a continua. Neste estudo, altera&#231;&#245;es na troponina, IL-10, caspase-3 e NF-&#954;B relacionadas &#224; les&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida por estresse foram examinadas imuno-histoquimicamente, e efeitos significativos desses marcadores foram identificados.</p>
      <p>O VOR &#233; considerado uma nova abordagem terap&#234;utica no tratamento de pacientes com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca, particularmente como um antidepressivo. Pesquisas demonstraram que o VOR possui propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias e antioxidantes, permitindo que ele reduza os danos aos tecidos card&#237;acos. Em casos de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o VOR &#233; conhecido por proteger os mi&#243;citos card&#237;acos ao inibir a apoptose celular e melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Al&#233;m disso, o VOR pode atenuar a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, reduzindo assim a resposta inflamat&#243;ria no cora&#231;&#227;o. Esses mecanismos sugerem que o VOR pode ser uma op&#231;&#227;o promissora para o tratamento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Este estudo tamb&#233;m identificou efeitos terap&#234;uticos significativos do VOR em ratos submetidos a ECMI. No entanto, mais estudos cl&#237;nicos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para estabelecer a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a do VOR.</p>
      <p>A apoptose &#233; uma forma significativa de morte celular em c&#233;lulas do mioc&#225;rdio, e esse processo desempenha um papel crucial na ocorr&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> A via da apoptose est&#225; intimamente associada &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o da caspase-3. Estudos anteriores avaliaram v&#225;rias prote&#237;nas de c&#233;lulas card&#237;acas, incluindo mioglobina, troponinas card&#237;acas T e I (CT-T e CT-I, respectivamente), prote&#237;na de liga&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos card&#237;acos (H-FABP) e prote&#237;nas citoesquel&#233;ticas, documentando a perda precoce de troponinas card&#237;acas em les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Altera&#231;&#245;es degenerativas agudas, incluindo hemorragia, edema intersticial, necrose de banda contr&#225;til, fibras onduladas, hipereosinofilia citoplasm&#225;tica, vacuoliza&#231;&#227;o perinuclear e altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares que se manifestam como infiltra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias, foram relatadas como principais les&#245;es card&#237;acas relacionadas ao estresse em cet&#225;ceos encalhados. Al&#233;m disso, a express&#227;o diminu&#237;da da troponina card&#237;aca foi observada imuno-histoquimicamente em alguns tecidos card&#237;acos danificados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Nossos resultados se alinham e apoiam as descobertas do estudo anterior. Particularmente, os resultados deste estudo revelaram um aumento na caspase-3 e uma diminui&#231;&#227;o nas express&#245;es de troponina nas c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas de ratos no grupo ECMI. Essas descobertas apoiam a hip&#243;tese de que ECMI pode ter efeitos adversos no mioc&#225;rdio. Al&#233;m disso, o tratamento com VOR melhorou os achados patol&#243;gicos relacionados a ECMI.</p>
      <p>Embora este estudo ofere&#231;a insights valiosos sobre o papel protetor do VOR contra patologias card&#237;acas induzidas por ECMI, v&#225;rias limita&#231;&#245;es devem ser consideradas. Primeiro, o tamanho relativamente pequeno da amostra pode restringir a generaliza&#231;&#227;o dos achados, pois coortes maiores podem produzir dados mais robustos e aumentar o poder estat&#237;stico da an&#225;lise. Segundo, o estudo se baseou em um modelo espec&#237;fico de rato, que pode n&#227;o refletir totalmente a complexidade da fisiopatologia humana associada ao ECMI.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Embora seja amplamente reconhecido que o estresse psicol&#243;gico pode ter efeitos adversos nas fun&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, os mecanismos precisos subjacentes a esses efeitos ainda n&#227;o s&#227;o bem compreendidos. Tra&#231;os pessoais e atitudes em rela&#231;&#227;o ao estresse podem impactar as respostas fisiopatol&#243;gicas ao estresse. A complexidade dessas situa&#231;&#245;es representa desafios no desenvolvimento de modelos apropriados de estresse animal e limita a interpreta&#231;&#227;o de experimentos animais a suposi&#231;&#245;es hipot&#233;ticas. Em conclus&#227;o, este estudo demonstrou mudan&#231;as significativas nos achados histopatol&#243;gicos e imuno-histoqu&#237;micos do cora&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s a exposi&#231;&#227;o ao ECMI no modelo experimental de ratos. Esses resultados fornecem evid&#234;ncias de que o estresse tem efeitos patol&#243;gicos nas c&#233;lulas do mioc&#225;rdio. Al&#233;m disso, o tratamento com VOR demonstrou ser eficaz na mitiga&#231;&#227;o desses achados patol&#243;gicos. Consequentemente, o VOR pode ser a escolha ideal para tratar danos card&#237;acos em pacientes sob condi&#231;&#245;es de estresse.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tasan</surname>
            <given-names>Serife</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6750-468X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Unal</surname>
