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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">NPrb8bhPV5J7bMDcqKT3SQr</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000901201</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01201</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240590</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Diretrizes</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2024</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9041-6250</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gualandro</surname>
            <given-names>Danielle Menosi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5109-2860</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fornari</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana Savoy</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6718-8456</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Caramelli</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8689-9990</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Abizaid</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Antonio Cunha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2801-5525</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Brenno Rizerio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2366-3371</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tavares</surname>
            <given-names>Caio de Assis Moura</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4912-021X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Caio Julio Cesar dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2447-2577</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi Anne</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0425-5548</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2399-5189</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Leticia Zilli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4200-9380</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pinho</surname>
            <given-names>Claudio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0561-8999</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Calderaro</surname>
            <given-names>Daniela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0096-9746</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Schreen</surname>
            <given-names>Dirk</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marcondes-Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiana Goulart</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3475-1809</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0701-6593</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cardozo</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Akira Malta</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9964-3289</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tarasoutchi</surname>
            <given-names>Flavio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3610-6507</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Carmo</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriel Assis Lopes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1133-0465</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kanhouche</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Jayme Galv&#227;o de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9661-6963</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bichuette</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana Dornfeld</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3679-5349</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sacilotto</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2081-6846</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Drager</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-4977-5818</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vacanti</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano Janussi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6785-7506</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gowdak</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Henrique Wolff</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4561-5717</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Luiz Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Luiz Floriano Melo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6110-2500</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcio Silva Miguel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4052-383X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lottenberg</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Pita</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7467-1745</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Aliberti</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rlon Juliano Romero</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5030-6727</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marchi</surname>
            <given-names>Mauricio Felippi de S&#225;</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1565-3915</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paix&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Milena Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9413-3792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Mucio Tavares de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6378-4944</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Yu</surname>
            <given-names>Pai Ching</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8907-0483</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cury</surname>
            <given-names>Patricia Ramos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7427-3237</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Farsky</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Silvio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8328-6758</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pessoa</surname>
            <given-names>Ranna Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5413-7091</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Siciliano</surname>
            <given-names>Rinaldo Focaccia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8023-3466</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Accorsi</surname>
            <given-names>Tarso Augusto Duenhas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-7829-4408</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Vin&#237;cius Machado</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0201-6754</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mathias</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo(HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">University Hospital Basel</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Basel</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="CH">Switzerland</country>
          <institution content-type="original">University Hospital Basel, Basel &#8211; Su&#237;&#231;a</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Rio Grande</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Natal</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RN</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Rio Grande, Natal, RN &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>6</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>7</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>8</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Harvard University</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Massachusetts</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="ES">EUA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Harvard University, Massachusetts &#8211; EUA</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>9</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas (PUC-Campinas), Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>10</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Clinica Pinho</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Clinica Pinho, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff11">
          <label>11</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#227;o Carlos</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Carlos, Rede D&#8217;Or, Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff12">
          <label>12</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cantidio</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cantidio da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC), Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff13">
          <label>13</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Medicina Nuclear</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Medicina Nuclear, Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff14">
          <label>14</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Escola de Medicina e Cirurgia da Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff15">
          <label>15</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff16">
          <label>16</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Evang&#233;lico de Belo Horizonte</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Evang&#233;lico de Belo Horizonte, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff17">
          <label>17</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Orizonti</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Orizonti, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff18">
          <label>18</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff19">
          <label>19</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio Euroamericano</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio Euroamericano, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff20">
          <label>20</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#227;o Marcos</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Teresina</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PI</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Marcos, Teresina, PI &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff21">
          <label>21</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff22">
          <label>22</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: <postal-code>20020-907</postal-code>. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>21</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>9</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20240590</elocation-id>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="24"/>
        <table-count count="104"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="438"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <table-wrap id="t01">
      <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
        <colgroup width="50%">
          <col/>
          <col/>
        </colgroup>
        <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
          <tr>
            <th align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle">Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2024</th>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <th align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle">O relat&#243;rio abaixo lista as declara&#231;&#245;es de interesse conforme relatadas &#224; SBC pelos especialistas durante o per&#237;odo de desenvolvimento deste posicionamento, 2023-2024.</th>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <th align="left" valign="middle">Especialista</th>
            <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo de relacionamento com a ind&#250;stria</th>
          </tr>
        </thead>
        <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Alexandre Antonio <break/>Cunha Abizaid</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Brenno Rizerio Gomes</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Astrazeneca: Forxiga; Novartis: Entresto; Bayer: Firialta.</p><p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>B. Braun: Occlutech.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Bruno Caramelli</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Caio de Assis <break/>Moura Tavares</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Caio Julio Cesar dos Santos Fernandes</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Janssen: Uptravi; Bayer: Riociguate; MSD: Sotatercept.</p><p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Janssen: Uptravii.</p><p>Outros relacionamentos</p><p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Janssen: Uptravii.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Carisi Anne Polanczyk</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Carlos Jardim</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Carolina Leticia Zilli Vieira</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Claudio Pinho</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Daniela Calderaro</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Bayer: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, TEV, nefropatia diab&#233;tica.</p><p>Outros relacionamentos</p><p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Bayer: nefropatia diab&#233;tica.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Danielle Menosi Gualandro</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Roche.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Dirk Schreen</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Fabiana Goulart Marcondes-Braga</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de <break/>&#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Palestras e Comit&#234; Consultivo: AstraZeneca; Boehringher-Lilly; Novartis; Bayer.</p><p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>MSD: Victor Trial.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">F&#225;bio de Souza</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Pfizer: Amiloidose.</p><p>Outros relacionamentos</p><p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Pfizer: amiloidose; AstraZeneca: amiloidose.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Fl&#225;vio Tarasoutchi</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Outros relacionamentos <break/>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Edwads.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Francisco Akira <break/>Malta Cardozo</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Bayer: Xarelto; Daiichi Sankyo: Lixiana; Novo Nordisk: Rybelsius.</p><p>Outros relacionamentos</p><p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Daiichi Sankyo.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Gabriel Assis <break/>Lopes do Carmo</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Gabriel Kanhouche</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Jos&#233; Jayme <break/>Galv&#227;o de Lima</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Luciana Dornfeld Bichuette</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Luciana Sacilotto</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Luciana Savoy Fornari</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Luciano Ferreira Drager</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Luciano Janussi Vacanti</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Luis Henrique <break/>Wolff Gowdak</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Servier: s&#237;ndrome coronariana cr&#244;nica; Novartis: hipercolesterolemia.</p><p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Servier: s&#237;ndrome coronariana cr&#244;nica.</p><p>Outros relacionamentos</p><p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Servier: s&#237;ndrome coronariana cr&#244;nica.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Marcelo Luiz <break/>Campos Vieira</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Marcelo Luiz Floriano <break/>Melo Martins</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">M&#225;rcio Silva Miguel Lima</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Marcos Pita Lottenberg</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">M&#225;rlon Juliano <break/>Romero Aliberti</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Mauricio Felippi <break/>de S&#225; Marchi</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Milena Ribeiro Paix&#227;o</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Mucio Tavares <break/>de Oliveira Junior</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Sanofi; Pasteur.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Pai Ching Yu</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Patricia Ramos Cury</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Pedro Silvio Farsky</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk: semaglutida; Lilly: empagliflozina e tirzepatida; AstraZeneca: dapagliflozina; GSK: vacina shingrix.</p><p>Outros relacionamentos</p><p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk: semaglutida.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Ranna Santos Pessoa</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Rinaldo Focaccia Siciliano</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Tarso Augusto <break/>Duenhas Accorsi</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Abbott: MitraClip; Boston: Watchman; Edwards: cirurgia e TAVI; Novartis: Sybrava.</p><p>Outros relacionamentos</p><p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk: Congresso Brasileiro da SBC; EMS: Congresso de Departamentos da SBC.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Vin&#237;cius Machado Correia</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk: palestra sobre tratamento farmacol&#243;gico da obesidade.</p></list-item></list> </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Wilson Mathias Junior</td>
            <td align="left" valign="top">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
        </tbody>
      </table>
    </table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Sum&#225;rio</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>1. Defini&#231;&#227;o do Problema</bold> 08</p>
    <p>1.1. Objetivo da Diretriz 08</p>
    <p>1.2. Metodologia e Evid&#234;ncias 08</p>
    <p>1.3. Particularidades do Perioperat&#243;rio 08</p>
    <p>1.4. Cria&#231;&#227;o do Perioperative Risk Team 08</p>
    <p><bold>2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria Geral e Suplementar</bold> 11</p>
    <p>2.1. Estratifica&#231;&#227;o do Risco Pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio 11</p>
    <p><bold>2.1.1. Condi&#231;&#245;es Cardiovasculares Graves no Perioperat&#243;rio</bold> 11</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.1.2. Estimativa do Risco Intr&#237;nseco Relacionado ao Tipo de</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Opera&#231;&#227;o</bold> 11</p>
    <p><bold>2.1.3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Capacidade Funcional</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>2.1.4. Ferramentas para Estimar o Risco Card&#237;aco Perioperat&#243;rio</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>2.1.5. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Fragilidade</bold> 14</p>
    <p><bold><italic>2.1.5.1. Como Avaliar Fragilidade Antes de Cirurgia N&#227;o Card&#237;aca</italic></bold> 14</p>
    <p>
      <bold>
        <italic>2.5.1.2. Impacto da Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Fragilidade em Cirurgia N&#227;o</italic>
      </bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold><italic>Card&#237;ac a</italic></bold> 15</p>
    <p>2.2. Eletrocardiograma 16</p>
    <p>2.3. Ecocardiograma 17</p>
    <p>2.4. Testes N&#227;o Invasivos para Detec&#231;&#227;o de Isquemia Mioc&#225;rdica 17</p>
    <p><bold>2.4.1. Eletrocardiograma de Esfor&#231;o</bold> 17</p>
    <p><bold>2.4.2. Cintilografia de Perfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica com Estresse</bold> 18</p>
    <p><bold>2.4.3. Ecocardiograma de Estresse com Dobutamina</bold> 18</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.4.4. Sum&#225;rio de Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para Realiza&#231;&#227;o dos Testes N&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Invasivos</bold> 19</p>
    <p>2.5. Cineangiocoronariografia 19</p>
    <p>2.6. Angiotomografia de Coron&#225;rias 19</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3. Doen&#231;as e Procedimentos com Aspectos Espec&#237;ficos no</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Perioperat&#243;rio</bold> 20</p>
    <p>3.1. Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca 20</p>
    <p>3.2. Hipertens&#227;o Arterial 21</p>
    <p><bold>3.2.1. Manejo Press&#243;rico no Pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</bold> 21</p>
    <p><bold>3.2.2. Manejo Press&#243;rico no Intraoperat&#243;rio</bold> 22</p>
    <p><bold>3.2.3. Manejo Press&#243;rico no P&#243;s-operat&#243;rio</bold> 22</p>
    <p><bold>3.2.4. Anti-hipertensivos no Perioperat&#243;rio</bold> 22</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.2.4.1. Antagonistas do Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona</italic></bold> 22</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.2.4.2. Bloqueadores do Canal de C&#225;lcio</italic></bold> 23</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.2.4.3. Diur&#233;ticos</italic></bold> 23</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.2.4.4. Simpatol&#237;ticos de A&#231;&#227;o Central</italic></bold> 23</p>
    <p><bold>3.2.5. Considera&#231;&#245;es Finais</bold> 23</p>
    <p>3.3. Conduta em Procedimentos de Baixo Risco 23</p>
    <p><bold>3.3.1. Odontol&#243;gicos</bold> 24</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.3.1.1. Agentes Antitromb&#243;ticos</italic></bold> 24</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.3.1.2. Dispositivos Card&#237;acos Eletr&#244;nicos Implant&#225;veis</italic></bold> 24</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.3.1.3. Anest&#233;sicos Locais</italic></bold> 24</p>
    <p><bold>3.3.2. Dermatol&#243;gicos</bold> 24</p>
    <p><bold>3.3.3. Endosc&#243;picos</bold> 25</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.3.3.1. Manejo de Antiplaquet&#225;rios em Procedimentos Endosc&#243;picos</italic></bold> 25</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.3.3.2. Manejo de Anticoagulantes em Procedimentos Endosc&#243;picos</italic></bold> 26</p>
    <p><bold>3.3.4. Oftalmol&#243;gicos</bold> 27</p>
    <p>3.4. Doen&#231;a Valvar 27</p>
    <p><bold>3.4.1. Estenose A&#243;rtica</bold> 28</p>
    <p><bold>3.4.2. Estenose Mitral</bold> 29</p>
    <p><bold>3.4.3. Insufici&#234;ncia A&#243;rtica e Insufici&#234;Ncia Mitral</bold> 29</p>
    <p><bold>3.4.4. Pr&#243;tese Valvar</bold> 29</p>
    <p>3.5. Transplante de &#211;rg&#227;os S&#243;lidos 29</p>
    <p><bold>3.5.1. F&#237;gado</bold> 29</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.1. Cardiomiopatia Associada &#224; Cirrose</italic></bold> 30</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.2. Cardiopatia Alco&#243;lica</italic></bold> 30</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.3. Hipertens&#227;o Portopulmonar</italic></bold> 30</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.4. S&#237;ndrome Hepatopulmonar</italic></bold> 31</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.5. Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana</italic></bold> 32</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.5.1. Quando Investigar DAC?</italic></bold> 32</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.5.2. Qual Exame Solicitar para Investigar DAC?</italic></bold> 32</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.5.3. Quando e como Intervir na DAC?</italic></bold> 32</p>
    <p><bold>3.5.2. Rim</bold> 33</p>
    <p><bold><italic>3.5.2.1. Estratifica&#231;&#227;o do Risco da Presen&#231;a de DAC</italic></bold> 34</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4. Medidas para Redu&#231;&#227;o do Risco Cir&#250;rgico do Ponto de</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Vista CV</bold> 35</p>
    <p>4.1. Terapia Medicamentosa Perioperat&#243;ria 35</p>
    <p><bold>4.1.1. Betabloqueadores</bold> 35</p>
    <p><bold>4.1.2. Estatinas</bold> 35</p>
    <p><bold>4.1.3. Antiagregantes Plaquet&#225;rios</bold> 37</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.1.3.1. Monoterapia com &#193;cido Acetilsalic&#237;lico</italic></bold> 37</p>
    <p>
      <bold>
        <italic>4.1.3.2. Monoterapia Antiagregante com Outros F&#225;rmacos que N&#227;o o</italic>
      </bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold><italic>&#193;cido Acetilsalic&#237;lico</italic></bold> 37</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.1.3.3. Dupla Antiagrega&#231;&#227;o Plaquet&#225;ria</italic></bold> 38</p>
    <p>4.2. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica 38</p>
    <p>4.3. Manejo da Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no Perioperat&#243;rio 39</p>
    <p><bold>4.3.1. Varfarina</bold> 40</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.3.1.1. Pacientes com Risco Moderado para Tromboembolismo</italic></bold> 41</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.3.1.2. Procedimentos de Urg&#234;ncia ou Emerg&#234;ncia</italic></bold> 41</p>
    <p><bold>4.3.2. Anticoagulantes Diretos</bold> 41</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.1. Dabigatrana</italic></bold> 42</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.2. Rivaroxabana</italic></bold> 43</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.3. Apixabana</italic></bold> 43</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.4. Edoxabana</italic></bold> 43</p>
    <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.5. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Efeito Anticoagulante dos DOACs</italic></bold> 43</p>
    <p>
      <bold>
        <italic>4.3.2.6. Tempo Ideal para Suspens&#227;o dos DOACs Antes de Cirurgias</italic>
      </bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold><italic>Eletivas</italic></bold> 43</p>
    <p>4.4. Profilaxia de Endocardite Infecciosa 44</p>
    <p><bold>4.4.1. Procedimentos Odontol&#243;gicos</bold> 45</p>
    <p><bold>4.4.2. Procedimentos no Trato Respirat&#243;rio</bold> 46</p>
    <p><bold>4.4.3. Procedimentos no Trato Geniturin&#225;rio e Gastrointestinal</bold> 46</p>
    <p><bold>4.4.4. Procedimentos Dermatol&#243;gicos e Musculoesquel&#233;ticos</bold> 47</p>
    <p><bold>4.4.5. Piercing e Tatuagem</bold> 47</p>
    <p><bold>5. Biomarcadores no Perioperat&#243;rio</bold> 47</p>
    <p>5.1. Pept&#237;deos Natriur&#233;ticos 47</p>
    <p>5.2. Troponinas Card&#237;acas e Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de Complica&#231;&#245;es</p>
    <p>Cardiovasculares 48</p>
    <p>
      <bold>6. Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento das Complica&#231;&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Cardiovasculares no Perioperat&#243;rio</bold> 49</p>
    <p>6.1. Inj&#250;ria/Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio Perioperat&#243;rio 49</p>
    <p>6.2. Fibrila&#231;&#227;o/Flutter Atrial Agudos 52</p>
    <p>6.3. Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Aguda 53</p>
    <p>6.4. Tromboembolismo Venoso 54</p>
    <p><bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold> 55</p>
    <fig id="f01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    <sec>
      <title>1. Defini&#231;&#227;o do Problema</title>
      <sec>
        <title>1.1. Objetivo da Diretriz</title>
        <p>A evolu&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento na medicina tem acontecido de forma vertiginosa nos &#250;ltimos anos, e as diretrizes t&#234;m como fun&#231;&#227;o filtrar as melhores evid&#234;ncias e organiz&#225;-las para que possam ser postas em pr&#225;tica no exerc&#237;cio di&#225;rio da medicina. A necessidade de atualiza&#231;&#227;o varia temporalmente em cada &#225;rea e reflete a quantidade e qualidade das pesquisas m&#233;dicas no assunto em quest&#227;o. O interesse pelo tema de perioperat&#243;rio em cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas &#233; muito recente, tendo se iniciado em 1996, ap&#243;s a publica&#231;&#227;o do trabalho de Mangano et al., que observou redu&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares (CV) em pacientes que receberam atenolol por via venosa no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio imediato.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No Brasil, surgiram publica&#231;&#245;es a partir de 2003, sendo que a I Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Perioperat&#243;ria foi publicada em 2007 e atualizada em 2011 e 2017.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Esta &#233; a quarta atualiza&#231;&#227;o no per&#237;odo de 15 anos, demonstrando, assim, a import&#226;ncia do tema tanto no &#226;mbito de pesquisa como na pr&#225;tica profissional cotidiana.</p>
        <p>Apesar de a porcentagem de complica&#231;&#245;es perioperat&#243;rias ser pequena, a sua ocorr&#234;ncia no Brasil ainda &#233; significativamente maior do que em outros pa&#237;ses. Al&#233;m disso, a maioria dos procedimentos &#233; de baixo risco, mas, considerando o volume anual de mais de 8 milh&#245;es de interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas no pa&#237;s, h&#225; quantidade expressiva, em n&#250;meros absolutos, de pacientes com risco elevado de complica&#231;&#245;es que requerem maior cuidado.</p>
        <p>Os objetivos principais desta Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2024 s&#227;o:</p>
        <p>Oferecer e uniformizar o conhecimento atualizado sobre a estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de complica&#231;&#245;es;</p>
        <p>Estabelecer m&#233;todos adequados para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco e para o diagn&#243;stico de complica&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o s&#243; para melhorar a efici&#234;ncia, como tamb&#233;m para reduzir o custo com exames desnecess&#225;rios;</p>
        <p>Oferecer conhecimento atualizado sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o entre as diversas comorbidades e as doen&#231;as CV que podem interagir no contexto perioperat&#243;rio, como intera&#231;&#227;o e suspens&#227;o adequada de medica&#231;&#245;es ou tempo seguro para realizar o procedimento cir&#250;rgico ap&#243;s interven&#231;&#227;o CV;</p>
        <p>Oferecer recomenda&#231;&#245;es sobre o local ideal para a realiza&#231;&#227;o da interven&#231;&#227;o para pacientes de maior risco e at&#233; mesmo contraindicar a opera&#231;&#227;o quando o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es supera o potencial benef&#237;cio dela.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.2. Metodologia e Evid&#234;ncias</title>
        <p>A metodologia e os n&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncia para esta Diretriz s&#227;o aqueles adotados pela SBC e abaixo referidos:</p>
        <p>Classes (Graus) de recomenda&#231;&#227;o:</p>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#10003;</label>
            <p>Classe I &#8211; Condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias conclusivas ou, na sua falta, consenso de que o procedimento &#233; seguro e &#250;til/eficaz.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#10003;</label>
            <p>Classe II &#8211; Condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias conflitantes e/ou diverg&#234;ncia de opini&#227;o sobre seguran&#231;a e utilidade/efic&#225;cia do procedimento.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#10003;</label>
            <p>Classe IIA &#8211; Peso ou evid&#234;ncia/opini&#227;o a favor do procedimento. A maioria aprova.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#10003;</label>
            <p>Classe IIB &#8211; Seguran&#231;a e utilidade/efic&#225;cia menos bem estabelecida, n&#227;o havendo predom&#237;nio de opini&#245;es a favor.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#10003;</label>
            <p>Classe III &#8211; Condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias e/ou consenso de que o procedimento n&#227;o &#233; &#250;til/eficaz e, em alguns casos, pode ser prejudicial.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>N&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncia:</p>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#10003;</label>
            <p>N&#237;vel A &#8211; Dados obtidos a partir de m&#250;ltiplos estudos randomizados de bom porte, concordantes e/ou de metan&#225;lise robusta de estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#10003;</label>
            <p>N&#237;vel B &#8211; Dados obtidos a partir de metan&#225;lise menos robusta, de um &#250;nico estudo randomizado ou de estudos n&#227;o randomizados (observacionais).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#10003;</label>
            <p>N&#237;vel C &#8211; Dados obtidos de opini&#245;es consensuais de especialistas.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Todas as evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas usadas nesta Diretriz foram retiradas de peri&#243;dicos indexados, com conselho editorial e revisores gabaritados.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.3. Particularidades do Perioperat&#243;rio</title>
        <p>O per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio no paciente com cardiopatia apresenta muitas peculiaridades que divergem da pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica habitual como o uso de medica&#231;&#245;es anticoagulantes e antitromb&#243;ticas em pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas, uma vez que tais medicamentos nem sempre podem ser descontinuados, gerando um maior risco de sangramento intraoperat&#243;rio. Al&#233;m disto, &#233; muito importante salientar que ferramentas de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de complica&#231;&#245;es CV usadas pelos cardiologistas, como o Escores ATP-3, Framingham ou CHADS-VASc, estabelecem perfis de risco em anos e n&#227;o s&#227;o adequadas para prever o risco no curto per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio de uma interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica n&#227;o card&#237;aca, na maioria das vezes inferior a 30 dias. Por essas raz&#245;es, a Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2024 traz informa&#231;&#245;es relevantes especificamente para avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de eventos CV, formas de preven&#231;&#227;o e recomenda&#231;&#245;es para tornar o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas mais seguro para o paciente com cardiopatia. O sum&#225;rio das novidades inclu&#237;das na Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2024 pode ser consultado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Novas recomenda&#231;&#245;es inclu&#237;das na Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2024</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="32%">
              <col width="1%"/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Classe</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" colspan="3" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria geral e suplementar: <break/>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Determinar a capacidade funcional de pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto durante a anamnese (baseado na habilidade de subir dois lances de escada).</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da fragilidade</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">A fragilidade deve ser avaliada rotineiramente em idosos submetidos a cirurgias de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">A fragilidade deve ser mensurada objetivamente atrav&#233;s de instrumento espec&#237;fico.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Eletrocardiograma</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es de risco intr&#237;nseco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Pacientes com risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto de eventos cardiovasculares perioperat&#243;rios estimado pelos algoritmos.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Testes n&#227;o invasivos para detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Eletrocardiograma de esfor&#231;o</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Solicita&#231;&#227;o de teste ergom&#233;trico em pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional, de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, em programa&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto em que o teste poder&#225; potencialmente alterar a conduta.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIb</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica com estresse/ecocardiograma com estresse</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Solicita&#231;&#227;o de provas funcionais com imagem em pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional, de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, em programa&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, em que a prova funcional poder&#225; potencialmente alterar a conduta.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Solicita&#231;&#227;o de provas funcionais em pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional, assintom&#225;ticos, com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio ou alta probabilidade de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIb</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Doen&#231;as e procedimentos com aspectos espec&#237;ficos no perioperat&#243;rio</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Hipertens&#227;o arterial</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Deve-se evitar, durante todo o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, epis&#243;dios de hipotens&#227;o.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Pacientes com suspeita de hipertens&#227;o arterial secund&#225;ria devem ser investigados antes da cirurgia, salvo em casos de urg&#234;ncia/emerg&#234;ncia.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de antagonistas do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio, sendo a suspens&#227;o permitida em casos selecionados.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio, sendo a suspens&#227;o permitida em casos selecionados.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de diur&#233;ticos podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio, sendo a suspens&#227;o permitida em casos selecionados.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de clonidina devem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Conduta em procedimentos de baixo risco</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Odontol&#243;gicos</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Avalia&#231;&#227;o e tratamento odontol&#243;gico s&#227;o importantes no perioperat&#243;rio.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Uso de solu&#231;&#227;o antimicrobiana oral antes e ap&#243;s os procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos e cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de risco intermedi&#225;rio e alto.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">O uso de anest&#233;sicos com 1-4 ampolas de vasoconstritor &#233; seguro para tratamento dent&#225;rio de pacientes cardiopatas.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Manter tratamento antiplaquet&#225;rio e anticoagulante na maioria dos tratamentos odontol&#243;gicos, incluindo extra&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; dois dentes, restaura&#231;&#245;es, pr&#243;teses, endodontia, limpezas e implantes.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Doen&#231;a valvar</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Pacientes com estenose mitral importante, assintom&#225;tica, com complicadores (press&#227;o arterial pulmonar sist&#243;lica [PSAP] &#8805; 50 mmHg no repouso ou PSAP &#8805; 60 mmHg ao esfor&#231;o) dever&#227;o ser submetidos ao tratamento da valvopatia antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Transplante de &#243;rg&#227;os s&#243;lidos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>F&#237;gado</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes com ecocardiograma mostrando PSAP acima de 50 mmHg, deve ser solicitado cateterismo card&#237;aco direito com medida da press&#227;o em art&#233;ria pulmonar.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes com ecocardiograma mostrando PSAP acima de 40 mmHg, principalmente se outros sinais de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar estiverem presentes, deve-se considerar o cateterismo card&#237;aco direito com medida da press&#227;o em art&#233;ria pulmonar.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes assintom&#225;ticos para doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) sem disfun&#231;&#227;o segmentar ao ecocardiograma e com dois ou mais fatores de risco para DAC, solicitar preferencialmente um ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico com dobutamina.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes sintom&#225;ticos para DAC, calcular a probabilidade pr&#233;-teste de DAC e solicitar os exames adicionais conforme as diretrizes espec&#237;ficas.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">A cineangiocoronariografia deve ser realizada em pacientes com alta probabilidade pr&#233;-teste de DAC, angina importante e refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, disfun&#231;&#227;o nova de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo ou achados de alto risco nos testes n&#227;o invasivos, apesar de as complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas serem mais comuns e altera&#231;&#245;es como eleva&#231;&#227;o da creatinina poderem contribuir para o aumento na morbidade dos pacientes com cirrose.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">A cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica antes do transplante deve ser reservada apenas para pacientes em que o risco de morte pela DAC supere o risco de morte pela doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica, e a decis&#227;o deve ser compartilhada com uma equipe multidisciplinar.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com press&#227;o arterial pulmonar m&#233;dia maior ou igual a 35 mmHg no cateterismo direito devem ser encaminhados ao especialista em hipertens&#227;o pulmonar.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIb</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Rim</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Todos os pacientes candidatos a transplante renal devem ser avaliados quanto &#224; presen&#231;a e &#224; gravidade da doen&#231;a cardiovascular com base na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, exame f&#237;sico e exames rotineiros.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Recomenda-se a dosagem de troponina ultrassens&#237;vel antes, 24 h e 48 h ap&#243;s o transplante renal para detec&#231;&#227;o de inj&#250;ria/infarto perioperat&#243;rio.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Recomenda-se que a tomada de decis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e a defini&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica sejam discutidas e decididas por um "Heart-Kidney Team" incluindo cardiologista cl&#237;nico, cardiologista intervencionista, cirurgi&#227;o cardiovascular, nefrologista e/ou especialista em transplante renal.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes est&#225;veis com DAC obstrutiva devem ser reavaliados clinicamente quanto &#224; progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a a cada 12 meses; pacientes sem DAC obstrutiva significativa devem ser reavaliados a cada 36 meses para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC <italic>de novo</italic>.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Medidas para redu&#231;&#227;o de risco cir&#250;rgico do ponto de vista cardiovascular</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Terapia m&#233;dica perioperat&#243;ria</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Betabloqueadores</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de betabloqueadores devem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Estatinas</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o vasculares com indica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do uso de estatinas devido a doen&#231;as associadas (DAC, doen&#231;a cerebrovascular, doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica, diabetes) independentemente do contexto do perioperat&#243;rio.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <bold>Dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria</bold>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Em caso de interrup&#231;&#227;o de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (DAP) antes do tempo m&#237;nimo ideal, realizar cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas em centros com suporte multidisciplinar e retaguarda hemodin&#226;mica.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Utilizar teste de agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria para abreviar tempo de suspens&#227;o de inibidor de P2Y12 antes de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIb</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Para casos de risco tromb&#243;tico muito elevado <break/>(menos de 1 m&#234;s de interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea) e interrup&#231;&#227;o de DAPT, utilizar tirofibana como terapia de ponte.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIb</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Utilizar teste de agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria como rotina para avaliar suspens&#227;o de &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico ou de inibidor de P2Y12 antes de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>III</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o intervalo entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca em pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es coron&#225;rias percut&#226;neas eletivas:</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; &#8805; 6 meses</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; Entre 3 e 6 meses</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; Entre 30 dias e 3 meses</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIb</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; &lt; 30 dias</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>III</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o intervalo entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca em pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es coron&#225;rias percut&#226;neas devido a s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas:</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; &#8805; 12 meses</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; Entre 6 e 12 meses</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; Entre 30 dias e 6 meses</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIb</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; &lt; 30 dias</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>III</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Biomarcadores no perioperat&#243;rio</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com idade maior que 65 anos ou pacientes com idade entre 45-64 anos com doen&#231;a cardiovascular estabelecida ou fator de risco<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref> para doen&#231;a cardiovascular submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Troponinas card&#237;acas e monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">P&#243;s-operat&#243;rio em unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI) por 48 horas em pacientes de risco alto de complica&#231;&#245;es segundo algoritmos, submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">P&#243;s-operat&#243;rio em UTI por 48 horas em pacientes de risco intermedi&#225;rio de complica&#231;&#245;es segundo algoritmos, submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Diagn&#243;stico e tratamento das complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares no perioperat&#243;rio</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Inj&#250;ria/infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio perioperat&#243;rio (PMI)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">O diagn&#243;stico de PMI deve ser feito na presen&#231;a de um delta absoluto &#8805; ao percentil 99 do valor superior de refer&#234;ncia do kit de troponina utilizado entre os valores de troponina pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio e do primeiro ou segundo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Na aus&#234;ncia do valor basal, o delta pode ser considerado entre dois valores p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">O diagn&#243;stico do infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) ap&#243;s o segundo dia p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio deve ser feito baseado na defini&#231;&#227;o universal do IAM, e seu tratamento deve ser baseado nas diretrizes atuais.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Em pacientes com IAM perioperat&#243;rio ou PMI devido a causas isqu&#234;micas, a otimiza&#231;&#227;o das causas secund&#225;rias de isquemia (anemia, taquicardia, hipotens&#227;o, hipertens&#227;o) deve ser realizada, assim como a avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco de sangramento e discuss&#227;o multidisciplinar com o cirurgi&#227;o.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o/<italic>flutter</italic> atrial agudos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">A manuten&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em longo prazo deve ser considerada em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) detectada ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, quando analisado risco de acidente vascular cerebral, conforme CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc e risco de sangramento, de acordo com a cirurgia realizada.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>IIa</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Tromboembolismo venoso (TEV)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, deve-se optar por anticoagula&#231;&#227;o parenteral com heparina n&#227;o fracionada (HNF) em detrimento de heparina de baixo peso molecular (HBPM) ou fondaparinux.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Em pacientes com TEV e indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o parenteral, deve-se preferir HBPM ou fondaparinux &#224; HNF.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>I</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Fatores de risco: Diabetes, hipertens&#227;o, doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria, obesidade, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.4. Cria&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Perioperative Risk Team</italic></title>
        <p>Esta Diretriz tem foco principal, mas n&#227;o exclusivo, no cardiologista, em fun&#231;&#227;o do fato de que as complica&#231;&#245;es mais graves s&#227;o as que envolvem o sistema CV, como a cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica, o tromboembolismo pulmonar e a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) descompensada. S&#227;o essas complica&#231;&#245;es que est&#227;o mais relacionadas com mortalidade, aumento do per&#237;odo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar e maior custo, n&#227;o s&#243; pela realiza&#231;&#227;o procedimentos adicionais, como pela solicita&#231;&#227;o de exames diagn&#243;sticos. Os pacientes que entram em nossas salas cir&#250;rgicas atualmente s&#227;o mais idosos e consequentemente t&#234;m mais comorbidades, envolvendo, al&#233;m do cirurgi&#227;o, anestesista e cardiologista, outros especialistas no seu tratamento. O acompanhamento dos pacientes de maior risco deve ser interdisciplinar, desde o planejamento adequado para determina&#231;&#227;o do melhor momento para a interven&#231;&#227;o, a rela&#231;&#227;o risco/benef&#237;cio at&#233; a otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento das doen&#231;as de base e suas complica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>Os cardiologistas j&#225; est&#227;o familiarizados com o <italic>Heart Team</italic>, geralmente formado pelo cirurgi&#227;o card&#237;aco, o hemodinamicista e o pr&#243;prio cardiologista cl&#237;nico, que costumam atuar no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio decidindo qual a melhor abordagem para aquele caso. No ambiente perioperat&#243;rio de interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas n&#227;o card&#237;acas, o n&#250;mero de especialistas de diferentes &#225;reas de atua&#231;&#227;o &#233; maior, al&#233;m de incluir todo o per&#237;odo intra e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Esta Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2024 inova ao propor a cria&#231;&#227;o de um <italic>perioperative risk team</italic> (PRT). O objetivo do PRT, indicado para casos mais graves, &#233; reunir todas as informa&#231;&#245;es relativas ao paciente, como doen&#231;as e tratamentos pr&#233;vios, progn&#243;stico, tipo de cirurgia proposta e condi&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica atual. Com harmonia e o trabalho realizado em equipe pelos diversos especialistas, ser&#225; poss&#237;vel oferecer a melhor decis&#227;o conjunta para o paciente e sua fam&#237;lia. Mais uma vez pelo fato de que as complica&#231;&#245;es mais graves s&#227;o as que envolvem o sistema CV, o cardiologista deve indicar, quando julgar necess&#225;rio, para casos graves e espec&#237;ficos, a forma&#231;&#227;o do PRT e estabelecer a sua din&#226;mica. Ferramentas como plataformas de v&#237;deo, atrav&#233;s de grava&#231;&#227;o de reuni&#245;es interdisciplinares devidamente armazenadas, podem ser de grande utilidade para melhorar o resultado e dar garantias para os profissionais envolvidos e para o paciente.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria Geral e Suplementar</title>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Estratifica&#231;&#227;o do Risco Pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1.1. Condi&#231;&#245;es Cardiovasculares Graves/Inst&#225;veis no Perioperat&#243;rio</title>
          <p>Em casos de opera&#231;&#245;es eletivas, o primeiro passo &#233; a verifica&#231;&#227;o das condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas basais do paciente. Existem circunst&#226;ncias cl&#237;nicas em que o risco espont&#226;neo de complica&#231;&#245;es &#233; muito alto, independentemente do procedimento cir&#250;rgico a ser adotado. A identifica&#231;&#227;o desse cen&#225;rio &#233; fundamental, pois a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o de tais condi&#231;&#245;es deve ter prioridade em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; opera&#231;&#227;o eletiva, que deve, sempre que poss&#237;vel, ser adiada, sendo reconsiderada somente ap&#243;s a compensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Condi&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares graves/inst&#225;veis no perioperat&#243;rio</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="10%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Doen&#231;as inst&#225;veis da aorta tor&#225;cica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Edema agudo dos pulm&#245;es</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Choque cardiog&#234;nico</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca classe funcional III/IV da NYHA*</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Angina classe funcional III/IV da CCS<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Estenose a&#243;rtica/mitral importante sintom&#225;tica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Bradiarritmias ou taquiarritmias graves (BAVT, TV)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial de alta resposta ventricular (FC &gt; 120 bpm)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica n&#227;o controlada (PA &gt; 180 x 110 mmHg)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar sintom&#225;tica</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Pacientes com estas condi&#231;&#245;es que se encontram est&#225;veis e com tratamento j&#225; otimizado devem ter a rela&#231;&#227;o risco versus benef&#237;cio da interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica analisada em virtude do risco de complica&#231;&#245;es. NYHA: New York Heart Association; CCS: Canadian Cardiovascular Society; BAVT: bloqueio atrioventricular total; TV: taquicardia ventricular; PA: press&#227;o arterial; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1.2. Estimativa do Risco Intr&#237;nseco Relacionado ao Tipo de Opera&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>O risco intr&#237;nseco da opera&#231;&#227;o &#233; determinado pelo tipo e pela sua dura&#231;&#227;o, sem levar em conta as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas do paciente. &#201; definido como a probabilidade de ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos CV perioperat&#243;rios, independentemente das vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes. Ele est&#225; relacionado &#224; dura&#231;&#227;o, ao estresse hemodin&#226;mico e &#224; perda de sangue e fluidos que ocorrem durante a interven&#231;&#227;o. Os pacientes com condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas est&#225;veis, que n&#227;o apresentam condi&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas de alto risco, podem ser encaminhados para a realiza&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos com baixo risco intr&#237;nseco sem necessidade de avalia&#231;&#227;o adicional. Apesar da dificuldade de determinar um risco espec&#237;fico para procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos, j&#225; que ocorrem em diferentes circunst&#226;ncias, a Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia prop&#244;s uma classifica&#231;&#227;o que leva em considera&#231;&#227;o o risco da ocorr&#234;ncia de morte CV, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) e acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) em 30 dias (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular de acordo com o tipo de opera&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Risco baixo (&lt;1%)</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Risco intermedi&#225;rio (1-5%)</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Risco alto (&gt;5%)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Mama</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Car&#243;tida assintom&#225;tica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Aorta e vascular <italic>major</italic></td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Procedimentos dent&#225;rios</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Endarterectomia car&#243;tida (sintom&#225;tica)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica aberta devido &#224; isquemia aguda ou amputa&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Tireoide</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Angioplastia arterial perif&#233;rica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Angioplastia car&#243;tida (sintom&#225;tica)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ocular</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Aneurisma de aorta endovascular</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ressec&#231;&#227;o adrenal</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ginecol&#243;gica <italic>minor</italic></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Cabe&#231;a e pesco&#231;o</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pancre&#225;tica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ortop&#233;dica <italic>minor</italic> (menisco)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Intraperitoneal: <break/>colecistectomia, h&#233;rnia hiatal, esplenectomia</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">F&#237;gado e vias biliares</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Reconstrutiva</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Intrator&#225;cica <italic>non-major</italic></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Esofagectomia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Superficia</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Neurol&#243;gica ou ortop&#233;dica <italic>major</italic> (espinal, quadril)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pneumectomia (VATS ou aberta)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Urol&#243;gica <italic>minor</italic> (RTU)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Transplante renal</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Transplante pulmonar</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">VATS <italic>minor</italic></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Urol&#243;gica e ginecol&#243;gica <italic>major</italic></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Transplante hep&#225;tico</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Cistectomia total</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" style="background-color:#C7DFEC" valign="top">Reparo de perfura&#231;&#227;o intestinal</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>Adaptada de Halvorsen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> RTU: ressec&#231;&#227;o transuretral de pr&#243;stata; VATS: cirurgia tor&#225;cica por videotoracoscopia.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Al&#233;m disso, o grau de urg&#234;ncia da interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica deve ser sempre levado em considera&#231;&#227;o. As opera&#231;&#245;es de urg&#234;ncia e emerg&#234;ncia est&#227;o associadas a maior ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es CV. Em situa&#231;&#245;es em que o progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a de base que levou &#224; indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica demande a interven&#231;&#227;o de <bold>emerg&#234;ncia</bold>, o papel do cardiologista deve-se restringir a sugerir medidas de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o (incluindo o local para o p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio) e interven&#231;&#245;es para redu&#231;&#227;o do risco no intra e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, n&#227;o sendo recomendado indicar nenhum exame complementar que atrase a cirurgia proposta. No caso de cirurgias de <bold>urg&#234;ncia</bold>, existe tempo h&#225;bil para a otimiza&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica CV ou a realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames complementares como ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico, quando indicado. Por outro lado, a solicita&#231;&#227;o de provas funcionais para avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica n&#227;o deve ser feita, uma vez que seu resultado n&#227;o mudar&#225; a conduta porque a cirurgia proposta n&#227;o poder&#225; ser adiada para o tratamento coronariano. Al&#233;m disso, existem as cirurgias <bold>tempo-dependentes</bold>, isto &#233;, n&#227;o s&#227;o urg&#234;ncias, por&#233;m o atraso na realiza&#231;&#227;o da opera&#231;&#227;o pode causar uma piora no progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a de base. Um exemplo usual s&#227;o as cirurgias oncol&#243;gicas, que, se adiadas, podem comprometer o progn&#243;stico oncol&#243;gico. Nesses casos, recomendamos a discuss&#227;o multidisciplinar e a escolha da melhor estrat&#233;gia individualizada.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1.3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Capacidade Funcional</title>