            <given-names>Gulin Ozdamar</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="TR">T&#252;rkiye</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University &#8211; Department of Pathology, Burdur &#8211; T&#252;rkiye</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="TR">T&#252;rkiye</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Suleyman Demirel University &#8211; Department of Psychiatry, Isparta &#8211; T&#252;rkiye</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address</label>: Ozlem Ozmen &#8226; Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Department of Pathology, Istiklal Yerle&#351;kesi, 15030, Burdur &#8211; T&#252;rkiye E-mail: ozlemozmen@mehmetakif.edu.tr </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p> Okoshi, Marina</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Stress arises in response to threats or challenges, affecting both physical and mental health. While its harmful effects on the heart are widely recognized, cellular-level investigations remain limited. Antidepressants, including vortioxetine (VOR), are known to impact the cardiovascular system. VOR, used to treat major depressive disorder, is considered a promising option for patients with heart disease due to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which may reduce cardiac damage.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> This study aimed to assess the effects of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) on rat hearts and evaluate VOR&#8217;s potential protective effects against stress-induced cardiac damage.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> Twenty-eight male Wistar Albino rats were divided into four groups. The CUMS group experienced random daily stress for 6 weeks, while the CUMS+VOR group received VOR treatment alongside stress. VOR and control groups were not exposed to stress. Heart samples were examined histopathologically and immunohistochemically.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> The CUMS group showed increased hyperemia, hemorrhage, edema, vacuolar degeneration, and mononuclear cell infiltrations, with reduced troponin and IL-10 and increased caspase-3 and NF-&#954;B expressions compared to the control group (p&#8804;0.001). VOR treatment improved these findings, normalizing histopathological and immunohistochemical results.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p> CUMS caused significant cardiac damage in rats, while VOR treatment showed protective effects by alleviating these pathological changes.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Vortioxetine&#8217;s Therapeutic Potential: Cardiac Responses to Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress in a Rat Model</title>
              <p>Schematic pathogenetic mechanism of the CUMS damage on the heart.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Vortioxetine</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart</kwd>
        <kwd>Immunohistochemistry</kwd>
        <kwd>Pathology</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Stress is a significant and escalating psychological issue that impacts the daily lives of individuals globally. Concurrently, depression and anxiety stand out as the most prevalent psychiatric disorders in many societies worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> These psychological disorders emerge from complex interactions involving neurobiological, genetic, and common life event factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The brain, along with the cardiovascular and immune systems, constitutes common targets of stress. Research indicates that psychosocial factors play a pivotal role in the origin and progression of coronary heart disease. When certain regions of the brain are activated due to stress, the response is generated through the sympathetic nervous system or hormones, consequently influencing the normal functions of the heart. Chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) leads to significant increases in serum corticosterone levels, resulting in an exacerbated atherogenic lipid profile that accelerates atherosclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Gu et al., in particular, observed that CUMS induces morphological and physiological changes that may contribute to atherosclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the consequent rise in glucocorticoid release, triggered by unpredictable and repetitive stress situations, can result in an amplified production of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in the cells of the central nervous system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular system disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>CUMS models have been extensively utilized as depression models in experimental animals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> These models replicate social environmental stressors, closely mirroring the development of depression in humans, making them more suitable for investigative purposes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Anhedonic behaviors, characterized by a reduction in sucrose preference in rodents exposed to stress, are key features of this model.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The model&#8217;s validity is underscored by the reversibility of this reduction in hedonic effect with chronic treatment involving antidepressant agents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Grippo et al. reported that rats exposed to chronic mild stress exhibited increased heart rate, reduced heart rate variability, elevated sympathetic cardiac tone, anhedonia, and decreased activity levels in a running wheel. Their findings suggest that rats subjected to CUMS are vulnerable to arrhythmic events, which could lead to further detrimental cardiac outcomes such as myocardial infarction or death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> In addition, it has been reported that it increases heart rate due to chronic stress, contributes to hypertension, and elevates the concentrations of serum cortisol, sodium, and adrenocorticotrophic hormone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> However, there is limited information regarding the histological and immunohistochemical findings in the hearts of rats exposed to CUMS.</p>
        <p>The adverse effects of antidepressants on the cardiovascular system have been known for a long time. While antidepressants are generally effective in reducing depression, their use in patients with coronary heart disease remains controversial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Therefore, there is a need to explore antidepressants that do not have harmful effects on the cardiovascular system. Vortioxetine (VOR), a multimodal antidepressant, is employed in the treatment of depression and cognitive disorders associated with depression. VOR treatment has the potential to normalize neurobehavioral changes induced by daily life stressors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> However, the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning the antidepressant and cognitive effects of VOR remain incompletely understood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> VOR is thought to have positive effects on the heart due to its anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties.</p>
        <p>Furthermore, while the impact of stress on coronary diseases is well known, its specific effects on the myocardium remain underexplored. Therefore, the objective of this study is to histopathologically and immunohistochemically examine the damaging effects of CUMS on the heart, with a particular focus on evaluating the protective role of VOR in mitigating CUMS-induced heart lesions in a rat model.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
        <title>Materials and Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Animals</title>
          <p>In this study, heart tissues were obtained from a project originally focused on investigating the effects of CUMS on brain tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> During the histological examination, notable findings were observed in the heart tissues, which prompted further evaluation with the approval of the ethics committee. The study was approved by the Local Ethical Committee on Animal Research at Suleyman Demirel University (Approval No: SDU HADYEK 01/02, dated 06.01.2022). All experiments were conducted in compliance with the ARRIVE guidelines for animal research.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Using GPower 3.1.9.7 software, a study was planned on 4 groups, each consisting of 7 rats (total sample size of 28), considering the relevant parameters (&#945;=0.06, 1-&#946;=0.90, effect size=0.5). In this research, 28 male Wistar Albino rats were acquired from the Suleyman Demirel University Experimental Animal Production and Experimental Research Center, located in Suleyman Demirel University, T&#252;rkiye. The rats were 4 weeks old, weighed between 150-200 grams, and were confirmed to be healthy by the supervising veterinarian in the relevant unit. The rats were given a one-week acclimation period before the commencement of the experiment. Following the adaptation period, they were randomly divided (simple random assignment) into four groups, each consisting of seven rats. The control group did not undergo any stress, while CUMS group experienced the chronic unpredictable mild stress procedure. CUMS+VOR group underwent the CUMS procedure and received 10 mg/kg VOR intraperitoneally during the last three weeks of the experiment. The VOR group received 10 mg/kg VOR intraperitoneally during the last three weeks without exposure to stress.</p>
          <p>The control and VOR groups were housed in separate rooms from the CUMS and CUMS+VOR groups and were not exposed to any stress. The rats were housed in standard Euro-type 4 cages using wood shavings as litter. All rats were maintained under standard laboratory conditions (temperature: 21&#176;C &#177; 2&#176;C; humidity: 60% &#177; 5%; 12/12 h light-dark cycle) and had <italic>ad libitum</italic> access to a standard commercial chow diet (Korkuteli Yem, Antalya, T&#252;rkiye) and water, except during the stress periods for the CUMS groups.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>CUMS Model</title>