          <p>Pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional (menos de quatro equivalentes metab&#243;licos [METs] ou incapacidade de subir dois lances de escadas) apresentam maior chance de complica&#231;&#245;es perioperat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A capacidade funcional pode ser aferida de maneira objetiva, pelo teste ergom&#233;trico (o que nem sempre &#233; poss&#237;vel ou desej&#225;vel), ou por meio da hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica. Um estudo recente demonstrou que pacientes que referem ser capazes de subir dois lances de escadas na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica durante a consulta de avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria apresentaram uma taxa menor de eventos CV p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Al&#233;m disso, a estimativa da capacidade funcional associada ao &#205;ndice de Risco Card&#237;aco Revisado (RCRI, de <italic>Revised Cardiac Risk Index</italic>) apresentou maior acur&#225;cia na predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios quando comparada &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o do RCRI isoladamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da maior probabilidade de m&#225; evolu&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria, pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional podem ter seus sintomas subestimados em virtude da limita&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica. Esse aspecto, portanto, pode ser considerado na decis&#227;o de solicita&#231;&#227;o de exames complementares, como provas funcionais para detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia.</p>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Quadro 1</xref> apresenta a recomenda&#231;&#227;o para avalia&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Quadro 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o para avalia&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Determinar a capacidade funcional de pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto durante a anamnese (baseada na habilidade de subir dois lances de escada).</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1.4. Ferramentas para Estimar o Risco Card&#237;aco Perioperat&#243;rio</title>
          <p>A impress&#227;o subjetiva sobre o risco card&#237;aco perioperat&#243;rio deve ser valorizada, mas estim&#225;-lo objetivamente permite a utiliza&#231;&#227;o racional de recursos complementares de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e de assist&#234;ncia CV perioperat&#243;ria. Al&#233;m disso, o c&#225;lculo do risco card&#237;aco fundamenta a discuss&#227;o multidisciplinar para defini&#231;&#227;o de propostas que tenham por objetivo oferecer o menor risco global para o paciente.</p>
          <p>Esta Diretriz n&#227;o preconiza a ado&#231;&#227;o de um algoritmo espec&#237;fico de estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco card&#237;aco perioperat&#243;rio, mas recomenda que, ap&#243;s excluir condi&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas graves/inst&#225;veis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>), seja feito o c&#225;lculo do risco conforme um dos &#237;ndices dispon&#237;veis na literatura, conforme a prefer&#234;ncia do avaliador.</p>
          <p>Entre os &#237;ndices para estimativa do risco card&#237;aco perioperat&#243;rio, destacam-se, pela praticidade e acur&#225;cia na discrimina&#231;&#227;o de diferentes classes de risco, o RCRI, ou escore de Lee,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> que &#233; um dos mais utilizados na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e na literatura de medicina perioperat&#243;ria, e o mais recentemente publicado &#237;ndice AUB (American University of Beirut)-HAS2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> As caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e o tipo de cirurgia proposta integram a avalia&#231;&#227;o em ambos os modelos, e n&#227;o h&#225; diferente pondera&#231;&#227;o entre as vari&#225;veis para cada um dos &#237;ndices (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabelas 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">5</xref>). De acordo com o n&#250;mero de vari&#225;veis, foram observadas taxas crescentes de complica&#231;&#245;es CV nas coortes pivotais do RCRI e do AUB-HAS2.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Tabela 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Vari&#225;veis dos &#237;ndices de risco: RCRI<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> e AUB-HAS2<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">RCRI</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">AUB-HAS2</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">*</xref> </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hist&#243;rico de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">**</xref> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hist&#243;ria de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Sintomas da doen&#231;a card&#237;aca: angina ou dispneia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a cerebrovascular</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Idade &#8805; 75 anos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Creatinina &gt; 2,0 mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hemoglobina &lt; 12 g/dL</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Cirurgia intraperitoneal, intrator&#225;cica ou vascular suprainguinal</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Cirurgia vascular arterial</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Diabetes com insulinoterapia</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Cirurgia de emerg&#234;ncia</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>No RCRI, os crit&#233;rios para doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria s&#227;o hist&#243;ria de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, prova funcional positiva, presen&#231;a de angina, uso de nitrato ou onda Q no eletrocardiograma.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN5">
                <label>**</label>
                <p>No AUB-HAS2, os crit&#233;rios para hist&#243;rico de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca s&#227;o antecedente de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ou valvopatia moderada a severa confirmada por ecocardiograma. RCRI: &#205;ndice de Risco Card&#237;aco Revisado; AUB: American University of Beirut.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tabela 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de acordo com o n&#250;mero de vari&#225;veis de risco presentes nas coortes de deriva&#231;&#227;o e valida&#231;&#227;o do RCRI6 e do AUB-HAS2<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">RCRI</th>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">AUB-HAS2</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#33B560">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Nenhuma</td>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Nenhuma</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#33B560">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Uma</td>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Uma</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#ECE924">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Duas</td>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Duas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" style="background-color:#EE2E30" valign="top">Tr&#234;s a seis</td>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" style="background-color:#ECE924" valign="top">Tr&#234;s</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#EE2E30">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Quatro a seis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/NPrb8bhPV5J7bMDcqKT3SQr/6acb87931c9058cb2cd4bb5d45bc303fb524ccac.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/NPrb8bhPV5J7bMDcqKT3SQr/0df72073a1f4519fa90b7e79819b005e8d1084b3.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <label>6</label>
                <p>RCRI: &#205;ndice de Risco Card&#237;aco Revisado; AUB: American University of Beirut.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Ainda n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia na popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira de superioridade de um algoritmo em rela&#231;&#227;o aos demais, e cabe ressaltar que, embora os dois &#237;ndices estimem desfechos cardiol&#243;gicos graves, a defini&#231;&#227;o de desfecho &#233; diferente entre eles. O RCRI, j&#225; validado em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> estima o risco da ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM, edema agudo dos pulm&#245;es, bloqueio atrioventricular (BAV) total e parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria nos primeiros 30 dias ap&#243;s o procedimento cir&#250;rgico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> J&#225; o AUB-HAS2, ainda n&#227;o validado na nossa popula&#231;&#227;o, estima o risco de IAM, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico ou &#243;bito tamb&#233;m nos primeiros 30 dias ap&#243;s a opera&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao algoritmo de risco CV pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio RCRI, na sua vers&#227;o antiga presente na &#250;ltima edi&#231;&#227;o desta Diretriz,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> os valores de risco de eventos CV no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio eram de 0,4% para a Classe I (nenhuma vari&#225;vel de risco), 0,9% para a Classe II (uma vari&#225;vel), 7% para Classe III (duas vari&#225;veis) e 11% para a Classe IV (tr&#234;s ou mais vari&#225;veis). Outros algoritmos que estimam o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio tamb&#233;m inclu&#237;ram valores num&#233;ricos percentuais que representam as taxas observadas nos estudos de refer&#234;ncia. A partir de estudos mais recentes, entretanto, encontrou-se que essas estimativas de risco estariam desatualizadas e seriam mais altas, em virtude provavelmente da maior gravidade dos pacientes operados. De fato, como foi publicado na &#250;ltima diretriz europeia de avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> os n&#250;meros foram 4% para Classe I, 6% para Classe II, 10% para Classe III e 15% para Classe IV.</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, como esses n&#250;meros variam muito conforme o pa&#237;s e a popula&#231;&#227;o, os autores da nova edi&#231;&#227;o desta Diretriz optaram por uma classifica&#231;&#227;o semi-quantitativa, estabelecendo como risco baixo (Classes I e II), intermedi&#225;rio (Classes III) e alto (Classe IV) nos relat&#243;rios de avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, n&#227;o especificando valores absolutos.</p>
          <p>Entre as limita&#231;&#245;es dos &#237;ndices, destaca-se a poss&#237;vel perda de acur&#225;cia em pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional. Esses pacientes t&#234;m pior progn&#243;stico perioperat&#243;rio<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> e podem ser assintom&#225;ticos simplesmente por n&#227;o atingirem limiar para deflagrar sintomas. Por esse motivo, mesmo que o paciente com baixa capacidade funcional receba estimativa de risco card&#237;aco baixo ou intermedi&#225;rio pelos &#237;ndices, a avalia&#231;&#227;o pode ser complementada com testes para doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria e IC antes de cirurgias de alto risco intr&#237;nseco, notadamente quando o paciente tem fatores de risco para doen&#231;a CV (vide Item 2.4). Outra quest&#227;o &#233; a perda de acur&#225;cia dos &#237;ndices para cirurgias espec&#237;ficas, como &#233; o caso do RCRI, que perde a habilidade de discriminar classes de risco e subestima eventos em pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares, notadamente na corre&#231;&#227;o de aneurisma de aorta abdominal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Especificamente para opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares arteriais, esta Diretriz recomenda a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do &#237;ndice proposto pelo <italic>Vascular Study Group of New England</italic> (VSG): VSG <italic>Cardiac Risk Index</italic> (VSG-CRI) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabelas 6</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">7</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Quando comparado ao RCRI, o VSG-CRI mostrou melhor acur&#225;cia na predi&#231;&#227;o de IAM, arritmia clinicamente relevante ou IC no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio vascular arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> O &#237;ndice AUB-HAS2 mant&#233;m boa acur&#225;cia em discriminar quatro classes de risco progressivo tamb&#233;m no perioperat&#243;rio vascular arterial, com taxas absolutas de complica&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria mais elevadas que aquelas observadas para o conjunto de todas as opera&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t7">
            <label>Tabela 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas e respectivas pontua&#231;&#245;es no &#237;ndice <italic>Vascular Study Group of New England Cardiac Risk Index</italic> (VSG-CRI)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="32%">
                <col width="1%"/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Fatores de risco VSG-CRI</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">PONTOS</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Idade</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8805; 80 anos</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">70-79 anos</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">60-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Creatinina &gt; 1,8 mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Tabagismo</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Diabetes com uso de insulina</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Uso cr&#244;nico de betabloqueador</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pr&#233;via</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">-1</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Tabela 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Classes de risco conforme o &#237;ndice <italic>Vascular Study Group of New England Cardiac Risk Index</italic> (VSG-CRI)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Pontua&#231;&#227;o VSG-CRI</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de risco</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#33B560">
                  <td align="center" valign="top">0-3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">Baixo</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#33B560">
                  <td align="center" valign="top">4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">Baixo</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#ECE924">
                  <td align="center" valign="top">5</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">Intermedi&#225;rio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#ECE924">
                  <td align="center" valign="top">6</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">Intermedi&#225;rio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#EE2E30">
                  <td align="center" valign="top">7</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">Alto</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#EE2E30">
                  <td align="center" valign="top">&#8805; 8</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">Alto</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Outros &#237;ndices de risco validados para avalia&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca perioperat&#243;ria s&#227;o o &#237;ndice de risco do American College of Physicians<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> e o &#237;ndice do Estudo Multic&#234;ntrico de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Perioperat&#243;ria (EMAPO),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> este &#250;ltimo desenvolvido e validado no Brasil. Quando o objetivo for a an&#225;lise da estimativa de risco global, n&#227;o relacionado apenas a desfechos de morbimortalidade CV, pode-se utilizar a ferramenta desenvolvida pelo American College of Surgeons (ACS), conhecida como ACS NSQIP&#174; <italic>Surgical Risk Calculator</italic> (www.riskcalculator.facs.org).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Essa ferramenta foi desenvolvida a partir de base de dados de mais de 1 milh&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es realizadas nos Estados Unidos e contempla, al&#233;m do tipo espec&#237;fico de procedimento cir&#250;rgico a ser adotado, 21 vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas, fornecendo estimativa de risco de oito desfechos diferentes. A maior limita&#231;&#227;o dessa ferramenta &#233; que ela n&#227;o &#233; r&#225;pida ou facilmente aplic&#225;vel, requer a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de calculadora e considera algumas vari&#225;veis de determina&#231;&#227;o subjetiva.</p>
          <p>A escolha do &#237;ndice de risco CV perioperat&#243;rio deve levar em conta a experi&#234;ncia do avaliador e a natureza vascular, ou n&#227;o vascular, do procedimento cir&#250;rgico proposto. Cabe ressaltar que o risco de tromboembolismo venoso (TEV), altamente prevalente e preven&#237;vel no perioperat&#243;rio, n&#227;o est&#225; contemplado nos &#237;ndices discutidos nessa se&#231;&#227;o e merece abordagem dedicada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O fluxograma para a avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria pode ser visualizado na Figura Central.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1.5. Avali&#231;&#227;o da Fragilidade</title>
          <p>A s&#237;ndrome de fragilidade &#233; uma entidade cl&#237;nica multidimensional relacionada &#224; idade, conceitualmente definida como a redu&#231;&#227;o da reserva fisiol&#243;gica em diversos sistemas do organismo, levando ao estado de maior vulnerabilidade a agentes estressores, como doen&#231;as agudas e procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos. A fragilidade se associa com risco aumentado de mortalidade e diversos outros desfechos adversos, como interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, menor capacidade funcional e pior qualidade de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, houve aumento da aten&#231;&#227;o global sobre a avalia&#231;&#227;o de fragilidade em diferentes cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos, refletindo o fen&#244;meno crescente de envelhecimento populacional em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> No Brasil, a preval&#234;ncia de fragilidade &#233; de 9% entre pessoas com 50 anos ou mais que vivem na comunidade e 16% quando considerada a faixa et&#225;ria de 65 anos ou mais. Essas preval&#234;ncias assemelham-se &#224;s de pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos e apresentam valores mais altos quando a popula&#231;&#227;o estudada se encontra em ambientes de sa&#250;de, como cl&#237;nicas e hospitais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Apesar da falta de consenso sobre um m&#233;todo padr&#227;o-ouro que defina fragilidade, o Fen&#243;tipo de Fragilidade F&#237;sica e o &#205;ndice de Fragilidade s&#227;o consideradas as medidas de maior validade para identificar essa s&#237;ndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Embora esteja associada com multimorbidade, envelhecimento e limita&#231;&#245;es para atividades b&#225;sicas e instrumentais de vida di&#225;ria, a s&#237;ndrome de fragilidade &#233; considerada uma entidade distinta e separada desses outros fatores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> O espectro de gravidade da s&#237;ndrome de fragilidade engloba desde o paciente robusto e pr&#233;-fr&#225;gil at&#233; o propriamente fr&#225;gil.</p>
          <p>Embora seja evidente que a doen&#231;a CV pode causar fragilidade pela hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por eventos agudos, por causar imobilidade e limitar a capacidade f&#237;sica de indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a estabelecida (por exemplo, hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda [SCA], limita&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica por sintomas de IC),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> h&#225; plausibilidade biol&#243;gica para que existam processos fisiopatol&#243;gicos subjacentes comuns nas duas condi&#231;&#245;es, indicando uma rela&#231;&#227;o bidirecional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> A fragilidade se associa a uma s&#233;rie de altera&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas e funcionais, incluindo inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, disautonomia, ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona e estresse oxidativo, que s&#227;o fatores de risco para doen&#231;as CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> De fato, em uma coorte de pacientes sem doen&#231;a CV,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> a presen&#231;a de fragilidade foi um fator de risco para a incid&#234;ncia de eventos CV em um seguimento de 6 anos. Outros estudos tamb&#233;m observaram uma associa&#231;&#227;o independente entre fragilidade e desfechos CV adversos em uma variedade de cen&#225;rios de condi&#231;&#245;es CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>2.1.5.1. Como Avaliar Fragilidade Antes de Cirurgia N&#227;o Card&#237;aca</title>
            <p>Apesar da falta de consenso sobre um &#250;nico instrumento para rastreio de fragilidade em idosos tanto em n&#237;vel populacional quanto em situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas, como na avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, recomenda-se que a fragilidade seja avaliada de forma objetiva pelo uso de instrumentos previamente validados. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabela 8</xref> apresenta alguns exemplos de instrumentos que podem ser utilizados para avalia&#231;&#227;o de fragilidade. Ressalta-se que existem outros instrumentos que podem ser utilizados al&#233;m dos ilustrados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabela 8</xref>. A recomenda&#231;&#227;o do uso de instrumentos baseia-se no fato de que a impress&#227;o subjetiva dos m&#233;dicos, principalmente os profissionais n&#227;o especializados em sa&#250;de do idoso, pode ser influenciada por fatores de confus&#227;o, como idade avan&#231;ada, presen&#231;a de m&#250;ltiplas doen&#231;as, baixo peso e uso de dispositivos de marcha, os quais podem levar &#224; suposi&#231;&#227;o err&#244;nea da presen&#231;a de fragilidade quando esta n&#227;o est&#225; presente de fato.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> A avalia&#231;&#227;o da fragilidade com o uso de instrumentos validados tamb&#233;m permite a obten&#231;&#227;o de informa&#231;&#227;o mais detalhada sobre o <italic>status</italic> do paciente, em vez da simples dicotomiza&#231;&#227;o nas categorias fr&#225;gil e n&#227;o fr&#225;gil, o que pode ser simplista e superficial.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t9">
              <label>Tabela 8</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Exemplos de instrumentos dispon&#237;veis para avalia&#231;&#227;o de fragilidade</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="20%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Instrumento</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Tipo de avalia&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Componentes</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Defini&#231;&#227;o de fragilidade</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Link ou aplicativo para utiliza&#231;&#227;o do instrumento</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Fen&#243;tipo de Fragilidade F&#237;sica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Informa&#231;&#245;es autorrelatadas e testes de performance f&#237;sica para avaliar cinco crit&#233;rios fenot&#237;picos</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Inatividade f&#237;sica Lentifica&#231;&#227;o da marcha Perda de peso Fraqueza muscular Exaust&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Fr&#225;gil: &#8805; 3 Pr&#233;-fr&#225;gil: 1-2 Robusto: 0</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.johnshopkitnssolutions.com/solution/frailty/">https://www.johnshopkitnssolutions.com/solution/frailty/</ext-link>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top"><italic>Clinical Frailty Scale</italic> (CFS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Sa&#250;de global e capacidade funcional</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Escala com nove n&#237;veis, de <break/>1 (<italic>very fit</italic>) a 9 (<italic>terminally ill</italic>)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Fr&#225;gil: &#8805; 5 Pr&#233;-fr&#225;gil: 4 Robusto: 1-3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.acutefrailtynetwork.org.uk/Clinical-Frailty-Scale/Clinical-Frailty-Scale-App">https://www.acutefrailtynetwork.org.uk/Clinical-Frailty-Scale/Clinical-Frailty-Scale-App</ext-link>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"><italic>Essential Frailty Toolset</italic> (EFT)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Combina&#231;&#227;o de desempenho f&#237;sico e cognitivo com exames complementares</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Teste de sentar-se e <break/>levantar-se da cadeira <break/>Teste cognitivo <break/>Albumina s&#233;rica <break/>Hemoglobina</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Fr&#225;gil: &#8805; 3 <break/>Pr&#233;-fr&#225;gil: 1-2 <break/>Robusto: 0</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top"><italic>Frailty Tool</italic>:<break/>aplicativo dispon&#237;vel para iOS e Android</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">&#205;ndice de Fragilidade por ac&#250;mulo de d&#233;ficits<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Multidimensional pelo modelo de ac&#250;mulo de d&#233;ficits</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de pelo menos 40 itens que devem: <break/>&#8211; Estar associados com sa&#250;de <break/>&#8211; Englobar v&#225;rios sistemas <break/>&#8211; Ter preval&#234;ncia &gt; 1% na popula&#231;&#227;o de interesse <break/>&#8211; Aumentar a preval&#234;ncia com o avan&#231;ar da idade</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Escore cont&#237;nuo entre 0 (aus&#234;ncia de d&#233;ficits) a 1 (d&#233;ficit total), que indica a propor&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es encontradas entre os itens avaliados <break/>Em geral, um escore &gt; 0,25 &#233; utilizado para definir a presen&#231;a de fragilidade</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.bidmc.org/research/research-by-department/medicine/gerontology/calculator">https://www.bidmc.org/research/research-by-department/medicine/gerontology/calculator</ext-link>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Escala FRAIL<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Question&#225;rio conciso e autorrelatado sobre cinco itens de sa&#250;de</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Fadiga <break/>Resist&#234;ncia <break/>Deambula&#231;&#227;o <break/>N&#250;mero de condi&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas <break/>Perda de peso</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Fr&#225;gil: &#8805; 3 <break/>Pr&#233;-fr&#225;gil: 1-2 <break/>Robusto: 0</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1279770723014987?via=ihub-cesec100">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1279770723014987?via=ihub-cesec100</ext-link>
                      <break/>
                      <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4515112/#APP1">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4515112/#APP1</ext-link>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>A fragilidade tamb&#233;m pode ser avaliada e classificada a partir de diferentes dom&#237;nios de sa&#250;de: f&#237;sico, cognitivo, psicossocial e nutricional. Dependendo da ferramenta utilizada para definir a fragilidade, um ou mais dom&#237;nios s&#227;o avaliados, o que permite caracterizar os pacientes em fen&#243;tipos cl&#237;nicos distintos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.5.1.2. Impacto da Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Fragilidade em Cirurgia N&#227;o Card&#237;aca</title>
            <p>A fragilidade &#233; um preditor de v&#225;rios desfechos perioperat&#243;rios adversos em v&#225;rias especialidades cir&#250;rgicas, tanto em procedimentos eletivos como de urg&#234;ncia/emerg&#234;ncia. As evid&#234;ncias indicam que pacientes fr&#225;geis apresentam maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, como infec&#231;&#245;es, <italic>delirium</italic>, insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda, arritmias card&#237;acas e IAM, bem como problemas relacionados &#224; cicatriza&#231;&#227;o da ferida cir&#250;rgica, como deisc&#234;ncia e h&#233;rnias. Como consequ&#234;ncia, os pacientes fr&#225;geis permanecem por per&#237;odo mais prolongado no hospital. Essas complica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias t&#234;m impacto negativo na recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional e na qualidade de vida dos pacientes fr&#225;geis que foram submetidos &#224; cirurgia, e isso pode levar &#224; maior necessidade de transfer&#234;ncia para institui&#231;&#245;es de longa perman&#234;ncia e &#224; maior mortalidade tanto em curto quanto em longo prazo em compara&#231;&#227;o com os pacientes n&#227;o fr&#225;geis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Apesar disso, o impacto da inclus&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o de fragilidade na performance progn&#243;stica dos escores de risco tradicionais (RCRI, VSG-CRI, AUB-HAS2, entre outros) ainda &#233; incerto, devido ao n&#250;mero limitado de estudos nessa &#225;rea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> A combina&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s de outros m&#233;todos estat&#237;sticos ainda precisa ser explorada para determinar seu impacto e utilidade cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Apesar das limita&#231;&#245;es existentes, entende-se que a avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria de fragilidade pode: (1) auxiliar no processo de tomada de decis&#227;o por prover um dimensionamento mais completo dos riscos envolvidos com o procedimento cir&#250;rgico, o que melhora o di&#225;logo entre o paciente, a fam&#237;lia e os diferentes profissionais envolvidos nos cuidados perioperat&#243;rios (anestesista, cirurgi&#227;o, cl&#237;nico, cardiologista, geriatra); (2) identificar um subgrupo de pacientes com maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es nos quais interven&#231;&#245;es precoces, incluindo no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio possam ser implementadas (por exemplo, reabilita&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica e nutricional, corre&#231;&#227;o de anemia e medidas para preven&#231;&#227;o e identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce de <italic>delirium</italic>).</p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Quadro 2</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para avalia&#231;&#227;o de fragilidade no perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t10">
              <label>Quadro 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para avalia&#231;&#227;o de fragilidade no perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">A fragilidade deve ser avaliada rotineiramente em idosos submetidos a cirurgias de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">A fragilidade deve ser mensurada objetivamente atrav&#233;s de instrumento espec&#237;fico.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.2. Eletrocardiograma</title>
        <p>O eletrocardiograma (ECG) pode detectar arritmias, dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica ou IAM pr&#233;vio, sobrecargas ventriculares e altera&#231;&#245;es decorrentes de dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos ou de efeitos de medicamentos. Al&#233;m disso, um tra&#231;ado eletrocardiogr&#225;fico basal &#233; importante para a avalia&#231;&#227;o comparativa no perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes com alto risco de ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos CV.</p>
        <p>Entretanto, a aplica&#231;&#227;o de rotina de um teste com especificidade limitada pode levar &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de resultados falso-positivos em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, uma vez que altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas costumam ser causa de preocupa&#231;&#227;o da equipe cir&#250;rgica e anest&#233;sica e, muitas vezes, podem levar ao cancelamento desnecess&#225;rio da opera&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Estima-se que cerca de 50% dos indiv&#237;duos acima de 40 anos possuem alguma altera&#231;&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> As anormalidades encontradas no ECG tendem a aumentar com a idade e a presen&#231;a de comorbidades, mas apresentam baixo poder preditivo de complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em um estudo retrospectivo com mais de 23.000 pacientes, a presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas pr&#233;-operat&#243;rias foi associada &#224; maior incid&#234;ncia de mortes de causa card&#237;aca em 30 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Esse resultado foi corroborado em dois estudos prospectivos posteriores, que encontraram resultados semelhantes, de que anormalidades no ECG pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio foram preditoras de eventos CV perioperat&#243;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Em um estudo retrospectivo, a presen&#231;a de intervalo QT corrigido entre 480 ms e 519 ms foi um preditor independente de mortalidade ap&#243;s opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> No grupo de pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia de risco baixo a moderado, entretanto, o ECG pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio apresentou informa&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica limitada. Portanto, a interpreta&#231;&#227;o do ECG como fator progn&#243;stico depende da hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica do paciente, assim como do seu risco CV.</p>
        <p>Dessa forma, o principal papel do ECG pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio &#233; fornecer um tra&#231;ado basal para compara&#231;&#227;o no caso da suspeita de um evento CV p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. A indica&#231;&#227;o de ECG pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio deve ser criteriosa conforme hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, tipo de cirurgia e doen&#231;as apresentadas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Indica&#231;&#245;es de exames card&#237;acos complementares no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio. *Somente indicado em pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto. **Sem avalia&#231;&#227;o no &#250;ltimo ano (ou 6 meses em casos de doen&#231;a valvar). DCV: doen&#231;a cardiovascular; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; SCA: s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t11">Quadro 3</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a solicita&#231;&#227;o de ECG.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t11">
          <label>Quadro 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para solicita&#231;&#227;o de ECG</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Hist&#243;ria e/ou anormalidades ao exame f&#237;sico sugestivas de doen&#231;a cardiovascular</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es de risco intr&#237;nseco de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares intermedi&#225;rio ou alto</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto para eventos cardiovasculares perioperat&#243;rios estimados pelos algoritmos</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Presen&#231;a de diabetes melito</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Obesos</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Idade superior a 40 anos</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.3. Ecocardiograma</title>
        <p>O ecocardiograma &#233; um m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico n&#227;o invasivo de baixo custo com extensa aplica&#231;&#227;o em v&#225;rios campos da Cardiologia. Oferece uma ampla avalia&#231;&#227;o morfofuncional CV, o que &#233; fundamental nas decis&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas e terap&#234;uticas pr&#233;-operat&#243;rias. Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; morfologia e &#224; anatomia, o tamanho das cavidades, a massa ventricular e a avalia&#231;&#227;o estrutural das valvas e grandes vasos s&#227;o dados b&#225;sicos avaliados em uma rotina ecocardiogr&#225;fica, al&#233;m das fun&#231;&#245;es sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica. A avalia&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica adv&#233;m de c&#225;lculos matem&#225;ticos que usam dados obtidos pela ferramenta Doppler, e o mapeamento de fluxo em cores avalia de forma acurada a din&#226;mica de fluxos intracard&#237;acos e transvalvares. Altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas morfofuncionais podem estar intimamente correlacionadas ao aumento do risco perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da t&#233;cnica ecocardiogr&#225;fica transtor&#225;cica b&#225;sica, existem m&#250;ltiplas outras modalidades que podem ser realizadas. Entre elas, h&#225; a ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica, t&#233;cnica semi-invasiva que possibilita minucioso detalhamento anat&#244;mico, pesquisa de trombos intracavit&#225;rios, avalia&#231;&#227;o da aorta, entre outros. Outras t&#233;cnicas s&#227;o a mensura&#231;&#227;o da deforma&#231;&#227;o (<italic>strain</italic>) mioc&#225;rdica para uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais pormenorizada da fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til ventricular, o uso de agentes de realce (microbolhas) para avalia&#231;&#227;o de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a ecocardiografia tridimensional, que possibilita uma avalia&#231;&#227;o volum&#233;trica mais acurada, com determina&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE).</p>
        <p>Contudo, vale ressaltar que o ecocardiograma de repouso no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca n&#227;o &#233; um exame a ser realizado rotineiramente, devendo ser solicitado somente quando, ap&#243;s uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica b&#225;sica inicial, houver suspeita de cardiopatia. Essa avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial envolve anamnese e exame f&#237;sico minuciosos e eventualmente exames cl&#237;nicos b&#225;sicos como os laboratoriais, ECG e radiografia de t&#243;rax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica &#233; o principal m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico em pacientes com IC suspeita ou conhecida, e suas m&#250;ltiplas modalidades ajudam a estimar o risco cir&#250;rgico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> No entanto, o seu emprego deve ser criterioso, pois ainda n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que o seu uso esteja associado ao aumento da sobrevida ou a menor perman&#234;ncia hospitalar. Pelo contr&#225;rio, v&#225;rios estudos sugerem que seu uso mais liberal aumente o tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, sem benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Por fim, nos pacientes com valvopatia conhecida ou suspeita, pr&#243;teses e dispositivos intracard&#237;acos, a ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica ou transesof&#225;gica deve ser utilizada para auxiliar a determinar o risco perioperat&#243;rio, como tamb&#233;m para orientar a profilaxia para endocardite infecciosa (EI) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">Quadro 4</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do ecocardiograma pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t12">
          <label>Quadro 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para realiza&#231;&#227;o do ecocardiograma pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou sintomas sugestivos e que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; cirurgia de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, sem avalia&#231;&#227;o no &#250;ltimo ano, ou que apresentaram piora cl&#237;nica</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes portadores ou com suspeita de altera&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica valvar moderada/importante e que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; cirurgia de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, sem avalia&#231;&#227;o nos &#250;ltimos 6 a 12 meses, ou que apresentaram piora cl&#237;nica</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a transplante hep&#225;tico</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes portadores de pr&#243;tese valvar intracard&#237;aca, que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; cirurgia de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto e sintom&#225;ticos</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes portadores de pr&#243;tese valvar intracard&#237;aca, que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; cirurgia de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto sem avalia&#231;&#227;o no &#250;ltimo ano</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes assintom&#225;ticos que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; cirurgia de alto risco (vide <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Rotina em indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos, sem suspeita cl&#237;nica de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou doen&#231;a valvar moderada a grave submetidos &#224; cirurgia de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou baixo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.4. Testes N&#227;o Invasivos para Detec&#231;&#227;o de Isquemia Mioc&#225;rdica</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4.1. Eletrocardiograma de Esfor&#231;o</title>
          <p>O teste ergom&#233;trico (TE) &#233; uma ferramenta segura, &#250;til e eficaz para a detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> tendo justamente como mecanismo produzir uma disparidade entre oferta e demanda. Assim, &#233; razo&#225;vel pensar que a detec&#231;&#227;o de anormalidades durante a sua execu&#231;&#227;o possa ser reprodut&#237;vel durante o perioperat&#243;rio e seus variados n&#237;veis de estresse. Por&#233;m, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias robustas de que usar essa estrat&#233;gia resulte na redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade perioperat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Considerando que o objetivo da estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco &#233; reduzir o risco perioperat&#243;rio, n&#227;o seria l&#243;gica a realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame em indiv&#237;duos j&#225; estratificados como de baixo risco pelos algoritmos recomendados. Nesse cen&#225;rio, com baixa preval&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC), o TE n&#227;o agregaria valor &#224; estratifica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica perioperat&#243;ria, tendo em vista que quanto menor a preval&#234;ncia da DAC em determinada popula&#231;&#227;o, menor ser&#225; tamb&#233;m o valor preditivo positivo do TE. Este poderia, inclusive, retardar a realiza&#231;&#227;o da cirurgia em raz&#227;o da sua execu&#231;&#227;o e devido &#224; necessidade da realiza&#231;&#227;o de outros exames mais espec&#237;ficos para a diferencia&#231;&#227;o dos resultados verdadeiros dos falsos-positivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Mesmo em indiv&#237;duos de alto risco, como no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia vascular, s&#227;o baixos o valor preditivo positivo, a sensibilidade e a especificidade do TE (10, 74 e 69%, respectivamente), ainda que o valor preditivo negativo seja elevado (98%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Por outro lado, em um estudo de coorte, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de testes provocativos de isquemia no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio em pacientes de alto risco e com tr&#234;s ou mais fatores de risco cl&#237;nicos esteve associada a menor tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar e a menor mortalidade hospitalar em 1 ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Dessa forma, entre os indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos com maior preval&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a, o TE poderia ser solicitado somente quando o resultado fosse influenciar no progn&#243;stico e, consequentemente, na conduta pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria, quer para guiar uma terap&#234;utica cl&#237;nica mais intensiva ou mesmo para um procedimento de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Nesse cen&#225;rio, a baixa toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio (inferior a 4 METs) e o in&#237;cio da resposta isqu&#234;mica em baixa carga est&#227;o associados a maior n&#250;mero de eventos card&#237;acos perioperat&#243;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">Quadro 5</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do teste ergom&#233;trico no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t13">
            <label>Quadro 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do teste ergom&#233;trico no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Solicita&#231;&#227;o de teste ergom&#233;trico em pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional, de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, em programa&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto em que o teste poder&#225; potencialmente alterar a conduta</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a cirurgia de baixo risco</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com baixo risco de complica&#231;&#245;es e que ser&#227;o submetidos a cirurgia de risco baixo ou intermedi&#225;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4.2. Cintilografia de Perfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica com Estresse</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o complementar com TE, apesar da maior disponibilidade e menor custo, apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es principalmente em pacientes com alta probabilidade pr&#233;-teste de DAC, naqueles com altera&#231;&#245;es basais no tra&#231;ado do ECG ou que possuam limita&#231;&#245;es para realizar atividade f&#237;sica em esteira.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Dessa forma, o uso de prova funcional com m&#233;todo de imagem associada a estresse f&#237;sico ou farmacol&#243;gico apresenta maior acur&#225;cia na avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco de eventos CV perioperat&#243;rios, podendo ser &#250;til na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco adicional de pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional, DAC estabelecida ou alta probabilidade pr&#233;-teste sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de s&#237;ndrome coronariana cr&#244;nica.</p>
          <p>No cen&#225;rio perioperat&#243;rio, existe uma boa correla&#231;&#227;o entre o grau de les&#227;o coronariana e a presen&#231;a de defeitos de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, com maior capacidade preditiva da prova funcional nos pacientes com doen&#231;a mais extensa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise avaliando 1.179 pacientes submetidos a cirurgias vasculares arteriais revelou maior taxa de eventos perioperat&#243;rios com grandes defeitos de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (&gt; 20%) com &#225;rea sob a curva (AUC) de 0,78 (intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% [IC95%], 0,65-0,89) para o m&#233;todo. Vale ressaltar que, mesmo no estudo com popula&#231;&#227;o de alto risco (doen&#231;a vascular estabelecida), somente 23% dos indiv&#237;duos apresentaram isquemia de grande extens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em pacientes com boa capacidade funcional (&#8805; 4 METs), o uso de provas funcionais com imagem acrescentou pouco quando adicionado ao RCRI (AUC 0,77 vs. AUC 0,70).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Outro fato que deve ser ponderado ao se considerar a solicita&#231;&#227;o de uma prova funcional s&#227;o estudos mais recentes (fora do contexto perioperat&#243;rio) demostrando benef&#237;cio do tratamento clinico frente &#224; estrat&#233;gia invasiva mesmo em pacientes com grandes &#225;reas isqu&#234;micas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Por fim, apesar da utilidade no diagn&#243;stico de DAC e na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de eventos, a solicita&#231;&#227;o de provas funcionais exige cautela no contexto perioperat&#243;rio, uma vez que pode desencadear uma propens&#227;o a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, estrat&#233;gia que n&#227;o demostrou superioridade em ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados e ainda pode atrasar a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca durante o tempo m&#237;nimo de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (DAP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> Mesmo em pacientes com alta carga isqu&#234;mica em prova funcional listados para transplante renal, uma estrat&#233;gia invasiva n&#227;o demonstrou superioridade frente ao tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4.3. Ecocardiograma de Estresse com Dobutamina</title>
          <p>A ecocardiografia sob estresse &#233; precisa e segura em identificar pacientes com DAC, com importante papel como preditor de eventos card&#237;acos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> O estresse pode ser realizado atrav&#233;s de esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, na esteira ergom&#233;trica ou cicloerg&#244;metro (bicicleta), ou por uso de f&#225;rmacos, principalmente dobutamina e dipiridamol associados &#224; atropina caso n&#227;o haja contraindica&#231;&#245;es. As modalidades de estresse pela dobutamina ou pelo exerc&#237;cio apresentam acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica semelhantes, superiores ao dipiridamol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A ecocardiografia sob estresse farmacol&#243;gico pela dobutamina ou dipiridamol tem reconhecidamente um grande valor para avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica. A altera&#231;&#227;o de contra&#231;&#227;o segmentar envolvendo uma grande extens&#227;o do VE, surgindo em est&#225;gios precoces de infus&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco, al&#233;m de firmar o diagn&#243;stico de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, confere ao paciente um alto risco de complica&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas em curto prazo, aumentando significantemente o risco CV perioperat&#243;rio. Por sua vez, a aus&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#227;o de contra&#231;&#227;o segmentar no estresse tem uma boa correla&#231;&#227;o com a aus&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#245;es coronarianas cr&#237;ticas. Ainda, o aparecimento dessa altera&#231;&#227;o em uma pequena extens&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, no est&#225;gio tardio de pico do estresse, tamb&#233;m se traduz em melhor progn&#243;stico e menor risco de eventos CV. Caso um ecocardiograma sob estresse pela dobutamina n&#227;o demonstre isquemia residual no paciente com infarto pr&#233;vio, o progn&#243;stico &#233; bom, e a probabilidade de reinfarto, morte e edema agudo pulmonar &#233; baixa no per&#237;odo transoperat&#243;rio de uma cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> O uso da ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina na avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco perioperat&#243;rio j&#225; est&#225; bem documentado na literatura, apresentando valor preditivo positivo variando de 25 a 55% e valor preditivo negativo de 93 a 100% para eventos card&#237;acos em pacientes submetidos a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Os resultados geralmente s&#227;o utilizados para influenciar a conduta cl&#237;nica pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria, especialmente a decis&#227;o de realiza&#231;&#227;o de cineangiocoronariografia com angioplastia ou cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica antes ou ap&#243;s a cirurgia eletiva. Em uma metan&#225;lise de 15 estudos que compararam a cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica com a ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco CV pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, foi demonstrado que o valor progn&#243;stico das anormalidades em ambas as modalidades de imagens para eventos isqu&#234;micos perioperat&#243;rios &#233; semelhante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Por fim, o uso de agentes de realce com microbolhas melhora a visibilidade dos bordos endoc&#225;rdicos do VE, aumentando a sensibilidade do exame para a detec&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es na contra&#231;&#227;o segmentar. Adicionalmente, &#233; poss&#237;vel agregar a avalia&#231;&#227;o de perfus&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio em tempo real. D&#233;ficits de perfus&#227;o detectados em uma parede com isquemia se correlacionam com pior progn&#243;stico, tendo maior chance de eventos a curto prazo, o que aumenta o risco CV perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4.4. Sum&#225;rio de Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a Realiza&#231;&#227;o dos Testes N&#227;o Invasivos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>)</title>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">Quadro 6</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a solicita&#231;&#227;o de cintilografia com estresse/ecocardiograma com estresse no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t14">
            <label>Quadro 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a solicita&#231;&#227;o de cintilografia com estresse/ecocardiograma com estresse no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="00%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Solicita&#231;&#227;o de provas funcionais com imagem em pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional, de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, <break/>em programa&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto em que a prova funcional poder&#225; potencialmente alterar a conduta</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Solicita&#231;&#227;o de provas funcionais em pacientes com baixa capacidade funcional, assintom&#225;ticos, com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio ou alta probabilidade de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Solicita&#231;&#227;o de provas funcionais de rotina em pacientes de baixo risco e/ou que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos de baixo risco intr&#237;nseco</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.5. Cineangiocoronariografia</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o coronariana invasiva atrav&#233;s da cineangiocoronariografia n&#227;o &#233; recomendada rotineiramente antes de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas e n&#227;o deve substituir os testes n&#227;o invasivos para avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, quando indicados. A realiza&#231;&#227;o desnecess&#225;ria da cineangiocoronariografia, al&#233;m de potencialmente atrasar o planejamento cir&#250;rgico, n&#227;o apresenta evid&#234;ncias de aumento na sobrevida dos pacientes ou de diminui&#231;&#227;o do risco de infarto periprocedimento, mesmo naqueles submetidos a cirurgias com alto risco de complica&#231;&#245;es CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As indica&#231;&#245;es para realizar avalia&#231;&#227;o coronariana invasiva s&#227;o similares &#224;quelas fora do contexto de avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria, como pacientes com SCA ou com isquemia extensa em prova funcional (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Em um pequeno estudo randomizado, os autores avaliaram a realiza&#231;&#227;o rotineira de cineangiocoronariografia no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de endarterectomia de car&#243;tidas. Apesar do menor n&#250;mero de eventos isqu&#234;micos nos pacientes submetidos &#224; angioplastia pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na mortalidade. Al&#233;m disso, a cirurgia foi realizada em m&#233;dia 4 dias ap&#243;s o procedimento, o que n&#227;o &#233; recomend&#225;vel nem seguro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Especialmente procedimentos tempo-dependentes, como cirurgias oncol&#243;gicas, n&#227;o devem ser postergados para avalia&#231;&#227;o invasiva em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos. Essa recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; baseada em estudos que falharam em mostrar qualquer redu&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos submetidos &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t15">Quadro 7</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a realiza&#231;&#227;o de cineangiocoronariografia no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t15">
          <label>Quadro 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a realiza&#231;&#227;o de cineangiocoronariografia no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas de alto risco</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com isquemia extensa em prova funcional</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes est&#225;veis submetidos a cirurgias de baixo risco</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.6. Angiotomografia de Coron&#225;rias</title>
        <p>A angiotomografia (angio-TC) de coron&#225;rias apresenta alta sensibilidade para a detec&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica de estenoses coronarianas, incluindo doen&#231;a multiarterial e les&#227;o em tronco de coron&#225;ria esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> Entretanto, os benef&#237;cios da angio-TC antes de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas ainda s&#227;o incertos.</p>
        <p>O benef&#237;cio do estudo da anatomia coron&#225;ria pela angio-TC foi avaliado por Li et al., que estudaram 841 idosos com indica&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca de alto risco sem DAC conhecida ou suspeita. A identifica&#231;&#227;o de DAC significativa de um vaso foi de 12,2%, de dois vasos, 5,4% e de tr&#234;s vasos, de 1,9%. Um escore Agatston acima de 195 foi independentemente associado com maior risco de DAC. DAC significativa foi encontrada em 19,5% dos pacientes. A an&#225;lise multivariada identificou o grau de estenose como fator independente para o cancelamento de cirurgia agendada. Os autores consideraram a angio-TC coron&#225;ria &#250;til para descartar ou confirmar DAC significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O uso da angio-TC como exame adicional ao escore de risco RCRI foi estudado por Ahn et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup>, que avaliaram estudos retrospectivos em pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos de porte intermedi&#225;rio. A presen&#231;a de les&#245;es maiores que 50% aumentavam a incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares adversos maiores (MACE), alcan&#231;ando at&#233; 29,7% na DAC multiarterial <italic>versus</italic> 4,3% na sua aus&#234;ncia. Os autores concluem que esse exame poderia ser vantajoso na reclassifica&#231;&#227;o do risco. Em um estudo prospectivo com 955 pacientes, Sheth et al. demonstraram que o uso de angio-TC no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio pode melhorar a estimativa de risco de eventos nos pacientes que tiverem eventos (morte CV ou infarto). Entretanto, a reclassifica&#231;&#227;o de risco utilizando angio-TC comparada com o escore de risco RCRI ocorreu em 22% dos pacientes estudados e pode superestimar inapropriadamente em at&#233; 5 vezes o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A extens&#227;o e a gravidade da DAC encontrada pela angio-TC em rela&#231;&#227;o a incid&#234;ncia de MACE foram avaliadas em uma metan&#225;lise de 11 estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> Observou-se que a gravidade e a extens&#227;o da DAC estiveram associadas ao aumento do risco de MACE (aus&#234;ncia de DAC 2%, DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva 4,1%, DAC obstrutiva um vaso 7,1%, DAC multiarterial 23,1%). A DAC multiarterial apresentou o maior risco (raz&#227;o de chances [OR] 8,9). O aumento do escore de c&#225;lcio tamb&#233;m foi associado ao maior risco perioperat&#243;rio (escore c&#225;lcio &#8805; 100 OR 5,1, &#8805; 1000 OR 10,4 ambos p &lt; 0,001).</p>
        <p>A angio-TC foi diretamente comparada com a ecocardiografia de estresse pela dobutamina em rela&#231;&#227;o a sua acur&#225;cia progn&#243;stica no ensaio PANDA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> Foram inclu&#237;dos 215 pacientes com mais de um fator de risco submetidos &#224;s duas metodologias. O ecocardiograma com estresse apresentou OR de 6,1 para eventos, a presen&#231;a de DAC significativa pela angio-TC apresentou OR de 18,8, e a presen&#231;a de escore de c&#225;lcio elevado apresentou OR de 4,2. Os autores concluem que a angio-TC pode apresentar um melhor valor progn&#243;stico em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ecocardiograma com estresse antes de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, mas o tamanho amostral desse estudo era muito pequeno para uma conclus&#227;o definitiva.</p>
        <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de mais estudos sem evid&#234;ncias que comprovem redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos com uma estrat&#233;gia guiada pela angio-TC e, principalmente, pelo receio da gera&#231;&#227;o excessiva de angioplastias "preventivas", a angio-TC n&#227;o &#233; recomendada rotineiramente para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco antes de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Doen&#231;as e Procedimentos com Aspectos Espec&#237;ficos no Perioperat&#243;rio</title>
      <sec>
        <title>3.1. Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</title>
        <p>A IC afeta em torno de 1 a 2% da popula&#231;&#227;o geral nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, cerca de 5,7 milh&#245;es de pacientes nos Estados Unidos e &gt; 10% da popula&#231;&#227;o maior que 70 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup> As doen&#231;as do aparelho circulat&#243;rio s&#227;o as principais causas de morte no Brasil, sendo respons&#225;veis por aproximadamente 29% das mortes ocorridas no pa&#237;s. As doen&#231;as isqu&#234;micas do cora&#231;&#227;o e a IC s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por aproximadamente 39% dessas mortes por doen&#231;as do aparelho circulat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A IC &#233; fator de risco bem conhecido para eventos card&#237;acos perioperat&#243;rios. Dados de um grande registro de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas que incluiu mais de 150.000 procedimentos revelou que a presen&#231;a de IC esteve associada com aumento de 63% no risco de mortalidade perioperat&#243;ria e de 51% no risco de reinterna&#231;&#227;o em 30 dias quando comparado ao grupo com DAC sem IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recentemente, uma avalia&#231;&#227;o da base de dados dos Estados Unidos envolvendo 21.560.996 cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas entre 2012 e 2014 revelou a presen&#231;a de IC perioperat&#243;ria em 4,9% dos casos e esteve associada a maior taxa de mortalidade intra-hospitalar (4,8% <italic>versus</italic> 0,8%), conferindo aumento de risco de 2,2 vezes. O risco foi maior entre os pacientes com IC aguda do que entre os pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica; o risco foi maior entre os pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica descompensada em compara&#231;&#227;o com IC cr&#244;nica isolada (7,8% <italic>versus</italic> 3,8%, p &lt; 0,001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em outro estudo de coorte retrospectiva envolvendo 609.735 pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, a mortalidade em 90 dias foi maior entre os pacientes com IC sintom&#225;tica (10,1%), seguido por pacientes com IC assintom&#225;tica (4,9%), enquanto, em pacientes sem IC, a mortalidade foi de 1,2%. Assim, a presen&#231;a de IC, sintom&#225;tica ou n&#227;o, aumenta o risco de morte precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A FEVE reduzida &#233; considerada forte preditor de eventos em pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular. No entanto, a maioria dos estudos analisou a FEVE dicotomizando em maior ou menor que 40%. Um estudo envolvendo 174 pacientes com IC revelou que apenas a FEVE gravemente reduzida (&lt; 30%) foi preditor independente de mortalidade. A presen&#231;a de redu&#231;&#227;o da FEVE moderada (30-40%) ou leve (40-50%) ou, ainda, a IC de FEVE preservada (&gt; 50%) n&#227;o foram preditores independentes de morte em 30 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> Apesar do poder preditor de eventos da FEVE, a realiza&#231;&#227;o rotineira de ecocardiograma para todos os pacientes a serem submetidos a cirurgia card&#237;aca n&#227;o &#233; indicada. Um estudo de coorte canadense envolvendo mais de 250.000 pacientes (15% com ecocardiograma pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, n = 40.084) revelou que esse exame n&#227;o est&#225; associado &#224; melhora da sobrevida ou &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca de grande porte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio est&#225; relacionada a pior progn&#243;stico no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, uma vez que est&#225; associada &#224; piora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e a maior taxa de eventos CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> A dosagem desses biomarcadores pode auxiliar na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de pacientes com IC.</p>
        <p>O manejo cl&#237;nico de pacientes com IC no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio exige alguns cuidados especiais relacionados &#224; volemia do paciente. Deve-se evitar tanto a hipovolemia, que pode intensificar hipotens&#227;o, quanto a hipervolemia, que pode gerar congest&#227;o pulmonar e sist&#234;mica. O estudo austr&#237;aco IMPROVE pretende determinar se o uso de um inodilatador, levosimendana, pode ter algum benef&#237;cio na evolu&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, avaliando o impacto do uso da medica&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos. Seus resultados podem trazer uma nova forma de abordagem perioperat&#243;ria para pacientes com IC submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O fluxograma para avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de pacientes com IC conhecida ou suspeita pode ser consultado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>.</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Abordagem pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou suspeita de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; NYHA: New York Heart Association; OP: opera&#231;&#227;o; m&#237;n.: m&#237;nimo. <sup>#</sup>Em casos de pacientes com ecocardiograma dispon&#237;vel no &#250;ltimo ano e sem novos sintomas, n&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;rio repetir o ecocardiograma. *Tratamento otimizado da IC segundo diretrizes atuais (m&#225;xima dose tolerada de inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina/ bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina/sacubitril/valsartan, betabloqueadores, espironolactona e inibidores do cotransportador de s&#243;dio-glicose tipo 2 [SGLT2] para IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida e adequado controle da volemia e press&#227;o arterial, espironolactona e inibidores SGLT2 para pacientes com IC e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada), avalia&#231;&#227;o e corre&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, em caso de doen&#231;a valvar importante, corre&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a valvar.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t16">Quadro 8</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo perioperat&#243;rio de pacientes com IC.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t16">
          <label>Quadro 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo perioperat&#243;rio de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Cirurgias eletivas em pacientes com IC descompensada (classe funcional III/IV segundo NYHA) devem ser postergadas at&#233; a compensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do paciente</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Cirurgias eletivas em pacientes com IC de in&#237;cio recente, cujo tratamento ainda n&#227;o foi otimizado, devem ser postergadas no m&#237;nimo 3 meses para permitir o uso das medica&#231;&#245;es em doses adequadas</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Todas as medica&#231;&#245;es de uso cr&#244;nico devem ser mantidas no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio e reintroduzidas o mais precocemente poss&#237;vel no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Na impossibilidade de administra&#231;&#227;o de medica&#231;&#227;o por via oral, deve-se considerar a administra&#231;&#227;o por sonda nasoenteral ou via venosa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">O uso de betabloqueador deve ser mantido no perioperat&#243;rio, por&#233;m a introdu&#231;&#227;o de altas doses em pacientes que n&#227;o faziam uso previamente n&#227;o &#233; recomendada, a menos que haja tempo suficiente para ajuste de dose antes da realiza&#231;&#227;o da cirurgia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN7">
              <p>NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.2. Hipertens&#227;o Arterial</title>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de elevada preval&#234;ncia, tanto na popula&#231;&#227;o geral quanto em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a cirurgias, sendo respons&#225;vel por cerca de 50% das mortes por DAC e AVC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> Apesar de bem estabelecida a import&#226;ncia de seu controle rigoroso na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos CV a longo prazo, seu manejo no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio &#233; fonte de ampla discuss&#227;o, uma vez que ainda possui aspectos controversos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2.1. Manejo Press&#243;rico no Pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</title>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de hipertens&#227;o &#233; preditor independente de mortalidade em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup> Por outro lado, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia concreta da exist&#234;ncia de rela&#231;&#227;o entre a medida de press&#227;o arterial no momento da admiss&#227;o hospitalar e complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas perioperat&#243;rias,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> sugerindo, portanto, que o risco perioperat&#243;rio atribu&#237;do &#224; hipertens&#227;o &#233;, na verdade, decorrente majoritariamente de suas les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; hipotens&#227;o, a literatura traz dados mais concretos. Uma coorte prospectiva de 251.567 pacientes demonstrou que n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) menores que 119 mmHg e diast&#243;lica (PAD) menores que 63 mmHg associam-se a aumento de mortalidade no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de at&#233; 30 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> &#201; necess&#225;rio, portanto, que o manejo da press&#227;o arterial considere esse prov&#225;vel efeito em "J", em que n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos baixos tamb&#233;m representam risco.</p>
          <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; hipertens&#227;o, recomenda-se que cirurgias eletivas de alto risco sejam adiadas apenas se a PAS for maior ou igual a 180 mmHg e/ou a PAD maior ou igual a 110 mmHg. &#201; importante refor&#231;ar que esse limite press&#243;rico foi estipulado com base em dados observacionais e antigos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup>, definido em um contexto em que ainda n&#227;o se sabia dos agora conhecidos riscos da hipotens&#227;o no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio. Assim sendo, &#233; adequado que se mantenha o alvo press&#243;rico definido, mas com o cuidado de evitar ao m&#225;ximo a hipotens&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Por fim, pacientes com suspeita de hipertens&#227;o arterial secund&#225;ria devem ser investigados antes da cirurgia. Embora n&#227;o existam evid&#234;ncias robustas sobre o aumento do risco perioperat&#243;rio em portadores de hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria, sabe-se que aqueles com feocromocitoma n&#227;o diagnosticado apresentam mortalidade cir&#250;rgica muito elevada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2.2. Manejo Press&#243;rico no Intraoperat&#243;rio</title>
          <p>No intraoperat&#243;rio, nas raras situa&#231;&#245;es em que &#233; necess&#225;ria a introdu&#231;&#227;o do anti-hipertensivo, o anti-hipertensivo ideal deve ser facilmente titulado e ter r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o, poucos efeitos colaterais e baixo custo. Diversas classes est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para uso, incluindo os betabloqueadores (esmolol e labetalol), bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio (nicardipina) e nitratos (nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio e nitroglicerina).</p>
          <p>Pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial tamb&#233;m s&#227;o mais suscet&#237;veis &#224; hipotens&#227;o, na maior parte das vezes associada &#224; deple&#231;&#227;o do volume intravascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> A preocupa&#231;&#227;o excessiva frente ao controle press&#243;rico rigoroso no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio pode ser causa de hipotens&#227;o tanto durante quanto ap&#243;s a cirurgia, sendo particularmente associada a inj&#250;ria card&#237;aca, renal e cerebral e maior mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Nesse cen&#225;rio, o estudo INPRESS (<italic>Effect of Individualized vs Standard Blood Pressure Management Strategies on Postoperative Organ Dysfunction Among High-Risk Patients Undergoing Major Surgery</italic>) comparou uma estrat&#233;gia individualizada que visava manter a PAS dentro de 10% do valor em repouso <italic>versus</italic> uma estrat&#233;gia padr&#227;o, em que os pacientes recebiam vasoconstritor apenas se a PAS fosse inferior a 80 mmHg ou a 40% do repouso. Observou-se, no primeiro grupo, redu&#231;&#227;o de s&#237;ndrome da resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica (SIRS) e de disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica 7 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup> Uma an&#225;lise retrospectiva envolvendo pacientes submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas eletivas refor&#231;ou o efeito delet&#233;rio da hipotens&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.3. Manejo Press&#243;rico no P&#243;s-operat&#243;rio</title>
            <p>O diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de hipertens&#227;o arterial &#233; o principal fator de risco para a ocorr&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, mas outros elementos como dor, hipercapnia e excita&#231;&#227;o ao despertar da anestesia tamb&#233;m contribuem para tanto. A terapia medicamentosa com anti-hipertensivos por via venosa deve ser considerada para pacientes com PAS sustentada maior ou igual a 180 mmHg e/ou PAD maior ou igual a 110 mmHg, por aumentar o risco de sangramento, em especial em cirurgias card&#237;acas, vasculares e endosc&#243;picas, como ressec&#231;&#227;o transuretral de pr&#243;stata. A hipotens&#227;o tamb&#233;m deve ser devidamente tratada e prevenida, mantendo o paciente com volemia preservada.</p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Quadro 9</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo press&#243;rico no perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t17">
              <label>Quadro 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo press&#243;rico no perioperat&#243;rio</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Cirurgias eletivas de alto risco devem ser adiadas se a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica for <break/>maior ou igual a 180 mmHg e/ou a diast&#243;lica for maior ou igual a 110 mmHg</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">A otimiza&#231;&#227;o da volemia (evitar desidrata&#231;&#227;o) deve ser realizada durante todo o perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Deve-se evitar, durante todo o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, epis&#243;dios de hipotens&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com suspeita de hipertens&#227;o arterial secund&#225;ria devem ser investigados antes da cirurgia, salvo em casos de urg&#234;ncia/emerg&#234;ncia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">O rein&#237;cio da terap&#234;utica anti-hipertensiva no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, de prefer&#234;ncia a que o paciente utilizava antes da cirurgia, deve ser realizado o mais rapidamente poss&#237;vel</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.4. Anti-hipertensivos no Perioperat&#243;rio</title>
            <sec>
              <title>3.2.4.1. Antagonistas do Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona</title>
              <p>O bloqueio do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona &#233; bastante controverso no contexto perioperat&#243;rio, uma vez que estudos demonstraram resultados conflitantes. Grandes an&#225;lises retrospectivas que avaliaram a suspens&#227;o <italic>versus</italic> a manuten&#231;&#227;o de inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA) e bloqueadores do receptor de angiotensina II (BRA) no perioperat&#243;rio n&#227;o evidenciaram diferen&#231;a entre os grupos na incid&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o, na necessidade de ressuscita&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica e na mortalidade em 30 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, sua descontinua&#231;&#227;o no dia da cirurgia n&#227;o se associou a aumento significativo da incid&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o imediatamente antes da interven&#231;&#227;o, bem como n&#227;o foi respons&#225;vel por uma maior taxa de cancelamento de cirurgias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Entretanto, Roshanov et al. observaram decr&#233;scimo no risco de hipotens&#227;o intraoperat&#243;ria e redu&#231;&#227;o de desfecho composto por morte, IAM e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico com a suspens&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref></sup> Apesar da poss&#237;vel maior incid&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o com a manuten&#231;&#227;o do IECA/BRA, n&#227;o foi evidenciado aumento de les&#227;o renal aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup> Vale ressaltar ainda que, em casos em que o BRA foi suspenso e n&#227;o reintroduzido dentro de 2 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia, houve aumento de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Dessa forma, as evid&#234;ncias atuais n&#227;o fornecem uma resposta definitiva quanto &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o ou suspens&#227;o do IECA/BRA no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, devendo a decis&#227;o ser individualizada. O estudo randomizado em andamento STOP-or-NOT poder&#225; trazer evid&#234;ncias adicionais para esse t&#243;pico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup> Para tanto, deve-se levar em conta o tipo de cirurgia, a variabilidade press&#243;rica do paciente e a previs&#227;o de sangramento. &#201; importante frisar que, caso a medica&#231;&#227;o seja suspensa, ela deve, idealmente, ser reintroduzida o quanto antes, assim que o paciente tenha condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas para tal.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.2.4.2. Bloqueadores do Canal de C&#225;lcio</title>
              <p>Em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas, n&#227;o foi demonstrada diferen&#231;a significativa de valores press&#243;ricos com o uso de bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio quando comparado com outras classes anti-hipertensivas, e seu uso n&#227;o esteve associado ao aumento de eventos adversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> Diante disso, ainda que a recomenda&#231;&#227;o formal seja de manter os bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio durante o perioperat&#243;rio naqueles pacientes que j&#225; fa&#231;am uso cr&#244;nico, tal decis&#227;o deve ser individualizada, tendo em vista os riscos j&#225; descritos em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; hipotens&#227;o e &#224; aus&#234;ncia de efeitos delet&#233;rios de sua suspens&#227;o.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.2.4.3. Diur&#233;ticos</title>
              <p>N&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias robustas a respeito do uso de diur&#233;ticos no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio. Sua manuten&#231;&#227;o, incluindo a administra&#231;&#227;o no dia do procedimento cir&#250;rgico, mostrou-se segura e n&#227;o se associou a aumento da incid&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o ou necessidade de reposi&#231;&#227;o de fluidos e drogas vasopressoras, bem como a aumento de eventos CV no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.2.4.4. Simpatol&#237;ticos de A&#231;&#227;o Central</title>
              <p>Os primeiros estudos que avaliaram o uso de clonidina no perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas demonstraram redu&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> por&#233;m, estudos maiores e mais recentes falharam em mostrar tal associa&#231;&#227;o, sendo seu uso relacionado a um aumento da incid&#234;ncia de parada card&#237;aca n&#227;o fatal, principalmente em assistolia ou atividade el&#233;trica sem pulso. Seu uso est&#225; associado tamb&#233;m a um aumento significativo de bradicardia e hipotens&#227;o, sendo a hipotens&#227;o preditora independente de IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup> Dessa forma, a clonidina pode ser utilizada em caso de press&#227;o arterial descontrolada sem tempo h&#225;bil para seu controle efetivo, mas n&#227;o deve ser introduzida com o objetivo de redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos CV. Sua suspens&#227;o em usu&#225;rios cr&#244;nicos n&#227;o &#233; recomendada pela possibilidade de efeito rebote.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.5. Considera&#231;&#245;es Finais</title>
            <p>O manejo da hipertens&#227;o arterial durante o perioperat&#243;rio &#233; bastante desafiador. Nesse contexto, ainda que seja importante evitar n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos extremamente elevados (PAS &gt; 180 mmHg e PAD &gt; 110 mmHg), &#233; fundamental que se evite a hipotens&#227;o, que se apresenta nos estudos mais recentes e robustos como fator de mau progn&#243;stico e confere aumento de risco de mortalidade. Diante disso, excetuando-se os betabloqueadores e os simpatol&#237;ticos de a&#231;&#227;o central, cuja suspens&#227;o pode ser delet&#233;ria, o manejo dos anti-hipertensivos no perioperat&#243;rio deve ser individualizado para que se evite picos press&#243;ricos muito elevados, labilidade press&#243;rica e, principalmente, hipotens&#227;o. No per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica individualizada deve incluir o monitoramento dos valores de press&#227;o arterial e, principalmente, o surgimento de manifesta&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; hipotens&#227;o como tontura, desmaio, sonol&#234;ncia, sinais de baixo d&#233;bito, deteriora&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, redu&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito urin&#225;rio ou <italic>delirium</italic>.</p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t18">Quadro 10</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo dos anti-hipertensivos no perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t18">
              <label>Quadro 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo dos anti-hipertensivos no perioperat&#243;rio</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de antagonistas do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio, sendo a suspens&#227;o permitida em casos selecionados</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de bloqueadores de canal de c&#225;lcio podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio, sendo a suspens&#227;o permitida em casos selecionados</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de diur&#233;ticos podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio, sendo a suspens&#227;o permitida em casos selecionados</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de clonidina devem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3. Conduta em Procedimentos de Baixo Risco</title>
        <p>A denomina&#231;&#227;o "procedimentos de baixo risco" utilizada neste texto se refere exclusivamente ao baixo risco de complica&#231;&#245;es CV e de sangramento. Os autores desta Diretriz entendem que h&#225; procedimentos de baixo risco cir&#250;rgico em todas as especialidades m&#233;dicas, mas as considera&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas do ponto de vista cir&#250;rgico fogem aos objetivos deste texto.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.1. Odontol&#243;gicos</title>
          <p>Manter a sa&#250;de bucal adequada &#233; fundamental para redu&#231;&#227;o de risco de complica&#231;&#245;es sist&#234;micas especialmente em pacientes com doen&#231;as CV, resultando, por exemplo, em melhor controle glic&#234;mico, em redu&#231;&#227;o de riscos de bacteremia e em poss&#237;vel melhor controle da press&#227;o arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup> Doen&#231;as bucais, como doen&#231;as periodontais e infec&#231;&#245;es endod&#244;nticas, podem trazer riscos de bacteremia e sepse no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio com intuba&#231;&#227;o e em receptores de transplantes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> devendo ser tratadas antes dos procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O uso de 15 mL de solu&#231;&#227;o de clorexidina 0,2% (mais efetiva) ou iodopovidona (5%) para bochecho de 30 a 60 segundos &#233; recomendado antes do procedimento odontol&#243;gico, assim como no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de opera&#231;&#245;es de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, visando &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da ocorr&#234;ncia de sepse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.1.1. Agentes Antitromb&#243;ticos</title>
            <p>Quando os pacientes que recebem agentes antitromb&#243;ticos, incluindo antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes, s&#227;o submetidos a tratamento odontol&#243;gico cir&#250;rgico, a decis&#227;o deve ser tomada sobre continuar a terapia de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas ou interromper brevemente a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e aumentar o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es emb&#243;licas. Resultados de d&#233;cadas de estudos de milhares de pacientes odontol&#243;gicos recebendo terapia de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o revelam que as complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas que requerem mais do que medidas locais para hemostasia t&#234;m sido raras e nunca fatais. No entanto, algumas complica&#231;&#245;es emb&#243;licas foram fatais, e outras complica&#231;&#245;es debilitantes ocorreram em pacientes cuja anticoagula&#231;&#227;o foi interrompida para procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A maioria dos procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos tem baixo risco de sangramento, apresentando taxa de hemorragia de at&#233; 3,63%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; fortes evid&#234;ncias, no caso dos medicamentos mais antigos (ou seja, varfarina, agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios) e evid&#234;ncias limitadas para medicamentos anticoagulantes orais mais recentes de que, para a maioria dos pacientes, a ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramento grande e n&#227;o control&#225;vel &#233; muito baixa. Por essas raz&#245;es, esta Diretriz n&#227;o recomenda alterar ou interromper a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o ou a terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria antes da interven&#231;&#227;o odontol&#243;gica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Em geral, procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos podem ser realizados com seguran&#231;a em pacientes anticoagulados com varfarina e raz&#227;o normalizada internacional (RNI) &lt; 3,5, desde que medidas locais para redu&#231;&#227;o do sangramento sejam aplicadas. Para pacientes com RNI acima dessa faixa ou para aqueles em que se antecipa maior risco de sangramento, deve-se discutir a melhor estrat&#233;gia a ser adotada entre o dentista e o respons&#225;vel pela prescri&#231;&#227;o do anticoagulante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O manejo do sangramento na pr&#225;tica odontol&#243;gica pode ser feito atrav&#233;s de an&#225;logos de lisina (&#225;cido tranex&#226;mico 250 mg, 15 a 25 mg/kg, isto &#233;, dois comprimidos de 250 mg, duas a tr&#234;s vezes ao dia), esponja de fibrina e cianoacrilatos utilizados localmente, entre outros.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.1.2. Dispositivos Card&#237;acos Eletr&#244;nicos Implant&#225;veis</title>
            <p>Durante os procedimentos dent&#225;rios em pacientes portadores de dispositivos card&#237;acos eletr&#244;nicos implant&#225;veis (DCEI), al&#233;m do risco de infec&#231;&#227;o nos dispositivos eletr&#244;nicos, h&#225; a possibilidade de interfer&#234;ncia do equipamento odontol&#243;gico no DCEI, particularmente do fotopolimerizador a bateria, do raspador dent&#225;rio e de limpadores dent&#225;rios ultrass&#244;nicos, quando a dist&#226;ncia entre eles &#233; menor que 23 cm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup> Nessas situa&#231;&#245;es, outros equipamentos odontol&#243;gicos devem ser empregados.</p>
            <p>Por&#233;m, outros equipamentos eletr&#244;nicos odontol&#243;gicos como escovas el&#233;tricas de dentes, bisturi el&#233;trico, testador el&#233;trico de polpa, canetas de alta e baixa rota&#231;&#227;o, localizadores de &#225;pice e amalgamadores n&#227;o mostraram interfer&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.1.3. Anest&#233;sicos Locais</title>
            <p>O uso excessivo de anest&#233;sicos locais com vasoconstritores em doses excessivas pode aumentar a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, a press&#227;o arterial e a subsequente demanda mioc&#225;rdica de oxig&#234;nio. Entretanto, estudos recentes confirmam que o uso de 1 a 4 ampolas de anest&#233;sicos com vasoconstritor lidoca&#237;na com epinefrina 1:80000, 1:100000 e 1:200000 &#233; relativamente seguro para pacientes com doen&#231;as CV e hipertens&#227;o controladas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t19">Quadro 11</xref> apresenta o sum&#225;rio das recomenda&#231;&#245;es odontol&#243;gicas.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t19">
              <label>Quadro 11</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Sum&#225;rio das recomenda&#231;&#245;es odontol&#243;gicas</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="00%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Avalia&#231;&#227;o e tratamento odontol&#243;gico s&#227;o importantes no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Uso de solu&#231;&#227;o antimicrobiana oral antes e ap&#243;s os procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos e cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de risco intermedi&#225;rio e alto</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Uso de anest&#233;sicos com 1-4 ampolas de vasoconstritor &#233; seguro para tratamento dent&#225;rio de pacientes cardiopatas</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Manter tratamento antiplaquet&#225;rio e anticoagulante na maioria dos tratamentos odontol&#243;gicos, incluindo extra&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; dois dentes, restaura&#231;&#245;es, pr&#243;teses, endodontia, limpezas e implantes</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.2. Dermatol&#243;gicos</title>
          <p>Os procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos dermatol&#243;gicos apresentam baixo risco, tanto para eventos CV quanto para sangramento. Dados da literatura sugerem que aproximadamente 50% dos pacientes que se apresentam para procedimentos dermatol&#243;gicos est&#227;o em uso de terapia antiagregante ou anticoagulante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> Nesses casos, a equipe cir&#250;rgica e o anestesiologista devem ser informados sobre os medicamentos em uso e sobre os cuidados necess&#225;rios, incluindo a hemostasia mais demorada e cuidadosa, j&#225; que, na maioria das vezes, o risco associado &#224; suspens&#227;o da terapia antitromb&#243;tica supera o de sangramento inerente ao procedimento.</p>
          <p>Em pacientes que fazem uso de &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico (AAS) para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de eventos CV, n&#227;o se indica a suspens&#227;o antes da realiza&#231;&#227;o de qualquer interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica dermatol&#243;gica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em pacientes que fazem uso de monoterapia com clopidogrel, o risco de sangramento durante cirurgias &#233; aumentado, e algumas evid&#234;ncias sugerem, inclusive, suspender a medica&#231;&#227;o pelo menos 6 dias antes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup> No entanto, n&#227;o h&#225; estudos que demonstrem a seguran&#231;a da suspens&#227;o em termos de evento CV. Embora a tend&#234;ncia seja extrapolar as evid&#234;ncias da monoterapia com AAS para o clopidogrel, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias suficientes que suportem a manuten&#231;&#227;o ou a suspens&#227;o. Nos casos de cirurgia dermatol&#243;gica, como o sangramento costuma ser pequeno e controlado, recomendamos n&#227;o suspender.</p>
          <p>Em pacientes que fazem uso de DAP indicada pelo uso de <italic>stent</italic> coronariano e que est&#227;o fora do per&#237;odo de maior risco tromb&#243;tico, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; suspender o segundo antiplaquet&#225;rio,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> respeitando-se os intervalos j&#225; descritos nesta Diretriz (consultar se&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios, no Item 4.1.3 desta Diretriz).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Para indiv&#237;duos em uso de varfarina, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; que ela n&#227;o seja descontinuada e que a RNI seja ajustada para valores &#8804; 3,5 para minimizar o risco de sangramento. Apesar disso, alguns trabalhos n&#227;o demonstraram correla&#231;&#227;o entre o n&#237;vel da RNI e o risco de sangramento aumentado nos pacientes em uso de varfarina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Para pacientes em uso de anticoagulantes orais diretos (DOACs), ainda que as evid&#234;ncias sejam escassas, recomenda-se a sua manuten&#231;&#227;o para a maioria dos procedimentos dermatol&#243;gicos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> tomando-se o cuidado para que a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica seja marcada, quando poss&#237;vel, algumas poucas horas antes da pr&#243;xima dose, evitando, assim, o pico do n&#237;vel s&#233;rico da droga.</p>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t20">Quadro 12</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos dermatol&#243;gicos.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t20">
            <label>Quadro 12</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos dermatol&#243;gicos</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">O &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico deve ser mantido em pacientes em preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de eventos cardiovasculares submetidos a qualquer interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica dermatol&#243;gica</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes que fazem uso de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria por stent e apresentam-se fora do per&#237;odo de maior risco tromb&#243;tico, manter o &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico e suspender o segundo antiplaquet&#225;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">O clopidogrel (em monoterapia) pode ser mantido em pacientes em preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de eventos cardiovasculares submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es dermatol&#243;gicas</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes que fazem uso de varfarina e que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos dermatol&#243;gicos, manter a medica&#231;&#227;o com ajuste de valores da raz&#227;o normalizada internacional &#8804; 3,5</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes que fazem uso de anticoagulantes orais diretos e que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos dermatol&#243;gicos, manter a medica&#231;&#227;o, tomando-se o cuidado para que a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica seja marcada algumas poucas horas antes da pr&#243;xima dose</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.3. Endosc&#243;picos</title>
          <p>Do ponto de vista da an&#225;lise de risco de eventos CV, os procedimentos endosc&#243;picos s&#227;o considerados de baixo risco,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> n&#227;o sendo habitualmente necess&#225;ria a suspens&#227;o do procedimento para interven&#231;&#227;o CV, exceto nas condi&#231;&#245;es CV graves, j&#225; apontadas na se&#231;&#227;o de algoritmos de avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria desta Diretriz (Item 2.1.1). Al&#233;m disso, a maior parte dos medicamentos que pertencem &#224; terap&#234;utica CV n&#227;o necessita ser interrompida e pode ser ingerida com o m&#237;nimo de &#225;gua. Na verdade, a quest&#227;o mais importante a ser levantada &#233; se o paciente faz uso de medica&#231;&#245;es antitromb&#243;ticas, devido ao potencial risco de sangramento da interven&#231;&#227;o endosc&#243;pica com a sua manuten&#231;&#227;o e pelo risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos em virtude da interrup&#231;&#227;o dessas medica&#231;&#245;es. Os procedimentos endosc&#243;picos possuem diferentes potenciais para sangramento, sendo esse aspecto muito importante para a defini&#231;&#227;o da estrat&#233;gia a ser utilizada. O risco varia conforme o tipo do procedimento, principalmente relacionado &#224; presen&#231;a de interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas e bi&#243;psias. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t21">Tabela 9</xref> apresenta os riscos de sangramento atribu&#237;dos a procedimentos endosc&#243;picos comuns na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref></sup> O risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos com a interrup&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica antitromb&#243;tica varia de acordo com a indica&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica e as condi&#231;&#245;es individuais dos pacientes.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t21">
            <label>Tabela 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de sangramento em procedimentos endosc&#243;picos</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Procedimentos de alto risco</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Procedimentos de baixo risco</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Polipectomia</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Diagn&#243;sticos (EDA, colonoscopia e sigmoidoscopia flex&#237;vel), incluindo bi&#243;psia em mucosa</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Esfincterotomia biliar ou pancre&#225;tica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">CPRE com coloca&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stent</italic> ou dilata&#231;&#227;o com bal&#227;o sem esfincterotomia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Enteroscopia terap&#234;utica assistida por bal&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Enteroscopia <italic>push</italic> e enteroscopia diagn&#243;stica assistida por bal&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Gastrostomia ou jejunostomia percut&#226;nea endosc&#243;pica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">C&#225;psula endosc&#243;pica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ultrassonografia endosc&#243;pica <bold>com</bold> bi&#243;psia por agulha fina</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ultrassonografia endosc&#243;pica <bold>sem</bold> bi&#243;psia por agulha fina</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Cistogastrostomia</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Coloca&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stent</italic> intestinal</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Dilata&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Abla&#231;&#227;o de es&#244;fago de Barrett</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Mucosectomia e dissec&#231;&#227;o submucosa</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Coagula&#231;&#227;o com plasma de arg&#244;nio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Abla&#231;&#227;o de tumores</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>Adaptada de Acosta et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref></sup> EDA: endoscopia digestiva alta; CPRE: colangiopancreatografia retr&#243;grada endosc&#243;pica.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.3.1. Manejo de Antiplaquet&#225;rios em Procedimentos Endosc&#243;picos</title>
            <p>Para procedimentos endosc&#243;picos classificados como de baixo risco de sangramento, a terap&#234;utica antiplaquet&#225;ria pode ser mantida, seja na forma de monoterapia (independente do agente) ou DAP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref></sup> Para procedimentos considerados de alto risco de sangramento, algumas considera&#231;&#245;es devem ser feitas. Pacientes em uso de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (DAP) por <italic>stent</italic> recente ou SCA (vide Itens 4.1 e 4.2) s&#227;o aqueles com maior risco de eventos com a interrup&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica antiplaquet&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> Assim, procedimentos endosc&#243;picos eletivos de alto risco de sangramento, sempre que poss&#237;vel, devem ser adiados at&#233; que o per&#237;odo de maior risco seja finalizado. No entanto, para procedimentos que precisam ser realizados nesse per&#237;odo, as estrat&#233;gias mais aceitas s&#227;o a manuten&#231;&#227;o do AAS e a suspens&#227;o do segundo antiplaquet&#225;rio,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref></sup> apesar das evid&#234;ncias para essa estrat&#233;gia serem limitadas. Pacientes em uso de monoterapia com AAS para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de eventos CV podem manter seu uso no perioperat&#243;rio de procedimentos endosc&#243;picos, mesmo naqueles considerados de alto risco de sangramento, visto que a maioria das evid&#234;ncias na literatura demonstra baixo risco de sangramento significativo nessas circunst&#226;ncias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup> Alguns estudos t&#234;m demonstrado aumento de sangramento em procedimentos como dissec&#231;&#227;o submucosa em pacientes com neoplasia g&#225;strica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup> e mucosectomia em tumores col&#244;nicos maiores de 20 mm,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref></sup> situa&#231;&#245;es que devem ser analisadas de maneira individual e de acordo com o risco de eventos tromb&#243;ticos com a suspens&#227;o do AAS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> H&#225; alguma evid&#234;ncia da seguran&#231;a do uso de clopidogrel em monoterapia durante a realiza&#231;&#227;o de gastrostomia percut&#226;nea endosc&#243;pica, podendo-se considerar sua manuten&#231;&#227;o nessa circunst&#226;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup> J&#225; as evid&#234;ncias do uso de prasugrel e ticagrelor em procedimentos endosc&#243;picos de alto risco de sangramento s&#227;o escassas. No caso da op&#231;&#227;o de suspens&#227;o da terap&#234;utica antiagregante plaquet&#225;ria, os intervalos entre a suspens&#227;o e o procedimento dever&#227;o seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es desta Diretriz, que se encontram na se&#231;&#227;o de manejo de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> O antiplaquet&#225;rio pode ser retomado ap&#243;s o procedimento, assim que a hemostasia esteja garantida, podendo-se considerar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de dose de ataque em pacientes de alto risco de eventos CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.3.2. Manejo de Anticoagulantes em Procedimentos Endosc&#243;picos</title>
            <p>Para procedimentos endosc&#243;picos com baixo risco de sangramento, a terap&#234;utica anticoagulante com varfarina pode ser mantida,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup> devendo ser suspensa naqueles com alto risco de sangramento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref></sup> At&#233; o momento, ainda n&#227;o existem evid&#234;ncias em rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso dos DOACs nessas circunst&#226;ncias, sugerindo-se sua manuten&#231;&#227;o em procedimentos com baixo risco de sangramento, bem como sua suspens&#227;o naqueles com alto risco de sangramento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup> Os intervalos para a suspens&#227;o e para a retomada dos DOACs e da varfarina (incluindo a considera&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica de ponte nos pacientes considerados de maior risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos) devem seguir as orienta&#231;&#245;es da se&#231;&#227;o de manejo da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio desta Diretriz (Item 4.3). Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso dos DOACs, tentar realizar o procedimento antes da pr&#243;xima dose, procurando-se evitar o pico de a&#231;&#227;o da droga que se d&#225; principalmente nas primeiras 2 horas ap&#243;s a sua administra&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t22">Quadro 13</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes na programa&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos endosc&#243;picos.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t22">
              <label>Quadro 13</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos endosc&#243;picos</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para procedimentos endosc&#243;picos com baixo risco de sangramento, deve ser mantida a terap&#234;utica antiplaquet&#225;ria (monoterapia ou dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria) ou anticoagulante com varfarina</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso de monoterapia com &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de eventos cardiovasculares devem manter seu uso no perioperat&#243;rio de procedimentos endosc&#243;picos, inclusive na maioria dos procedimentos considerados de alto <break/>risco de sangramento</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para procedimentos endosc&#243;picos de alto risco de sangramento, a terap&#234;utica anticoagulante com varfarina ou com anticoagulantes orais diretos deve ser suspensa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria ap&#243;s angioplastia coron&#225;ria n&#227;o devem ser submetidos, se poss&#237;vel, a procedimentos endosc&#243;picos de alto risco de sangramento, no per&#237;odo de dura&#231;&#227;o ideal do tratamento</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que precisam ser submetidos a procedimentos endosc&#243;picos de alto risco de sangramento antes do t&#233;rmino previsto da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria ap&#243;s angioplastia devem manter o &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico e suspender o segundo antiplaquet&#225;rio</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para procedimentos endosc&#243;picos de baixo risco de sangramento, a terap&#234;utica anticoagulante com anticoagulantes orais diretos pode ser mantida</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.4. Oftalmol&#243;gicos</title>
          <p>As interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas oftalmol&#243;gicas s&#227;o procedimentos relativamente frequentes na popula&#231;&#227;o de idade mais avan&#231;ada. Comorbidades CV que demandam a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos antitromb&#243;ticos e o que fazer com eles no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio s&#227;o assunto de intenso debate entre os cirurgi&#245;es oftalmol&#243;gicos e os cardiologistas. No Brasil, o temor de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas, incluindo hematomas na regi&#227;o periorbital, &#233; respons&#225;vel pela interrup&#231;&#227;o indiscriminada de AAS e varfarina em 82,7% dos pacientes que realizam opera&#231;&#245;es de glaucoma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref></sup> Por outro lado, as evid&#234;ncias relativas &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es, ainda que escassas, demonstram que esse receio n&#227;o &#233; justific&#225;vel. A taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas descrita em estudos observacionais &#233; muito baixa e sem maiores consequ&#234;ncias, principalmente nas cirurgias de catarata que utilizam t&#233;cnicas anest&#233;sicas convencionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> Alguns tipos de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica oftalmol&#243;gica, entretanto, apresentam risco hemorr&#225;gico maior, como a trabeculectomia, usada no tratamento do glaucoma,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup> e a vitrectomia, t&#233;cnica para as doen&#231;as da retina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181">181</xref></sup> No entanto, as evid&#234;ncias n&#227;o demonstram risco aumentado de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas significativas nessas cirurgias com o uso do AAS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B182">182</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup> Nesses casos, a conduta deve ser individualizada, mas, em geral, recomenda-se a manuten&#231;&#227;o desse agente no perioperat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref></sup> Pacientes em uso de DAP por <italic>stent</italic> recente ou SCA (vide Itens 4.1. e 4.2) s&#227;o aqueles com maior risco de eventos com a interrup&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica antiplaquet&#225;ria. Dessa maneira, os procedimentos oftalmol&#243;gicos, sempre que poss&#237;vel, devem ser adiados at&#233; que seja finalizado esse per&#237;odo de maior risco. Para procedimentos que precisam ser realizados nesse per&#237;odo, a estrat&#233;gia depende do risco hemorr&#225;gico da interven&#231;&#227;o. Nas interven&#231;&#245;es de menor risco hemorr&#225;gico (inje&#231;&#245;es intrav&#237;treas, catarata e anestesia peribulbar), o AAS e os inibidores dos receptores P2Y12 devem ser mantidos. No entanto, no caso de interven&#231;&#245;es de maior risco hemorr&#225;gico, como vitrectomia e trabeculectomia, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o mais aceita &#233; de manter o AAS e suspender o segundo antiplaquet&#225;rio, respeitando-se os intervalos j&#225; descritos em se&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica desta Diretriz (Item 4.2),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> apesar de as evid&#234;ncias para essa estrat&#233;gia serem limitadas. De forma semelhante aos pacientes que fazem uso de monoterapia com AAS, as evid&#234;ncias na literatura s&#227;o favor&#225;veis &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o da monoterapia com clopidogrel no perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgias de catarata.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> As evid&#234;ncias s&#227;o mais escassas nas cirurgias de glaucoma e de retina, motivo pelo qual recomenda-se suspender o clopidogrel no perioperat&#243;rio dessas interven&#231;&#245;es, respeitando-se o per&#237;odo de 5 dias entre a suspens&#227;o e o procedimento.</p>
          <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes anticoagulados com varfarina, as evid&#234;ncias na literatura s&#227;o favor&#225;veis &#224; sua manuten&#231;&#227;o em opera&#231;&#245;es de menor risco hemorr&#225;gico, como as de catarata, certificando-se que a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o avaliada pelo resultado da RNI esteja na faixa terap&#234;utica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise de estudos observacionais, acompanhando pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia de catarata na vig&#234;ncia do uso de varfarina, constatou incid&#234;ncia de sangramento da ordem de 10%; esses sangramentos foram, em sua maioria, autolimitados e subconjuntivais, e nenhum paciente cursou com perda visual relacionada a tal ocorr&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup> J&#225; nas opera&#231;&#245;es de glaucoma e doen&#231;as da retina, a varfarina deve ser suspensa e o manejo perioperat&#243;rio deve seguir a estrat&#233;gia descrita nesta Diretriz na se&#231;&#227;o de manejo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio (consultar Item 4.3), de acordo com o risco individual de eventos tromb&#243;ticos dos pacientes. At&#233; o momento, as evid&#234;ncias dos riscos de hemorragia em pacientes utilizando os DOACs em cirurgias oftalmol&#243;gicas s&#243; s&#227;o bem estabelecidas no caso das cirurgias de catarata. O risco de sangramento com varfarina nas cirurgias de catarata foi bem estudado, e a maioria das diretrizes recomenda a sua manuten&#231;&#227;o desde que a RNI se encontre na faixa terap&#234;utica. Os DOACs conferem um menor risco de sangramento do que a varfarina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup> Baseado em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise, sabe-se que os pacientes em uso de DOAC t&#234;m 22% de redu&#231;&#227;o de risco relativo de sangramento intraocular espont&#226;neo comparado com a varfarina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup> Dois pequenos estudos compararam a suspens&#227;o ou a manuten&#231;&#227;o dos DOACs durante a cirurgia de catarata e n&#227;o acharam aumento de complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o da terapia com DOACs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup> Baseados nessas evid&#234;ncias, a tend&#234;ncia da maioria dos grandes centros tem sido manter o uso dos DOACs na cirurgia de catarata, principalmente pela aus&#234;ncia de evid&#234;ncias em contr&#225;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup> Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s cirurgias com maior risco de sangramento, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; seguran&#231;a do uso dos DOACs, e a tend&#234;ncia tem sido a sua suspens&#227;o em geral 24 h antes da cirurgia.</p>
          <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es relativas ao que deve ser feito, principalmente para pacientes portadores de <italic>stents</italic> coronarianos e pr&#243;teses valvares de natureza mec&#226;nica, devem ser individualizadas, considerando a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os riscos tromb&#243;tico e hemorr&#225;gico. Para os pacientes cuja recomenda&#231;&#227;o for manter o anticoagulante e/ou antiagregante, o cirurgi&#227;o deve ser informado da necessidade de garantir hemostasia adequada. Uma sugest&#227;o que pode ser considerada e discutida com o anestesiologista &#8722; a quem cabe a decis&#227;o final &#8722; &#233; utilizar um tipo de anestesia espec&#237;fica, menos associada a complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> No caso dos antiagregantes, se a decis&#227;o for pela interrup&#231;&#227;o, eles devem ser reiniciados no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio o mais rapidamente poss&#237;vel. Recomenda-se tamb&#233;m que o procedimento, nesses casos associados a maior risco CV, seja realizado em hospital com capacidade para interven&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica (angioplastia) de urg&#234;ncia, caso necess&#225;rio.</p>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t23">Quadro 14</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es oftalmol&#243;gicas.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t23">
            <label>Quadro 14</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es oftalmol&#243;gicas</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="00%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Para os pacientes que tiverem a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de manter o anticoagulante e/ou antiagregante, o oftalmologista deve ser informado da necessidade de garantir hemostasia adequada</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es oftalmol&#243;gicas e est&#227;o em uso de &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico para preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular secund&#225;ria devem manter seu uso no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es oftalmol&#243;gicas para glaucoma ou vitrectomia e que est&#227;o em uso de clopidogrel em monoterapia devem suspender seu uso no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; vitrectomia ou &#224; trabeculectomia e est&#227;o em terapia anticoagulante com varfarina devem suspender seu uso no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a cirurgia de catarata devem manter o uso de varfarina, desde que a raz&#227;o normalizada internacional esteja dentro da faixa terap&#234;utica</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a cirurgia de catarata e est&#227;o em uso de anticoagulantes orais diretos podem manter o seu uso durante a cirurgia</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso de clopidogrel em monoterapia para preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular secund&#225;ria, que ser&#227;o submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es de catarata, devem manter seu uso no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria por stent recente (vide Item 4.2) ou s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda h&#225; menos de 1 ano e que necessitam realizar interven&#231;&#245;es de menor risco hemorr&#225;gico (inje&#231;&#245;es intravitreais, catarata e anestesia peribulbar) devem manter o uso da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria por stent recente (vide Item 4.2) ou s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda h&#225; menos de 1 ano e que necessitam realizar interven&#231;&#245;es de maior risco hemorr&#225;gico (vitrectomia ou trabeculectomia) devem manter o uso do &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico e suspender os inibidores dos receptores P2Y12 no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.4. Doen&#231;a Valvar</title>
        <p>Pacientes portadores de valvopatia candidatos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas t&#234;m um maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es CV durante o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> Esse risco est&#225; relacionado ao tipo e &#224; gravidade anat&#244;mica da valvopatia, &#224; presen&#231;a de sintomas e ao tipo de cirurgia a ser realizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> As principais complica&#231;&#245;es CV que podem ocorrer nesse contexto incluem congest&#227;o pulmonar, edema agudo de pulm&#227;o, choque cardiog&#234;nico, IAM, taquiarritmias, eventos emb&#243;licos, sangramentos e EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Diante da suspeita de valvopatia ap&#243;s hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e exame f&#237;sico detalhados, recomenda-se a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico. Esse exame tem como objetivo avaliar a gravidade anat&#244;mica da doen&#231;a valvar, a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e o remodelamento das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas e estimar a press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar. Caso persistam d&#250;vidas, outros m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos podem ser utilizados, como o ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico, a tomografia computadorizada, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e o cateterismo card&#237;aco.</p>
        <p>Pacientes portadores de valvopatia anatomicamente importante sintom&#225;ticos apresentam alta morbimortalidade e devem ser submetidos a tratamento intervencionista valvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup> Nos cen&#225;rios eletivos, o tratamento da valvopatia deve ser priorizado antes da realiza&#231;&#227;o de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas. No caso de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca emergencial, o procedimento dever&#225; ser realizado com cuidados espec&#237;ficos para cada valvopatia a fim de minimizar as chances de descompensa&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular.</p>