          <p>The CUMS model was implemented based on a previously described method with some modifications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Rats were housed individually and subjected to various stressors as part of the CUMS protocol over 6 weeks. These stressors included 4 hours in a cage tilted at 45&#176;, 24 hours of water deprivation, 24 hours of fasting, continuous illumination, 4 hours in a cage with wet bedding, 4 hours of behavioral restriction, 4 hours of social stress by placing the rats in soiled cages from other rats, 4 hours of water stress in an empty cage with 1 cm of water at the bottom, and 4 hours in an empty cage. A dedicated room in the laboratory was assigned for implementing the CUMS protocol. All stressors were applied individually and continuously, day and night. Control animals were left undisturbed in their cages except for handling during regular cage cleaning.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sucrose preference test</title>
          <p>Sucrose preference is used as an indicator of anhedonia, one of the key symptoms of depression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> For the sucrose preference test (SPT), animals were given two bottles of 1% w/v sucrose solution and 100 g <italic>ad libitum</italic> on the first day to familiarize them with the taste of sucrose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> On the second day, one of the bottles was replaced with water. On the third day, the rats were deprived of food and water for 23 hours. One bottle contained 100 ml of 1% sucrose solution, while the other held an equal volume of drinking water. The rats were given one hour to choose between the two liquids. To prevent potential preference effects, the positions of the bottles were switched after 30 minutes. The sucrose preference percentage was calculated using the following formula: sucrose preference percentage = sucrose consumption/(sucrose consumption + water consumption).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Vortioxetine Treatment</title>
          <p>Vortioxetine synthesized by H. Lundbeck A/S, Istanbul, T&#252;rkiye, was dissolved in distilled water and administered at a dose of 10 mg/kg, as previously outlined.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> The control and CUMS groups received 0.9% sterile saline. Freshly prepared solutions were intraperitoneally injected at a volume of 1 mL/kg every day at the same time for 3 weeks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> At the conclusion of the experiment, all rats were euthanized under Xylazine HCl (Xylasinbio %2, Bioveta, Czech Republic) + Ketalar HCl (Ketasol, Richter Pharma AG, Austria) anesthesia. Subsequently, samples were collected for histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Histopathological method</title>
          <p>During necropsy, heart samples were collected and preserved in 10% buffered formalin. The tissue samples underwent standard processing using fully automatic tissue processing equipment and were embedded in paraffin wax. Sections of 5 microns in thickness were cut from the paraffin blocks. After drying, the preparations were subjected to alcohol and xylene series, stained with hematoxylin-eosin (HE), mounted with a coverslip, and examined under a light microscope.</p>
          <p>A light microscope with a 40x objective was used to evaluate the severity of cardiac lesions, with photos taken from five different regions of each animal&#8217;s heart. Lesions were graded based on hyperemia, hemorrhage, edema, lipid accumulation, vacuolar degeneration, hypereosinophilia in the cytoplasm of myocardial cells, and mononuclear cell infiltrations. The severity of histopathological changes was assessed semiquantitatively as follows: 0, normal; 1, mild; 2, moderate; and 3, severe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Immunohistochemical examination</title>
          <p>Employing the streptavidin-biotin technique following the manufacturer&#8217;s instructions, four consecutive sections were mounted on poly-L-lysine-coated slides from previously prepared paraffin blocks and immunohistochemically stained. These sections were utilized for the detection of caspase-3 (Anti-caspase-3 Antibody (E-8): sc-7272, Abcam, UK), IL-10 (IL-10 antibodies, A16445, Bioscience - USA), NF-&#954;B (Anti-NF-&#954;B p65 antibodies (ab16502), Abcam, UK), and cardiac troponin (Anti-cardiac troponin I antibody (FNab09781), FineTest, China) expressions. Each primary antibody was applied at a 1/100 dilution, and sections were incubated with these antibodies for 60 minutes. Immunohistochemistry was performed using biotinylated secondary antibodies and streptavidin-alkaline phosphatase conjugates. The secondary antibody used was the EXPOSURE Mouse and Rabbit Specific HRP/DAB Detection IHC kit (ab80436), and diaminobenzidine (DAB) served as the chromogen (Abcam, Cambridge, UK). Negative controls were treated with an antigen dilution solution instead of the primary antibody. All examinations were conducted on blinded specimens by a specialized pathologist from another university. In the immunohistochemical analysis, each section was independently examined for every antibody. To evaluate the intensity of immunohistochemical reactions in cells marked by these antibodies, a semiquantitative analysis was conducted, employing a grading score ranging from (0) to (3) as follows: (0) negative, (1) focal slight staining, (2) diffuse slight staining and (3) diffuse marked staining. For evaluation, ten different areas under 40X objective magnification in each section were examined. The Database Manual Cell Sens Life Science Imaging Software System (Olympus Co., Tokyo, Japan) was employed for morphometric analyses and microphotography. Results were recorded and statistically analyzed. Immunohistochemical score analyses were carried out using ImageJ version 1.48 (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>Statistical analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 22.00 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Initially, the normality of distribution was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Since the data demonstrated a normal distribution (p&gt;0.05), comparisons between the groups were made with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The Duncan test was used to identify differences between groups. Values of p&lt;0.05 are considered statistically significant. GraphPad software was used for the graphs.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical findings</title>