        <p>De uma maneira geral, as valvopatias esten&#243;ticas acarretam um maior risco perioperat&#243;rio em compara&#231;&#227;o com valvopatias regurgitantes. Por esta raz&#227;o, &#233; necess&#225;rio dispensar um cuidado adicional aos pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica e/ou estenose mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref></sup> Se houver les&#227;o de mais de uma valva card&#237;aca e/ou combina&#231;&#227;o de estenose e IC, os cuidados devem ser baseados na les&#227;o de gravidade anat&#244;mica mais significativa.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4.1. Estenose A&#243;rtica</title>
          <p>A estenose a&#243;rtica &#233; uma valvopatia comum em pacientes idosos, afetando aproximadamente 2 a 4% dos adultos com mais de 75 anos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> com expectativa de aumento desse n&#250;mero nos pr&#243;ximos anos. Quando a estenose a&#243;rtica &#233; anatomicamente importante, representa um fator de risco bem estabelecido para mortalidade, IC e IAM no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Nos pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica anatomicamente importante, assintom&#225;ticos, &#233; seguro realizar cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de baixo risco, desde que se evite sobrecarga de volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> Nesses casos, se houver d&#250;vidas sobre a condi&#231;&#227;o de sintomas do paciente, &#233; prudente realizar teste funcional. O <italic>Heart Team</italic>, incluindo cirurgi&#227;o e anestesista, tem um papel importante na tomada de decis&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Nos pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica importante sintom&#225;tica ou em programa&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia eletiva de risco moderado a alto, a corre&#231;&#227;o valvar deve ser priorizada antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> A substitui&#231;&#227;o valvar associa-se &#224; menor mortalidade intra-hospitalar e em 30 dias em indiv&#237;duos submetidos a cirurgias de risco intermedi&#225;rio e alto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, um estudo realizado por Mizuno et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref></sup> com 218 pacientes, demonstrou que portadores de estenose a&#243;rtica submetidos a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;acas de alto risco apresentaram progress&#227;o mais r&#225;pida da valvopatia em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles que n&#227;o passaram por interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica. A escolha entre cirurgia ou implante transcateter da valva a&#243;rtica (TAVI) deve ser baseada nas diretrizes mais recentes de valvopatia. Quando a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca precisar ser realizada com brevidade, &#233; importante considerar a possibilidade de TAVI devido &#224; recupera&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida associada a esse procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Nos casos em que a TAVI e a cirurgia valvar forem invi&#225;veis, a valvoplastia por cateter-bal&#227;o pode ser uma alternativa, embora seja necess&#225;rio ponderar os riscos desse procedimento e estar ciente de que ocorrer&#225; reestenose posteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200">200</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Se a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca for urgente ou tempo-dependente, como no caso de fratura de f&#234;mur, &#233; necess&#225;rio realizar monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica invasiva durante anestesia, evitando mudan&#231;a do <italic>status</italic> vol&#234;mico, especialmente devido ao elevado risco de hipervolemia. Nesses casos, &#233; recomendado p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio em unidade de tratamento intensivo (UTI), com monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica e eletrocardiogr&#225;fica cont&#237;nuas, al&#233;m da realiza&#231;&#227;o de dosagens seriadas de troponina. Nas cirurgias tempo-dependente, podem ser consideradas a realiza&#231;&#227;o de valvoplastia por cateter-bal&#227;o e TAVI a depender da gravidade anat&#244;mica da les&#227;o e da disponibilidade desses recursos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4.2. Estenose Mitral</title>
          <p>Pacientes com estenose mitral discreta a moderada podem ser submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas com seguran&#231;a, desde que sejam tomadas medidas para prevenir taquicardia e sobrecarga vol&#234;mica antes e ap&#243;s o procedimento.</p>
          <p>Pacientes com estenose mitral importante, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de sintomas, apresentam maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es CV. Nos casos em que h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o de corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica ou percut&#226;nea da valvopatia, os pacientes devem ser submetidos ao procedimento valvar antes de qualquer cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B201">201</xref></sup> Em situa&#231;&#245;es de estenose mitral importante assintom&#225;tica e sem indica&#231;&#227;o de tratamento intervencionista, deve-se considerar o tratamento valvar antes de cirurgias de alto risco.</p>
          <p>Em situa&#231;&#245;es de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca emergencial, &#233; recomendada a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica invasiva e preven&#231;&#227;o de taquicardia e hipervolemia. O aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, especialmente se houver o desenvolvimento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA), pode levar &#224; congest&#227;o e ao edema pulmonar. Dessa forma, o emprego de betabloqueador e/ou diur&#233;tico pode ser feito no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4.3. Insufici&#234;ncia A&#243;rtica e Insufici&#234;Ncia Mitral</title>
          <p>Valvopatias regurgitantes prim&#225;rias est&#227;o associadas a um aumento do risco card&#237;aco durante cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas, por&#233;m s&#227;o mais bem toleradas do que as les&#245;s valvares esten&#243;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203">203</xref></sup> Insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica e insufici&#234;ncia mitral de graus leve ou moderado n&#227;o acarretam aumento do risco de complica&#231;&#245;s CV durante cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca. No caso de disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar importante, desde que n&#227;o gerem sintomas e com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada, tamb&#233;m &#233; poss&#237;vel realizar cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas com cautela para evitar sobrecarga vol&#234;mica.</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, no caso de insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica ou insufici&#234;ncia mitral prim&#225;rias importantes com indica&#231;&#227;o de troca valvar, h&#225; elevado risco de complica&#231;&#245;s CV, e a corre&#231;&#227;o da valvopatia deve ser priorizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> Nos casos de insufici&#234;ncia mitral secund&#225;ria sintom&#225;tica de graus moderado a importante, &#233; importante avaliar, em conjunto com o <italic>Heart Team</italic>, se o paciente &#233; candidato &#224; cirurgia ou &#224; corre&#231;&#227;o transcateter com dispositivos <italic>edge-to-edge</italic>, antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Caso o procedimento n&#227;o card&#237;aco seja de urg&#234;ncia ou emerg&#234;ncia, deve ser realizado ap&#243;s otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento farmacol&#243;gico e estabiliza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, empregando-se preferencialmente vasodilatadores e diur&#233;ticos, al&#233;m do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio em UTI.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4.4. Pr&#243;tese Valvar</title>
          <p>Pacientes portadores de pr&#243;tese valvar normofuncionante e sem disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda podem ser submetidos a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca sem risco adicional.</p>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t24">Quadro 15</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes com doen&#231;as valvares.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t24">
            <label>Quadro 15</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes com doen&#231;as valvares</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Realizar ecocardiograma em pacientes sabidamente portadores ou com suspeita de altera&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica valvar moderada/importante e que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; cirurgia de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, sem avalia&#231;&#227;o nos &#250;ltimos 6 a 12 meses ou que apresentaram piora cl&#237;nica</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes portadores de valvopatia com indica&#231;&#227;o de tratamento intervencionista valvar devem, prioritariamente, ser submetidos ao tratamento card&#237;aco e, posteriormente, &#224; cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca proposta</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica importante, assintom&#225;tica, em programa&#231;&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas eletivas de risco intermedi&#225;rio e alto dever&#227;o ser submetidos ao tratamento intervencionista da valvopatia antes da opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com estenose mitral importante, assintom&#225;tica e com complicadores (press&#227;o sist&#243;lica na art&#233;ria pulmonar [PSAP] &#8805; 50 mmHg no repouso ou PSAP &#8805; 60 mmHg ao esfor&#231;o) dever&#227;o ser submetidos ao tratamento da valvopatia antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com valvopatia regurgitante importante assintom&#225;tica podem ser submetidos &#224; cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.5. Transplante de &#211;rg&#227;os S&#243;lidos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.1. F&#237;gado</title>
          <p>Considerado o tratamento de escolha para boa parte das doen&#231;as hep&#225;ticas terminais, o transplante de f&#237;gado vem se tornando um procedimento rotineiro em v&#225;rios centros. Novas abordagens anest&#233;sicas, o aumento da experi&#234;ncia dos cirurgi&#245;es e a melhoria nos cuidados de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios t&#234;m possibilitado condutas que, at&#233; pouco mais de uma d&#233;cada, seriam exce&#231;&#227;o. Dessa forma, muitos grupos t&#234;m estendido as indica&#231;&#245;es de transplante a popula&#231;&#245;es cada vez mais idosas e para casos mais complexos que, anteriormente, seriam contraindicados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup> Adicionalmente, indica&#231;&#245;es por esteato-hepatite n&#227;o alco&#243;lica, habitualmente associada a obesidade, diabetes, hipertens&#227;o e doen&#231;as CV, t&#234;m se tornado cada vez mais frequentes, passando a liderar as indica&#231;&#245;es de transplante hep&#225;tico em alguns centros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B205">205</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Estudos mostram que, nos pacientes submetidos a transplante de f&#237;gado, at&#233; 26% t&#234;m alguma les&#227;o coronariana cr&#237;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> No per&#237;odo de 1 ano ap&#243;s o transplante, 15,2% dos pacientes t&#234;m algum tipo de doen&#231;a CV e 2,8% morrem em fun&#231;&#227;o delas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup> Dessa forma, a mortalidade por causas card&#237;acas se mant&#233;m como a terceira causa mais frequente ap&#243;s o transplante de f&#237;gado, atr&#225;s apenas de infec&#231;&#245;es e rejei&#231;&#227;o ou disfun&#231;&#227;o de enxerto. Os eventos card&#237;acos mais comuns s&#227;o arritmias, edema pulmonar e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, al&#233;m de morte s&#250;bita e IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> Por essas raz&#245;es, a avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica no pr&#233;-transplante &#233; crucial para definir o manejo correto desses pacientes, tanto no pr&#233; como no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m dos eventos relacionados &#224; DAC, outras comorbidades caracter&#237;sticas do paciente hepatopata podem aumentar a morbimortalidade no p&#243;s-transplante de f&#237;gado. Entre elas, as principais s&#227;o a cardiomiopatia relacionada ao &#225;lcool e a pr&#243;pria cirrose, a hipertens&#227;o pulmonar (HP) e a s&#237;ndrome hepatopulmonar (SHP).</p>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t25">Tabela 10</xref><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup> resume as principais comorbidades cardiopulmonares dos pacientes candidatos ao transplante de f&#237;gado, os achados cl&#237;nicos, o diagn&#243;stico e a evolu&#231;&#227;o esperada ap&#243;s o transplante.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t25">
            <label>Tabela 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Preval&#234;ncia de comorbidades cardiopulmonares em pacientes candidatos a transplante de f&#237;gado</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Preval&#234;ncia</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Expectativa de evolu&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o transplante de f&#237;gado</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">2,5-27%</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Progress&#227;o, expectativa de piora dos fatores de risco</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Cardiomiopatia cirr&#243;tica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Desconhecida, mas provavelmente elevada</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Revers&#227;o ap&#243;s o transplante de f&#237;gado</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Doen&#231;a card&#237;aca valvar</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Desconhecida, mas provavelmente baixa</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Progress&#227;o independente do transplante de f&#237;gado</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">18%</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Progress&#227;o independente do transplante de f&#237;gado</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hidrot&#243;rax hep&#225;tico</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">5-12%</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Resolu&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o transplante de f&#237;gado</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">S&#237;ndrome hepatopulmonar</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">20%</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Resolu&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o transplante de f&#237;gado na maior parte dos casos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Hipertens&#227;o pulmonar</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">4%</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Inalterada ou lentamente progressiva</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN9">
                <p>Adaptado de Martinez-Palli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup></p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.1.1. Cardiomiopatia Associada &#224; Cirrose (CAC)</title>
            <p>A cardiomiopatia associada &#224; cirrose (CAC) caracteriza-se pela seguinte tr&#237;ade no cirr&#243;tico:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref></sup> disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica (decorrente principalmente de um d&#233;ficit na resposta contr&#225;til induzida pelo estresse e de FEVE em repouso abaixo de 55%), disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e altera&#231;&#245;es eletrofisiol&#243;gicas (especialmente aumento do intervalo QT, d&#233;ficit cronotr&#243;pico e bradicardia, altera&#231;&#245;es de repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular). Aumento de &#225;trio esquerdo, da massa mioc&#225;rdica, eleva&#231;&#227;o do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B (BNP), do BNP N-terminal (NT-pr&#243;-BNP) e da troponina I tamb&#233;m s&#227;o comumente encontrados.</p>
            <p>Apesar de esses achados aumentarem a morbimortalidade nos candidatos ao transplante de f&#237;gado, n&#227;o se demonstrou nenhum benef&#237;cio no tratamento espec&#237;fico dessas altera&#231;&#245;es.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.1.2. Cardiopatia Alc&#243;olica</title>
            <p>A cardiopatia alc&#243;olica chega a acometer 21 a 32% dos pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada em alguns relatos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B212">212</xref></sup> Considerando que a cirrose alco&#243;lica est&#225; entre as maiores causas de doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica, compreende-se que a ocorr&#234;ncia concomitante da cirrose com cardiomiopatia dilatada &#233; relativamente comum e seu diagn&#243;stico deve ser considerado na avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria, durante a qual, n&#227;o raramente, s&#227;o diagnosticadas doen&#231;as at&#233; ent&#227;o desconhecidas do paciente.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.1.3. Hipertens&#227;o Portopulmonar (HPP)</title>
            <p>O estado hiperdin&#226;mico do paciente com hipertens&#227;o portal pode provocar a vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o e remodelamento dos vasos pulmonares, levando &#224; HP. Tais altera&#231;&#245;es acometem de 5 a 10% dos candidatos ao transplante e n&#227;o est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; etiologia ou &#224; gravidade da hipertens&#227;o portal, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de cirrose hep&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> Pela classifica&#231;&#227;o de HP, a hipertens&#227;o portopulmonar (HPP) pertence ao grupo 1, devido &#224;s suas semelhan&#231;as patol&#243;gicas e hemodin&#226;micas com as demais causas de HP pr&#233;-capilar. Pode ser estratificada, conforme a press&#227;o m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria pulmonar, em leve (&gt; 25 e &lt; 35 mmHg), moderada (&gt; 35 e &lt; 45 mmHg) ou severa (&gt; 45 mmHg).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup> O quadro cl&#237;nico e os exames apresentam caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas &#250;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Como os sintomas s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos e o diagn&#243;stico de HPP impacta diretamente na elegibilidade para o transplante de f&#237;gado, a triagem com ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico &#233; recomendada para todos os candidatos. Uma press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar (PSAP) acima de 50 mmHg possui uma elevada acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica de HPP em candidatos a transplante hep&#225;tico (sensibilidade de 97% e especificidade de 77% para HPP moderada a importante).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o ecocardiograma &#233; &#250;til para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita e descartar disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE e doen&#231;as valvares, que podem gerar um componente de HP p&#243;s-capilar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup> As diretrizes da International Liver Transplantation Society sugerem o cateterismo direito para obten&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico definitivo de HPP se a PSAP estimada no ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico for superior a 50 mmHg. No entanto, novas evid&#234;ncias demonstram um aumento na sensibilidade do diagn&#243;stico se for utilizado ponto de corte de PSAP estimada maior que 40 mmHg. Assim, de acordo com as condi&#231;&#245;es dos servi&#231;os, a PSAP pelo ecocardiograma entre 40 e 45 mmHg pode ser utilizada como indica&#231;&#227;o para o cateterismo card&#237;aco, especialmente se houver outros indicativos de HP (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup></p>
            <fig id="f3">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial pulmonar em candidatos a transplante hep&#225;tico. HP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar; ECOTT: ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica de art&#233;ria pulmonar; PAPm: press&#227;o arterial pulmonar m&#233;dia. Adaptada de Cartin-Ceba e Krowka.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf04.tif"/></fig>
            <p>O diagn&#243;stico de HPP envolve a exclus&#227;o de outras causas de HP e a presen&#231;a de par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos confirmat&#243;rios no cateterismo direito:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Press&#227;o arterial pulmonar m&#233;dia (PAPm) &gt; 25 mmHg</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar (RVP) &gt; 3 Wood (ou 240 dyn.s.cm-5)</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Press&#227;o capilar pulmonar (PCP) &lt; 15 mmHg. Se PCP &gt; 15 mmHg, provavelmente por hipervolemia (comum nos cirr&#243;ticos), um gradiente transpulmonar (PAPm-PCP) &gt; 12 mmHg sugere HPP.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Vale ressaltar que aproximadamente 20% dos pacientes cirr&#243;ticos possuem aumento moderado da press&#227;o pulmonar no ecocardiograma, mas apenas uma fra&#231;&#227;o pequena possu&#237; realmente HPP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O manejo da HPP depende dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos avaliados pelo cateterismo direito (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> Em pacientes com PAPm entre 35 mmHg e 50 mmHg com aumento da RVP (&gt; 240), o transplante hep&#225;tico n&#227;o pode ser realizado, a menos que haja queda da PAPm e da RVP ap&#243;s o tratamento medicamentoso da HP. Essas medica&#231;&#245;es possuem efeitos vasodilatador, antiagregante plaquet&#225;rio e antiproliferativo, podendo atuar na redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> As principais classes dispon&#237;veis s&#227;o:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Inibidores de fosfodiesterase (ex.: sildenafil)</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Antagonistas dos receptores de endotelina (ex.: bosentan, ambrisentan, macitentan)</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Estimulador sol&#250;vel da guanilato ciclase (riociguat)</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Prostanoides (epoprostenol, iloprost, trepostinil)</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>No entanto, a equipara&#231;&#227;o da morbimortalidade de pacientes tratados com tais medica&#231;&#245;es com os pacientes sem diagn&#243;stico de HP ainda n&#227;o foi demonstrada. Mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios nesta &#225;rea.</p>
            <p>A mortalidade perioperat&#243;ria em HPP grave &#233; pr&#243;xima de 100%, motivo pelo qual se constitui como contraindica&#231;&#227;o ao transplante isolado de f&#237;gado, podendo, em centros seletos, ser indicado o transplante combinado pulm&#227;o-f&#237;gado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.1.4. S&#237;ndrome Hepatopulmonar</title>
            <p>Apesar de ser por vezes confundida com a HPP, a SHP apresenta caracter&#237;sticas diversas da primeira, sendo definida como hip&#243;xia em presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica que piora com a postura ereta, com evid&#234;ncia de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o intrapulmonar. A hip&#243;xia se d&#225; pelo ac&#250;mulo de vasodilatadores pulmonares, em especial o &#243;xido n&#237;trico, levando a <italic>shunt</italic> arteriovenoso intrapulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A SHP &#233; definida pela seguinte tr&#237;ade:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o portal ou doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica cr&#244;nica ou shunts portossist&#234;micos cong&#234;nitos;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Hipoxemia (gradiente alv&#233;olo-arterial &gt; 15 mmHg ou 20 mmHg se idade &gt; 64 anos); e</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Presen&#231;a de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o intrapulmonar, levando a shunt (aparecimento de bolhas em c&#226;maras esquerdas ap&#243;s tr&#234;s ciclos card&#237;acos no ecocardiograma com microbolhas).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>A SHP acomete de 5 a 32% dos candidatos ao transplante e n&#227;o est&#225; relacionada &#224; etiologia ou &#224; gravidade da doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221">221</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B222">222</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O quadro cl&#237;nico t&#237;pico consiste em um paciente com estigmas de hepatopatia cr&#244;nica associados a cianose, baqueteamento digital, dispneia na posi&#231;&#227;o ereta (platipneia) e hip&#243;xia tamb&#233;m nesta posi&#231;&#227;o (ortodeoxia). A hipoxemia &#233; um achado marcante nesta s&#237;ndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A triagem &#233; realizada com a oximetria de pulso. Uma satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio inferior a 96% possui uma sensibilidade de 100% e especificidade de 88% para detec&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o parcial de oxig&#234;nio arterial (PAO2) &lt; 60 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> Portanto, recomenda-se a coleta de gasometria arterial nesses pacientes. Se a gasometria evidenciar um gradiente alv&#233;olo-arterial elevado (&#8805; 15 mmHg ou 20 mmHg se idade &gt; 64 anos) e uma PAO2 &lt; 80 mmHg, procedemos ao ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico com microbolhas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> Se houver um <italic>shunt</italic> intracard&#237;aco (por exemplo, comunica&#231;&#227;o interatrial, forame oval patente), as bolhas passam para as c&#226;maras card&#237;acas esquerdas ap&#243;s um a dois ciclos card&#237;acos, a contar da visualiza&#231;&#227;o das bolhas no &#225;trio direito. Se essas bolhas aparecerem no &#225;trio esquerdo ap&#243;s tr&#234;s ciclos card&#237;acos, est&#225; confirmada a exist&#234;ncia do <italic>shunt</italic> pulmonar (as bolhas conseguem passar pelos vasos pulmonares dilatados na SHP). Vale salientar que o ecocardiograma com microbolhas &#233; sens&#237;vel, por&#233;m n&#227;o &#233; espec&#237;fico para SHP, pois diversos pacientes cirr&#243;ticos possuem o exame positivo (<italic>shunts</italic> intrapulmonares) sem fechar crit&#233;rio para SHP por n&#227;o apresentarem hipoxemia. Um exame mais espec&#237;fico para SHP &#233; a cintilografia pulmonar com macroagregado de albumina-99mm Tc.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O manejo da SHP consiste em suporte com oxig&#234;nio, apesar de n&#227;o evidenciar benef&#237;cio sustentado na melhora da dispneia e na qualidade de vida desses pacientes. Diversas terapias medicamentosas j&#225; foram testadas, por&#233;m sem benef&#237;cio comprovado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Diferentemente da HP, o tratamento de escolha para a SHP &#233; o transplante de f&#237;gado, embora dados n&#227;o definitivos correlacionem o grau de hip&#243;xia com a mortalidade perioperat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B223">223</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.1.5. Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana</title>
            <p>Os fatores de risco para a DAC est&#227;o t&#227;o ou mais presentes nos pacientes cirr&#243;ticos do que na popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Em pacientes com doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica avan&#231;ada, a preval&#234;ncia de diabetes e de DAC &#233; igual ou maior que na popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Em especial nos pacientes com diabetes melito, a preval&#234;ncia de DAC varia entre 2,5 a 27%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B225">225</xref></sup> Por outro lado, o grau de comprometimento da doen&#231;a (grau de estenose) n&#227;o parece se correlacionar com um pior progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> Comparando os candidatos a transplante hep&#225;tico com os candidatos a transplante renal, os &#250;ltimos possuem maior frequ&#234;ncia de diabetes melito, hipertens&#227;o arterial e DAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B227">227</xref></sup></p>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.1.5.1. Quando Investigar DAC?</title>
              <p>As indica&#231;&#245;es de testes n&#227;o invasivos para DAC em pacientes com doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica avan&#231;ada variam entre as sociedades: algumas indicam a todos os candidatos a transplante hep&#225;tico, ao passo que outras sugerem a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular antes de solicitar o exame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref></sup> Uma estrat&#233;gia interessante para pacientes assintom&#225;ticos para DAC e candidatos a transplante hep&#225;tico &#233; avaliar a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco cardiovasculares (sexo masculino, hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes melito, dislipidemia, tabagismo pr&#233;vio ou atual e hist&#243;ria familiar de DAC precoce).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup> Se zero ou um fatores, o valor preditivo negativo para DAC obstrutiva &#233; elevado, portanto, n&#227;o h&#225; necessidade de solicitar teste n&#227;o invasivo. J&#225; se houver dois ou mais fatores, h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o de prosseguir investiga&#231;&#227;o com teste n&#227;o invasivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B225">225</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Para pacientes sintom&#225;ticos, devemos seguir a avalia&#231;&#227;o habitual para DAC, como preconizada nas diretrizes espec&#237;ficas, estratificando o paciente de acordo com sintomas (caracter&#237;stica da dor, dispneia) e com os fatores de risco (sexo, idade).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s a estratifica&#231;&#227;o, determina-se a probabilidade pr&#233;-teste de DAC. Se for baixa/intermedi&#225;ria (&lt; 15%), pode-se optar por testes n&#227;o invasivos (anat&#244;micos ou funcionais) ou por n&#227;o prosseguir investiga&#231;&#227;o (se probabilidade muito baixa de DAC). Se for elevada (&gt; 15%), deve-se dar prefer&#234;ncia ao cateterismo card&#237;aco. Em geral, a prefer&#234;ncia para abordagem invasiva &#233; dada em pacientes com angina importante e refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, disfun&#231;&#227;o de VE ou achados de alto risco nos testes n&#227;o invasivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.1.5.2. Qual Exame Solicitar para Investigar DAC?</title>
              <p>Uma vez classificado o risco do paciente, passa-se &#224; escolha da melhor forma de investiga&#231;&#227;o complementar. Pela pr&#243;pria caracter&#237;stica dos candidatos ao transplante de f&#237;gado, essa investiga&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o tem uma padroniza&#231;&#227;o formal. Boa parte dos pacientes tem limita&#231;&#245;es &#224; locomo&#231;&#227;o, ascites volumosas, neuropatia pela pr&#243;pria cronicidade da doen&#231;a etc., n&#227;o permitindo, por exemplo, teste ergom&#233;trico. Ademais, cerca de 50% dos pacientes com cirrose apresentam prolongamento do intervalo QT, o que pode prejudicar a avalia&#231;&#227;o do teste.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica terminal se caracteriza por vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e taquicardia, prejudicando a resposta induzida por vasodilatadores (dipiridamol e adenosina) na cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica. Os receptores beta-adren&#233;rgicos respondem pouco aos est&#237;mulos simp&#225;ticos, levando a respostas duvidosas nos estudos com dobutamina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup> J&#225; foi comparado o uso de dobutamina <italic>versus</italic> vasodilatadores como estresse farmacol&#243;gico nesse cen&#225;rio de pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de transplante hep&#225;tico, e as evid&#234;ncias favorecem a dobutamina, sobretudo o ecocardiograma com essa modalidade de estresse farmacol&#243;gico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m nesse caso, a indica&#231;&#227;o de qual teste utilizar deve respeitar as caracter&#237;sticas regionais de cada centro.</p>
              <p>A angiotomografia de coron&#225;rias tamb&#233;m j&#225; foi avaliada nesse contexto e, quando normal ou com les&#245;es coronarianas n&#227;o obstrutivas, alcan&#231;ou um valor preditivo negativo de 95% para eventos cardiovasculares maiores e de 100% para eventos cl&#237;nicos coronarianos. Um escore de c&#225;lcio acima de 400 tem alto poder preditivo para eventos cardiovasculares precoces nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> Um cuidado que devemos ter com este exame e tamb&#233;m com o cateterismo card&#237;aco &#233; o uso de contraste. A doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica terminal normalmente vem acompanhada por disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, que deve ser levada em conta antes de indicarmos esses exames.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.1.5.3. Quando e Como Intervir na DAC?</title>
              <p>A op&#231;&#227;o pelo tratamento desses pacientes deve obedecer ao crit&#233;rio de que a n&#227;o interven&#231;&#227;o pode levar a um risco excessivo durante e ap&#243;s a cirurgia. No entanto, a melhor op&#231;&#227;o de tratamento n&#227;o est&#225; estabelecida e deve ser individualizada para cada paciente.</p>
              <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos percut&#226;neos, com coloca&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stents</italic>, que, pelo consenso atual para esse tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o, devem ser farmacol&#243;gicos, deve levar em conta a caracter&#237;stica tempo-sens&#237;vel da cirurgia do transplante de f&#237;gado, decidindo-se pela op&#231;&#227;o que menor impacte o tempo de espera em lista.</p>
              <p>A op&#231;&#227;o de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica deve, quando poss&#237;vel, ser postergada para depois do transplante, pela grande chance de ocorrerem eventos hemorr&#225;gicos ou agravamento da situa&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica com a cirurgia. A cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica antes do transplante deve ser reservada apenas para pacientes em que o risco de morte pela DAC supere o risco de morte de doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica. A cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pode ser realizada ap&#243;s o transplante de f&#237;gado com razo&#225;vel seguran&#231;a e baixas taxas de complica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B229">229</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup></p>
              <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t26">Quadro 16</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de transplante hep&#225;tico.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t26">
                <label>Quadro 16</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de transplante hep&#225;tico</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="00%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Eletrocardiograma e radiografia de t&#243;rax devem ser solicitados para todos os pacientes</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Ecocardiograma deve ser solicitado para todos os pacientes</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes com ecocardiograma mostrando press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar (PSAP) acima de 50 mmHg, deve ser solicitado o cateterismo card&#237;aco direito com medida da press&#227;o em art&#233;ria pulmonar</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes com ecocardiograma mostrando PSAP acima de 40 mmHg, principalmente se outros sinais de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar estiverem presentes, deve-se considerar o cateterismo card&#237;aco direito com medida da press&#227;o em art&#233;ria pulmonar</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes assintom&#225;ticos para doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC), sem disfun&#231;&#227;o segmentar ao ecocardiograma e com dois ou mais fatores de risco para DAC<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">*</xref>, solicitar preferencialmente um ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico com dobutamina</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes sintom&#225;ticos para DAC, calcular a probabilidade pr&#233;-teste de DAC e solicitar os exames adicionais conforme as diretrizes espec&#237;ficas</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">A cineangiocoronariografia deve ser realizada em pacientes com alta probabilidade pr&#233;-teste de DAC, angina importante e refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, disfun&#231;&#227;o nova de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo ou achados de alto risco nos testes n&#227;o invasivos, apesar das complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas serem mais comuns e altera&#231;&#245;es como eleva&#231;&#227;o da creatinina poderem contribuir para o aumento na morbidade dos cirr&#243;ticos</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">A interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea com coloca&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stents</italic> (quando for necess&#225;rio realiz&#225;-la antes do transplante em fun&#231;&#227;o da gravidade) deve levar em conta a possibilidade de o paciente falecer em fun&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica enquanto aguarda o per&#237;odo de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o e o benef&#237;cio real da interven&#231;&#227;o em minimizar riscos perioperat&#243;rios</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">A cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica antes do transplante deve ser reservada apenas para pacientes em que o risco de morte pela DAC supere o risco de morte pela doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica, e a decis&#227;o deve ser compartilhada com uma equipe multidisciplinar</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Os vasodilatadores pulmonares podem ser usados para tentar reduzir a hipertens&#227;o pulmonar em pacientes com press&#227;o arterial pulmonar (PAP) m&#233;dia entre 35 e 45 mmHg e aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica (&gt; 240 dynes)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com PAP m&#233;dia maior ou igual a 35 mmHg no cateterismo direito devem ser encaminhados ao especialista em hipertens&#227;o pulmonar<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup></td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Realizar transplante hep&#225;tico em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o pulmonar severa em centros que n&#227;o ofere&#231;am terapias agressivas para redu&#231;&#227;o da PAP ou, ainda, a possibilidade de transplante concomitante de pulm&#227;o</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN10">
                    <label>*</label>
                    <p>Sexo masculino, hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes melito, dislipidemia, tabagismo pr&#233;vio ou atual e hist&#243;ria familiar de DAC precoce.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.2. Rim</title>
          <p>Pacientes com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica est&#225;gio 5 (taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular &lt; 15 mL/min/1,73m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>) em tratamento dial&#237;tico ou n&#227;o constituem um dos grupos de maior risco cardiovascular, com taxas de mortalidade cardiovascular cinco a cem vezes maiores do que aquelas encontradas na popula&#231;&#227;o geral para a mesma faixa et&#225;ria. Embora o transplante renal se associe &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares em compara&#231;&#227;o a pacientes mantidos em di&#225;lise, sua incid&#234;ncia permanece mais elevada em transplantados de rim do que na popula&#231;&#227;o geral. De fato, a doen&#231;a cardiovascular &#233; a principal causa de &#243;bito p&#243;s-transplante, especialmente devido &#224; DAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B231">231</xref></sup> O per&#237;odo p&#243;s-transplante apresenta alto risco de IAM, principalmente durante o primeiro ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B232">232</xref></sup> Gill et al. relataram, em uma coorte de 600 pacientes, um aumento significativo na incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares (CV) no primeiro ano ap&#243;s o transplante (39,6/100 pacientes-ano, intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% [IC95%] 20,6-76,1) em compara&#231;&#227;o ao per&#237;odo pr&#233;-transplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref></sup> Nos primeiros 30 dias ap&#243;s o transplante renal, aproximadamente metade dos &#243;bitos &#233; consequ&#234;ncia de IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B234">234</xref></sup> Da mesma maneira, no seguimento tardio, a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica cr&#244;nica do cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; respons&#225;vel por mais de um ter&#231;o dos &#243;bitos em pacientes com enxerto funcionante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B234">234</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Desse modo, a avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de candidatos a transplante renal visa n&#227;o apenas &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular no curto prazo, relacionado ao procedimento cir&#250;rgico, mas tamb&#233;m &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos CV tardios. Durante a avalia&#231;&#227;o de candidatos ao transplante renal, a identifica&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a e da extens&#227;o da DAC se reveste de import&#226;ncia fundamental por permitir que a equipe m&#233;dica estabele&#231;a mais precisamente o risco/benef&#237;cio do transplante, a eventual necessidade de interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, o uso de medidas cardioprotetoras no perioperat&#243;rio e o controle de fatores de risco no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B236">236</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O objetivo desta se&#231;&#227;o &#233; fornecer ao cardiologista os meios mais adequados de estabelecer o risco cardiovascular em uma popula&#231;&#227;o muito especial de pacientes, quase sempre exclu&#237;da dos estudos de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco operat&#243;rio. A meta principal consiste em identificar, entre candidatos ao transplante renal, aqueles com maior probabilidade de diagn&#243;stico de DAC. Dessa maneira, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es aqui inclu&#237;das devem ser aplicadas apenas aos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos ou com sintomas at&#237;picos; para aqueles indiv&#237;duos com evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas e/ou achados de exames de investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica sugestivos de DAC, a investiga&#231;&#227;o complementar e o tratamento devem seguir as regras propostas para a popula&#231;&#227;o geral contidas em se&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas desta Diretriz.</p>
          <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o de DAC &#233; um imenso desafio em candidatos ao transplante renal. Doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria obstrutiva significativa, definida como estenose &#8805; 70% em vasos epic&#225;rdicos maiores (ou &#8805; 50% no tronco da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda), &#233; descrita em candidatos a transplante renal, sendo observada em at&#233; 50% dos indiv&#237;duos dependendo dos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o para estudo angiogr&#225;fico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B237">237</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B238">238</xref></sup> No entanto, esses pacientes frequentemente se apresentam assintom&#225;ticos ou com sintomas at&#237;picos na presen&#231;a de DAC avan&#231;ada. Os m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos de detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, como teste ergom&#233;trico, cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou ecocardiograma sob estresse farmacol&#243;gico &#8722; todos rotineiramente utilizados na popula&#231;&#227;o geral &#8722;, apresentam sensibilidade e especificidade menores do que em indiv&#237;duos com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal, propiciando grande n&#250;mero de resultados falso-negativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B239">239</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B241">241</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, o estudo ISCHEMIA-CKD12 mostrou, em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica est&#225;gios 4 ou 5, que a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica baseada na quantifica&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea isqu&#234;mica n&#227;o foi superior ao tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado na ocorr&#234;ncia de desfechos CV compostos. Cabe salientar que, nesse estudo, pouco mais da metade dos pacientes inclu&#237;dos estava em terapia de substitui&#231;&#227;o renal (53,4%), n&#227;o se tratando, portanto, de um estudo espec&#237;fico para a popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes dial&#237;ticos. De qualquer forma, n&#227;o houve intera&#231;&#227;o significativa entre o efeito do tratamento (interven&#231;&#227;o <italic>versus</italic> tratamento conservador) para o desfecho prim&#225;rio no subgrupo di&#225;lise <italic>versus</italic> n&#227;o di&#225;lise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B242">242</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O uso indiscriminado da cineangiocoronariografia n&#227;o se justifica, por se tratar de m&#233;todo invasivo, n&#227;o isento de riscos de complica&#231;&#245;es e com custo elevado, al&#233;m de resultar em taxas superiores a 50% de exames normais ou sem les&#245;es obstrutivas significativas. Por outro lado, estudos observacionais sugerem que pacientes com coronariopatia importante apresentam risco elevado de eventos e de morte CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B243">243</xref></sup> Avan&#231;os na &#225;rea de imagem CV podem levar &#224; substitui&#231;&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o invasiva por testes n&#227;o invasivos para documenta&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o apenas da presen&#231;a e extens&#227;o de aterosclerose coronariana, mas tamb&#233;m do seu significado funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B244">244</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B245">245</xref></sup></p>
          <p>At&#233; o momento, as evid&#234;ncias n&#227;o suportam a indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#227;o baseada pelo achado de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria obstrutiva durante a avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-transplante renal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B246">246</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B248">248</xref></sup> Em um estudo retrospectivo envolvendo 406 pacientes submetidos &#224; coronariografia invasiva antes do transplante renal, a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos CV (morte CV, s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda ou necessidade de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-transplante) foi similar entre pacientes com DAC obstrutiva e n&#227;o revascularizados (23%) e revascularizados (26%) no seguimento de 5 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B249">249</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Desse modo, a investiga&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a e da extens&#227;o de DAC obstrutiva em candidatos a transplante renal deve ser apenas mais uma etapa na avalia&#231;&#227;o geral do risco dessa popula&#231;&#227;o, a fim de identificar aqueles indiv&#237;duos com maior chance de se beneficiar de estrat&#233;gias de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o e que, portanto, devem ser encaminhados para estudo angiogr&#225;fico. Tal estrat&#233;gia deve reduzir tanto o n&#250;mero de testes invasivos desnecess&#225;rios, otimizando os recursos econ&#244;micos dispon&#237;veis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B250">250</xref></sup> quanto levar a uma rela&#231;&#227;o mais favor&#225;vel entre o risco inerente da interven&#231;&#227;o (maior nesses pacientes do que na popula&#231;&#227;o geral) e o benef&#237;cio progn&#243;stico no longo prazo.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.2.1. Estratifica&#231;&#227;o do Risco da Presen&#231;a de DAC</title>
            <p>N&#227;o existe consenso quanto &#224; melhor estrat&#233;gia para investigar e tratar a DAC nesse grupo de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B251">251</xref></sup> O assunto &#233; controverso, e existem at&#233; mesmo propostas para eliminar de uma vez por todas a pesquisa de DAC oculta em indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B252">252</xref></sup> Isso se deve, sobretudo, &#224; car&#234;ncia de estudos prospectivos nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref></sup> Sabe-se, no entanto, que os par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos mais fortemente associados &#224; doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica p&#243;s-transplante renal s&#227;o idade &gt; 50 anos, diabetes melito e evid&#234;ncia pr&#233;via de doen&#231;a CV (hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e/ou achados de exames). A preval&#234;ncia de DAC significativa (estenose &#8805; 70%) aumenta de acordo com o n&#250;mero de fatores de risco presentes. Esses tr&#234;s fatores de risco t&#234;m servido de base na formula&#231;&#227;o de algoritmos de investiga&#231;&#227;o de DAC em pacientes com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B254">254</xref></sup> Outros fatores considerados preditores de eventos cardiovasculares nesta popula&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o: hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, tabagismo, dislipidemia e tempo em di&#225;lise acima de 1 ano. Em geral, os fatores de risco tradicionais t&#234;m menor impacto em pacientes renais, e os escores de risco, como o Framingham, subestimam o risco real de eventos nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B255">255</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Com base nos resultados de v&#225;rios estudos, a maioria observacionais, propusemos um modelo de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco dos pacientes renais cr&#244;nicos assintom&#225;ticos do ponto de vista CV, em avalia&#231;&#227;o para transplante renal, conforme a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia dos tr&#234;s fatores de risco citados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B256">256</xref></sup> Caso haja alguma lat&#234;ncia entre a estratifica&#231;&#227;o inicial e a realiza&#231;&#227;o do transplante, sugerimos um per&#237;odo de 3 anos para a necessidade de nova estratifica&#231;&#227;o, caso o paciente se mantenha est&#225;vel e sem novos sintomas ou eventos CV.</p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Fluxograma de avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria em pacientes candidatos a transplante renal. DM: diabetes mellitus; DCV: doen&#231;a cardiovascular; PO: p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf05.tif"/></fig>
            <p>Como elemento adicional da estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de eventos CV no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio de transplante renal, recomendamos a dosagem de troponina (hs-Tn) em todos os pacientes antes do procedimento e seriados em 24 h e 48 h ap&#243;s o transplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B257">257</xref></sup> Um aumento absoluto da concentra&#231;&#227;o de hs-Tn no 1&#186; ou 2&#186; dia p&#243;s-transplante comparado aos valores pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios caracteriza a ocorr&#234;ncia de inj&#250;ria/infarto perioperat&#243;rio. Na indisponibilidade de valores basais, um aumento significativo da concentra&#231;&#227;o de hs-Tn no 1&#186; dia p&#243;s-transplante (e.g., &gt; 5 vezes o limite superior da normalidade) ou uma mudan&#231;a significativa nessas concentra&#231;&#245;es entre o 1&#186; e o 2&#186; dia (aumento ou diminui&#231;&#227;o absoluta acima do limite superior da normalidade <italic>versus</italic> 1&#186; dia) tamb&#233;m definem a ocorr&#234;ncia de inj&#250;ria/infarto perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
            <p>Finalmente, recomendamos a integra&#231;&#227;o multidisciplinar na tomada de decis&#227;o sobre a investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos candidatos a transplante renal e para a tomada de decis&#227;o frente ao achado de eventual DAC obstrutiva ("Heart-Kidney Team").<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B258">258</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t27">Quadro 17</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco perioperat&#243;rio em candidatos a transplante renal.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t27">
              <label>Quadro 17</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco perioperat&#243;rio em candidatos a transplante renal</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Todos os pacientes candidatos a transplante renal devem ser avaliados quanto &#224; presen&#231;a e gravidade da doen&#231;a cardiovascular baseado na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, exame f&#237;sico e exames rotineiros</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes sem fatores de risco principais<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref> s&#227;o considerados de baixo risco cardiovascular e podem ser liberados para o transplante renal sem a necessidade de investiga&#231;&#227;o complementar</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Recomenda-se a dosagem de troponina ultrassens&#237;vel antes e 24 e 48 h ap&#243;s o transplante renal para detec&#231;&#227;o de inj&#250;ria/infarto perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Recomenda-se que a tomada de decis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e a defini&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica sejam discutidas por um "Heart-Kidney Team", incluindo cardiologista cl&#237;nico, cardiologista intervencionista, cirurgi&#227;o cardiovascular, nefrologista e/ou especialista em transplante renal</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com apenas um dos fatores de risco principais<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref> s&#227;o considerados de risco cardiovascular intermedi&#225;rio e devem ser submetidos &#224; estratifica&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva. Se houver evid&#234;ncia de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica induzida por estresse, prosseguir na investiga&#231;&#227;o invasiva com cineangiocoronariografia; se n&#227;o houver evid&#234;ncia de isquemia induzida por estresse ou outras altera&#231;&#245;es sugestivas da presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) (por exemplo, queda da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo), liberar para o transplante renal</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que apresentem pelo menos dois dos fatores de risco principais* s&#227;o considerados de alto risco cardiovascular e dever&#227;o ser encaminhados diretamente para estudo invasivo antes do transplante renal</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes est&#225;veis com DAC obstrutiva devem ser reavaliados clinicamente quanto &#224; progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a a cada 12 meses; pacientes sem DAC obstrutiva significativa devem ser reavaliados a cada 36 meses para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC de novo</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria obstrutiva n&#227;o devem ser encaminhados para revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de rotina pela possibilidade de serem submetidos ao transplante ("interven&#231;&#227;o profil&#225;tica"), a menos que haja inequ&#237;voco impacto progn&#243;stico da interven&#231;&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN11">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Idade &gt; 50 anos, diabetes melito e evid&#234;ncia pr&#233;via de doen&#231;a cardiovascular.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Medidas para Redu&#231;&#227;o do Risco Cir&#250;rgico do Ponto de Vista CV</title>
      <sec>
        <title>4.1. Terapia Medicamentosa Perioperat&#243;ria</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1.1. Betabloqueadores</title>
          <p>Embora os estudos pioneiros sugerissem benef&#237;cio dos betabloqueadores no que diz respeito &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos CV no perioperat&#243;rio, este tema ainda permanece um tanto controverso, e a melhor conduta parece ser a individualiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B259">259</xref></sup> De fato, demonstrou-se que o benef&#237;cio dos betabloqueadores estava diretamente relacionado ao risco card&#237;aco individual, sendo evidenciado benef&#237;cio nos pacientes de alto risco, enquanto ele n&#227;o foi visto naqueles de baixo risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B260">260</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, o estudo POISE (<italic>Effects of extended-release metoprolol succinate in patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery</italic>) avaliou o uso de betabloqueadores em pacientes de alto risco ou com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica estabelecida e demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o de IAM, por&#233;m com aumento da incid&#234;ncia de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico e mortalidade total, provavelmente associados ao aumento das taxas de bradicardia e hipotens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B261">261</xref></sup> A maior cr&#237;tica ao estudo se refere ao fato de o metoprolol ter sido introduzido 2 a 4 horas antes do procedimento cir&#250;rgico, podendo chegar &#224; dose de 400 mg por dia, o que &#233; pouco utilizado na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e muito pr&#243;ximo da dose m&#225;xima recomendada pelos fabricantes. Dessa forma, n&#227;o houve tempo h&#225;bil para a titula&#231;&#227;o mais adequada da medica&#231;&#227;o. J&#225; quando iniciados com anteced&#234;ncia de pelo menos 1 semana, os betabloqueadores demonstraram redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade a longo prazo em pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B262">262</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Dessa forma, de maneira geral, sugerimos que os betabloqueadores devem ser mantidos em paciente que fa&#231;am uso cr&#244;nico de alguma medica&#231;&#227;o dessa classe. Al&#233;m disso, em pacientes que n&#227;o fazem uso pr&#233;vio de algum betabloqueador, ele n&#227;o deve ser introduzido durante o per&#237;odo de 7 dias que antecedem o procedimento.</p>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t28">Quadro 18</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo dos betabloqueadores no perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t28">
            <label>Quadro 18</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo dos betabloqueadores no perioperat&#243;rio</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de betabloqueadores devem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o mantida no perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">A introdu&#231;&#227;o de betabloqueadores em pacientes sem uso pr&#233;vio &#233; contraindicada no intervalo de at&#233; 7 dias da data do procedimento cir&#250;rgico</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1.2. Estatinas</title>