          <p>All rats were observed daily for behavioral changes throughout the study. It was noted that the percentage of sucrose preference significantly decreased in the CUMS group, while the control, CUMS+VOR, and VOR groups exhibited similarly high levels. Additionally, rats in the CUMS group appeared calmer and showed slower movements compared to the other groups. These findings confirm the presence of depressive behaviors in the rats subjected to CUMS.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Gross findings</title>
          <p>At the conclusion of the experimental period, the animals were euthanized in accordance with ethical guidelines, and their hearts were macroscopically examined. No gross pathological changes were identified in the hearts of both the control and study groups during necropsy. The hearts of all rats in the entire group exhibited normal macroscopic appearances.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Histopathological findings</title>
          <p>Microscopic examination revealed a normal tissue architecture in the control group. In contrast, the CUMS group exhibited hyperemia, edema, lipid accumulation, vacuolar degeneration, hypereosinophilia in the cytoplasm of myocardial cells in some rats, and mononuclear cell infiltrations in three rats. Additionally, slight hemorrhage was noted in the myocardium of two rats in this group. Although all cardiac tissues were examined, lesions were particularly pronounced in the left ventricle. It was evident that VOR administration improved these pathological findings in the CUMS+VOR group. No pathological findings were observed in the VOR and control groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>). The statistical analysis results of the histopathological findings are presented in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Histopathological appearance of hearts between the groups. A) Normal heart histology in the control group; B) Hyperemia, small hemorrhages (thick arrows), and mononuclear cell infiltrations (thin arrows) in the myocardium of a rat in the CUMS group; C) Normal histology of myocardium in the CUMS+VOR group; D) Normal heart histology in the VOR group, HE, scale bars=50 &#181;m.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Statistical analysis results of the histopathological scores. Values are presented as means &#177; standard error. One-way ANOVA. *** p&#8804;0.001. CUMS: chronic unpredictable mild stress; VOR: vortioxetine.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Immunohistochemical findings</title>
          <p>Immunohistochemical findings revealed an increase in caspase-3 and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-&#954;B) expressions and a decrease in IL-10 and troponin expressions in the CUMS group. Overall, the VOR treatments improved the expressions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figures 3 -6</xref> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001"/> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001"/> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07001"/>). <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7</xref> shows the results of the statistical analysis of the immunohistochemical findings. The possible mechanism of caffeine and hypothyroidism in the heart is shown in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">central illustration</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Caspase-3 expressions of hearts among the groups. A) Negative expression in the control group, B) Increased immunoexpression in the myocardium of a rat in the CUMS group (arrows), C) Negative expression in the CUMS+VOR group, D) Negative expression in the VOR group, Streptavidin biotin peroxidase method, scale bars=20&#181;m.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; IL-10 expressions of hearts between the groups. A) Normal expression in the control group, B) Decreased immunoreaction in the myocardium in a rat from the CUMS group (arrows), C) Increased expression in the CUMS+VOR group, D) Normal expression in the VOR group, Streptavidin biotin peroxidase method, scale bars=20&#181;m.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f06001">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; NF-kB expressions of hearts among the groups. A) No expression in the control group, B) Increased immunoexpression in the myocardium in the CUMS group (arrows), C) Negative expression in the CUMS+VOR group, D) Negative expression in the VOR group, Streptavidin biotin peroxidase method, scale bars=20&#181;m.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f07001">
              <label>Figure 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Troponin expressions of hearts between the groups. A) Significant expression in the control group, B) Decreased immunoexpression in the myocardium in the CUMS group (arrows), C) Significant expression in the CUMS+VOR group, D) Marked expression in the VOR group, Streptavidin biotin peroxidase method, scale bars=20&#181;m.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf07-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f08001">
              <label>Figure 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Statistical analysis results of the immunohistochemical scores. Values are presented as means &#177; standard error. One-way ANOVA. *** p&#8804;0.001. CUMS: chronic unpredictable mild stress; VOR: vortioxetine.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-02-e20240159-40159-gf08-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>This study demonstrated histopathological changes in the hearts of rats subjected to CUMS, including hyperemia, edema, microhemorrhage, lipid accumulation, vacuolar degeneration, hypereosinophilia in the cytoplasm of myocardial cells, and mononuclear cell infiltrations. Immunohistochemical examinations revealed increased expressions of caspase-3 and NF-&#954;B, indicating heightened apoptosis and inflammatory responses. Concurrently, decreases in IL-10 and troponin expressions suggested impaired anti-inflammatory responses and myocardial injury. However, the administration of VOR significantly mitigated these pathological changes. VOR treatment was associated with reductions in caspase-3 and NF-&#954;B levels, indicating its potential protective role against apoptosis and inflammation in cardiac tissues. Furthermore, VOR contributed to the normalization of IL-10 and troponin levels, reflecting improved anti-inflammatory responses and cardiac function. These findings suggest that VOR may serve as a promising therapeutic approach for managing stress-induced cardiac dysfunction by restoring balance in inflammatory and apoptotic pathways.</p>
        <p>Stress, a growing concern among individuals, can be defined as the subjective perception of an adverse environmental change. Efforts to adapt to new situations usually trigger a significant stress response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Rat models of CUMS have recently been widely utilized for research on the treatment and pathogenesis of depression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Previous studies have reported that CUMS induces distinct physiological symptoms in animals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Although there are limited and recent studies examining the effects of CUMS on the heart, little information has been published regarding the histopathological and immunohistochemical findings in the heart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> In the current study, histopathological changes and the expressions of caspase-3, NF-&#954;B, IL-10, and troponin were investigated in hearts exposed to CUMS in a rat model.</p>
        <p>The hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands constitute major components of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, engaging in intricate interactions concerning stress, either directly or through feedback mechanisms. When stress activates the HPA axis, it triggers an increased secretion of adrenal glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, from the adrenal glands. Plasma cortisol levels can surge more than tenfold under intensely stressful conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is one of the initial and crucial hormones released from the hypothalamus in response to stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> In animal studies, intraventricular injection of CRH has been shown to induce stress-response behaviors and elevate blood pressure and heart rate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Previous studies have reported that 4 weeks of CUMS increased resting heart rate and reduced rate variability in experimental animals. Furthermore, the repeated administration of a new stressor to previously stressed animals heightened heart rate responses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> In human studies, it has been observed that the elimination of stressful stimuli restores behavioral responses, but reported cardiovascular changes persist.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The selection of markers measured in the heart&#8212;caspase-3, NF-&#954;B, IL-10, and troponin&#8212;was based on their established roles in stress-related pathophysiological processes. Caspase-3 is a key effector in the apoptotic pathway, and its activation is indicative of cellular stress and apoptosis in cardiac tissues. NF-&#954;B, a critical transcription factor, is involved in the inflammatory response and is often activated under stress conditions, contributing to myocardial inflammation and remodeling. IL-10 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that counteracts the effects of pro-inflammatory mediators; its measurement reflects the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses in the heart. Lastly, troponin is a well-recognized biomarker for myocardial injury and is commonly elevated in serum in stress-related cardiac events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Together, these markers provide a comprehensive view of the interplay between apoptosis, inflammation, and myocardial damage, making them suitable for assessing the impact of chronic stress on cardiac health.</p>