          <p>As estatinas, al&#233;m de reduzirem os n&#237;veis de colesterol, apresentam efeito pleiotr&#243;pico, reduzindo a inflama&#231;&#227;o e estabilizando as placas de aterosclerose. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de estatinas para preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos CV ap&#243;s opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares est&#225; bem estabelecida, sendo baseada em estudos prospectivos, randomizados e controlados por placebo. Em 2004, foi publicado o primeiro estudo randomizado com 100 pacientes, no qual os autores demonstraram que o uso de 20 mg de atorvastatina estava associado a grande diminui&#231;&#227;o dos eventos CV maiores (morte, IAM, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico, angina inst&#225;vel) no perioperat&#243;rio e ao final de 6 meses de seguimento. Tal efeito ocorreu independentemente dos n&#237;veis basais de colesterol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B263">263</xref></sup> Em 2009, foi demonstrado que o uso de 80 mg de fluvastatina de libera&#231;&#227;o lenta em 250 pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares reduziu a ocorr&#234;ncia de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria e o desfecho combinado de IAM e morte card&#237;aca em 30 dias, comparado ao grupo placebo (247 pacientes).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B264">264</xref></sup> Esses dados foram confirmados em uma metan&#225;lise envolvendo 23.536 pacientes, na qual o uso de estatina no perioperat&#243;rio vascular reduziu a mortalidade geral e as taxas de IAM e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B265">265</xref></sup> A introdu&#231;&#227;o de atorvastatina 20 mg em pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares deve ser feita, de prefer&#234;ncia, 2 semanas antes do procedimento e mantida durante 30 dias. Ap&#243;s esse tempo, a dose deve ser ajustada para a meta de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade individual de cada paciente.</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, as evid&#234;ncias sobre o uso de estatinas para a preven&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es CV em opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o vasculares s&#227;o mais heterog&#234;neas. Lindenauer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B266">266</xref></sup> avaliaram 780.591 pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas (92% opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o vasculares) em um estudo de coorte retrospectiva, dos quais 77.082 (9,9%) receberam estatinas. Nesse estudo, os pacientes que receberam estatinas apresentaram menor mortalidade intra-hospitalar. Outro estudo retrospectivo, de caso-controle, somente com opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o vasculares, incluindo 989 casos de pacientes que morreram em at&#233; 30 dias do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e 1.879 controles, demonstrou que o uso de estatinas tamb&#233;m foi associado &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade (OR = 0,4; IC95% 0,24-0,68).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B267">267</xref></sup> Em uma coorte retrospectiva incluindo 752 pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o vasculares, os autores demonstraram uma redu&#231;&#227;o do desfecho composto de IAM n&#227;o fatal, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) e mortalidade em 30 dias em pacientes que utilizaram estatina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B268">268</xref></sup> Em uma an&#225;lise dos pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo VISION, Berwanger et al. avaliaram 2.842 pacientes recebendo estatina e 4.492 pacientes sem estatina e compararam a ocorr&#234;ncia de mortalidade, eleva&#231;&#227;o isolada de troponina (definida como eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina, sem crit&#233;rios de IAM e sem outra causa) ou acidente vascular encef&#225;lico em 30 dias utilizando o <italic>propensity score matching</italic>. Os pacientes que receberam estatinas apresentaram redu&#231;&#227;o do risco do desfecho composto (risco relativo [RR] 0,83; IC95% 0,73-0,95; p = 0,007). O uso de estatinas reduziu a mortalidade geral (RR 0,58; IC95% 0,40-0,83; p = 0,003), a mortalidade CV (RR 0,42; IC95% 0,23-0,76; p = 0,004) e a ocorr&#234;ncia de eleva&#231;&#227;o isolada de troponina (RR 0,86; IC95% 0,73-0,98; p = 0,02). N&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade n&#227;o CV, na taxa de IAM ou acidente vascular encef&#225;lico. Cabe ressaltar que, apesar da an&#225;lise com uso de <italic>propensity score matching</italic>, os pacientes do grupo estatina apresentavam mais frequentemente DAC, diabetes, doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica, uso de AAS e de IECA/BRA em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes sem estatina. Assim, apesar de apresentarem mais fatores de risco, os pacientes do grupo estatina tiveram menos eventos CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref></sup> Em um estudo recente retrospectivo envolvendo 180.000 pacientes, o uso de estatina no dia da cirurgia ou no primeiro dia ap&#243;s a opera&#231;&#227;o foi associado a uma redu&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade em 30 dias<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B270">270</xref></sup> Entretanto, o estudo randomizado LOAD, no qual 648 pacientes foram randomizados para receber atorvastatina 80mg antes da opera&#231;&#227;o e 40 mg por 7 dias, n&#227;o mostrou diferen&#231;a no desfecho combinado de mortalidade geral, IAM n&#227;o fatal e AVC em 30 dias (<italic>hazard ratio</italic> [HR] 0,87, IC95% 0,60-1,26, p = 0,46).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B271">271</xref></sup> Cabe ressaltar que o estudo n&#227;o tinha poder suficiente para determinar conclus&#245;es definitivas. Por outro lado, em uma metan&#225;lise de estudos randomizados, Putzu et al. demonstraram que o uso de estatinas no perioperat&#243;rio estava associado a uma menor ocorr&#234;ncia de infarto perioperat&#243;rio, sem redu&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B272">272</xref></sup> Assim, devido a resultados controversos, a prescri&#231;&#227;o de estatina visando &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o vasculares n&#227;o &#233; recomendada de rotina. Entretanto, os pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o do uso de estatina pelas comorbidades (DAC, diabetes, doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica) independentemente do contexto perioperat&#243;rio, podem se beneficiar da introdu&#231;&#227;o de estatina no perioperat&#243;rio de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o vasculares.</p>
          <p>Frequentemente, as estatinas s&#227;o suspensas no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. As principais raz&#245;es para a suspens&#227;o das estatinas s&#227;o &#237;leo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e impossibilidade de administrar medica&#231;&#245;es por via oral, suspens&#227;o devido &#224; instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, preocupa&#231;&#227;o com a ocorr&#234;ncia de efeitos colaterais e falta de reconhecimento da import&#226;ncia de manter a estatina. A suspens&#227;o de estatina no perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes que fazem uso cr&#244;nico dessa medica&#231;&#227;o &#233; um preditor independente de eventos CV ap&#243;s opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B273">273</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B274">274</xref></sup> O uso de estatinas no perioperat&#243;rio &#233; seguro. Embora pacientes que usam estatina apresentem um n&#237;vel de creatinofosfoquinase (CPK) basal mais elevado, a ocorr&#234;ncia de eleva&#231;&#227;o maior que cinco vezes o seu valor de refer&#234;ncia ou de rabdomi&#243;lise &#233; rara.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B273">273</xref></sup> Portanto, em pacientes que j&#225; utilizam, a estatina deve ser mantida durante todo o perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t29">Quadro 19</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso perioperat&#243;rio das estatinas.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t29">
            <label>Quadro 19</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso perioperat&#243;rio das estatinas</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares arteriais</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Manter em pacientes que j&#225; usam</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o vasculares com indica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do uso de estatinas devido a doen&#231;as associadas (doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, doen&#231;a cerebrovascular, doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica, diabetes), independentemente do contexto do perioperat&#243;rio</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1.3. Antiagregantes Plaquet&#225;rios</title>
          <p>Procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos realizados na vig&#234;ncia de antiplaquet&#225;rios est&#227;o relacionados a um aumento do risco de sangramento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B275">275</xref></sup> Por outro lado, a sua suspens&#227;o est&#225; relacionada ao efeito rebote<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B276">276</xref></sup> e ao aumento de eventos cl&#237;nicos aterotromb&#243;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B277">277</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.1.3.1. Monoterapia com &#193;cido Acetilsalic&#237;lico</title>
            <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso do AAS, diversas evid&#234;ncias como o estudo POISE-2<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B275">275</xref></sup> (que avaliou 10.010 pacientes, sendo 70% em preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria) corroboram a suspens&#227;o do uso do AAS na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria 7 dias antes do procedimento cir&#250;rgico e a sua n&#227;o reintrodu&#231;&#227;o no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
            <p>J&#225; os pacientes que fazem uso de AAS para a preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria devem manter o seu uso durante todo o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, pelo risco de efeito rebote e aumento do risco de eventos aterotromb&#243;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B278">278</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B279">279</xref></sup> As &#250;nicas exce&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o as neurocirurgias, em que qualquer m&#237;nimo sangramento pode ser catastr&#243;fico, e as ressec&#231;&#245;es transuretrais de pr&#243;stata,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> que, por n&#227;o terem acesso &#224; hemostasia direta, est&#227;o associados a maior sangramento. Nesses casos, o AAS deve ser suspenso 7 dias antes do procedimento. Entretanto, em pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de ressec&#231;&#245;es transuretrais de pr&#243;stata realizadas pela t&#233;cnica <italic>green light laser</italic>, o AAS pode ser mantido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B280">280</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B281">281</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o h&#225; recomenda&#231;&#227;o para suspens&#227;o rotineira de AAS para a bi&#243;psia transretal da pr&#243;stata, um procedimento urol&#243;gico extremamente comum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B280">280</xref></sup></p>
            <p>N&#227;o h&#225; recomenda&#231;&#227;o para iniciar o AAS antes de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Se avaliamos pacientes com doen&#231;a vascular estabelecida, mas que erroneamente n&#227;o vinham em uso de antiagregante, &#233; opini&#227;o desta Diretriz, por consenso de especialistas, que, por ocasi&#227;o da alta hospitalar, essa terapia seja planejada, mas, at&#233; o momento, n&#227;o h&#225; estudo que embase o in&#237;cio antes da opera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.1.3.2. Monoterapia Antiagregante com Outros F&#225;rmacos que N&#227;o o &#193;cido Acetilsalic&#237;lico</title>
            <p>Embora o AAS ainda seja o antiagregante mais prescrito como monoterapia, muitos pacientes utilizam um substituto por apresentarem alergia ou intoler&#226;ncia gastrointestinal a esse medicamento, por terem AVC como antecedente ou seguindo as novas diretrizes de s&#237;ndrome coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B282">282</xref></sup> Para esses pacientes, caso o antigregante plaquet&#225;rio em monoterapia seja o clopidogrel, o risco de sangramento durante cirurgias &#233; aumentado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup> Por outro lado, n&#227;o h&#225; estudos que demonstrem a seguran&#231;a da suspens&#227;o em termos de evento CV. Portanto, as evid&#234;ncias relativas ao AAS, com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o ou suspens&#227;o do medicamento, n&#227;o podem ser extrapoladas para o clopidogrel.</p>
            <p>Os especialistas envolvidos na elabora&#231;&#227;o desta Diretriz optaram por recomendar que o clopidogrel seja mantido no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio de procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos n&#227;o card&#237;acos associados a baixo risco de sangramento, como no caso das interven&#231;&#245;es dermatol&#243;gicas. Por outro lado, no caso de cirurgias de risco moderado ou alto de sangramento, o clopidogrel deve ser suspenso 5 dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
            <p>Se a monoterapia antigregante estiver sendo realizada com o uso de ticagrelor, esse medicamento deve ser suspenso 5 dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o. No caso do prasugrel, a suspens&#227;o deve ocorrer 7 dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o. Para pacientes em uso de ticagrelor e prasugrel que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos n&#227;o card&#237;acos associados a baixo risco de sangramento, como no caso das interven&#231;&#245;es dermatol&#243;gicas, n&#227;o existem evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas suficientes. Sugerimos que seja analisado cada caso individualmente de maneira multidisciplinar.</p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t30">Quadro 20</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo dos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios no perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes em uso de monoterapia.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t30">
              <label>Quadro 20</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo dos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios no perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes em uso de monoterapia</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes em uso de &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico, no contexto de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, ele deve ser suspenso 7 dias antes de opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes em uso de &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico, no contexto de preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria, ele deve ser mantido na dose de 100 mg ao dia durante todo o perioperat&#243;rio, exceto para neurocirurgias ou procedimentos de risco hemorr&#225;gico proibitivo</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes em uso de monoterapia com clopidogrel, ele pode ser mantido em procedimentos de baixo risco de sangramento e deve ser suspenso 5 dias antes em procedimentos de risco moderado ou alto de sangramento</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes em uso de monoterapia com ticagrelor, ele deve ser suspenso 5 dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para pacientes em uso de monoterapia com prasugrel, ele deve ser suspenso 7 dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.1.3.3. Dupla Antiagrega&#231;&#227;o Plaquet&#225;ria (DAP)</title>
            <p>A atualiza&#231;&#227;o do manejo dos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios em pacientes com DAP deve ser consultada na diretriz espec&#237;fica "Foco em Manejo dos Pacientes com Interven&#231;&#227;o Coron&#225;ria Percut&#226;nea &#8211; 2022". Abaixo, &#233; apresentado o sum&#225;rio das recomenda&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t31">Quadro 21</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo dos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios no perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes em uso de DAP.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t31">
              <label>Quadro 21</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o manejo dos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios no perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes em uso de DAP</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">O &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico deve ser mantido na dose de 100 mg ao dia durante todo o perioperat&#243;rio, exceto para neurocirurgias ou procedimentos de risco hemorr&#225;gico proibitivo</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Suspender clopidogrel e ticagrelor 5 dias antes de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Suspender prasugrel 7 dias antes de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Em caso de interrup&#231;&#227;o de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (DAP) antes do tempo m&#237;nimo ideal, realizar cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas em centros com suporte multidisciplinar e retaguarda hemodin&#226;mica</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Realizar cirurgias de baixo risco de sangramento na vig&#234;ncia de DAP se o intervalo decorrido desde a angioplastia for menor do que 3 meses</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Utilizar teste de agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria para abreviar tempo de suspens&#227;o de inibidor de P2Y12 antes de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Para casos de risco tromb&#243;tico muito elevado (menos de 1 m&#234;s de interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea e interrup&#231;&#227;o de DAP), utilizar tirofiban como terapia de ponte</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Realizar terapia de ponte com heparina de baixo peso molecular</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Utilizar teste de agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria como rotina para avaliar suspens&#227;o de &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico ou de inibidor de P2Y12 antes de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica</title>
          <p>Evid&#234;ncias mais recentes na literatura n&#227;o conseguiram demonstrar o papel ben&#233;fico da revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica profil&#225;tica em pacientes com DAC est&#225;vel no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B283">283</xref></sup> Somam-se a tal fato o desenvolvimento da terap&#234;utica medicamentosa e a consequente farmacoprote&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria, que tornam as potenciais situa&#231;&#245;es de benef&#237;cio da revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica profil&#225;tica cada vez mais restritas. Assim, as indica&#231;&#245;es de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas s&#227;o id&#234;nticas &#224;quelas fora do contexto perioperat&#243;rio e visam &#224; melhora do progn&#243;stico a longo prazo, n&#227;o objetivando apenas a redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos isqu&#234;micos perioperat&#243;rios.</p>
          <p>Nos casos com indica&#231;&#227;o inequ&#237;voca de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em pacientes que se encontram no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas, dados como a estabilidade cl&#237;nica do paciente e o progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a de base que levou &#224; indica&#231;&#227;o do procedimento cir&#250;rgico, al&#233;m do potencial risco de sangramento do procedimento, devem ser levados em considera&#231;&#227;o na tomada de decis&#227;o. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tempo entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica cir&#250;rgica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca, n&#227;o h&#225; estudos espec&#237;ficos. Portanto, o tempo ideal refere-se ao tempo necess&#225;rio para a recupera&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica do paciente ap&#243;s uma opera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca (cerca de 30 dias), sendo que n&#227;o h&#225; um tempo m&#237;nimo estabelecido, sendo necess&#225;ria uma avalia&#231;&#227;o individualizada considerando o estado cl&#237;nico geral do paciente e a urg&#234;ncia da opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, o intervalo entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; um fator importante em situa&#231;&#245;es de angioplastia.</p>
          <p>A atualiza&#231;&#227;o sobre as novas evid&#234;ncias em rela&#231;&#227;o ao intervalo de seguran&#231;a entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca pode ser consultada na diretriz espec&#237;fica "Foco em Manejo dos Pacientes com Interven&#231;&#227;o Coron&#225;ria Percut&#226;nea &#8211; 2022". Abaixo, &#233; apresentado um resumo das recomenda&#231;&#245;es. As Classes de recomenda&#231;&#227;o indicadas por esta Diretriz refletem as evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis, o bom senso e a experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica, em especial no que diz respeito &#224; urg&#234;ncia da opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca. Por essa raz&#227;o, intervalos menores receberam Classes de recomenda&#231;&#227;o menos fortes e s&#227;o justific&#225;veis na presen&#231;a de justificativas individualizadas como urg&#234;ncia da opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t32">Quadro 22</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o intervalo entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca em pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es coron&#225;rias percut&#226;neas eletivas.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t32">
            <label>Quadro 22</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o intervalo entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca em pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es coron&#225;rias percut&#226;neas eletivas</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8805; 6 meses</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Entre 3 e 6 meses</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Entre 30 dias e 3 meses</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&lt; 30 dias</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t33">Quadro 23</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o intervalo entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca em pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es coron&#225;rias percut&#226;neas devido a s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t33">
            <label>Quadro 23</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o intervalo entre a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca em pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es coron&#225;rias percut&#226;neas devido a s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8805; 12 meses</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Entre 6 e 12 meses</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Entre 30 dias e 6 meses</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&lt; 30 dias</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3. Manejo da Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no Perioperat&#243;rio</title>
        <p>A anticoagula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes &#233; uma situa&#231;&#227;o cada vez mais frequente na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, seja para pacientes com FA, preven&#231;&#227;o ou tratamento do tromboembolismo venoso (TEV) ou para pacientes portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas card&#237;acas. Estima-se que um quarto desses pacientes precisar&#227;o de uma interrup&#231;&#227;o tempor&#225;ria da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para uma interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica programada dentro dos pr&#243;ximos 2 anos ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da terapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B284">284</xref></sup> O grande desafio do manejo de anticoagulantes no perioperat&#243;rio est&#225; no fato de que a interrup&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o aumenta temporariamente o risco tromboemb&#243;lico, assim como a sua manuten&#231;&#227;o, na vig&#234;ncia de procedimentos invasivos, pode aumentar o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas, e ambas aumentam o risco de morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B285">285</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B288">288</xref></sup> Ao avaliar o risco tromboemb&#243;lico dentro do espectro da avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria, &#233; necess&#225;rio reconhecer as diferentes situa&#231;&#245;es de risco de tromboembolismo. Uma delas &#233; a do paciente recebendo anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para a preven&#231;&#227;o de TEV; a outra &#233; a dos pacientes que recebem anticoagula&#231;&#227;o na vig&#234;ncia de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas card&#237;acas e/ou FA para a preven&#231;&#227;o do tromboembolismo arterial. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t34">Tabela 11</xref> representa uma proposta para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco desses pacientes, sendo considerados de risco alto aqueles com &gt; 10% de risco anual de tromboembolismo, risco moderado aqueles com 5 a 10% e baixo risco aqueles com &lt; 5%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B289">289</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup> Os pacientes portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas valvares podem ser considerados de alto risco de tromboembolismo.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t34">
          <label>Tabela 11</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para o tromboembolismo</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Categoria de risco</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">TEV</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Alto<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">*</xref> </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Escore CHADS<sub>2</sub> de 5 ou 6 AVC ou AIT recente (&lt; 3 meses) Doen&#231;a valvar reum&#225;tica</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">TEV recente (&lt; 3 meses) Trombofilia grave<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN14">&#8224;</xref> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Moderado</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Escore CHADS<sub>2</sub> de 3 ou 4</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">TEV h&#225; 3-12 meses Trombofilia leve<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">&#8225;</xref> Novo TEV Neoplasia ativa</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Baixo</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Escore CHADS<sub>2</sub> de 0 a 2 (sem AVC ou AIT pr&#233;vio)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">TEV &gt; 12 meses sem outros fatores de risco</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN12">
              <p>Escore CHADS2: Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca = 1 ponto; HAS = 1 ponto; idade &gt; 75 anos = 1 ponto; DM = 1 ponto; AVC/AIT = 2 pontos.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN13">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Pacientes de alto risco tamb&#233;m podem incluir aqueles com AVC ou AIT &gt; 3 meses antes da cirurgia planejada e escore CHADS2 &lt; 5, aqueles que cursaram com tromboembolismo durante a interrup&#231;&#227;o tempor&#225;ria da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o ou aqueles submetidos a certos tipos de cirurgia associadas a um alto risco de AVC ou outro tipo de tromboembolismo (cirurgia de troca de valva card&#237;aca, endarterectomia de car&#243;tida e grandes cirurgias vasculares).</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN14">
              <label>&#8224;</label>
              <p>Trombofilia grave: defici&#234;ncia de prote&#237;na C, S, antitrombina ou presen&#231;a de anticorpos antifosfol&#237;pide.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN15">
              <label>&#8225;</label>
              <p>Trombofilia leve: muta&#231;&#227;o heterozig&#243;tica do fator V de Leiden ou do gene da protrombina. TEV: tromboembolismo venoso; AVC: acidente vascular</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Al&#233;m de avaliar o risco tromboemb&#243;lico, temos que considerar o risco de sangramento que certos procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos apresentam na vig&#234;ncia do uso de medica&#231;&#245;es antitromb&#243;ticas. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t35">Tabela 12</xref>, apresentamos o risco de sangramento associado a cada tipo de procedimento cir&#250;rgico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B286">286</xref></sup> De forma geral, dividimos os procedimentos naqueles com alto risco de sangramento grave no per&#237;odo de 2 a 4 dias (2 a 4%) e aqueles com baixo risco (0 a 2%). Sangramento grave &#233; geralmente definido como um sangramento que leve &#224; morte, intracraniano, que necessite de reopera&#231;&#227;o para ser controlado, que leve &#224; queda na hemoglobina &#8805; 2 g/dL ou que necessite de transfus&#227;o de &#8805; 2 unidades de hem&#225;cias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B292">292</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t35">
          <label>Tabela 12</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Risco de sangramento conforme o procedimento cir&#250;rgico</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Alto risco (risco de sangramento maior em 2 dias entre 2 e 4%)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Cirurgia de aneurisma de aorta abdominal <break/>Qualquer grande cirurgia (dura&#231;&#227;o &gt; 45 minutos) <break/>Cirurgia de pr&#243;tese de joelho bilateral <break/>Procedimentos de aspira&#231;&#227;o por agulha fina guiados endoscopicamente <break/>Bi&#243;psia renal <break/>Laminectomia <break/>Urol&#243;gica, de cabe&#231;a e pesco&#231;o, abdominal, neurocirurgia, c&#226;ncer de mama <break/>Polipectomia, varizes de es&#244;fago, esfincterectomia biliar, dilata&#231;&#227;o pneum&#225;tica <break/>Ressec&#231;&#227;o transuretral de pr&#243;stata</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Baixo risco (risco de sangramento maior em 2 dias entre 0-2%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">Hernioplastia abdominal <break/>Histerectomia abdominal <break/>Dissec&#231;&#227;o de n&#243;dulo axilar <break/>Broncoscopia com ou sem bi&#243;psia <break/>Cirurgia do t&#250;nel do carpo <break/>Cirurgia oftalmol&#243;gica <break/>Remo&#231;&#227;o de cateter venoso central <break/>Colecistectomia <break/>Bi&#243;psias cut&#226;neas, de bexiga, pr&#243;stata, mama, tireoide e de linfonodos <break/>Dilata&#231;&#227;o e curetagem <break/>Endoscopia gastrointestinal com ou sem bi&#243;psia, enteroscopia, stent biliar ou pancre&#225;tico sem esfincterectomia <break/>Cirurgia de hemorroida <break/>Cirurgia de hidrocele <break/>Cirurgia de pr&#243;tese de joelho ou quadril, m&#227;o, ombro, p&#233; e artroscopia <break/>Angiografia n&#227;o coronariana <break/>Extra&#231;&#245;es e outras cirurgias dent&#225;rias</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Al&#233;m de avaliar o risco de sangramento baseado no tipo de procedimento cir&#250;rgico que ser&#225; realizado, existem condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas inerentes a cada paciente que podem conferir um risco ainda maior de sangramento. Existem escores que podem quantificar o risco de sangramento baseados nas caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes submetidos &#224; terapia anticoagulante, como &#233; o caso do HAS-BLED escore.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref></sup> Um escore HAS-BLED &#8805; 3 est&#225; associado a maior risco de sangramento (HR 11,8, IC95% 5,6-24,9).</p>
        <p>Alguns procedimentos s&#227;o associados a um m&#237;nimo risco de sangramento e podem ser realizados sem a interrup&#231;&#227;o da terapia anticoagulante, como &#233; o caso de implante de marca-passo/desfibrilador implant&#225;vel, angiografia coron&#225;ria, procedimentos dent&#225;rios menores (extra&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; dois dentes, restaura&#231;&#245;es, pr&#243;teses, endodontia, limpezas e implantes), cirurgia de catarata, procedimentos dermatol&#243;gicos menores, artrocentese ou inje&#231;&#227;o intra-articular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B294">294</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.1. Varfarina<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B289">289</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref></sup></title>
          <p>A varfarina &#233; um antagonista da vitamina K, cujo efeito anticoagulante demora dias para desaparecer (meia-vida de 36 a 42 horas), assim como pode exigir tempo semelhante para ser novamente atingido depois da cirurgia. O fluxograma para o manejo de pacientes em uso de varfarina no perioperat&#243;rio pode ser consultado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>.</p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Manejo perioperat&#243;rio de pacientes anticoagulados com varfarina. *Vide item 3.3. *Trombofilia grave: defici&#234;ncia de prote&#237;na C, S, antitrombina ou presen&#231;a de anticorpos antifosfol&#237;pide.**Trombofilia leve: muta&#231;&#227;o heterozig&#243;tica do fator V de Leiden ou do gene da protrombina. RNI: raz&#227;o normalizada internacional.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf06.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Pacientes com alto risco para tromboembolismo podem necessitar da terapia de ponte com agentes anticoagulantes parenterais, como a heparina n&#227;o fracionada, ou por via subcut&#226;nea, como as heparinas de baixo peso molecular. Esses dois agentes apresentam in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pido, assim como meia-vida mais curta, o que proporcionaria a possibilidade de suspender o anticoagulante o mais pr&#243;ximo poss&#237;vel do procedimento cir&#250;rgico, minimizando ao m&#225;ximo o risco tromboemb&#243;lico. Como o metabolismo da varfarina pode sofrer a influ&#234;ncia de v&#225;rios fatores como idade do paciente, fun&#231;&#227;o renal e intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas, sugere-se medir a RNI no dia anterior &#224; cirurgia para se assegurar que esteja &lt; 1,5 e, caso contr&#225;rio, ter tempo h&#225;bil para a sua revers&#227;o com a administra&#231;&#227;o de vitamina K por via oral (1 a 2 mg) e reavaliar a RNI no dia seguinte.</p>
          <p>A op&#231;&#227;o de realizar ou n&#227;o a terapia de "ponte" em pacientes em uso de varfarina depende de an&#225;lise conjunta do risco tromboemb&#243;lico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t34">Tabela 11</xref>), do risco de hemorragia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t35">Tabela 12</xref>) e do do pr&#243;prio paciente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>). O objetivo da "ponte" com heparina &#233; minimizar o tempo que o paciente n&#227;o recebe anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, visando diminuir o risco de tromboembolismo. Por outro lado, estudos observacionais e metan&#225;lises demonstraram que a realiza&#231;&#227;o da "ponte" com heparina pode estar relacionada com aumento de sangramento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B296">296</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B297">297</xref></sup> No estudo BRIDGE, 1.884 pacientes foram randomizados para realizar ou n&#227;o ponte com heparina, e o uso da "ponte" n&#227;o reduziu eventos tromb&#243;ticos significativamente, mas aumentou os sangramentos maiores. Vale ressaltar que o CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub> m&#233;dio dos pacientes inclu&#237;dos neste estudo foi 2,3 (uma popula&#231;&#227;o de menor risco tromb&#243;tico), o que poderia indicar que, para pacientes mais graves, com risco tromb&#243;tico mais elevado (CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub> maior que 4), os resultados poderiam ser diferentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B298">298</xref></sup> Podemos concluir que a "ponte" com heparina n&#227;o deve ser realizada indiscriminadamente para todos os pacientes anticoagulados.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1.1. Pacientes com Risco Moderado para Tromboembolismo</title>
            <p>Existem poucas evid&#234;ncias sobre qual a melhor conduta nos pacientes com risco moderado de tromboembolismo no que se refere a usar ou n&#227;o a terapia de ponte. Assim, a escolha deve se embasar em caracter&#237;sticas individuais de cada paciente e da cirurgia proposta, indicando a terapia de ponte somente em casos espec&#237;ficos, a crit&#233;rio do m&#233;dico assistente.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1.2. Procedimentos de Urg&#234;ncia ou Emerg&#234;ncia</title>
            <p>As medidas terap&#234;uticas empregadas para a revers&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral com varfarina dependem da rapidez com que se necessite a normaliza&#231;&#227;o do tempo de protrombina (TP) medido pela RNI. No caso de cirurgias que possam aguardar de 18 a 24 horas, a suspens&#227;o da varfarina associada ao uso da vitamina K, na dose de 2,5 a 5 mg por via venosa, geralmente produz a normaliza&#231;&#227;o da RNI, quando se encontra dentro da faixa terap&#234;utica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B289">289</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup></p>
            <p>No caso da necessidade da r&#225;pida normaliza&#231;&#227;o da RNI, &#233; necess&#225;rio repor os fatores de coagula&#231;&#227;o deficientes, estando o plasma fresco congelado (PFC) e o concentrado de complexo protromb&#237;nico dispon&#237;veis para isso. A resolu&#231;&#227;o 10, de 23 de janeiro de 2004, da Ag&#234;ncia de Vigil&#226;ncia Sanit&#225;ria (ANVISA) determina que, "para a corre&#231;&#227;o de hemorragia por uso de anticoagulantes cumar&#237;nicos ou revers&#227;o r&#225;pida dos efeitos dos cumar&#237;nicos (&#8230;)", o produto de escolha &#233; o complexo protromb&#237;nico. Como a disponibilidade desse tipo de concentrado ainda n&#227;o &#233; suficientemente ampla nos hospitais brasileiros, o uso do PFC &#233; uma alternativa aceit&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B299">299</xref></sup> No caso do PFC, a dose preconizada &#233; de 15 mL por quilo de peso, devendo-se evitar a sobrecarga de volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B300">300</xref></sup> Para o complexo protromb&#237;nico, ainda n&#227;o existe padroniza&#231;&#227;o a ser empregada. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t36">Tabela 13</xref>, est&#225; esquematizado o que &#233; utilizado em alguns servi&#231;os ingleses, por&#233;m, independentemente do que for utilizado para repor os fatores dependentes da vitamina K, &#233; necess&#225;rio o uso associado da vitamina K1 (2,5-5,0 mg por via oral ou venosa lenta), para a manuten&#231;&#227;o dos valores normais de protrombina durante o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B289">289</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t36">
              <label>Tabela 13</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Dose de concentrado de complexo protromb&#237;nico a ser administrado para a revers&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, conforme o valor da raz&#227;o normalizada internacional (RNI)</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">RNI</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Dose tomando-se como base o fator IX</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">2,0-3,9</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">25 U/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">4,0-5,9</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">35 U/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">&#8805; 6,0</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">50 U/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t37">
              <label>Quadro 24</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes anticoagulados com varfarina submetidos a cirurgias de urg&#234;ncia/emerg&#234;ncia</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Suspens&#227;o do medicamento anticoagulante, administra&#231;&#227;o de vitamina K por via venosa e reposi&#231;&#227;o dos fatores deficientes com complexo protromb&#237;nico ou plasma fresco congelado, de acordo com a disponibilidade desses produtos</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t38">
              <label>Quadro 25</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes anticoagulados com varfarina</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="00%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes com alto risco para tromboembolismo e pacientes portadores de pr&#243;teses valvares mec&#226;nicas</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Interromper a varfarina 5 dias antes da cirurgia e aguardar raz&#227;o normalizada internacional &lt; 1,5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Realizar terapia de ponte com heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou de baixo peso molecular em dose plena quando raz&#227;o normalizada internacional &lt; 2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Suspender a heparina n&#227;o fracionada 4 a 6 horas antes do procedimento e a heparina de baixo peso molecular 24 horas antes</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">No p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, reiniciar heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou de baixo peso molecular em dose plena e a varfarina pelo menos 24 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento cir&#250;rgico e suspender a heparina somente quando a raz&#227;o normalizada internacional estiver dentro da faixa terap&#234;utica</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias com alto risco de hemorragia, reiniciar a heparina de baixo peso molecular 48 a 72 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <bold>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes com baixo risco de tromboembolismo</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <bold>Grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <bold>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">N&#227;o utilizar a terapia de ponte (suspender varfarina 5 dias antes da cirurgia e aguardar raz&#227;o normalizada internacional &lt; 1,5 para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">No pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, podem ser usadas a heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou a de baixo peso molecular profil&#225;tica, se indicado</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">No p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, se indicado, usar heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou de baixo peso molecular profil&#225;tica e reiniciar a varfarina de 12 a 24 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <fig id="f6">
              <label>Figura 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Esquema para manejo dos DOACs no perioperat&#243;rio. Cl: clearence de creatinina; OP: opera&#231;&#227;o; DOAC: anticoagulante oral direto. Os quadrados pretos indicam os dias nos quais o paciente n&#227;o deve receber os DOACs. Alto risco de sangramento: qualquer opera&#231;&#227;o requerendo anestesia neuroaxial ou epidural, neurocirurgia, cirurgia tor&#225;cica major (lobectomia, pneumectomia, esofagectomia), cirurgia vascular major (aorta, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o membros inferiores, endarterectomia de car&#243;tida), cirurgia abdominal e p&#233;lvica major (ressec&#231;&#227;o de neoplasia hepatobiliar, c&#226;ncer de p&#226;ncreas ou pseudocisto, neoplasia g&#225;strica e colorretal, ressec&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria intestinal, neoplasia renal, de bexiga, endom&#233;trio ou ov&#225;rio, prostatectomia radical), cirurgia ortop&#233;dica major (artroplastia de quadril ou fratura de quadril, artroplastia de joelho, osteotomia metatarsal), outras cirurgias major para c&#226;ncer ou reconstrutivas (c&#226;ncer de cabe&#231;a e pesco&#231;o).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf07.tif"/></fig>
            <table-wrap id="t39">
              <label>Quadro 26</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para manejo dos anticoagulantes orais diretos (DOACs)</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de dabigatrana</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal e em cirurgias com baixo risco de sangramento podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o suspensa 24 horas antes da cirurgia e reintroduzida 24 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal e em cirurgias com alto risco de sangramento podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o suspensa 48 horas antes da cirurgia e reintroduzida 48 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal (<italic>clearance</italic><break/>&lt; 50 mL/min) e em cirurgias com baixo risco de sangramento podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o suspensa 48 horas antes da cirurgia e reintroduzida 24 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal (<italic>clearance</italic> &lt; 50 mL/min) e em cirurgias com alto risco de sangramento podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o suspensa 96 horas antes da cirurgia e reintroduzida 48 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Nos casos de anestesia regional com cateter epidural, esperar ao menos 6 horas ap&#243;s a retirada do cateter para iniciar a primeira dose de dabigatrana</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <bold>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de rivaroxabana</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <bold>Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <bold>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o suspensa 24 horas antes da cirurgia e reintroduzida 24 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Nos casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o renal grave (<italic>clearance</italic> de creatinina 15 a 30 mL/minuto) ou em cirurgias com alto risco de sangramento, a rivaroxabana deve ser suspensa pelo menos 48 horas antes da interven&#231;&#227;o e reintroduzida 48 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Nos casos de anestesia regional com cateter epidural, aguardar pelo menos 6 horas ap&#243;s a retirada do cateter para a pr&#243;xima dose de rivaroxabana</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <bold>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de apixabana</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <bold>Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">
                      <bold>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal podem ter a medica&#231;&#227;o suspensa 24 horas antes da cirurgia e reintroduzida 24 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Nos casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o renal moderada (<italic>clearance</italic> de creatinina 15 a 50 mL/minutos) ou cirurgias com alto risco de sangramento, a apixabana deve ser suspensa pelo menos 48 horas antes da interven&#231;&#227;o e reintroduzida 48 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Nos casos de anestesia regional com cateter epidural, aguardar pelo menos 6 horas ap&#243;s a retirada do cateter para a pr&#243;xima dose de apixabana</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t37">Quadro 24</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes anticoagulados com varfarina submetidos a cirurgias de urg&#234;ncia/emerg&#234;ncia.</p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t38">Quadro 25</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes anticoagulados com varfarina.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.2. Anticoagulantes Diretos</title>
          <p>A partir de 2010, o desenvolvimento de anticoagulantes com a&#231;&#227;o direta na cascata da coagula&#231;&#227;o, chamados anticoagulantes orais diretos (DOACs), trouxe uma alternativa promissora para at&#233; ent&#227;o os &#250;nicos anticoagulantes dispon&#237;veis, que eram os antagonistas da vitamina K.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B301">301</xref></sup> Eles t&#234;m uma maior facilidade posol&#243;gica, doses preestabelecidas, maior estabilidade farmacocin&#233;tica e menores intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas e com a alimenta&#231;&#227;o, sem necessidade de controles seriados de TP/RNI. S&#227;o medicamentos que foram aprovados para uso na preven&#231;&#227;o de AVC em pacientes com FA n&#227;o valvar, no tratamento do TEV (trombose venosa profunda/tromboembolismo pulmonar), na preven&#231;&#227;o do TEV recorrente e do TEV nas grandes cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas.</p>
          <p>O termo FA n&#227;o valvar gerou muita confus&#227;o, mas basicamente os ensaios exclu&#237;am portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas e estenose mitral moderada e grave, deixando muitas d&#250;vidas com rela&#231;&#227;o aos outros tipos de valvopatias. Atualmente, com os novos ensaios dispon&#237;veis, os DOACs est&#227;o autorizados na indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em pacientes portadores das seguintes valvopatias: insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica, insufici&#234;ncia mitral, estenose a&#243;rtica e estenose mitral discreta, sendo que pacientes portadores de biopr&#243;teses tamb&#233;m podem usar DOACs no lugar da varfarina. Em pacientes submetidos a TAVI, o uso de DOAC est&#225; autorizado de forma isolada, quando indicada a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. Se n&#227;o houver indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o &#233; recomendado substituir o antiagregante pelo DOAC.</p>
          <p>Para pacientes portadores de estenose mitral moderada a importante e para aqueles com pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas, at&#233; o momento com as publica&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis, o uso dos DOACs est&#225; contraindicado. Com rela&#231;&#227;o a estenose mitral moderada e importante, o estudo INVICTUS demonstrou que a varfarina &#233; superior a rivaroxabana em pacientes com doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica (redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos CV e mortalidade), permanecendo a medica&#231;&#227;o de escolha nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref></sup> Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso dos DOACs no cen&#225;rio de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica em posi&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, o ensaio PROACT-Xa foi finalizado precocemente devido ao aumento de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos com o uso de apixabana.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2.1. Dabigatrana<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B303">303</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup></title>
            <p>A dabigatrana &#233; um medicamento anticoagulante que age como inibidor direto da trombina, bloqueando, de maneira revers&#237;vel, a convers&#227;o do fibrinog&#234;nio em fibrina (fator Iia). &#201; um medicamento com r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o, pico de concentra&#231;&#227;o entre 30 e 120 minutos, meia-vida de 12-17 horas e excre&#231;&#227;o predominantemente renal (80%). Devido ao seu r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o e meia-vida mais curta, n&#227;o h&#225; a necessidade da terapia de ponte associada a tal medicamento. Uma das preocupa&#231;&#245;es associadas ao uso da dabigatrana est&#225; relacionada &#224; aus&#234;ncia de ant&#237;dotos espec&#237;ficos at&#233; bem pouco tempo atr&#225;s, quando as possibilidades dispon&#237;veis se limitavam ao uso do complexo protromb&#237;nico e hemodi&#225;lise, que apresentavam sucesso limitado. O primeiro ant&#237;doto contra os inibidores diretos da trombina (dabigatrana), o idarucizumab, foi aprovado pela Food and Drug Administration (FDA) dos Estado Unidos em outubro de 2015. O idarucizumab &#233; um fragmento de anticorpo monoclonal que se liga tanto com a dabigatrana livre quanto &#224; ligada a trombina com uma afinidade mais alta do que a afinidade da dabigatrana pelo fator II, tendo revertido completamente o efeito anticoagulante da dabigatrana. A dose &#233; de 5 g via endovenosa em duas aplica&#231;&#245;es de 2,5/50 mL <italic>bolus</italic> dados com intervalo de 15 minutos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B307">307</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2.2. Rivaroxabana<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B286">286</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B303">303</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B304">304</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup></title>
            <p>A rivaroxabana &#233; um medicamento que age como um agente inibidor do fator Xa, bloqueando, dessa maneira, a convers&#227;o da protrombina em trombina. &#201; tamb&#233;m uma subst&#226;ncia com r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o, com pico de concentra&#231;&#227;o entre 2 e 4 horas, meia-vida curta (5 e 9 horas em jovens e 11 e 13 horas em idosos), metaboliza&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica e excre&#231;&#227;o renal (66%). Tamb&#233;m, devido ao seu r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o e meia-vida mais curta, n&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;ria a terapia de ponte associada a esse medicamento. Antigamente, s&#243; se dispunha do complexo protromb&#237;nico para a tentativa de revers&#227;o do efeito da rivaroxabana, uma vez que n&#227;o havia ant&#237;dotos espec&#237;ficos dispon&#237;veis. Atualmente, o andexanet alfa &#233; um ant&#237;doto espec&#237;fico contra os inibidores do fator Xa, se ligando ao s&#237;tio ativo dos inibidores do fator Xa, com r&#225;pida revers&#227;o do efeito anticoagulante da apixabana e da rivaroxabana em minutos. O andexanet alfa pode ser administrado em uma alta dose de 800 mg via endovenosa seguido de 8 mg/min por 120 minutos ou em uma baixa dose de 400 mg via endovenosa seguido de 4 mg/min por 120 minutos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B308">308</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2.3. Apixabana<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B286">286</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B304">304</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup></title>
            <p>A apixabana &#233; um medicamento que tamb&#233;m &#233; um inibidor do fator Xa, bloqueando a convers&#227;o da protrombina em trombina. Tem r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o, pico de concentra&#231;&#227;o em 3 horas, meia-vida curta (8 a 15 horas), metaboliza&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica e excre&#231;&#227;o renal (27%) e fecal. Tamb&#233;m, por conta de seu r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o e meia-vida mais curta, n&#227;o h&#225; necessidade da terapia de ponte associada a ela. Atualmente, o Andexanet alfa &#233; o ant&#237;doto espec&#237;fico contra os inibidores do fator Xa, mostrando r&#225;pida revers&#227;o do efeito anticoagulante da apixabana e da rivaroxabana em minutos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B308">308</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2.4. Edoxabana<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B309">309</xref></sup></title>
            <p>A edoxabana tamb&#233;m &#233; um agente inibidor do fator Xa. Tem um r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o, pico de concentra&#231;&#227;o em 1 a 2 horas, meia-vida curta (10 a 14 horas) e excre&#231;&#227;o renal (50%) e por via biliar e intestinal (50%). Tamb&#233;m, por conta de seu r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o e meia-vida mais curta, n&#227;o h&#225; a necessidade da terapia de ponte associada a ela. Apesar de ter sido o mais recente DOAC utilizado, o uso do Andexanet alfa tamb&#233;m &#233; uma possibilidade de ant&#237;doto para essa droga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B310">310</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2.5. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Efeito Anticoagulante dos DOACs</title>
            <p>Embora n&#227;o exista um exame preciso universal para determinar o efeito anticoagulante dos DOACs, os testes de coagula&#231;&#227;o convencionais podem ajudar a determinar se existe alguma a&#231;&#227;o do medicamento, sendo testes qualitativos e n&#227;o quantitativos. Em uma situa&#231;&#227;o de urg&#234;ncia, eles podem ser utilizados. Para a dabigatrana, utiliza-se o tempo de trombina e o tempo de tromboplastina parcial ativada, sendo que, se estiverem aumentados, significa que a droga ainda est&#225; ativa. Para os inibidores do fator Xa, utiliza-se a atividade da protrombina ou o TP, sendo que a RNI n&#227;o deve ser utilizada.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2.6. Tempo Ideal para Suspens&#227;o dos DOACs Antes de Cirurgias Eletivas</title>
            <p>As diretrizes passadas se baseavam na farmacocin&#233;tica dos DOACs para estimar o tempo ideal para a sua suspens&#227;o antes de cirurgias eletivas, avaliando dados de meia-vida, grau de elimina&#231;&#227;o renal e fun&#231;&#227;o renal do paciente. Contudo, em 2019, foi publicado o estudo PAUSE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B311">311</xref></sup>, em que foram inclu&#237;dos 3.007 pacientes com FA em uso de dabigatrana, rivaroxabana ou apixabana, e foi realizado um protocolo fixo de suspens&#227;o e reintrodu&#231;&#227;o do DOAC baseado na farmacocin&#233;tica das medica&#231;&#245;es, fun&#231;&#227;o renal do paciente e risco de sangramento associado ao procedimento cir&#250;rgico, sem utiliza&#231;&#227;o de testes de coagula&#231;&#227;o de rotina ou de "ponte" com heparina. Nesse estudo, essa estrat&#233;gia esteve associada a baixos n&#237;veis de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos e sangramentos, podendo ser extrapolada para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref>). V&#225;rias diretrizes incorporaram o protocolo do estudo PAUSE nas suas orienta&#231;&#245;es para a suspens&#227;o de DOACs antes de procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B312">312</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B313">313</xref></sup> Nos pacientes que v&#227;o ser submetidos a procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos com baixo risco de sangramento, o DOAC pode ser suspenso 1 dia antes da cirurgia, e, naqueles que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos com alto risco de sangramento, o DOAC deve ser suspenso 2 dias antes da cirurgia. S&#227;o considerados procedimentos com alto risco de sangramento: qualquer opera&#231;&#227;o requerendo anestesia neuroaxial ou epidural, neurocirurgia, cirurgia tor&#225;cica <italic>major</italic> (lobectomia, pneumectomia, esofagectomia), cirurgia vascular <italic>major</italic> (aorta, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o membros inferiores, endarterectomia de car&#243;tida), cirurgia abdominal e p&#233;lvica <italic>major</italic> (ressec&#231;&#227;o de neoplasia hepatobiliar, c&#226;ncer de p&#226;ncreas ou pseudocisto, neoplasia g&#225;strica e colorretal, ressec&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria intestinal, neoplasia renal, de bexiga, endom&#233;trio ou ov&#225;rio, prostatectomia radical), cirurgia ortop&#233;dica <italic>major</italic> (artroplastia de quadril ou fratura de quadril, artroplastia de joelho, osteotomia metatarsal), outras cirurgias <italic>major</italic> para c&#226;ncer ou reconstrutivas (c&#226;ncer de cabe&#231;a e pesco&#231;o).</p>
            <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o especificamente &#224; dabigatrana, devido &#224; sua alta taxa de excre&#231;&#227;o renal, se o <italic>clearance</italic> de creatinina for menor que 50 mL/min, ela deve ser suspensa 2 dias antes das cirurgias com baixo risco de sangramento e 4 dias antes das cirurgias com alto risco de sangramento. Nos casos de anestesia regional com cateter peridural, deve-se aguardar pelo menos 6 horas ap&#243;s a retirada do cateter para a pr&#243;xima dose do DOAC.</p>
            <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; edoxabana, por ter sido o DOAC mais recente a ter sido lan&#231;ado, os estudos avaliando seu manejo no contexto perioperat&#243;rio s&#227;o muito limitados. A princ&#237;pio, a conduta mais aceita &#233; a interrup&#231;&#227;o da edoxabana 24 horas antes das cirurgias com baixo risco de sangramento e a interrup&#231;&#227;o 48 a 72 horas antes das cirurgias associadas a um alto risco de sangramento.</p>
            <p>&#201; aconselh&#225;vel, baseado em v&#225;rias diretrizes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B312">312</xref></sup> iniciar dose profil&#225;tica de heparina de baixo peso molecular 12 h ap&#243;s o procedimento cir&#250;rgico (se adequada hemostasia) em pacientes/procedimentos com alto risco de TEV. Recomendamos parar a dose profil&#225;tica de heparina de baixo peso molecular concomitantemente &#224; reintrodu&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral.</p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t39">Quadro 26</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para manejo dos DOACs.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4. Profilaxia de Endocardite Infecciosa</title>
          <p>A endocardite infecciosa (EI) &#233; uma doen&#231;a de elevadas morbidade e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B314">314</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B315">315</xref></sup> As estrat&#233;gias para reduzir sua incid&#234;ncia se baseiam predominantemente em modelos experimentais, em estudos observacionais e na opini&#227;o de especialistas, havendo atualmente algumas diverg&#234;ncias entre as principais diretrizes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B316">316</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B318">318</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O principal determinante da EI &#233; a doen&#231;a estrutural card&#237;aca, especialmente as valvopatias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B315">315</xref></sup> No Brasil, a principal causa de doen&#231;a valvar cr&#244;nica &#233; a febre reum&#225;tica, cuja preval&#234;ncia e mortalidade t&#234;m aumentado anualmente, acometendo predominantemente adultos jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> A les&#227;o do endot&#233;lio card&#237;aco em decorr&#234;ncia de les&#245;es estruturais promove exposi&#231;&#227;o subendotelial, gerando ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, seguida de deposi&#231;&#227;o de fibrina. Nesses locais de endot&#233;lio lesionado ou inflamado, pode ocorrer a ades&#227;o de microrganismos circulantes e sua prolifera&#231;&#227;o, culminando na EI. No caso de microrganismos de alta virul&#234;ncia, como o <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic>, e uso de drogas intravenosas e dispositivos vasculares, a EI pode ocorrer em indiv&#237;duos com cora&#231;&#227;o estruturalmente normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B320">320</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Uma vez que bact&#233;rias s&#227;o as principais etiologias da EI, diversos estudos avaliaram o risco de bacteremia relacionada a atividades rotineiras e a procedimentos invasivos. Nos pa&#237;ses de baixa e m&#233;dia renda, como o Brasil, a principal etiologia da EI &#233; <italic>Streptococcus spp</italic>., especialmente do grupo <italic>viridans</italic>, encontrados na cavidade oral. J&#225; nos pa&#237;ses de alta renda, a principal etiologia &#233; <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic>, relacionado majoritariamente &#224; assist&#234;ncia &#224; sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B315">315</xref></sup> Descrevemos a seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es de profilaxia para cada tipo de procedimento baseadas nas evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas mais recentes, com enfoque nas particularidades da popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.1. Procedimentos Odontol&#243;gicos</title>