        <p>Troponin is a complex protein present on the thin filaments of the myocardial contractile apparatus. This protein facilitates the interaction between actin and myosin and plays a crucial role in cardiac contraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In the present study, cardiac troponin expression was examined in the myocardial tissues of rats subjected to CUMS. The findings revealed a decrease in troponin expressions in rats in the CUMS group, but VOR treatment significantly improved cardiac troponin expressions in the myocardium. This was interpreted as a loss of troponin in myocardial cells, leading to elevated levels of troponin in the serum while decreasing in the heart tissue.</p>
        <p>Apoptosis is a regulated, active, non-inflammatory cell death process induced by physiological or pathological stimuli. Recent studies have demonstrated that CUMS affects the heart,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> although the pathogenetic mechanism is not fully elucidated. Cell loss due to apoptosis in mature cells can have severe consequences, and apoptosis can be particularly detrimental for tissues like the heart. In studies involving both human patients and animal models, the activation of caspases in the heart is considered a marker of damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> In the current study, an increase in caspase-3 expressions was observed only in the CUMS-administered group, underscoring the detrimental effects of CUMS on the myocardium. Myocardial cell apoptosis plays a crucial role in the pathology of heart diseases. The findings of this study revealed that CUMS increased caspase-3 activity in myocardial cells; however, VOR was effective in reducing apoptotic activity in these cells in a murine model.</p>
        <p>The reported effects of NF-&#954;B activation on the heart highlight its crucial role in regulating cardiac function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> The myocardium constitutes the majority of heart mass and cell number, thus playing the most crucial role in heart function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Moreover, the regeneration capacity of cardiac myocytes is extremely limited, emphasizing the importance of the myocardium for normal function throughout life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> The activation and expression of NF-&#954;B are considered markers of cardiac damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> The significant increase in NF-&#954;B expressions observed in this study indicates that CUMS leads to myocardial cell damage. VOR was found to be effective in inhibiting NF-&#954;B expressions associated with CUMS-related cardiac damage.</p>
        <p>Other studies have reported that prolonged acute psychosocial stress leads to an increase in peripheral inflammatory markers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> However, there is limited information on stress-induced changes in anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10. The current study demonstrated a decreased expression of IL-10 in myocardial cells in the CUMS rat model. However, VOR was effective in increasing IL-10 expressions.</p>
        <p>Based on the histopathological findings, the observed changes in heart tissue in our study suggest a potential link between these alterations and mechanisms of heart failure or myocardial dysfunction. The reduction in troponin and IL-10 levels can be interpreted as biochemical indicators of cardiac damage, while the increase in caspase-3 and NF-&#954;B suggests the activation of apoptotic and inflammatory processes. These changes in biomarkers indicate the involvement of cellular mechanisms that play a key role in the pathophysiology of heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Numerous studies in the literature highlight a strong relationship between these biomarkers and cardiac dysfunction. Although functional tests were not conducted in our study, our findings underscore the clinical significance of these biomarkers and lay the groundwork for more detailed future investigations of these mechanisms. The necessary adjustments for multiple comparisons in the statistical analyses and the addition of confidence intervals for key findings further strengthen the reliability of our results.</p>
        <p>NF-&#954;B is responsible for the regulation of genes involved in inflammation and immune responses. NF-&#954;B has been reported to play a significant role in diseases such as cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), atherosclerosis, and diabetes. Several therapeutic agents used for the treatment of CVDs and diabetes, such as pimobendan and sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, exert anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting NF-&#954;B activation, and it has been reported that anti-inflammatory therapy has significant beneficial effects in CVDs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> It has also been reported that the inhibition of the NF-&#954;B signaling pathway reduces cardiac damage caused by CUMS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> The significant increase in NF-&#954;B expressions observed in this study indicates that CUMS leads to myocardial cell damage, and our findings align with those of recent and novel studies. Our results suggest that VOR may be the best choice for treating CUMS-related cardiac damage.</p>