            <p>Desde a d&#233;cada de 30, diversos estudos correlacionaram a extra&#231;&#227;o dent&#225;ria e a manipula&#231;&#227;o endod&#244;ntica e/ou periodontal &#224; presen&#231;a de bacteremia transit&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B321">321</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B324">324</xref></sup> Seguindo esse preceito, modelos experimentais animais confirmaram a redu&#231;&#227;o da bacteremia ap&#243;s manipula&#231;&#227;o dent&#225;ria com o uso de antibioticoterapia profil&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B325">325</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B326">326</xref></sup> Desde ent&#227;o, foi estabelecida a profilaxia antes de procedimentos odontol&#243;gicos para os indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a estrutural card&#237;aca.</p>
            <p>O impacto positivo da profilaxia e o risco no emprego de antibi&#243;ticos t&#234;m sido avaliados nos &#250;ltimos anos. Estudos observacionais estimaram a preval&#234;ncia de 2,7 a 13% de EI relacionada a procedimentos dent&#225;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B327">327</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B329">329</xref></sup> As atividades cotidianas, como mastiga&#231;&#227;o, escova&#231;&#227;o dent&#225;ria e utiliza&#231;&#227;o de fio dental, tamb&#233;m se correlacionaram &#224; bacteremia transit&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B325">325</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B330">330</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B333">333</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o emprego de antibi&#243;ticos tem o potencial risco de eventos adversos, como anafilaxia, e o uso frequente aumenta a possibilidade de indu&#231;&#227;o de resist&#234;ncia bacteriana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B333">333</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B334">334</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Frente a essa lacuna de evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas e ao potencial risco na prescri&#231;&#227;o de antibi&#243;ticos <italic>versus</italic> a elevada morbidade e mortalidade da EI, houve uma readequa&#231;&#227;o nas recomenda&#231;&#245;es de profilaxia antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios. Atualmente, &#233; recomendada a profilaxia para indiv&#237;duos com alto risco de EI, havendo algumas diferen&#231;as nas diretrizes.</p>
            <p>Em 2008, o National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) no Reino Unido passou a n&#227;o recomendar a profilaxia contra EI para indiv&#237;duos submetidos a procedimentos dent&#225;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B318">318</xref></sup> Um estudo observacional naqueles pa&#237;ses mostrou aumento na incid&#234;ncia de EI ap&#243;s a restri&#231;&#227;o da profilaxia a partir de 2008; entretanto, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel estabelecer correla&#231;&#227;o direta com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es do NICE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B335">335</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B336">336</xref></sup> A partir de 2016, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o foi atualizada para "a profilaxia n&#227;o &#233; recomendada rotineiramente", passando a admitir o uso de antibi&#243;ticos de forma individualizada e detalhando os indiv&#237;duos com elevado risco de desenvolver EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B337">337</xref></sup> Em 2020, outro estudo observacional indicou aumento dos casos de EI na Inglaterra; entretanto, sem tend&#234;ncia de crescimento logo ap&#243;s ajuste das recomenda&#231;&#245;es em 2008 e sem aumento no caso de EI causada por estreptococos orais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B338">338</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A American Heart Association (AHA) recomenda a profilaxia para indiv&#237;duos com alto risco de EI desde 2007<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B339">339</xref></sup>, e a European Society of Cardiology (ESC), para o mesmo grupo desde 2009.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup> A popula&#231;&#227;o considerada de alto risco de desenvolver complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; EI est&#225; descrita na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t40">Tabela 14</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B339">339</xref></sup> Um estudo mostrou aumento nos casos de EI estreptoc&#243;cica nos Estados Unidos em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s demais etiologias a partir da atualiza&#231;&#227;o das recomenda&#231;&#245;es de profilaxia em 2007; entretanto, sem aumento nos casos totais de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o ou cirurgia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B340">340</xref></sup> Outros estudos observacionais americanos n&#227;o mostraram aumento no n&#250;mero de casos totais de EI ou de EI por microrganismos relacionados &#224; cavidade oral ap&#243;s a atualiza&#231;&#227;o nas recomenda&#231;&#245;es de profilaxia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B335">335</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B341">341</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B342">342</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t40">
              <label>Tabela 14</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia para endocardite infecciosa<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B316">316</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B318">318</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="10%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Indiv&#237;duos com maior risco de desenvolver endocardite infecciosa: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><p>Doen&#231;a card&#237;aca valvar adquirida com estenose ou regurgita&#231;&#227;o</p></list-item><list-item><p>Pr&#243;tese card&#237;aca valvar</p></list-item><list-item><p>Valvopatia adquirida corrigida com material prot&#233;tico</p></list-item><list-item><p>Endocardite pr&#233;via</p></list-item><list-item><p>Miocardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</p></list-item><list-item><p>Cardiopatia cong&#234;nita cianog&#234;nica n&#227;o corrigida</p></list-item><list-item><p>Cardiopatia cong&#234;nita cianog&#234;nica corrigida com material prot&#233;tico (primeiros 6 meses)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Cardiopatia cong&#234;nita cianog&#234;nica corrigida com les&#227;o residual</p></list-item><list-item><p>Valvopatia em paciente transplantado card&#237;aco</p></list-item></list> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"><bold>N&#227;o &#233; indicada profilaxia:</bold> dispositivos eletr&#244;nicos implant&#225;veis (marca-passo, cardiodesfibrilador), defeito septal corrigido, stents vasculares, filtro de cava, shunts no sistema nervoso central, f&#237;stulas, cateteres venosos</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">American Heart Association (AHA)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"><bold>Particularidades:</bold> indicada profilaxia para indiv&#237;duos com maior risco de desfecho desfavor&#225;vel se desenvolver endocardite infecciosa. N&#227;o contempla doen&#231;a card&#237;aca valvar adquirida com estenose ou regurgita&#231;&#227;o.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">European Society of Cardiology (ESC)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"><bold>Particularidades:</bold> n&#227;o contempla doen&#231;a card&#237;aca valvar adquirida com estenose ou regurgita&#231;&#227;o, valvopatia em paciente transplantado card&#237;aco, cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas e valvopatia em paciente transplantado card&#237;aco.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"><bold>Particularidades:</bold> n&#227;o contempla valvopatia adquirida corrigida com material prot&#233;tico e valvopatia em paciente transplantado card&#237;aco; quanto &#224;s cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas, &#233; recomendada profilaxia, exceto defeito do septo atrial, defeito septal ventricular e ducto arterioso patente completamente corrigidos</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Tendo em vista o baixo acesso &#224; assist&#234;ncia odontol&#243;gica no Brasil, potencialmente determinando elevadas taxas de m&#225; higiene dental e, portanto, maior risco de bacteremia relacionada a procedimentos dent&#225;rios invasivos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B343">343</xref></sup> associado &#224; raridade de eventos adversos graves com antibi&#243;tico e &#224; inexist&#234;ncia de estudos de profilaxia em nosso meio, inclu&#237;mos nas nossas orienta&#231;&#245;es a profilaxia para pacientes com doen&#231;a de valva nativa.</p>
            <p>Dessa forma, recomenda-se a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia para endocardite antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios que envolvam a manipula&#231;&#227;o de tecido gengival, regi&#227;o periodontal ou perfura&#231;&#227;o da mucosa oral (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t41">Tabela 15</xref>) para todos os indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a valvar anatomicamente significativa (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t40">Tabela 14</xref>). O antibi&#243;tico deve ser administrado em dose &#250;nica 30 a 60 minutos antes do procedimento (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t42">Tabela 16</xref>). No caso de n&#227;o utiliza&#231;&#227;o do antibi&#243;tico antes do procedimento, ele pode ser utilizado em at&#233; 2 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t41">
              <label>Tabela 15</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Procedimentos dent&#225;rios e indica&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia para endocardite infecciosa</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Profilaxia indicada</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes que ser&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos com manipula&#231;&#227;o do tecido gengival, regi&#227;o periodontal e/ou perfura&#231;&#227;o da mucosa oral</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Profilaxia n&#227;o indicada</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Anestesia local em tecido n&#227;o infectado <break/>Radiografia odontol&#243;gica <break/>Coloca&#231;&#227;o, ajustes ou remo&#231;&#227;o de aparelhos <break/>ortod&#244;nticos <break/>Queda natural de dente de leite <break/>Sangramento oriundo de trauma da mucosa oral ou l&#225;bios</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t42">
              <label>Tabela 16</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Esquemas de profilaxia a serem utilizados 1 hora antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="20%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Via de administra&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Antibi&#243;tico</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose adulto</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose crian&#231;a</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="5" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Oral</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Amoxicilina</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">2 g</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">50 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" rowspan="4" valign="top">Alergia &#224; penicilina</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Azitromicina ou Claritromicina</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">500 mg</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">15 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Cefalexina<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">*</xref> </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">2 g</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">50 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Doxiciclina</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">100 mg</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">2,2 mg/kg &lt; 45 kg, 100 mg &gt; 45 kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Clindamicina</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">600 mg</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">20 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Parenteral (IV ou IM)</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Ampicilina</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">2 g</td>
                    <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">50 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="center" rowspan="2" valign="top">Alergia &#224; penicilina</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Cefazolina ou Ceftriaxona<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">*</xref> </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">1 g</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">50 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Clindamicina</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">600 mg</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">20 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN16">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Evitar cefalosporinas nos casos de anafilaxia, angioedema ou urtic&#225;ria com penicilina devido ao risco de sensibilidade cruzada. IV: intravenoso; IM: intramuscular.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>A EI &#233; mais frequente como resultado de bacteremia por atividades di&#225;rias do que ap&#243;s procedimentos dent&#225;rios. N&#227;o h&#225; d&#250;vidas de que manter uma boa sa&#250;de bucal &#233; a melhor estrat&#233;gia de preven&#231;&#227;o de endocardite. Nos indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;as periodontais e endod&#244;nticas, a incid&#234;ncia e a magnitude da bacteremia nos cuidados cotidianos e durante procedimentos s&#227;o maiores em rela&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos com dentes saud&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B343">343</xref></sup> Dessa forma, recomendamos incentivar cuidados dent&#225;rios di&#225;rios e avalia&#231;&#227;o bianual por dentista.</p>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t43">Quadro 27</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para profilaxia antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t43">
              <label>Quadro 27</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o para profilaxia antes de procedimentos dent&#225;rios</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="00%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com condi&#231;&#245;es de risco para endocardite infecciosa de acordo com a Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t40">Tabela 14</xref>) e submetidos a procedimentos com manipula&#231;&#227;o do tecido gengival, regi&#227;o periodontal e/ou perfura&#231;&#227;o da mucosa oral</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.2. Procedimentos no Trato Respirat&#243;rio</title>
            <p>Pacientes submetidos &#224; incis&#227;o ou &#224; bi&#243;psia da mucosa do trato respirat&#243;rio, como cirurgias otorrinolaringol&#243;gicas, devem receber esquema antimicrobiano igual ao utilizado antes de tratamento odontol&#243;gico com elevado risco de bacteremia. N&#227;o h&#225; recomenda&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia para broncoscopia, laringoscopia e intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal. No caso de procedimento para tratamento de infec&#231;&#227;o, como drenagem de abscesso, dever&#225; ser administrada profilaxia com antibi&#243;tico com a&#231;&#227;o antiestafiloc&#243;cica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.3. Procedimentos no Trato Geniturin&#225;rio e Gastrointestinal</title>
            <p>Apesar das poucas evid&#234;ncias, recomendamos a profilaxia antes de procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios ou gastrointestinais com incis&#227;o ou bi&#243;psia de mucosa para os pacientes com alto risco de EI. Entre estes, incluem-se o parto vaginal e a ces&#225;rea, situa&#231;&#245;es potencialmente relacionadas &#224; bacteremia, embora igualmente n&#227;o haja estudos espec&#237;ficos quanto &#224; efic&#225;cia dessa conduta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B344">344</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Nos exames de endoscopia digestiva alta e colonoscopia, recomendamos a prescri&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia sempre que houver elevada possibilidade de manipula&#231;&#227;o da mucosa (por exemplo, bi&#243;psias, ressec&#231;&#245;es). Na ocorr&#234;ncia de manipula&#231;&#227;o inesperada de mucosa sem a pr&#233;via administra&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia, os antibi&#243;ticos poder&#227;o ser administrados at&#233; 2 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento. Nos demais exames endosc&#243;picos, como ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico e colangiopancreatografia (CPRE), n&#227;o est&#225; indicada profilaxia.</p>
            <p>O esquema antibi&#243;tico recomendado para os procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios e gastrointestinais est&#225; descrito na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t44">Tabela 17</xref>.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t44">
              <label>Tabela 17</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Esquemas de profilaxia a serem utilizados 30 minutos antes de procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios e gastrointestinais</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="24%">
                  <col width="1%"/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Antibi&#243;tico</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose adulto</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Dose crian&#231;a</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Ampicilina venosa<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN17">*</xref> + <break/>Gentamicina venosa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">2 g <break/>1,5 mg/kg</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">50 mg/kg <break/>1,5 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Alergia &#224; penicilina:</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="center" valign="top"/>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Vancomicina venosa + <break/>Gentamicina venosa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">1 g <break/>1,5 mg/kg</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">20 mg/kg <break/>1,5 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN17">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Fazer refor&#231;o com ampicilina venosa 1 g 6 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento; como alternativa administrar amoxicilina 1 g.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t45">Quadro 28</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para profilaxia antes de procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios e gastrointestinais.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t45">
              <label>Quadro 28</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o para profilaxia antes de procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios e gastrointestinais</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com condi&#231;&#245;es de risco para endocardite infecciosa de acordo com a Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t40">Tabela 14</xref>)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.4. Procedimentos Dermatol&#243;gicos e Musculoesquel&#233;ticos</title>
            <p>No caso de procedimento para tratamento de infec&#231;&#227;o, como drenagem de abscesso, dever&#225; ser administrada profilaxia com antibi&#243;tico com a&#231;&#227;o antiestafiloc&#243;cica e antiestreptoc&#243;cica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.5. <italic>Piercing</italic> e Tatuagem</title>
            <p>H&#225; relatos de casos de EI relacionada a <italic>piercing</italic> e tatuagem, especialmente <italic>piercing</italic> colocado na l&#237;ngua.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B345">345</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B346">346</xref></sup> Dessa forma, os pacientes devem ser alertados sobre esse risco e desencorajados de realizar esses procedimentos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Biomarcadores no Perioperat&#243;rio</title>
      <sec>
        <title>5.1. Pept&#237;deos Natriur&#233;ticos</title>
        <p>Os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos s&#227;o liberados na circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea pelo mioc&#225;rdio em resposta a m&#250;ltiplos est&#237;mulos fisiol&#243;gicos, como estresse mioc&#225;rdico, isquemia e outros. M&#250;ltiplos estudos demonstraram que n&#237;veis pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios elevados de BNP s&#227;o potentes preditores de complica&#231;&#245;es CV perioperat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B347">347</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B348">348</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em 2012, Biccard et al. Conduziram um estudo prospectivo observacional envolvendo 788 pacientes submetidos a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca visando avaliar a utilidade cl&#237;nica da dosagem pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de BNP em compara&#231;&#227;o com outros biomarcadores pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios como as troponinas. Tanto a eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina quanto de BNP pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios foram preditores independentes de eventos card&#237;acos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B349">349</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em uma metan&#225;lise realizada com 15 estudos observacionais prospectivos e 4.856 pacientes, os autores encontraram que a eleva&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de n&#237;veis de BNP ou NT-pr&#243;-BNP foi associada a um risco elevado (20 vezes maior) de eventos CV maiores, mortalidade card&#237;aca e mortalidade por todas as causas (10 vezes) no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio (&lt; 43 dias da cirurgia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B350">350</xref></sup> No entanto, dados desses estudos n&#227;o permitiram definir um ponto de corte para o BNP, al&#233;m de n&#227;o definir se acrescentam informa&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica sobre os &#237;ndices de risco progn&#243;stico j&#225; existentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B351">351</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um estudo observacional multic&#234;ntrico prospectivo analisou 979 pacientes no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca com o objetivo de avaliar o valor incremental da troponina de alta sensibilidade como preditor de risco em compara&#231;&#227;o com o escore RCRI. Nesse estudo, os autores tamb&#233;m avaliaram o papel dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos como preditores de risco em cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca. Observaram que tanto os n&#237;veis de troponina de alta sensibilidade quanto de NT-pr&#243;-BNP estavam mais elevados entre os indiv&#237;duos que evolu&#237;ram a &#243;bito quando comparados aos que sobreviveram. Os autores ainda sugerem que valores de NT-pr&#243;-BNP maiores do que 300 pg/mL conferem maior risco de mortalidade (4,8% <italic>versus</italic> 1,4%, p = 0,002).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B352">352</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em 2014, uma metan&#225;lise envolvendo 18 estudos prospectivos observacionais avaliou dados individuais de 2.179 pacientes submetidos a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca e revelou que n&#237;veis de BNP e NT-pr&#243;-BNP pr&#233; e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio melhoram a predi&#231;&#227;o de risco de morte ou infarto n&#227;o fatal em 30 dias ap&#243;s o procedimento. N&#237;veis pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios de BNP &gt; 92 pg/mL ou NT-pr&#243;-BNP &gt; 300 pg/mL conferem aumento do risco de morte ou infarto n&#227;o fatal em 3,4 vezes (<italic>odds ratio</italic> 3,4 com IC95% de 2,6 a 4,5). N&#237;veis p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios BNP &gt; 400 pg/mL e de NT-pr&#243;-BNP &gt; 900 conferem aumento de risco em 2,7 e 1,8 vezes respectivamente. Os n&#237;veis dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos, tanto pr&#233; quanto p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios, foram preditores independentes de morte e infarto n&#227;o fatal em 30 dias. A metan&#225;lise tamb&#233;m indicou que n&#237;veis de BNP &lt; 30 pg/mL t&#234;m probabilidade negativa de evento perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
        <p>A dosagem adicional de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria pode melhorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para eventos CV em 30 dias e 180 dias ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; dosagem pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B353">353</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, uma suban&#225;lise do estudo multic&#234;ntrico VISION (<italic>Vascular Events in Noncardiac Surgery Patients Cohort Evaluation</italic>) envolvendo 10.402 pacientes com idade maior do que 45 anos submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas (vasculares e n&#227;o vasculares) confirmou resultados de estudos anteriores de que pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos s&#227;o bons preditores de morte vascular ou inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B354">354</xref></sup> Valores de NT-pr&#243;-BNP entre 100 e 200 pg/mL aumentaram o risco de evento prim&#225;rio em 2,3 vezes, valores entre 200 e 1.500 pg/mL, em 3,6 vezes, e maiores do que 1.500 pg/mL, em 5,5 vezes. Os autores mostram ainda que NT-pr&#243;-BNP pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio melhora a predi&#231;&#227;o de risco card&#237;aco quando adicionado ao escore de risco RCRI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B355">355</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Diante das evid&#234;ncias aqui expostas, prop&#245;e-se discreta altera&#231;&#227;o nas recomenda&#231;&#245;es conforme descrito a seguir.</p>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t46">Quadro 29</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da dosagem pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de BNP/NT-pr&#243;-BNP para predizer risco de eventos CV perioperat&#243;rios.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t46">
          <label>Quadro 29</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es da dosagem pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de BNP/NT-pr&#243;-BNP para predizer risco de eventos cardiovasculares perioperat&#243;rio</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com idade maior que 65 anos ou pacientes com idade entre 45 e 64 anos com doen&#231;a cardiovascular estabelecida ou fator de risco<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN18">*</xref> para DCV submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN18">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Diabetes, hipertens&#227;o, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, obesidade, fibrila&#231;&#227;o arterial (fatores de risco para desenvolver insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada). BNP: Pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B; NT-pr&#243;-BNP: pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B N-terminal.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Troponinas Card&#237;acas e Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de Complica&#231;&#245;es Cardiovasculares</title>
        <p>Apesar dos diferentes algoritmos e ferramentas dispon&#237;veis para a correta estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, a acur&#225;cia na predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos desfavor&#225;veis ainda fica aqu&#233;m do ideal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B356">356</xref></sup> Entre as diversas ferramentas que podem auxiliar na predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos CV e mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, o uso de biomarcadores vem ganhando maior espa&#231;o com as evidencias cientificas adquiridas nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, em especial atrav&#233;s do uso de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos (BNP/NT-pr&#243;-BNP) e troponina T e I de alta sensibilidade (hs-cTnT/I).</p>
        <p>No contexto pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, diversos estudos consolidaram o papel da troponina de alta sensibilidade na otimiza&#231;&#227;o da estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco. Em um estudo com 979 pacientes submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas, uma dosagem pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de hs-cTnT acima do percentil 99 demostrou risco aumentado para o desfecho combinado de mortalidade, IAM, parada card&#237;aca recuperada e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda (RR 2,6 IC95% 1,3-5,3). A mesma coorte demostrou superioridade da hs-cTnT em rela&#231;&#227;o ao algoritmo do RCRI na predi&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade intra-hospitalar (AUC 0,809 <italic>vs.</italic> 0,658, p = 0,006).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B352">352</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise com sete estudos e mais de 4.000 pacientes revelou aumento de eventos CV combinados (RR 2,9, IC95% 1,9 a 4,4), mortalidade a curto prazo (RR curto prazo 5,4, IC95% 3,21-9,06) e mortalidade a longo prazo (RR 2,9, IC95% 1,8-4,6) nos pacientes com troponina T de alta sensibilidade elevada antes de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B357">357</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os <italic>kits</italic> de troponina I de alta sensibilidade tamb&#233;m foram avaliados no contexto perioperat&#243;rio. Nos estudos BASEL-PMI e Tropovasc, 1.022 pacientes foram avaliados com uso de troponina T e I de alta sensibilidade. Ambas as troponinas apresentaram boa acur&#225;cia na predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos CV combinados em 30 dias ap&#243;s cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas e n&#227;o vasculares (AUC hs-cTnI 0,77, IC95% 0,71&#8211;0,83 e AUC hs-cTnT 0,79, IC95% 0,73&#8211;0,85). Nos pacientes submetidos a cirurgias vasculares arteriais, a troponina I de alta sensibilidade apresentou melhor desempenho quando comparada a troponina T (AUC hs-cTnI 0,67, IC95% 0,59&#8211;0,75, e AUC hs-cTnT 0,59, IC95% 0,51&#8211;0,67).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B358">358</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Por fim, em pacientes internados com programa&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, diversas comorbidades e patologias agudas e cr&#244;nicas podem influenciar nos n&#237;veis de troponina (por exemplo, anemia, sepse, insufici&#234;ncia renal, IC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B359">359</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B360">360</xref></sup> Diferentes coortes observaram que a troponina de alta sensibilidade (em especial hs-cTnT) pode estar elevada acima do percentil 99 do valor superior de refer&#234;ncia em at&#233; 50% dos pacientes que ir&#227;o ser submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B352">352</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B358">358</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Portanto, embora a presen&#231;a de eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria seja um fator de risco para a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias ou recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para investiga&#231;&#245;es adicionais ou medidas espec&#237;ficas para redu&#231;&#227;o do risco nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Esses valores elevados devem ser considerados como uma inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica cr&#244;nica (definida pela 4&#170; defini&#231;&#227;o universal de infarto como pelo menos um valor de troponina acima do percentil 99 do valor superior de refer&#234;ncia sem altera&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B360">360</xref></sup> Valores desproporcionalmente elevados em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s comorbidades conhecidas do paciente devem ser investigados antes de opera&#231;&#245;es completamente eletivas. Nos demais casos, deve ser considerado o valor basal do paciente e ser utilizado para a correta interpreta&#231;&#227;o das dosagens obtidas na monitoriza&#231;&#227;o subsequente de eventos, facilitando o diagn&#243;stico correto da inj&#250;ria/IAM perioperat&#243;rio (PMI) e diferenciando eleva&#231;&#245;es agudas de cr&#244;nicas do biomarcador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Como o PMI &#233; na maioria das vezes assintom&#225;tico, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com a dosagem de troponina di&#225;ria no primeiro e segundo dias de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio deve ser feita para diagnosticar o PMI (vide Item 6.1). Ainda n&#227;o h&#225; um consenso definitivo sobre em quais pacientes exatamente a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com troponina tem a melhor custo-efetividade. Ao realizar monitoriza&#231;&#227;o indiscriminadamente, n&#227;o se perde nenhum PMI, mas realiza-se muitos exames normais. Por outro lado, ao monitorar somente pacientes de risco muito alto, a incid&#234;ncia de PMI ser&#225; maior, mas muitos pacientes n&#227;o s&#227;o diagnosticados.</p>
        <p>No estudo VISION, os autores realizaram monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com troponinas em todos os pacientes com idade acima de 45 anos submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es em anestesia regional ou geral, internados por pelo menos 1 dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup> No estudo BASEL-PMI, os autores monitoraram pacientes com idade superior a 65 anos ou com idade superior a 45 anos e com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica conhecida (coron&#225;ria, cerebrovascular ou perif&#233;rica).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref></sup> Em dados mais recentes, o percentual relativo de indiv&#237;duos que registraram inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas (MINS) foi maior entre aqueles classificados como de maior risco pelo RCRI (7,9%, 14,2%, 25,3% e 38% nas classes I, II, II e IV, respectivamente); por&#233;m, em n&#250;meros absolutos, 30% de todas as inj&#250;rias foram em indiv&#237;duos na classe I, ou seja, escore do RCRI de 0.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B366">366</xref></sup> Por outro lado, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia para realiza&#231;&#227;o de troponina de rotina em pacientes sem fatores de risco ou RCRI classe I que s&#227;o submetidos a procedimentos de menor complexidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B367">367</xref></sup> Em contrapartida, j&#225; foram demonstrados custo-efetividade e posicionamento de outros autores em favor da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de troponina perioperat&#243;ria para os pacientes acima de 65 anos ou com hist&#243;rico de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B368">368</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B369">369</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na diretriz da ESC recentemente publicada, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o &#233; recomendada pera pacientes com fatores de risco CV (idade &#8805; 65 anos, dislipidemia, hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes, tabagismo, hist&#243;ria familiar), doen&#231;a CV conhecida ou sintomas de doen&#231;a CV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Considerando as particularidades do nosso pa&#237;s e as evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis, esta Diretriz recomenda a realiza&#231;&#227;o da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com realiza&#231;&#227;o de ECG e dosagem de troponina no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio e uma vez ao dia durante 48 horas para pacientes com estimativa de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto de acordo com os algoritmos de avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria. Outra informa&#231;&#227;o de extrema relev&#226;ncia &#233; que cerca de 80 a 90% das altera&#231;&#245;es de troponina, isoladas ou n&#227;o, foram registradas at&#233; o segundo dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup> sendo razo&#225;vel realizar a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o por 48 horas ap&#243;s a opera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Cabe ressaltar que, ap&#243;s a disponibilidade das troponinas de alta sensibilidade e das novas evid&#234;ncias, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com ECGs ou monitoriza&#231;&#227;o autom&#225;tica do segmento ST caiu em desuso por apresentar grande varia&#231;&#227;o de sensibilidade (entre 55 e 100%) e especificidade (entre 37 e 85%) para a detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia perioperat&#243;ria (intra e p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria), porque sua efetividade depende da t&#233;cnica empregada e tamb&#233;m das caracter&#237;sticas basais da popula&#231;&#227;o estudada (probabilidade pr&#233;-teste de DAC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B370">370</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B372">372</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t47">Quadro 30</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t47">
          <label>Quadro 30</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Dosagem de troponina no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, primeiro e segundo dia do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, em pacientes de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto de complica&#231;&#245;es segundo algoritmos, submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Realiza&#231;&#227;o de eletrocardiograma no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, primeiro e segundo dia do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, em pacientes de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto de complica&#231;&#245;es segundo algoritmos, submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">P&#243;s-operat&#243;rio em unidade de tratamento intensivo (UTI) por 48 horas em pacientes de risco alto de complica&#231;&#245;es segundo algoritmos, submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">P&#243;s-operat&#243;rio em UTI por 48 horas em pacientes de risco intermedi&#225;rio de complica&#231;&#245;es segundo algoritmos, submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Dosagem de troponinas em pacientes de baixo risco ou pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es de baixo risco</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento das Complica&#231;&#245;es Cardiovasculares no Perioperat&#243;rio</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.1. Inj&#250;ria/infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio Perioperat&#243;rio (PMI)</title>
        <p>O IAM &#233; a complica&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca mais temida no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, descrito em 0,3 a 3% dos pacientes de baixo risco e sem hist&#243;ria de DAC e chegando a 33% em pacientes de alto risco com hist&#243;ria de DAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B373">373</xref></sup> Em estudos observacionais mais recentes, a incid&#234;ncia variou entre 0,4 a 0,9%, por&#233;m admitindo-se subdiagn&#243;stico na aus&#234;ncia de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o adequada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B374">374</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B375">375</xref></sup> Embora os &#237;ndices de mortalidade mostrem um redu&#231;&#227;o nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, readmiss&#227;o hospitalar ou morte em 30 dias ainda ocorrem em um a cada tr&#234;s pacientes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B375">375</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B377">377</xref></sup> o que est&#225; provavelmente relacionado &#224; exist&#234;ncia de comorbidades, &#224; dificuldade diagn&#243;stica e &#224; limita&#231;&#227;o para o uso do arsenal terap&#234;utico antitromb&#243;tico e antiplaquet&#225;rio em pacientes com IAM perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
        <p>A maioria dos pacientes com IAM perioperat&#243;rio n&#227;o apresenta sintomas, devido &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia dos eventos no intraoperat&#243;rio, assim como ao uso de analgesia potente no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B356">356</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B379">379</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, quando presente, a dor tor&#225;cica &#233; frequentemente atribu&#237;da a outras etiologias mais &#243;bvias, como dores incisionais ou relacionadas &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o do paciente. Outras manifesta&#231;&#245;es, como dispneia e n&#225;useas, t&#234;m explica&#231;&#245;es alternativas nesse per&#237;odo (atelectasias e efeito de medicamentos), fazendo com que a hip&#243;tese de IAM perioperat&#243;rio seja frequentemente subvalorizada pela equipe m&#233;dica. Al&#233;m disso, somente 25% dos pacientes apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es de isquemia no ECG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B380">380</xref></sup> Altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas devem ser diferenciadas de outras causas de altera&#231;&#245;es do ECG, como dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, hipotermia, efeitos de drogas ou posicionamento incorreto das deriva&#231;&#245;es. Por isso, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com a dosagem de troponinas &#233; a pe&#231;a fundamental no diagn&#243;stico.</p>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, foi demonstrado que as eleva&#231;&#245;es de troponina no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio est&#227;o associadas &#224; alta mortalidade em 30 dias e 1 ano ap&#243;s a opera&#231;&#227;o, independentemente da presen&#231;a de outros crit&#233;rios da defini&#231;&#227;o universal de IAM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 7</xref>). Levando em considera&#231;&#227;o todas as particularidades do IAM perioperat&#243;rio, optamos por utilizar o termo "inj&#250;ria/infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio perioperat&#243;rio" (PMI) para os eventos que ocorrem nos primeiros 2 dias ap&#243;s a opera&#231;&#227;o, durante a fase de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o utilizando as troponinas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref></sup> Esta diretriz optou por utilizar a abreviatura PMI para representar o termo inj&#250;ria/infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio perioperat&#243;ria, tendo em vista o uso consagrado e mais comum da abreviatura na l&#237;ngua inglesa.</p>
        <fig id="f7">
          <label>Figura 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Quarta defini&#231;&#227;o universal de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf08.tif"/></fig>
        <p>O PMI &#233; definido como a ocorr&#234;ncia de uma eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina aguda ap&#243;s a opera&#231;&#227;o, definida como um delta absoluto igual ou superior ao valor do percentil 99 do limite superior de refer&#234;ncia do <italic>kit</italic> de troponina utilizado entre o valor pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio e o valor do primeiro ou do segundo dia p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Na aus&#234;ncia de um valor pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, o delta pode ser realizado entre os dois valores de troponina p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 8</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref></sup> No estudo BASEL-PMI, no qual a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o utilizando a troponina foi realizada em pacientes com idade acima de 65 anos ou pacientes com idade acima de 45 anos e doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica (coron&#225;ria, cerebral ou perif&#233;rica) submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas, a incid&#234;ncia de PMI utilizando a troponina T de alta sensibilidade (delta &#8805; 14 ng/L) foi de 16%. Confirmando os achados de estudos anteriores, apenas 18% dos pacientes apresentaram sintomas. Pacientes com PMI apresentaram uma mortalidade significativamente maior do que pacientes sem PMI em 30 dias (9% x 1%, p &lt; 0,001, raz&#227;o de risco ajustada [aHR] 2,7; IC95% 1,5&#8211;4,8) e 1 ano (23% x 9%, p &lt; 0,001, aHR 1,6; IC95% 1,2&#8211;2,2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref></sup> Esses achados foram posteriormente validados para a troponina I.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f8">
          <label>Figura 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Diagn&#243;stico do PMI. URL: valor superior de refer&#234;ncia do percentil 99 do kit; URL hs-cTnT (Roche) 14 ng/L, URL hs-cTnI (Abbott) 26 ng/L, URL hs-cTnI (Siemens) 40 ng/L. ECG: eletrocardiograma; hs-cTn: troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade; PMI: inj&#250;ri/infarto do mioc&#225;rdico perioperat&#243;rio.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf09.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A troponina I tem diversos fabricantes, sendo que cada fabricante tem um valor do percentil 99 do limite superior de refer&#234;ncia. A defini&#231;&#227;o de PMI foi validada para os <italic>kits</italic> de troponina I da Abbott (delta &#8805; 26 ng/L) e Siemens (delta &#8805; 40 ng/L), por&#233;m podemos extrapolar a defini&#231;&#227;o de PMI para os demais <italic>kits</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref></sup> Embora n&#227;o tenha havido diferen&#231;a na mortalidade entre pacientes com PMI que preenchiam um dos crit&#233;rios da defini&#231;&#227;o universal de IAM ou n&#227;o, os pacientes com PMI que preenchiam algum dos crit&#233;rios adicionais da defini&#231;&#227;o de IAM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 7</xref>) apresentaram uma maior incid&#234;ncia de eventos CV maiores (MACE, incluindo IAM, IC aguda, arritmias e morte CV) do que pacientes com PMI somente com a eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina isolada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro conceito espec&#237;fico do perioperat&#243;rio &#233; a defini&#231;&#227;o de MINS (inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgias n&#227;o-card&#237;acas). MINS &#233; definido como um valor de troponina T &#8805; 65 ng/L no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio ou um valor de troponina T entre 20 e 65 ng/L e um delta absoluto &#8805; 5 ng/L entre os valores pr&#233; e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios. Al&#233;m disso, MINS se refere a causas isqu&#234;micas de eleva&#231;&#245;es de troponinas, isto &#233;, outras causas como sepse, tromboembolismo pulmonar, taquiarritmias e IC foram exclu&#237;das.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup> O estudo VISION incluiu pacientes com idade acima de 45 anos que foram submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas e demonstrou uma incid&#234;ncia de MINS de 18%, sendo que 93% dos pacientes com MINS n&#227;o apresentaram sintomas. A ocorr&#234;ncia de MINS foi relacionada com um aumento importante da mortalidade (aHR 3,20; IC95% 2,4-4,3). Al&#233;m disso, os autores demonstraram que quanto maior o valor absoluto da troponina p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, assim como quanto maior o delta agudo, maior a mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup> Cabe ressaltar que parte da defini&#231;&#227;o de MINS leva em conta apenas o valor absoluto da troponina no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, n&#227;o diferenciando a inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica aguda da cr&#244;nica.</p>
        <p>Tradicionalmente, a etiologia do IAM perioperat&#243;rio foi considerada como uma mistura entre IAM do tipo 1 (ruptura de placa devido ao aumento da agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria, resposta inflamat&#243;ria, redu&#231;&#227;o da fibrin&#243;lise, libera&#231;&#227;o de catecolaminas) e IAM do tipo 2 (desbalan&#231;o entre a oferta/consumo de oxig&#234;nio devido a anemia, taquicardia, hipoxemia e hipotens&#227;o).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B356">356</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B373">373</xref></sup> Estudos anatomopatol&#243;gicos e <italic>in vivo</italic> demonstraram que cerca de 50% dos IAMs perioperat&#243;rios eram do tipo 1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B379">379</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B381">381</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B383">383</xref></sup> Entretanto, ap&#243;s o desenvolvimento dos exames de troponina de alta sensibilidade, podemos detectar eleva&#231;&#245;es de troponina em diversos outros contextos que n&#227;o IAM, como sepse, IC, insufici&#234;ncia renal e at&#233; mesmo ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio extenuante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B359">359</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B384">384</xref></sup> Por isso, a etiologia do PMI &#233; muito mais abrangente e inclui o conceito de MINS, como demonstrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 9</xref><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B385">385</xref></sup>, e o progn&#243;stico do PMI tamb&#233;m depende diretamente da etiologia, sendo que pacientes com PMI por causas n&#227;o card&#237;acas (sepse), IC e taquiarritmias apresentam mortalidade mais elevada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B386">386</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f9">
          <label>Figura 9</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Etiologia do PMI e de MINS. PMI: inj&#250;ria/infarto agudo perioperat&#243;rio, IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; MINS: inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca; hs-cTnT: troponina T de alta sensibilidade. O trecho da figura com fundo cor de rosa representa o que &#233; MINS.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf10.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Em pacientes com PMI, a realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG &#233; mandat&#243;ria, e a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um ecocardiograma, se poss&#237;vel, deve ser considerada para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica biventricular, presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a valvar e altera&#231;&#245;es na contratilidade segmentar.</p>
        <p>O tratamento do PMI depende fundamentalmente da etiologia, e a conduta diante de um paciente com PMI est&#225; demonstrada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 10</xref>. Cabe ressaltar que, na presen&#231;a de um IAM tipo 1, a escolha do antiagregante a ser adicionado &#224; aspirina depende do risco de sangramento, que deve ser discutido em conjunto com o cirurgi&#227;o. Em pacientes de alto risco de sangramento, deve-se dar prefer&#234;ncia ao clopidogrel. Nos casos de IAM sem supra de ST, a administra&#231;&#227;o do segundo antiagregante deve ser feita durante ou ap&#243;s a cineangiocoronariografia. Al&#233;m disso, a otimiza&#231;&#227;o das causas secund&#225;rias de isquemia (taquicardia, hipotens&#227;o, hipertens&#227;o, anemia, dor) deve sempre ser realizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B373">373</xref></sup> Embora as evid&#234;ncias para o tratamento do PMI sejam escassas, estudos retrospectivos sugerem que a otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento cl&#237;nico dos fatores de risco CV (dislipidemia, hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes, cessa&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo) est&#225; associada a uma melhora do progn&#243;stico e, portanto, deve ser realizada em todos os pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B387">387</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f10">
          <label>Figura 10</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Fluxograma de conduta em pacientes com PMI. *Clopidogrel ou ticagrelor a depender do risco de sangramento; <sup>#</sup>timing a depender do risco de sangramento ap&#243;s discuss&#227;o interdisciplinar; <sup>&amp;</sup>se n&#227;o realizada no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, ambulatorial ou antes da alta conforme o caso; <sup>$</sup>ambulatorial ou antes da alta conforme o caso. AAS: &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico; CATE: cineangiocoronariografia; DAP: dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria; ECG: eletrocardiograma; Hb: hemoglobina; HBPM: heparina de baixo peso molecular; HNF: heparina n&#227;o fracionada; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; PMI: inj&#250;ria/infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio perioperat&#243;rio.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf11.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Em um estudo recente, foi demonstrado que os fatores de risco para a ocorr&#234;ncia do desfecho combinado de MACE em pacientes com PMI de causa card&#237;aca provavelmente coronariana s&#227;o presen&#231;a de sintomas (angina ou dispneia), delta de troponina entre duas e quatro vezes o valor superior de refer&#234;ncia do percentil 99, cirurgias de urg&#234;ncia e emerg&#234;ncia e cirurgias de alto risco. Surpreendentemente, a presen&#231;a de sangramento perioperat&#243;rio foi um fator protetor, provavelmente porque, ap&#243;s a corre&#231;&#227;o do <italic>trigger</italic> para a isquemia, n&#227;o houve mais eventos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B386">386</xref></sup> Quanto &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o de provas de isquemia em pacientes com PMI de causa provavelmente coronariana, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias para determinar o momento ideal do exame. Entretanto, considerando que o risco de eventos card&#237;acos e mortalidade ap&#243;s PMI &#233; maior nos primeiros 120 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia, &#233; razo&#225;vel realizar a prova funcional antes desse per&#237;odo.</p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento de MINS, o estudo randomizado MANAGE avaliou o uso de dabigatrana 110 mg duas vezes ao dia em pacientes com MINS e demonstrou uma redu&#231;&#227;o nos eventos combinados de mortalidade vascular, IAM n&#227;o fatal, AVC isqu&#234;mico, trombose arterial perif&#233;rica, amputa&#231;&#227;o e trombose venosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B388">388</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Embora menos frequente, o IAM perioperat&#243;rio pode ocorrer ap&#243;s o segundo dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o com troponinas. Nesses casos, o diagn&#243;stico deve ser feito utilizando os crit&#233;rios da defini&#231;&#227;o universal de IAM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 7</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B360">360</xref></sup> O tratamento &#233; o mesmo do IAM fora do contexto perioperat&#243;rio, respeitando as particularidades j&#225; descritas acima (considerar risco de sangramento e discuss&#227;o multidisciplinar com o cirurgi&#227;o).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B389">389</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t48">Quadro 31</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento do PMI e IAM perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t48">