        <p>CVD is a primary source of global morbidity and mortality, making it crucial to understand the molecular pathophysiological mechanisms involved. Recently, numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines have been linked to various CVDs, which are often considered to represent an adversely pro-inflammatory state. Among these cytokines, interleukins and TNF-&#945; are particularly prominent. Inflammation interacts in complex ways with pathophysiological processes such as oxidative stress and calcium mishandling, and it also affects the balance between tissue repair and destruction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> In this context, preclinical and clinical evidence has clearly demonstrated the role and dynamic nature of pro-inflammatory cytokines in many cardiac conditions; however, the clinical utility of these findings remains unclear. Therefore, the search for markers that can reveal the relationship between heart health and disease continues. In this study, changes in troponin, IL-10, caspase-3, and NF-&#954;B related to stress-induced cardiac injury were examined immunohistochemically, and significant effects of these markers were identified.</p>
        <p>VOR is considered a novel therapeutic approach in the treatment of patients with heart disease, particularly as an antidepressant. Research has demonstrated that VOR possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, allowing it to reduce damage to cardiac tissues. In cases of ischemic heart disease and heart failure, VOR is noted to protect cardiac myocytes by inhibiting cellular apoptosis and improving heart function. Additionally, VOR can attenuate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thereby reducing the inflammatory response in the heart. These mechanisms suggest that VOR could be a promising option for managing cardiovascular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> This study has also identified significant therapeutic effects of VOR in rats subjected to CUMS. However, further clinical studies are needed to establish the efficacy and safety of VOR.</p>
        <p>Apoptosis is a significant form of cell death in myocardial cells, and this process plays a crucial role in the occurrence of heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> The apoptosis pathway is closely associated with the activation of caspase-3. Previous studies have evaluated various cardiac cell proteins, including myoglobin, cardiac troponins T and I (CT-T and CT-I, respectively), cardiac fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP), and cytoskeletal proteins, documenting early loss of cardiac troponins in myocardial injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Acute degenerative changes, including hemorrhage, interstitial edema, contractile band necrosis, wavy fibers, cytoplasmic hypereosinophilia, perinuclear vacuolization, and vascular changes manifesting as infiltration of inflammatory cells, have been reported as main stress-related cardiac lesions in stranded cetaceans. Additionally, decreased cardiac troponin expression was immunohistochemically observed in some damaged heart tissues.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Our results align with and support the findings of the previous study. Particularly, the results of this study revealed an increase in caspase-3 and a decrease in troponin expressions in the myocardial cells of rats in the CUMS group. These findings support the hypothesis that CUMS may have adverse effects on the myocardium. Furthermore, VOR treatment improved the CUMS-related pathological findings.</p>
        <p>While this study offers valuable insights into the protective role of VOR against cardiac pathologies induced by CUMS, several limitations should be considered. Firstly, the relatively small sample size may restrict the generalizability of the findings, as larger cohorts could yield more robust data and enhance the statistical power of the analysis. Secondly, the study relied on a specific rat model, which may not fully reflect the complexity of human pathophysiology associated with CUMS.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>While it is widely acknowledged that psychological stress may have adverse effects on cardiovascular functions, the precise mechanisms underlying these effects remain not well understood. Personal traits and attitudes towards stress can impact the pathophysiological responses to stress. The complexity of these situations poses challenges in developing appropriate animal stress models and limits the interpretation of animal experiments to hypothetical assumptions. In conclusion, this study demonstrated significant changes in the histopathological and immunohistochemical findings of the heart following CUMS exposure in the experimental rat model. These results provide evidence that stress has pathological effects on the myocardial cells. Moreover, VOR treatment has been demonstrated effective in mitigating these pathological findings. Consequently, VOR may be the optimal choice for treating heart damage in patients under stress conditions.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association</label>
          <p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p> This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Suleyman Demirel University under the protocol number 01/02. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