          <label>Quadro 31</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento do PMI</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">O diagn&#243;stico de PMI deve ser feito na presen&#231;a de um delta absoluto &#8805; ao percentil 99 do valor superior de refer&#234;ncia do kit de troponina utilizado entre os valores de troponina pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio e do primeiro ou segundo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Na aus&#234;ncia do valor basal, o delta pode ser considerado entre dois valores p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Realiza&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, eletrocardiograma e hemoglobina em pacientes com PMI</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Determina&#231;&#227;o da etiologia do PMI utilizando o fluxograma de conduta</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Tratamento da causa do PMI segundo as diretrizes espec&#237;ficas</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">O diagn&#243;stico do IAM ap&#243;s o segundo dia p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio deve ser feito baseado na defini&#231;&#227;o universal do IAM, e seu tratamento deve ser baseado nas diretrizes atuais</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Em pacientes com IAM perioperat&#243;rio ou PMI devido a causas isqu&#234;micas, a otimiza&#231;&#227;o das causas secund&#225;rias de isquemia (anemia, taquicardia, hipotens&#227;o, hipertens&#227;o) deve ser realizada, assim como a avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco de sangramento e discuss&#227;o multidisciplinar com o cirurgi&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2. Fibrila&#231;&#227;o/<italic>Flutter</italic> Atrial Agudos</title>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico de FA/<italic>flutter</italic> atrial requer a documenta&#231;&#227;o do ritmo preferencialmente com um ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es convencional para evitar artefatos e erros diagn&#243;sticos. A documenta&#231;&#227;o a partir de deriva&#231;&#227;o &#250;nica (incluindo monitores hospitalares) requer dura&#231;&#227;o da arritmia de pelo menos 30 segundos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B390">390</xref></sup> Em cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas, uma metan&#225;lise mostrou a incid&#234;ncia de 10%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B391">391</xref></sup> de FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria (FAPO), com maior incid&#234;ncia em cirurgias tor&#225;cicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B392">392</xref></sup> Apesar de muitas vezes autolimitada e assintom&#225;tica, est&#225; associada com maior risco recorr&#234;ncia tardia e de fen&#244;menos cardioemb&#243;licos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B393">393</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A defini&#231;&#227;o de FAPO &#233; a ocorr&#234;ncia presumivelmente nova durante ou ap&#243;s as primeiras horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia, com pico de incid&#234;ncia entre o segundo e o quarto dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B394">394</xref></sup> A patog&#234;nese da FAPO resulta da intera&#231;&#227;o entre inflama&#231;&#227;o, gatilhos preexistentes, doen&#231;a estrutural e insultos perioperat&#243;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B395">395</xref></sup> Sua ocorr&#234;ncia ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca est&#225; associada ao aumento de tr&#234;s vezes no risco de AVC, cinco vezes no risco de IAM e tr&#234;s vezes em mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B396">396</xref></sup> As medidas preventivas ao desenvolvimento de FA s&#227;o o adequado controle hidroeletrol&#237;tico no pr&#233; e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio (normovolemia, monitoriza&#231;&#227;o e reposi&#231;&#227;o de magn&#233;sio e pot&#225;ssio) e a manuten&#231;&#227;o das medica&#231;&#245;es de uso pr&#233;vio, quando adequadas ao contexto hemodin&#226;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B397">397</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Algumas medica&#231;&#245;es foram estudadas com o objetivo de reduzir a incid&#234;ncia de FA e suas consequ&#234;ncias delet&#233;rias. A terapia antiarr&#237;tmica preventiva, com amiodarona ou magn&#233;sio venoso, pode ser discutida individualmente em pacientes em programa&#231;&#227;o de cirurgias tor&#225;cicas. O uso do magn&#233;sio oral (total de 3,2 g em tr&#234;s dias e 1,6 g no dia da cirurgia) em pacientes submetidos a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio (estudo POMAF-CS, controlado randomizado e unic&#234;ntrico) diminuiu a incid&#234;ncia de FAPO em compara&#231;&#227;o com placebo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B398">398</xref></sup> Tisdale et al., em estudo retrospectivo, demonstrou que, em pacientes submetidos a esofagectomias, o uso da amiodarona endovenosa na indu&#231;&#227;o anest&#233;sica (43,75 mg/hora durante 96 horas) reduziu a taxa de FA no perioperat&#243;rio, por&#233;m sem impacto no tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o. Ademais, a amiodarona nesse contexto resultou em hipotens&#227;o, bradicardia e prolongamento intervalo QT corrigido, sendo questionado seu uso rotineiro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B399">399</xref></sup> Riber et al., em estudo randomizado, duplo-cego, placebo controlado, em pneumectomias, demonstraram que a administra&#231;&#227;o de 300 mg de amiodarona venosa no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, seguido de 1.200 mg oral por dia por 5 dias em pacientes est&#225;veis hemodinamicamente reduziu a taxa de FA no perioperat&#243;rio (9 vs. 32% no grupo-controle).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B392">392</xref></sup> Khalil et al., por sua vez, compararam tr&#234;s grupos no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato, o primeiro com a interven&#231;&#227;o amiodarona (ataque de 5 mg/kg, seguido de 15 mg/kg por dia, por 48 horas); o segundo recebeu magn&#233;sio venoso (ataque de 80 mg/kg, seguido de 8 mg/kg/h, por 48 horas); por fim, o grupo-controle, proveniente de an&#225;lise retrospectiva em pacientes submetidos &#224; ressec&#231;&#227;o pulmonar, revelou uma taxa de FA no perioperat&#243;rio, respectivamente, de 10, 12,5 e 20,5%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B400">400</xref></sup> Outras medica&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o antiarr&#237;tmicas tamb&#233;m foram avaliadas. As estatinas mostraram papel potencial na preven&#231;&#227;o de FAPO em cirurgia card&#237;aca, particularmente de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B401">401</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B402">402</xref></sup> Posteriormente, uma metan&#225;lise, apenas em p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, n&#227;o observou o benef&#237;cio na preven&#231;&#227;o de FAPO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B272">272</xref></sup> A colchicina permanece em investiga&#231;&#227;o (COP-AF [<italic>Colchicine For The Prevention Of Perioperative Atrial Fibrillation In Patients Undergoing Thoracic Surgery</italic>]: NCT03310125).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B403">403</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No manejo da FAPO, considerando a presen&#231;a de fatores que dificultam o controle de ritmo, a primeira abordagem pode incluir corre&#231;&#227;o de volemia, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, redu&#231;&#227;o de est&#237;mulos adren&#233;rgicos (dor, inflama&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria) e controle de frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (&lt; 100 a 110 bpm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B404">404</xref></sup> Em paciente com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada, a prefer&#234;ncia &#233; por bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio e betabloqueadores, enquanto, em pacientes com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida, digoxina e betabloqueadores espec&#237;ficos. A digoxina pode ter efeito atenuado pelo estado hiperadren&#233;rgico cir&#250;rgico. A introdu&#231;&#227;o das medica&#231;&#245;es deve ser preferencialmente de titula&#231;&#227;o lenta, a fim de evitar hipotens&#227;o, que &#233; sabidamente delet&#233;ria no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. O controle do ritmo, ou seja, a revers&#227;o da FA, &#233; a escolha preferencial em pacientes com alta resposta ventricular e dif&#237;cil controle cronotr&#243;pico e pela cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica ou qu&#237;mica, observando o tempo de in&#237;cio da arritmia e eventual necessidade de realizar ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico, conforme diretriz brasileira de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B405">405</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Independentemente da estrat&#233;gia de controle de ritmo ou de frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o paciente deve ser avaliado para in&#237;cio de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. Em longo prazo, a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o da FAPO era discutida individualmente; entretanto, em metan&#225;lise com cirurgias card&#237;acas e n&#227;o card&#237;acas, foi observado risco 37% maior de AVC, e o risco de AVC foi maior entre os pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca. Dessa maneira, a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em longo prazo em pacientes com FAPO e com fatores de risco (CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc) &#233; recomendada para prevenir os eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, considerando o benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico l&#237;quido, o risco de sangramento conforme a cirurgia realizada e a prefer&#234;ncia do paciente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 11</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f11">
          <label>Figura 11</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Fluxograma para o tratamento de pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. *Dosagens conforme diretriz de FA e julgamento cl&#237;nico. FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; FAPO: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; CVE: cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf12.tif"/></fig>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t49">Quadro 32</xref> apresenta a recomenda&#231;&#227;o para pacientes com FAPO.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t49">
          <label>Quadro 32</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o para pacientes com FAPO</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">A manuten&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em longo prazo deve ser considerada em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial detectada ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, quando analisado risco de acidente vascular cerebral, conforme CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc e risco de sangramento, de acordo com a cirurgia realizada.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3. Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Aguda</title>
        <p>Com o envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial, a preval&#234;ncia de IC est&#225; aumentando.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> Pacientes mais idosos e com m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades s&#227;o submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas, e a ocorr&#234;ncia de IC aguda como complica&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria (ICAp) de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas provavelmente tamb&#233;m ir&#225; aumentar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> N&#227;o existem muitos estudos que avaliaram especificamente a ocorr&#234;ncia de ICAp. A incid&#234;ncia de ICAp em estudos retrospectivos ou estudos avaliando ICAp como parte do desfecho combinado de eventos CV maiores variou entre 1 e 3,8%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B406">406</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B412">412</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em um estudo retrospectivo utilizando uma base de dados americana, 4,9% dos pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas apresentaram ICA durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o (n&#227;o especificado se pr&#233; ou p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio), e a mortalidade intra-hospitalar desses pacientes foi superior &#224; de pacientes sem ICA (5 vs. 0,8%, p &lt; 0,001). A maioria dos casos ocorreu em cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas e vasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em um estudo recente de coorte prospectiva envolvendo 11.162 opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas, a incid&#234;ncia de ICAp foi de 2,5%. Os fatores de risco independentemente correlacionados com a ocorr&#234;ncia de ICAp foram idade, IC cr&#244;nica, diabetes melito, FA, anemia, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica, DAC, doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica, inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica cr&#244;nica e cirurgia de urg&#234;ncia e emerg&#234;ncia. Cerca de 50% dos pacientes com ICAp n&#227;o tinham hist&#243;ria de IC conhecida no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio. A mortalidade desses pacientes com ICAp foi de 44% em 1 ano, comparado a 11% em pacientes sem ICAp (p &lt; 0,001). Al&#233;m disso, os pacientes com ICAp apresentaram uma taxa de re-hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por ICA de 15%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B412">412</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Portanto, a ICAp &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria relacionada a altas taxas de mortalidade, que vem sendo negligenciada.</p>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico da ICAp &#233; dificultado porque os pacientes est&#227;o restritos ao leito, s&#227;o idosos e geralmente n&#227;o referem sintomas. Portanto, &#233; necess&#225;rio estar atento aos pacientes idosos, com fatores de risco submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es ortop&#233;dicas ou vasculares para a presen&#231;a de ICAp. O diagn&#243;stico &#233; cl&#237;nico e auxiliado pela dosagem dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos. A realiza&#231;&#227;o de um ecocardiograma est&#225; recomendada para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica biventricular e exclus&#227;o de doen&#231;a valvar significativa.</p>
        <p>O tratamento da ICAp deve seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es das diretrizes atuais para o tratamento da ICA fora do contexto perioperat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B413">413</xref></sup> Cabe ressaltar que &#233; recomendada a otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento cl&#237;nico medicamentoso antes da alta hospitalar para evitar as readmiss&#245;es por ICA, assim como um retorno ambulatorial precoce para reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e da terapia medicamentosa.</p>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t50">Quadro 33</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes com ICAp.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t50">
          <label>Quadro 33</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Dosagem dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos e realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiograma na interna&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Tratamento de acordo com as diretrizes atuais e otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento medicamentoso e da volemia antes da alta</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Retorno ambulatorial precoce para reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e da terapia medicamentosa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4. Tromboembolismo Venoso</title>
        <p>O tratamento de pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de TEV no contexto perioperat&#243;rio segue os princ&#237;pios de tratamento em pacientes gerais. Deve-se atentar especialmente ao risco de sangramento associado aos procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos. Nesse contexto, a equipe cir&#250;rgica deve sempre ser consultada antes do in&#237;cio de terapia antitromb&#243;tica.</p>
        <p>Na fase aguda do TEV, deve-se preferir o uso de heparina de baixo peso molecular (HBPM) ou fondaparinux &#224; heparina n&#227;o fracionada (HNF). Caso haja contraindica&#231;&#227;o a essas drogas ou risco elevado de sangramento, a HNF &#233; o tratamento de escolha.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B414">414</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B417">417</xref></sup> Para os pacientes inst&#225;veis hemodinamicamente, a tromb&#243;lise sist&#234;mica &#233; o tratamento de escolha. Entretanto, essa terapia frequentemente estar&#225; contraindicada no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B418">418</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B421">421</xref></sup> Nesses casos, pode-se optar pela embolectomia pulmonar ou tratamento percut&#226;neo por cateter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B422">422</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B425">425</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Para os pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral, o uso dos DOACs est&#225; consolidado como primeira escolha quando comparados aos antagonistas de vitamina K.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B426">426</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B431">431</xref></sup> Isso se deve aos menores &#237;ndices de sangramento com o uso e &#224; maior conveni&#234;ncia para os pacientes e profissionais de sa&#250;de (dose fixa, menores intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas e com alimentos e aus&#234;ncia de necessidade de exames de sangue seriados para assegurar uma faixa terap&#234;utica espec&#237;fica). Na presen&#231;a de contraindica&#231;&#227;o absoluta &#224; anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, o filtro de veia cava pode ser considerado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B432">432</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B434">434</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A dura&#231;&#227;o da terapia anticoagulante &#233; recomendada por um per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo de 3 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B435">435</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B436">436</xref></sup> A extens&#227;o do tratamento normalmente reduz a recorr&#234;ncia de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, mas aumenta a chance de sangramentos, conforme demostrado em v&#225;rios estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B437">437</xref></sup> H&#225; v&#225;rios crit&#233;rios que devem ser avaliados antes da decis&#227;o de prolongar o tratamento, mas fogem do objetivo desta atualiza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B438">438</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t51">Quadro 34</xref> apresenta as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes com TEV p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t51">
          <label>Quadro 34</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para pacientes com tromboembolismo venoso p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" colspan="3" valign="middle">Pacientes inst&#225;veis com TEP</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Terapia trombol&#237;tica em pacientes inst&#225;veis com TEP na aus&#234;ncia de contraindica&#231;&#245;es</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Embolectomia pulmonar em pacientes inst&#225;veis com contraindica&#231;&#227;o &#224; terapia trombol&#237;tica ou quando a terapia trombol&#237;tica falha</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, deve-se optar por anticoagula&#231;&#227;o parenteral com HNF em detrimento de HBPM ou fondaparinux</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Tratamento percut&#226;neo por cateter em pacientes inst&#225;veis com contraindica&#231;&#227;o &#224; terapia trombol&#237;tica, quando a terapia trombol&#237;tica falha ou com alto risco cir&#250;rgico</td>
                <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                  <bold>Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o/pacientes est&#225;veis</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Em pacientes com TEV e indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o parenteral, deve-se preferir HBPM ou fondaparinux &#224; HNF</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Em pacientes com TEV e indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o parenteral com contraindica&#231;&#227;o &#224; HBPM ou fondaparinux, deve-se iniciar HNF</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Em pacientes com TEV e indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagulante oral, deve-se optar pelos DOACs em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; varfarina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Em pacientes com TEV e indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagulante oral com contraindica&#231;&#227;o aos DOACs, deve-se indicar varfarina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">O filtro de veia cava pode ser considerado em pacientes com contraindica&#231;&#227;o absoluta &#224; anticoagula&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pacientes com TEP devem receber tratamento com anticoagulante por um per&#237;odo de pelo menos 3 meses</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN19">
              <label>1</label>
              <p>TEV: tromboembolismo venoso; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; HNF: heparina n&#227;o fracionada; HBPM: heparina de baixo peso molecular; DOACs: anticoagulantes orais diretos.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
        <label>Nota:</label>
        <p>Estas Diretrizes se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <p>Realiza&#231;&#227;o: Grupo de Estudos de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Perioperat&#243;ria (GAPO) e Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica (DCC) da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (SBC)</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <p>Comiss&#227;o de Reda&#231;&#227;o: Danielle M. Gualandro, Luciana S. Fornari, Bruno Caramelli</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
        <p>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes respons&#225;vel: Carisi Anne Polanczyk (Coordenadora), Humberto Graner Moreira, M&#225;rio de Seixas Rocha, Jose Airton de Arruda, Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva &#8211; Gest&#227;o 2022-2023</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff35">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marcondes-Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiana Goulart</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3475-1809</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>de Souza</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff36">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0701-6593</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cardozo</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Akira Malta</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9964-3289</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tarasoutchi</surname>
            <given-names>Flavio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3610-6507</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Carmo</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriel Assis Lopes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff37">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff38">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff39">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1133-0465</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kanhouche</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff40">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>de Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Jayme Galv&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9661-6963</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bichuette</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana Dornfeld</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3679-5349</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sacilotto</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2081-6846</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Drager</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0007-4977-5818</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vacanti</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano Janussi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6785-7506</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gowdak</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Henrique Wolff</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4561-5717</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Luiz Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Luiz Floriano Melo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff42">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6110-2500</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcio Silva Miguel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4052-383X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lottenberg</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Pita</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7467-1745</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Aliberti</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rlon Juliano Romero</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5030-6727</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marchi</surname>
            <given-names>Mauricio Felippi de S&#225;</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1565-3915</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paix&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Milena Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9413-3792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Mucio Tavares de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6378-4944</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Yu</surname>
            <given-names>Pai Ching</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8907-0483</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cury</surname>
            <given-names>Patricia Ramos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff43">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7427-3237</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Farsky</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Silvio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff44">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8328-6758</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pessoa</surname>
            <given-names>Ranna Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5413-7091</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Siciliano</surname>
            <given-names>Rinaldo Focaccia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8023-3466</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Accorsi</surname>
            <given-names>Tarso Augusto Duenhas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-7829-4408</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Vin&#237;cius Machado</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0201-6754</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mathias</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff23">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff24">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Basel</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="CH">Switzerland</country>
          <institution content-type="original">University Hospital Basel, Basel &#8211; Switzerland</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff25">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff26">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Natal</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RN</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Rio Grande, Natal, RN &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff27">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff28">
          <label>6</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff29">
          <label>7</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff30">
          <label>8</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="state">Massachusetts</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">USA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Harvard University, Massachusetts &#8211; USA</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff31">
          <label>9</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Campinas (PUC-Campinas), Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff32">
          <label>10</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Clinica Pinho, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff33">
          <label>11</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Carlos, Rede D&#8217;Or, Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff34">
          <label>12</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cantidio da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC), Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff35">
          <label>13</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Medicina Nuclear, Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff36">
          <label>14</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Escola de Medicina e Cirurgia da Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff37">
          <label>15</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff38">
          <label>16</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Evang&#233;lico de Belo Horizonte, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff39">
          <label>17</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Orizonti, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff40">
          <label>18</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff41">
          <label>19</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio Euroamericano, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff42">
          <label>20</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Teresina</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PI</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Marcos, Teresina, PI &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff43">
          <label>21</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff44">
          <label>22</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondence:</label> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Postal Code: <postal-code>20020-907</postal-code>. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <table-wrap id="t104">
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Guideline for Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology &#8211; 2024</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">The report below lists declarations of interest as reported to the SBC by the experts during the period of the development of these statement, 2023-2024.</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Expert</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Type of relationship with industry</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Alexandre Antonio <break/>Cunha Abizaid</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Brenno Rizerio Gomes</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, <break/>(iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Astrazeneca: Forxiga; Novartis: Entresto; Bayer: Firialta.</p></list-item></list>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>B. Braun: Occlutech.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Bruno Caramelli</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Caio de Assis <break/>Moura Tavares</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, <break/>(iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Caio Julio Cesar dos Santos Fernandes</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, <break/>(iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Janssen: Uptravi; Bayer: Riociguate; MSD: Sotatercept.</p></list-item></list> <break/>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Janssen: Uptravii.</p></list-item></list>Other relationships <break/>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Janssen: Uptravii.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Carisi Anne Polanczyk</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Carlos Jardim</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Carolina Leticia Zilli Vieira</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Claudio Pinho</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Daniela Calderaro</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, <break/>(iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Bayer: atrial fibrillation, VTE, diabetic nephropathy.</p></list-item></list> Other relationships <break/>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Bayer: diabetic nephropathy.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Danielle Menosi Gualandro</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Roche.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Dirk Schreen</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Fabiana Goulart Marcondes-Braga</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, <break/>(iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Lectures and Advisory Committee: AstraZeneca; Boehringher-Lilly; Novartis; Bayer.</p></list-item></list> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>MSD: Victor Trial</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">F&#225;bio de Souza</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, <break/>(iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Pfizer: Amiloidose.</p></list-item></list>Other relationships <break/>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Pfizer: amyloidosis; AstraZeneca: amyloidosis.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Fl&#225;vio Tarasoutchi</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Other relationships <break/>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Edwads.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Francisco Akira <break/>Malta Cardozo</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, <break/>(iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Bayer: Xarelto; Daiichi Sankyo: Lixiana; Novo Nordisk: Rybelsius.</p></list-item></list> Other relationships <break/>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Daiichi Sankyo.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Gabriel Assis <break/>Lopes do Carmo</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Gabriel Kanhouche</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Jos&#233; Jayme <break/>Galv&#227;o de Lima</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Luciana Dornfeld Bichuette</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Luciana Sacilotto</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Luciana Savoy Fornari</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Luciano Ferreira Drager</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Luciano Janussi Vacanti</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Luis Henrique <break/>Wolff Gowdak</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, <break/>(iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Servier: s&#237;ndrome coronariana cr&#244;nica; Novartis: hipercolesterolemia.</p></list-item></list> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Servier: chronic coronary syndrome.</p></list-item></list> Other relationships <break/>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Servier: chronic coronary syndrome.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Marcelo Luiz <break/>Campos Vieira</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Marcelo Luiz Floriano<break/>Melo Martins</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">M&#225;rcio Silva Miguel Lima</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Marcos Pita Lottenberg</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">M&#225;rlon Juliano <break/>Romero Aliberti</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Mauricio Felippi <break/>de S&#225; Marchi</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Milena Ribeiro Paix&#227;o</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Mucio Tavares <break/>de Oliveira Junior</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Sanofi; Pasteur.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Pai Ching Yu</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Patricia Ramos Cury</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Pedro Silvio Farsky</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk: semaglutide; Lilly: empagliflozin and tirzepatide; AstraZeneca: dapagliflozin; GSK: shingrix vaccine.</p></list-item></list>Other relationships <break/>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk: semaglutide.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Ranna Santos Pessoa</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Rinaldo Focaccia Siciliano</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Tarso Augusto <break/>Duenhas Accorsi</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Abbott: MitraClip; Boston: Watchman; Edwards: surgery and TAVI; Novartis: Sybrava.</p></list-item></list>Other relationships <break/>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk: Brazilian SBC Congress; EMS: SBC Departments Congress.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Vin&#237;cius Machado Correia</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Financial declaration <break/>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Novo Nordisk: lecture on pharmacological treatment of obesity.</p></list-item></list> </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Wilson Mathias Junior</td>
              <td align="left" valign="top">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Table of Contents</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>1. Definition of the Problem</bold> 8</p>
      <p>1.1. Objective of the Guideline 8</p>
      <p>1.2. Methodology and Levels of Evidence 8</p>
      <p>1.3. Particularities of the Perioperative Period 8</p>
      <p>1.4. Creation of the Perioperative Risk Team 8</p>
      <p><bold>2. General and Additional Preoperative Assessment</bold> 11</p>
      <p>2.1. Preoperative Risk Stratification 11</p>
      <p><bold>2.1.1. Severe/unstable CV Conditions in the Perioperative Period</bold> 11</p>
      <p><bold>2.1.2. Estimation of Intrinsic Risk Related to Type of Surgery</bold> 11</p>
      <p><bold>2.1.3. Functional Capacity Assessment</bold> 11</p>
      <p><bold>2.1.4. Tools for Estimating Perioperative CV Risk</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>2.1.5. Frailty Assessment</bold> 13</p>
      <p><bold><italic>2.1.5.1. Frailty Assessment Before Noncardiac Surgery</italic></bold> 14</p>
      <p><bold><italic>2.1.5.2. Impact of Frailty Assessment on Noncardiac Surgery</italic></bold> 14</p>
      <p>2.2. Electrocardiography 15</p>
      <p>2.3. Echocardiography 16</p>
      <p>2.4. Noninvasive Tests for Myocardial Ischemia 17</p>
      <p><bold>2.4.1. Exercise Electrocardiogram</bold> 17</p>
      <p><bold>2.4.2. Myocardial Perfusion Imaging</bold> 17</p>
      <p><bold>2.4.3. Dobutamine Stress Echocardiography</bold> 18</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.4.4. Summary of Recommendations for Noninvasive Functional</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Imaging for Myocardial Ischaemia</bold> 18</p>
      <p>2.5. Coronary Cineangiography 18</p>
      <p>2.6. Coronary Computed Tomography Angiography 18</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3. Specific Diseases and Procedures in the Perioperative</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Period</bold> 19</p>
      <p>3.1. Heart Failure 19</p>
      <p>3.2. Arterial Hypertension 20</p>
      <p><bold>3.2.1. Preoperative BP Management</bold> 20</p>
      <p><bold>3.2.2. Intraoperative BP Management</bold> 21</p>
      <p><bold>3.2.3. Postoperative BP Management</bold> 21</p>
      <p><bold>3.2.4. Perioperative Management of Antihypertensives</bold> 21</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.2.4.1. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Inhibitors</italic></bold> 21</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.2.4.2. Calcium Channel Blockers</italic></bold> 22</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.2.4.3. Diuretics</italic></bold> 22</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.2.4.4. Central Sympatholytic Drugs</italic></bold> 22</p>
      <p><bold>3.2.5. Final Considerations</bold> 22</p>
      <p>3.3. Patient Management in Low-Risk Procedures 22</p>
      <p><bold>3.3.1. Dental Procedures</bold> 22</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.3.1.1. Antithrombotic agents</italic></bold> 22</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.3.1.2. Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices</italic></bold> 23</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.3.1.3. Local Anesthetics</italic></bold> 23</p>
      <p><bold>3.3.2. Dermatological Surgery</bold> 23</p>
      <p><bold>3.3.3. Endoscopic Procedures</bold> 24</p>
      <p>
        <bold>
          <italic>3.3.3.1. Management of Antiplatelet Therapy in Endoscopic</italic>
        </bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold><italic>Procedures</italic></bold> 24</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.3.3.2. Management of Anticoagulants in Endoscopic Procedures</italic></bold> 25</p>
      <p><bold>3.3.4. Ophthalmic Procedures</bold> 25</p>
      <p>3.4. Valvular Heart Disease 26</p>
      <p><bold>3.4.1. Aortic Valve Stenosis</bold> 26</p>
      <p><bold>3.4.2. Mitral Valve Stenosis</bold> 27</p>
      <p><bold>3.4.3. Aortic and Mitral Regurgitation</bold> 27</p>
      <p><bold>3.4.4. Prosthetic Heart Valves</bold> 27</p>
      <p>3.5. Solid Organ Transplantation 27</p>
      <p><bold>3.5.1 Liver</bold> 27</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.1. Cirrhotic Cardiomyopathy</italic></bold> 28</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.2. Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy</italic></bold> 28</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.3. Portopulmonary Hypertension</italic></bold> 28</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.4. Hepatopulmonary Syndrome</italic></bold> 29</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.5. Coronary Artery Disease</italic></bold> 30</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.5.1. When to Investigate CAD?</italic></bold> 30</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.5.2. Which Test to Request for CAD Investigation?</italic></bold> 30</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.1.5.3. When and How to Intervene in CAD?</italic></bold> 30</p>
      <p><bold>3.5.2. Kidney</bold> 30</p>
      <p><bold><italic>3.5.2.1. CAD Risk Stratification</italic></bold> 32</p>
      <p><bold>4. Measures for Reducing CV Surgical Risk</bold> 33</p>
      <p>4.1. Perioperative Pharmacological Therapy 33</p>
      <p><bold>4.1.1. Beta-Blockers</bold> 33</p>
      <p><bold>4.1.2. Statins</bold> 33</p>
      <p><bold>4.1.3. Anti-Platelet Medications</bold> 34</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.1.3.1. Monotherapy with ASA</italic></bold> 34</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.1.3.2. Monotherapy with Antiplatelet Medications Other than ASA</italic></bold> 35</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.1.3.3. Dual Antiplatelet Therapy</italic></bold> 35</p>
      <p>4.2. Myocardial Revascularization 36</p>
      <p>4.3. Perioperative Anticoagulation Management 36</p>
      <p><bold>4.3.1. Warfarin</bold> 37</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.3.1.1. Patients with Moderate Thromboembolic Risk</italic></bold> 37</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.3.1.2. Urgent or Emergency Procedures</italic></bold> 37</p>
      <p><bold>4.3.2. Direct Oral Anticoagulants</bold> 38</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.1. Dabigatran</italic></bold> 39</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.2. Rivaroxaban</italic></bold> 39</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.3. Apixaban</italic></bold> 39</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.4. Edoxaban</italic></bold> 40</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.5. Evaluation of the Anticoagulant Effect of DOACs</italic></bold> 40</p>
      <p><bold><italic>4.3.2.6. Interruption of DOACs Before Elective Surgery</italic></bold> 40</p>
      <p>4.4. Infective Endocarditis Prophylaxis 41</p>
      <p><bold>4.4.1. Dental Procedures</bold> 41</p>
      <p><bold>4.4.2. Respiratory Tract Procedures</bold> 43</p>
      <p><bold>4.4.3. Gastrointestinal and Genitourinary Procedures</bold> 43</p>
      <p><bold>4.4.4. Dermatological or Musculoskeletal Procedures</bold> 43</p>
      <p><bold>4.4.5. Body Piercing and Tattooing</bold> 43</p>
      <p><bold>5. Perioperative Biomarkers</bold> 44</p>
      <p>5.1. Natriuretic Peptides 44</p>
      <p>5.2. Cardiac Troponins and Surveillance of CV Complications 44</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6. Diagnosis and Treatment of Perioperative CV</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Complications</bold> 44</p>
      <p>6.1. Perioperative Acute Myocardial Infarction/Injury (PMI) 44</p>
      <p>6.2. Acute Atrial Fibrillation/Flutter 48</p>
      <p>6.3. Acute Heart Failure 49</p>
      <p>6.4. Venous Thromboembolism 50</p>
      <p><bold>References</bold> 51</p>
      <fig id="f23">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      <sec>
        <title>1. Definition of the Problem</title>
        <sec>
          <title>1.1. Objective of the Guideline</title>
          <p>The rapid advancement of medical knowledge in recent years prompted the creation of guidelines to filter the best evidence and organize it for practical use in daily medical practice. The need for updates varies by field and reflects the quantity and quality of medical research on a given subject. Interest in perioperative care for noncardiac surgery is relatively recent, starting in 1996 after the publication of Mangano et al.&#8217;s study, which observed a reduction in cardiovascular (CV) complications in patients who received intravenous atenolol in the immediate preoperative period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In Brazil, publications began emerging in 2003, with the first Guideline for Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation being published in 2007 and updated in 2011 and 2017.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> This is the fourth update in 15 years, highlighting the topic&#8217;s importance in both research and daily professional practice.</p>
          <p>Although the percentage of perioperative complications is small, their occurrence in Brazil is significantly higher than in other countries. Additionally, most procedures are low risk, but considering the annual volume of over 8 million surgical interventions in Brazil, there is a substantial number of patients at high risk of complications who require greater care.</p>
          <p>The main objectives of the Guideline for Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology &#8211; 2024 are:</p>
          <p>To provide and standardize updated knowledge on CV risk stratification.</p>
          <p>To establish adequate methods for risk stratification and diagnosis of complications, not only to improve efficiency but also to reduce costs associated with unnecessary tests.</p>
          <p>To offer updated knowledge on the relationship between different comorbidities and CV diseases (CVDs) that may interact in the perioperative setting, such as the interaction and adequate discontinuation of medications or the safe timeframe for performing surgical procedures after CV interventions.</p>
          <p>To offer recommendations on the optimal location for performing interventions in high-risk patients or on contraindications to procedures when the risk of complications outweighs the potential benefits.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec sec-type="methods">
          <title>1.2. Methodology and Levels of Evidence</title>
          <p>The methodology and levels of evidence adopted by this Guideline are the same as those adopted by the SBC and referred to below:</p>
          <p>Classes (grades) of recommendation:</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <label>&#10003;</label>
              <p>Class I &#8211; Conditions for which there is conclusive evidence or a consensus that the procedure is safe and useful/effective.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#10003;</label>
              <p>Class II &#8211; Conditions for which there is conflicting evidence and/or a divergence of opinion about the safety and usefulness/efficacy of a procedure.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#10003;</label>
              <p>Class IIA &#8211; Evidence or opinion in favor of the procedure. The majority agrees.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#10003;</label>
              <p>Class IIB &#8211; Safety and usefulness are less well established, and there is no predominance of opinions in favor of the method.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#10003;</label>
              <p>Class III &#8211; Conditions for which there is evidence and/or general agreement that a procedure is not useful/effective and, in some cases, may be harmful.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Levels of evidence:</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <label>&#10003;</label>
              <p>Level A &#8211; Data obtained from several large, randomized studies showing concurring results and/or a robust meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#10003;</label>
              <p>Level B &#8211; Data obtained from a less robust meta-analysis, a single randomized study, or from nonrandomized (observational) studies.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#10003;</label>
              <p>Level C &#8211; Data obtained from consensual expert opinions.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>All scientific evidence used in this Guideline comes from indexed journals with qualified editorial boards and peer reviewers.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.3. Particularities of the Perioperative Period</title>
          <p>In patients with heart disease, the perioperative period presents many peculiarities, such as the use of anticoagulation and antithrombotic therapy, which sometimes should not be interrupted and could increase the risk of intraoperative bleeding. Importantly, CV risk stratification tools, such as the ATP-III, Framingham, and CHADS-VASc scores, which are familiar to cardiologists, establish risk profiles over years and are not suitable for predicting short-term perioperative risk for noncardiac surgery (usually less than 30 days). For these reasons, the Guideline provides relevant information specifically for assessing the risk of CV events, prevention methods, and recommendations to make the perioperative period of noncardiac procedures safer for patients with heart disease. A summary of the new recommendations included in this Guideline is presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t52">Table 1</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t52">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>New recommendations included in the Guideline for Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="49%">
                <col width="1%"/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Class</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="center" colspan="3" valign="middle">General and additional preoperative assessment: <break/>Preoperative risk stratification</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Functional capacity assessment</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">The functional capacity of patients scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery should be determined during medical history (based on the ability to climb two flights of stairs).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Frailty assessment</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Frailty should be routinely assessed in elderly patients scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Frailty should be objectively measured using specific instruments.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Electrocardiography</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Patients undergoing surgery with intermediate or high intrinsic risk of cardiovascular complications.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Patients at intermediate or high risk for perioperative cardiovascular events as estimated by algorithms.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Noninvasive tests for myocardial ischemia</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Exercise electrocardiogram</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">An exercise electrocardiogram should be requested in intermediate- and high-risk patients with reduced functional capacity scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk elective noncardiac surgery in whom functional testing could potentially alter management.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIb</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Myocardial perfusion imaging/stress echocardiography</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Imaging stress testing in intermediate- and high-risk patients with reduced functional capacity scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk elective noncardiac surgery in whom functional testing could potentially alter management.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Imaging stress testing in asymptomatic patients with reduced functional capacity and a previous diagnosis or high probability of coronary artery disease.</td>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIb</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Specific diseases and procedures in the perioperative period</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Arterial hypertension</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Episodes of hypotension should be avoided throughout the perioperative period.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Patients with suspected secondary hypertension should be investigated before surgery, except in emergency/urgent cases.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Chronic therapy with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system antagonists may be maintained in the perioperative period; discontinuation is allowed in selected cases.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Chronic therapy with calcium channel blockers may be maintained in the perioperative period; discontinuation is allowed in selected cases.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Chronic therapy with diuretics may be maintained in the perioperative period; discontinuation is allowed in selected cases.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Chronic therapy with clonidine should be maintained in the perioperative period.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Patient management in low-risk procedures</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Dental procedures</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Dental evaluation and treatment are important in the perioperative period.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Use of antimicrobial mouthwash before and after dental procedures and before intermediate- and high-risk noncardiac surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">The use of 1-4 anesthetic cartridges with vasoconstrictor is safe for dental treatment in patients with heart disease.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy should be maintained during most dental treatments, including extraction of up to 2 teeth, restorations, prosthetics, endodontics, cleaning, and implants.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Valvular heart disease</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Asymptomatic patients with significant mitral stenosis and other risk factors (pulmonary artery systolic pressure [PASP] &#8805; 50 mm Hg at rest or PASP &#8805; 60 mm Hg on exertion) should undergo correction of mitral stenosis before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Solid organ transplantation</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Liver</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with an echocardiogram showing a pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) &gt; 50 mm Hg, right heart catheterization with measurement of pulmonary artery pressure must be requested.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with an echocardiogram showing a PASP &gt; 40 mm Hg, especially if other signs of pulmonary hypertension (PH) are present, right heart catheterization with measurement of pulmonary artery pressure should be considered.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In asymptomatic patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) without segmental dysfunction on echocardiography and with 2 or more risk factors for CAD<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN20">*</xref>, DSE should be preferably requested.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with symptoms suggestive of CAD, the pretest probability of CAD should be calculated, and additional tests should be requested according to specific guidelines.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Coronary cineangiography should be performed in patients with a high pretest probability of CAD, significant angina refractory to clinical treatment, new left ventricular dysfunction, or high-risk findings on noninvasive tests, despite hemorrhagic complications being more common and alterations such as elevated creatinine potentially contributing to increased morbidity in patients with cirrhosis.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Coronary artery bypass graft before transplantation should be reserved only for patients in whom the risk of death from CAD exceeds the risk of death from liver disease, and this decision should be discussed with a multidisciplinary team.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with a mPAP &#8805; 35 mm Hg on right heart catheterization should be referred to a PH specialist.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIb</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Kidney</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">All kidney transplant candidates should be evaluated for the presence and severity of cardiovascular disease based on clinical history, physical examination, and routine tests.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Measurement of high-sensitivity troponin is recommended before and 24 and 48 hours after kidney transplantation to detect perioperative infarction/injury.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Diagnostic decision-making and the definition of a therapeutic strategy should be discussed by a Heart-Kidney Team, including a clinical cardiologist, interventional cardiologist, cardiovascular surgeon, nephrologist, and/or kidney transplant specialist.</td>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Stable patients with obstructive CAD should be clinically reassessed for disease progression every 12 months; patients without significant obstructive CAD should be reassessed every 36 months to detect <italic>de novo</italic> CAD.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Measures for reducing cardiovascular surgical risk</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Perioperative pharmacological therapy</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Beta-blockers</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Chronic therapy (&gt; 7 days) with beta-blockers should be maintained perioperatively.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Statins</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients undergoing nonvascular surgery with clinical indications for statin use due to associated diseases (coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral arterial disease, diabetes), regardless of the perioperative setting.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Dual antiplatelet therapy</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">For early interruption of dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) before the minimum duration time, noncardiac surgery should be performed in centers with multidisciplinary care and hemodynamic monitoring.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">A platelet aggregation test should be used to reduce the discontinuation time of P2Y12 inhibitors before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIb</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In cases with very high thrombotic risk (less than 1 month since percutaneous coronary intervention and DAPT interruption), bridging therapy with tirofiban should be used.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIb</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Routine platelet aggregation testing should be performed to assess the discontinuation of ASA or P2Y12 inhibitors before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>III</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Myocardial revascularization</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Recommendations for the interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery in patients undergoing elective percutaneous coronary interventions:</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; &#8805; 6 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; Between 3 and 6 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; Between 30 days and 3 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIb</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; &lt; 30 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>III</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">Recommendations for the interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions due to acute coronary syndromes:</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; &#8805; 12 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; Between 6 and 12 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; Between 30 days and 6 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIb</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8211; &lt; 30 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>III</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Perioperative biomarkers</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Natriuretic peptides</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Patients older than 65 years or patients aged 45-64 years with established cardiovascular disease or risk factors<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN20">*</xref> undergoing noncardiac surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Cardiac troponins and surveillanceof CV complications</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">High-risk patients according to algorithms undergoing intermediate- or high-risk noncardiac surgery should stay in the ICU for 48 hours after surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Intermediate-risk patients according to algorithms undergoing intermediate- or high-risk noncardiac surgery should stay in the ICU for 48 hours after surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Diagnosis and treatment of perioperative CV complications</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Perioperative acute myocardial infarction/injury (PMI)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">PMI diagnosis should be made in the presence of an absolute delta &#8805; the 99th percentile of the upper reference limit of the troponin assay between the preoperative value and the value on postoperative day 1 or 2, or between two postoperative concentrations if the preoperative value is missing.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Diagnosis of AMI after postoperative day 2 should be based on the universal definition of MI, and treatment should be based on current guidelines.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">In patients with perioperative AMI or PMI due to ischemia, all secondary causes of ischemia (anemia, tachycardia, hypotension, hypertension) should be treated, the risk of bleeding should be determined, and multidisciplinary discussion with the surgeon should be conducted.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Acute atrial fibrillation/flutter</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Long-term anticoagulation should be considered in patients with AF detected after noncardiac surgery, when stroke risk is assessed according to CHA2DS2VASc score and bleeding risk according to the surgery performed.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>IIa</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Venous thromboembolism</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">In hemodynamically unstable patients, parenteral anticoagulation with unfractionated heparin (UFH) is preferred over low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) or fondaparinux.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">In patients with venous thromboembolism (VTE) indicated for parenteral anticoagulation, LMWH or fondaparinux is preferred over UFH.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">
                    <bold>I</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN20">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Diabetes, hypertension, coronary artery disease, obesity and atrial fibrillation.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.4. Creation of the Perioperative Risk Team</title>
          <p>This Guideline focuses mainly, but not exclusively, on cardiologists, given that the most serious complications involve the CV system, such as ischemic heart disease, pulmonary embolism (PE), and acute heart failure (HF). These complications are most associated with mortality, increased length of hospital stay, and higher costs, not only due to additional procedures but also due to the request for diagnostic tests. Patients entering operating rooms today are older and consequently have more comorbidities, requiring the involvement not only of the surgeon but also the anesthesiologist, cardiologist, and other specialists in their treatment. The follow-up of high-risk patients should be interdisciplinary, including adequate planning to determine the best time for the intervention and the risk/benefit ratio, as well as to optimize the treatment of underlying diseases and their complications.</p>
          <p>Cardiologists are already familiar with the Heart Team, typically consisting of the cardiac surgeon, the interventional cardiologist, and the clinical cardiologist, who usually work in the preoperative period to decide the best approach for a given case. The perioperative care of patients undergoing noncardiac surgery, which includes both the entire intraoperative and postoperative periods, involves a greater number of specialists from different fields. The Guideline for Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology &#8211; 2024 innovates by proposing the creation of a Perioperative Risk Team (PRT). The purpose of the PRT, indicated for more severe cases, is to gather all relevant patient information, such as previous diseases and treatments, prognosis, type of proposed surgery, and current cardiac status. With harmony and teamwork among various specialists, it will be possible to offer the best joint decision for the patient and their family. Since the most serious complications involve the CV system, the cardiologist should plan, when necessary, the formation of the PRT for severe and specific cases and establish its dynamics. Tools such as video platforms, for recording and storing interdisciplinary meetings, can be very useful to improve outcomes and provide guarantees for both health care professionals and the patient.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. General and Additional Preoperative Assessment</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Preoperative Risk Stratification</title>
          <sec>
            <title>2.1.1. Severe/Unstable CV Conditions in the Perioperative Period</title>
            <p>For elective procedures, the first step is to determine the patient&#8217;s baseline clinical condition. There are clinical circumstances in which the spontaneous risk of complications is very high, regardless of the surgical procedure to be performed. Identifying these circumstances is crucial because treating such conditions should take priority over elective procedures, which should be postponed whenever possible and reconsidered only after the patient has stabilized (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t53">Table 2</xref>).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t53">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Severe/unstable cardiovascular conditions in the perioperative period</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Acute coronary syndrome</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Unstable thoracic aortic disease</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Acute pulmonary edema</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Cardiogenic shock</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">NYHA class III/IV heart failure<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">CCS class III/IV angina<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Symptomatic severe aortic/mitral stenosis</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Severe bradyarrhythmias or tachyarrhythmias (complete AV block, VT)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Atrial fibrillation with high ventricular response (HR &gt; 120 bpm)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Uncontrolled hypertension (BP &gt; 180 x 110 mm Hg)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Symptomatic pulmonary hypertension</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN21">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Patients with these conditions who are stable and receiving optimized treatment should have the risk/benefit ratio of the surgery assessed due to the risk of complications. AV: atrioventricular; BP: blood pressure; CCS: Canadian Cardiovascular Society; HR: heart rate; NYHA: New York Heart Association; VT: ventricular tachycardia.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.1.2. Estimation of Intrinsic Risk Related to the Type of Surgery</title>
            <p>The intrinsic risk of surgery is determined by the type and duration of the procedure, without considering the patient&#8217;s clinical characteristics. It is defined as the probability of CV events occurring perioperatively, regardless of the clinical variables of the patients. This risk is related to the duration of surgery, hemodynamic stress, and loss of blood and fluids. Patients with stable clinical conditions, who do not have high-risk CV conditions, may undergo low-intrinsic risk procedures without the need for additional evaluation. Despite the difficulty in determining the specific risk of a surgical procedure, as each procedure occurs under different circumstances, the European Society of Cardiology proposed a CV risk classification that considers the risk of CV death, acute myocardial infarction (AMI), and stroke within 30 days (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t54">Table 3</xref>).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t54">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Cardiovascular risk classification according to type of surgery</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Low risk (&lt; 1%)</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Intermediate risk (1&#8211;5%)</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">High risk (&gt; 5%)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Breast</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Carotid asymptomatic</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Aortic and <italic>major</italic> vascular surgery</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Dental</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Carotid endarterectomy (symptomatic)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Open lower limb revascularization for acute limb ischemia or amputation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Thyroid</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Peripheral arterial angioplasty</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Carotid angioplasty (symptomatic)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Eye</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Endovascular aortic aneurysm</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Adrenalectomy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Gynecological (<italic>minor</italic>)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Head and neck surgery</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pancreatic surgery</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Orthopedic (<italic>minor</italic>, eg, meniscectomy)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Intraperitoneal (eg, splenectomy, hiatal hernia repair, cholecystectomy)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Liver resection, bile duct surgery</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Reconstructive</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Intrathoracic (<italic>nonmajor</italic>)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Esophagectomy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Superficial surgery</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Neurological or orthopedic (<italic>major</italic>, eg, hip and spine surgery)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pneumonectomy (VATS or open surgery)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Urological (<italic>minor</italic>, eg, transurethral resection of the prostate)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Renal transplant</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pulmonary transplant</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">VATS (<italic>minor</italic>)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Urological or gynecological (<italic>major</italic>)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Liver transplant</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Total cystectomy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Repair of perforated bowel</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN22">
                  <p>Adapted from Halvorsen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> VATS: video-assisted thoracic surgery.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Additionally, the urgency of the surgical intervention should always be considered. Emergency and urgent operations are associated with a higher incidence of CV complications. In situations where the prognosis of the underlying disease necessitating surgery demands an <bold>emergency</bold> intervention, the role of the cardiologist should be limited to suggesting surveillance measures (including the location for postoperative care) and interventions to reduce intra and postoperative risk. It is not recommended to order any additional tests that could delay the proposed surgery. For <bold>urgent</bold> procedures, there is sufficient time to optimize CV therapy or perform additional tests, such as transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), when indicated. However, functional tests for the assessment of myocardial ischemia should not be performed, as their results would not alter patient management since the proposed surgery cannot be postponed for coronary treatment. Furthermore, there are <bold>time-sensitive procedures</bold>, which are not urgencies, but whose delay could worsen the prognosis of the underlying disease. A common example is cancer surgery, whose delay can worsen the prognosis. In these cases, we recommend multidisciplinary discussion and the selection of the best individualized strategy.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.1.3. Functional Capacity Assessment</title>
            <p>Patients with reduced functional capacity (less than four metabolic equivalents [METs] or inability to climb two flights of stairs) are more likely to develop perioperative complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Functional capacity can be objectively assessed via exercise electrocardiogram (ECG), which is not always feasible or desirable, or clinical history. A recent study demonstrated that patients who reported being able to climb two flights of stairs during the preoperative evaluation had a lower rate of postoperative CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Additionally, the estimate of functional capacity combined with the Revised Cardiac Risk Index (RCRI) showed greater accuracy in predicting postoperative events compared with the RCRI alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In addition to the greater likelihood of poor perioperative outcomes, patients with reduced functional capacity may have their symptoms underestimated due to their limitations. Therefore, this may be considered when deciding whether to order additional tests such as functional tests for myocardial ischemia.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t69">Chart 1</xref> presents recommendations for preoperative assessment of functional capacity.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t69">
              <label>Chart 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for preoperative assessment of functional capacity</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">The functional capacity of patients scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery should be determined during medical history (based on the ability to climb two flights of stairs).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.1.4. Tools for Estimating Perioperative CV Risk</title>
            <p>Subjective assessments of perioperative CV risk are valuable, but objective risk estimation allows for the rational use of additional risk stratification tools and perioperative CV care. Furthermore, the calculation of CV risk better supports multidisciplinary discussions aimed at minimizing the patient&#8217;s overall risk.</p>
            <p>This Guideline does not advocate for the adoption of a specific algorithm for perioperative CV risk stratification but recommends calculating the risk using one of the indices available in the literature after excluding severe/unstable cardiac conditions (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t54">Table 2</xref>).</p>
            <p>Among the indices for estimating perioperative CV risk, the RCRI, or Lee score,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> and the more recently published American University of Beirut-HAS2 (AUB-HAS2) index, stand out for their practicality and accuracy in distinguishing different risk classifications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Both models integrate clinical characteristics and the type of proposed surgery, without different weightings among the variables for each index (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t55">Tables 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t56">5</xref>). Increasing rates of CV complications were observed according to the number of variables in the pivotal cohorts of the RCRI and AUB-HAS2.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t55">
              <label>Table 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Elements of the RCRI<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> and AUB-HAS2<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">RCRI</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">AUB-HAS2</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">History of coronary artery disease<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN23">*</xref> </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">History of heart disease<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN24">**</xref> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">History of heart failure</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Symptoms of heart disease: angina or dyspnea</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">History of cerebrovascular disease</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Age &#8805; 75 years</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Creatinine &gt; 2.0 mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Hemoglocbin &lt; 12 g/dL</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Intraperitoneal, intrathoracic, or suprainguinal vascular surgery</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Arterial vascular surgery</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Diabetes on insulin</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Emergency surgery</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN23">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>In the RCRI, the criteria for coronary artery disease are a history of myocardial infarction, positive functional test, presence of angina, use of nitrate, or Q wave on the electrocardiogram.</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN24">
                  <label>**</label>
                  <p>In the AUB-HAS2, the criteria for heart disease are a history of myocardial infarction, myocardial revascularization, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, or moderate-to-severe valvular heart disease on the echocardiogram. AUB-HAS2: American University of Beirut-HAS2; RCRI: Revised Cardiac Risk Index.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t56">
              <label>Table 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Risk classification according to the number of risk variables in the derivation and validation cohorts of the RCRI<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> and AUB-HAS2<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">RCRI</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">AUB-HAS2</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#33B560;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">None</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">None</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#33B560;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">One</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">One</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#ECE924;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Two</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Two</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" style="background-color:#EE2E30;" valign="top">Three to six</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color:#FFF200;" valign="top">Three</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#EE2E30;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Four to six</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/NPrb8bhPV5J7bMDcqKT3SQr/b30de6cf503924e9c39e5aadfd835dd06d2a09ea.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/NPrb8bhPV5J7bMDcqKT3SQr/0823a9411d2ed319cdbebee0bb8a21fd84de24e8.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN25">
                  <p>RCRI: Revised Cardiac Risk Index; AUB-HAS2: American University of Beirut-HAS2.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>In the Brazilian population, the superiority of one algorithm over the other has not yet been established. It is worth noting that although both indices estimate severe CV outcomes, the outcomes differ. The RCRI, already validated in a Brazilian population,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> estimates the risk of myocardial infarction (MI), acute pulmonary edema, third-degree atrioventricular block, and cardiorespiratory arrest within 30 days after surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The AUB-HAS2, on the other hand, has not yet been validated in a Brazilian population and estimates the risk of MI, stroke, and death, also within 30 days of surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In the older version of the RCRI used in the previous edition of this Guideline,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> the risk of postoperative CV events was 0.4% for Class I (no risk variables), 0.9% for Class II (1 variable), 7% for Class III (2 variables), and 11% for Class IV (3 or more variables). Other algorithms that estimate the risk of perioperative complications also included numerical percentage values that represent the rates observed in reference studies. More recent studies, however, suggest that these risk estimates are outdated and are currently higher to the increased severity of patients undergoing surgery. As published in the latest European guideline on perioperative assessment,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> there was a 4% risk for Class I, 6% for Class II, 10% for Class III, and 15% for Class IV.</p>
            <p>Considering the significant variation in these figures by country and population, we opted for a semiquantitative classification, establishing low risk (Class I and II), intermediate risk (Class III), and high risk (Class IV) in preoperative risk assessment reports without specifying absolute values.</p>
            <p>Among the limitations of these indices is the potential loss of accuracy in patients with reduced functional capacity. These patients have a worse perioperative prognosis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> and may be asymptomatic simply because they do not reach the threshold to trigger symptoms. Therefore, even if a patient with reduced functional capacity receives a low or intermediate CV risk estimate from the indices, this evaluation can be complemented by tests for coronary artery disease (CAD) and HF before high-risk operations, especially when the patient has CV risk factors (see item 2.4, functional tests). Another issue is the loss of index accuracy for specific operations, such as the RCRI, which loses the ability to discriminate between risk classifications and underestimates events in patients undergoing vascular operations, particularly abdominal aortic aneurysm repair.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Specifically for vascular surgery, this Guideline recommends using the Vascular Study Group of New England Cardiac Risk Index (VSG-CRI) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t57">Tables 6</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t58">7</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Compared with the RCRI, the VSG-CRI showed better accuracy in predicting MI, clinically relevant arrhythmia, and HF in the postoperative period of vascular surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The AUB-HAS2 also maintains good accuracy in distinguishing between four classes of progressive risk in the perioperative period of vascular surgery, with higher absolute rates of perioperative complications than those observed for all operations combined.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t57">
              <label>Table 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Risk factors and respective scores in the Vascular Study Group of New England Cardiac Risk Index (VSG-CRI)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="49%">
                  <col width="1%"/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">VSG-CRI risk factors</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">SCORE</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">
                      <bold>Age</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top"/>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">&#8805; 80 years</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">70-79 years</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">60-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Coronary artery disease</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Heart failure</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Creatinine &gt; 1.8 mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Smoking</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Diabetes on insulin</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Chronic therapy with beta-blockers</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Previous myocardial revascularization</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">-1</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t58">
              <label>Table 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Risk classification according to the Vascular Study Group of New England Cardiac Risk Index (VSG-CRI)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">VSG-CRI score</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Risk classification</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#33B560;">
                    <td align="center" valign="top">0-3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Low</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#33B560;">
                    <td align="center" valign="top">4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Low</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#ECE924;">
                    <td align="center" valign="top">5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Intermediate</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#ECE924;">
                    <td align="center" valign="top">6</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">Intermediate</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#EE2E30;">
                    <td align="center" valign="top">7</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">High</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#EE2E30;">
                    <td align="center" valign="top">&#8805; 8</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">High</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Other risk indices validated for perioperative CV assessment include the American College of Physicians Risk Index<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> and the Multicenter Perioperative Evaluation Study (EMAPO) Index,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> the latter developed and validated in Brazil. For estimating overall risk not solely related to CV morbidity and mortality outcomes, the American College of Surgeons (ACS) NSQIP&#174; Surgical Risk Calculator (www.riskcalculator.facs.org) can be used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> This tool was developed from a database of over 1 million operations performed in the United States and considers, in addition to the specific type of surgery, 21 clinical variables, providing risk estimates for 8 different outcomes. The main limitation of this tool is that it is not quick or easily applicable, requiring a calculator and including some subjectively determined variables.</p>
            <p>The choice of perioperative CV risk index should consider the evaluator&#8217;s experience and the vascular or nonvascular nature of the surgical procedure. It is worth noting that the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE), which is highly prevalent and preventable in the perioperative period, is not covered by the indices discussed in this section and requires a dedicated approach.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The flowchart for perioperative assessment is presented in Central Illustration.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.1.5. Frailty Assessment</title>
            <p>Frailty syndrome is an age-related, multidimensional clinical entity defined as a reduction in physiological reserve across several physiological systems, leading to a state of increased vulnerability to stressors such as acute illnesses and surgery. Frailty is associated with an increased risk of mortality and several other adverse outcomes, such as hospitalization, reduced functional capacity, and poor quality of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Over the past decades, there has been growing global attention to the assessment of frailty in different clinical settings, reflecting the phenomenon of an aging population worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> In Brazil, the prevalence of frailty is 9% among people aged &#8805; 50 years living in the community and 16% among those aged &#8805; 65 years. These rates are similar to those in developed countries and higher in health care settings such as clinics and hospitals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Despite the lack of consensus on a gold standard method for defining frailty, the Physical Frailty Phenotype and the Frailty Index are considered the most valid measures for identifying this syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Although associated with multimorbidity, aging, and limitations in basic and instrumental activities of daily living, frailty syndrome is considered a distinct entity separate from these other factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> The severity of frailty ranges from robust and prefrail to truly frail patients.</p>
            <p>Although CVD can evidently cause frailty as a result of hospitalization for acute events, immobility, and physical limitation in individuals with established disease (eg, hospitalization for acute coronary syndrome, physical limitation due to HF symptoms),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> there is biological plausibility for common underlying pathophysiological processes in both conditions, indicating a bidirectional relationship.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Frailty is associated with a series of physiological and functional changes, including chronic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, autonomic dysfunction, activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and oxidative stress, which are risk factors for CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Indeed, in a cohort of patients without CVD,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> the presence of frailty was a risk factor for the incidence of CV events over a 6-year follow-up period. Other studies have also observed an independent association between frailty and adverse CV outcomes in several CV conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            <sec>
              <title>2.1.5.1. Frailty Assessment Before Noncardiac Surgery</title>
              <p>Despite the lack of consensus on a single instrument for screening frailty in older adults, both at the population level and in specific situations such as the perioperative assessment for noncardiac surgery, it is recommended that frailty be objectively assessed using previously validated instruments. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t59">Table 8</xref> presents some examples of instruments that can be used to assess frailty. It is noteworthy that there are other instruments available beyond those mentioned in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t59">Table 8</xref>. The recommendation to use instruments is based on the fact that the subjective assessment of physicians, especially those not specialized in geriatrics, can be influenced by confounding factors such as advanced age, the presence of multiple diseases, low weight, and the use of walking aids, which can lead to an erroneous assumption of frailty when it is not actually the case.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Frailty assessment with validated instruments also provides more detailed information about the patient&#8217;s status rather than simply categorizing them as frail or nonfrail, which can be simplistic and superficial.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t59">
                <label>Table 8</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Instruments available for frailty assessment</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="20%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Instrument</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Type of assessment</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Components</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Definition of frailty</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Link or app to access the instrument</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Physical Frailty Phenotype<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Self-reported information and physical performance tests to assess 5 phenotypic criteria</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Low activity <break/>Slowness <break/>Weight loss <break/>Weakness <break/>Exhaustion</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Frail: &#8805; 3 <break/>Prefrail: 1-2 <break/>Robust: 0</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">https://www.johnshopkitnssolutions.com/solution/frailty/</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Clinical Frailty Scale (CFS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Overall health and functional capacity</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">9-Item scale (1 &#8211; very fit to 9 &#8211; terminally ill)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Frail: &#8805;5 <break/>Prefrail: 4 <break/>Robust: 1-3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">https://www.acutefrailtynetwork.org.uk/Clinical-Frailty-Scale/Clinical-Frailty-Scale-App</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Essential Frailty Toolset (EFT)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Combination of physical and cognitive performance with complementary tests</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Chair rise <break/>Cognition <break/>Serum albumin <break/>Hemoglobin</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Frail: &#8805;3 <break/>Prefrail: 1-2 <break/>Robust: 0</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Frailty Tool: App available for iOS and Android</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Frailty Index of deficit accumulation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Multidimensional due to the deficit-accumulation approach</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Assessment of at least 40 items that should:<list list-type="simple"><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Be associated with health</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Encompass multiple systems</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Have a prevalence &gt; 1% in the population of interest</p></list-item><list-item><label>&#8211;</label><p>Increase in prevalence with advancing age</p></list-item></list> </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">The score ranges from 0 (no deficit present) to 1 (all deficits present), which indicates the proportion of changes found between the items evaluated <break/>In general, a score &gt; 0.25 is used to define the presence of frailty</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">https://www.bidmc.org/research/research-by-department/medicine/gerontology/calculator</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">FRAIL Scale<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Concise, self-reported questionnaire including 5 health components</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Fatigue <break/>Resistance <break/>Ambulation <break/>Illness <break/>Weight loss</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">Frail: &#8805;3 <break/>Prefrail: 1-2 <break/>Robust: 0</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">
                        <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1279770723014987?via=ihub-cesec100">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1279770723014987?via=ihub-cesec100</ext-link>
                        <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4515112/#APP1">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4515112/#APP1</ext-link>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
              <p>Frailty can also be assessed and classified based on different health domains: physical, cognitive, psychosocial, and nutritional. Depending on the tool used to define frailty, one or more domains are assessed, allowing for the characterization of patients into distinct clinical phenotypes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>2.1.5.2. Impact of Frailty Assessment on Noncardiac Surgery</title>
              <p>Frailty is a predictor of several adverse perioperative outcomes across multiple surgical specialties, including both elective and emergency procedures. Evidence indicates that frail patients are at higher risk for postoperative clinical complications such as infections, delirium, acute renal failure, cardiac arrhythmias, and MI, as well as issues related to wound healing, such as dehiscence and hernias. Consequently, frail patients tend to have prolonged lengths of hospital stay. These postoperative complications negatively impact the functional recovery and quality of life of frail patients undergoing surgery, often leading to a greater need for transfer to long-term care facilities and increased short- and long-term mortality compared with nonfrail patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Despite this, the impact of incorporating frailty assessment into the prognostic performance of traditional risk scores (RCRI, VSG-CRI, AUB-HAS 2, etc.) remains uncertain due to the limited number of studies on this topic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> The impact of this combination using other statistical methods still needs to be investigated to determine its significance and clinical utility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Despite existing limitations, perioperative frailty assessment is understood to (1) assist in the decision-making process by providing a more comprehensive assessment of the risks associated with the surgical procedure, thereby improving communication between the patient, family, and the several professionals involved in perioperative care (anesthesiologist, surgeon, clinician, cardiologist, geriatrician); and (2) identify a subgroup of patients at higher risk of complications, in whom early interventions can be implemented (eg, physical and nutritional rehabilitation; measures for prevention and early identification of delirium).</p>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t70">Chart 2</xref> presents recommendations for perioperative frailty assessment in noncardiac surgery.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t70">
                <label>Chart 2</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recommendations for perioperative frailty assessment in noncardiac surgery</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Frailty should be routinely assessed in elderly patients scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Frailty should be objectively measured using specific instruments.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2. Electrocardiography</title>
          <p>Electrocardiography (ECG) can detect arrhythmias, conduction disorders, myocardial ischemia or prior AMI, ventricular overload, and changes due to electrolyte disturbances or effects of medications. Additionally, a baseline ECG is important for comparative evaluation in the perioperative period for patients at high risk of CV events.</p>
          <p>However, routine application of a test with limited specificity can lead to false-positive results in asymptomatic patients. ECG changes often cause concern among the surgical and anesthetic teams and can sometimes lead to unnecessary cancellation of the operation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> It is estimated that approximately 50% of individuals over 40 years of age will present some ECG abnormality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> The presence of abnormalities tends to increase with age and the presence of comorbidities, but has a low predictive power for complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a retrospective study of over 23,000 patients, those with abnormal ECG findings had a greater incidence of CV death within 30 days compared with those with normal ECG results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> This finding was corroborated by two subsequent prospective studies which found similar results, with preoperative ECG abnormalities being predictors of perioperative CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> In another retrospective study, a corrected QT interval between 480 ms and 519 ms was an independent predictor of mortality after noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> However, in the group of patients undergoing low-to-moderate risk surgery, the preoperative ECG provided limited prognostic information. Therefore, the prognostic interpretation of the ECG depends on the patient&#8217;s clinical history as well as their CV risk.</p>
          <p>Thus, the main role of the preoperative ECG is to provide a baseline tracing for comparison in case of a suspected postoperative CV event. The indication for preoperative ECG should be judicious, considering the patient&#8217;s clinical history, type of surgery, and pre-existing conditions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f12">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Indications for additional preoperative cardiac tests. *Only indicated for patients scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery. **No evaluation in the past year (or 6 months in cases of valvular heart disease). ACS: acute coronary syndromes; CVD: cardiovascular disease; HF: heart failure.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t72">Chart 3</xref> presents recommendations for performing ECG.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t72">
            <label>Chart 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for performing electrocardiography</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">History and/or abnormalities on physical examination suggestive of cardiovascular disease.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients undergoing surgery with intermediate or high intrinsic risk of cardiovascular complications.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients at intermediate or high risk for perioperative cardiovascular events as estimated by algorithms.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Diabetes.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Obesity.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Age &gt; 40 years.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3. Echocardiography</title>
          <p>Echocardiography is a low-cost, noninvasive diagnostic method with extensive application in various fields of cardiology. It provides a comprehensive CV morphofunctional assessment, which is crucial for preoperative diagnostic and therapeutic decisions. In terms of morphology and anatomy, basic data assessed in routine echocardiography include cavity size, ventricular mass, structural assessment of valves and major vessels, and systolic and diastolic function. Hemodynamic evaluation is derived from mathematical calculations using data obtained from Doppler ultrasound, and color flow mapping accurately assesses intracardiac and transvalvular flow dynamics. Morphofunctional cardiac changes can be closely correlated with an increased perioperative risk.</p>
          <p>In addition to conventional TTE, other modalities can be performed. These include transesophageal echocardiography, a semi-invasive technique that allows detailed anatomical assessment, intracavitary thrombus investigation, and aortic evaluation, among others; myocardial strain imaging for a more detailed evaluation of ventricular contractile function; the use of contrast agents (microbubbles) for myocardial perfusion assessment; and three-dimensional echocardiography, which allows for a more accurate volumetric evaluation and determination of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF).</p>
          <p>However, it is important to note that preoperative resting echocardiography should not be performed routinely in the setting of noncardiac surgery. It should only be requested when, after an initial clinical evaluation, there is suspicion of heart disease. This initial evaluation should involve thorough history-taking and physical examination, and possibly common clinical tests such as laboratory tests, ECG, and chest radiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>TTE is the primary diagnostic method in patients with suspected or known HF, and its multiple modalities help estimate surgical risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> However, it should be used judiciously, as there is no evidence that TTE is associated with increased survival or shorter lengths of hospital stay. On the contrary, several studies suggest that more widespread use increases length of hospital stay without clinical benefit.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Finally, in patients with known or suspected valvular heart disease (VHD), prosthetic heart valves, and intracardiac devices, TTE or transesophageal echocardiography should be used to help determine perioperative risk, as well as to guide prophylaxis for infective endocarditis (IE) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t73">Chart 4</xref> presents recommendations for performing preoperative echocardiography.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t73">
            <label>Chart 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for performing preoperative echocardiography</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with known heart failure or symptoms suggestive of heart failure scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery, without evaluation in the past year or with clinical worsening.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with suspected or known moderate-to-significant valvular heart disease scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery, without evaluation in the past 6 to 12 months or with clinical worsening.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients scheduled for liver transplantation.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Symptomatic patients with a prosthetic heart valve scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with a prosthetic heart valve scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery without evaluation in the past year.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Asymptomatic patients scheduled for high-risk surgery (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref>).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Routine use in asymptomatic patients without clinical suspicion of heart failure or moderate-to-severe valvular heart disease scheduled for intermediate- or low-risk surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4. Noninvasive Tests for Myocardial Ischemia</title>
          <sec>
            <title>2.4.1. Exercise Electrocardiogram</title>
            <p>Exercise ECG is a safe, useful, and effective tool in the investigation of myocardial ischemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> with its primary mechanism being the provocation of a mismatch in blood supply and demand. Thus, it is reasonable to think that the detection of abnormalities on exercise ECG could be reproducible during the perioperative period and its varying levels of stress. However, there is no robust evidence that using this strategy results in reduced perioperative mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Considering that the goal of risk stratification is to reduce perioperative risk, it would not be logical to perform exercise ECG on individuals already stratified as low risk by the recommended algorithms. In populations with a low prevalence of CAD, exercise ECG would not add value to perioperative clinical stratification, given that the lower the prevalence of CAD, the lower the positive predictive value of the test. In fact, exercise ECG could even delay the surgery due to the need for other more specific tests to differentiate true from false-positive results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Even in high-risk individuals, such as in the preoperative period of vascular surgery, the positive predictive value, sensitivity, and specificity of exercise ECG are low (10%, 74%, and 69%, respectively), although the negative predictive value is high (98%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Conversely, in a cohort study, preoperative exercise ECG for ischemia in high-risk patients with 3 or more clinical risk factors was associated with shorter lengths of hospital stay and lower hospital and 1-year mortality rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Therefore, among asymptomatic individuals with a higher prevalence of the disease, exercise ECG could be requested only when the result would influence the prognosis and, consequently, the preoperative approach, either to guide more intensive clinical therapy or a myocardial revascularization procedure. In this setting, low exercise tolerance (below 4 METs) and the onset of ischemic response at a low workload are associated with a higher number of perioperative CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t74">Chart 5</xref> presents recommendations for preoperative exercise ECG.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t74">
              <label>Chart 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for preoperative exercise ECG testing</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">A exercise ECG test should be requested in intermediate- and high-risk patients with reduced functional capacity scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk elective noncardiac surgery in whom functional testing could potentially alter management.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Patients scheduled for low-risk surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Patients at low risk of complications scheduled for low- or intermediate-risk surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.4.2. Myocardial Perfusion Imaging (MPI)</title>
            <p>Despite greater availability and lower cost, exercise ECG has limitations, particularly in patients with a high pretest probability of CAD, in those with baseline ECG abnormalities, and in those unable to perform physical activity on a treadmill.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Thus, the use of non-invasive functional imaging for myocardial ischaemia presents higher accuracy in assessing the risk of perioperative CV events. This approach can be useful for further risk stratification in patients with reduced functional capacity, established CAD, or a high pretest probability of CAD without a prior diagnosis of chronic coronary syndrome.</p>
            <p>In the perioperative period, there is a strong correlation between the degree of CAD and the severity of perfusion abnormalities, meaning that functional imaging tests functional testing has a greater predictive capacity in patients with significant CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> A meta-analysis evaluating 1,179 patients undergoing vascular surgery revealed that large perfusion defects (&gt; 20%) were associated with a higher rate of perioperative events, with an area under the curve of 0.78 (95%CI 0.65-0.89). However, it should be noted that even in a high-risk population (established vascular disease), only 23% of individuals presented with extensive ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In patients with good functional capacity (&#8805; 4 METs), preoperative functional imaging tests in addition to the RCRI added only moderate value (AUC 0.77 vs AUC 0.70).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Another consideration when requesting functional imaging tests is that recent studies (outside the perioperative context) demonstrated the benefit of clinical treatment over invasive strategies even in patients with moderate-to-severe ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Finally, despite its usefulness in the diagnosis of CAD and CV risk stratification, preoperative functional imaging tests should be requested only when necessary. This is because it may lead to a propensity for coronary revascularization before noncardiac surgery, which has been shown in randomized clinical trials to not alter long-term outcomes, and may even delay noncardiac surgery for the minimum time required for dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> Even in patients with high ischemic burden on functional tests listed for kidney transplant, invasive approaches such as revascularization were not superior to optimized clinical treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.4.3. Dobutamine Stress Echocardiography</title>
            <p>Dobutamine stress echocardiography (DSE) is accurate and safe in the identification of patients with CAD and plays an important role as a predictor of CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> Stress can be induced via physical exercise, on a treadmill or cycle ergometer (bicycle), or by using medications, specifically dobutamine and dipyridamole, combined with atropine if there are no contraindications. Dobutamine and exercise have similar diagnostic accuracy, which is superior to that of dipyridamole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Pharmacological stress echocardiography with dobutamine or dipyridamole is recognized for its significant diagnostic and prognostic value. Segmental contraction abnormalities involving a large extent of the left ventricle, appearing at early stages of drug infusion, not only confirm the diagnosis of CAD but also confer a high risk of short-term ischemic complications, significantly increasing perioperative CV risk. Conversely, the absence of segmental contraction abnormalities during stress is well correlated with the absence of severe coronary obstruction. Additionally, the appearance of such abnormalities in a small myocardial area at the late peak stress stage portends a better prognosis and lower risk of CV events. If DSE does not show residual ischemia in a patient with a prior infarction, the prognosis is good, and the likelihood of perioperative reinfarction, death, and acute pulmonary edema during noncardiac surgery is low.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> The use of DSE in the assessment of perioperative risk is well documented, with a positive predictive value ranging from 25% to 55% and a negative predictive value ranging from 93% to 100% for CV events in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> The results are typically used to guide preoperative clinical management, especially the decision to perform coronary angiography with angioplasty or myocardial revascularization surgery before or after elective surgery. A meta-analysis of 15 studies comparing MPI and DSE in preoperative CV risk stratification demonstrated that the prognostic value of abnormalities in both imaging methods for perioperative ischemic events is similar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Finally, the use of microbubble contrast agents improves the visualization of left ventricular endocardial borders, increasing the sensitivity of DSE for detecting segmental contraction abnormalities. Furthermore, real-time assessment of myocardial perfusion may also be performed. Perfusion deficits detected in an ischemic wall are correlated with a worse prognosis, higher likelihood of short-term events and, consequently, increased perioperative CV risk.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.4.4. Summary of Recommendations for Noninvasive Functional Imaging for Myocardial Ischaemia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>)</title>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t75">Chart 6</xref> presents recommendations for preoperative myocardial perfusion imaging or stress echocardiography.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t75">
              <label>Chart 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for preoperative myocardial perfusion imaging or stress echocardiography</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Intermediate- and high-risk patients with reduced functional capacity scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk elective noncardiac surgery in whom functional testing could potentially alter management.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Asymptomatic patients with reduced functional capacity and a previous diagnosis or high probability of coronary artery disease.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Routine in low-risk patients and/or patients scheduled for low-intrinsic-risk procedures.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.5. Coronary Cineangiography</title>
          <p>Invasive coronary assessment with coronary cineangiography is not routinely recommended before noncardiac surgery and should not replace noninvasive tests for myocardial ischemia, when indicated. Performing coronary cineangiography unnecessarily may delay surgical planning and has not shown evidence of increased patient survival or reduced risk of perioperative MI, even in patients undergoing procedures with a high risk of CV complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The indications for invasive coronary assessment are similar to those outside the preoperative setting, such as patients with acute coronary syndrome or extensive ischemia on functional testing (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> A small, randomized study evaluated the effect of routine preoperative coronary cineangiography on carotid endarterectomy. Despite fewer ischemic events in patients undergoing preoperative angioplasty, there was no difference in mortality. Moreover, surgery was performed on average 4 days after the procedure, which is neither recommended nor safe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Time-sensitive procedures, such as cancer surgery, should not be postponed for invasive assessment in asymptomatic patients. This recommendation is based on studies that failed to show any reduction in postoperative CV complications in asymptomatic patients undergoing preoperative coronary revascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t76">Chart 7</xref> presents recommendations for preoperative coronary cineangiography.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t76">
            <label>Chart 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for preoperative coronary cineangiography</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with high-risk acute coronary syndromes.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with extensive ischemia on functional testing.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Stable patients undergoing low-risk surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.6. Coronary Computed Tomography Angiography</title>
          <p>Coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) has high sensitivity for anatomical detection of coronary stenoses, including multivessel and left main CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> However, the benefits of CCTA before noncardiac surgery remain uncertain.</p>
          <p>The benefit of coronary anatomy assessment via CCTA was investigated by Li et al., who assessed 841 elderly patients undergoing high-risk noncardiac surgery without known or suspected CAD. Single-, two-, and three-vessel disease was found in 103 (12.2%), 45 (5.4%) and 16 (1.9%) patients, respectively. An Agatston score above 195 was independently associated with a higher risk of CAD. Significant CAD was found in 19.5% of patients. In multivariate analysis, the degree of stenosis was as an independent factor for the cancellation of scheduled surgery. The authors considered CCTA useful for ruling out or confirming significant CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The use of CCTA in addition to the RCRI was investigated by Ahn et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> who evaluated retrospective studies including patients undergoing intermediate-risk procedures. The presence of lesions &gt; 50% increased the incidence of major adverse cardiac events (MACE), reaching up to 29.7% in multi-vessel CAD vs 4.3% in its absence. The authors concluded that CCTA showed additive value to RCRI in risk reclassification. In a prospective study of 955 patients, Sheth et al. demonstrated that preoperative CCTA could improve estimation of risk for patients who will experience perioperative CV death or MI. However, risk reclassification using CCTA compared with the RCRI occurred in 22% of patients and could inappropriately overestimate the risk of complications by up to 5 times.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The extent and severity of CAD on CCTA concerning MACE incidence was evaluated in a meta-analysis of 11 studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> It was observed that the severity and extent of CAD were associated with increased MACE risk (no CAD 2%, nonobstructive 4.1%, obstructive single-vessel 7.1%, obstructive multivessel 23.1%). Multi-vessel CAD presented the highest risk (odds ratio [OR] 8.9). Increased calcium scores were also associated with a higher perioperative MACE risk (calcium score &#8805; 100, OR 5.1, &#8805; 1,000 OR 10.4, both p &lt; 0.001).</p>
          <p>The PANDA trial directly compared the prognostic accuracy of CCTA vs DSE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> The study included 215 patients with more than 1 risk factor for perioperative CV events who underwent both CCTA and DSE. DSE had an OR of 6.1 for CV events; the presence of significant CAD on CCTA had an OR of 18.8; and an elevated calcium score had an OR of 4.2. The authors concluded that CCTA might have higher prognostic value than DSE before noncardiac surgery, but the sample size of the study was too small for a definitive conclusion.</p>
          <p>Due to the lack of more studies and evidence demonstrating event reduction with the use of CCTA, and primarily due to the concern of generating excessive "preventive" angioplasties, CCTA is not yet routinely recommended for risk stratification before noncardiac surgery.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>3. Specific Diseases and Procedures in the Perioperative Period</title>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1. Heart Failure</title>
          <p>Heart failure (HF) affects approximately 1% to 2% of the general population in developed countries, approximately 5.7 million patients in the United States, and over 10% of the population older than 70 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup> Circulatory system diseases are the leading cause of death in Brazil, accounting for approximately 29% of deaths in the country. Ischemic heart diseases and HF are responsible for approximately 39% of deaths due to circulatory system diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
          <p>HF is a well-known risk factor for perioperative CV events. Data from a large registry of noncardiac operations, which included over 150,000 procedures, revealed that the presence of HF was associated with a 63% increase in the risk of perioperative mortality and a 51% increase in the risk of 30-day all-cause readmission compared with the group with CAD without HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A recent analysis with data from a U.S. database including 21,560,996 noncardiac surgical procedures from 2012 to 2014 revealed the presence of perioperative HF in 4.9% of cases, which was associated with a higher in-hospital mortality rate (4.8% vs. 0.8%), conferring a 2.2 times increased risk of perioperative mortality. The risk was higher among patients with acute HF than those with chronic HF, and the risk was greater in patients with decompensated chronic HF compared with those with chronic HF alone (7.8% vs. 3.8%, p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In another retrospective cohort study involving 609,735 patients undergoing noncardiac surgery, the 90-day mortality rate was higher among patients with symptomatic HF (10.1%), followed by patients with asymptomatic HF (4.9%). In patients without HF, the mortality rate was 1.2%. Thus, the presence of HF, whether symptomatic or not, increases the risk of early death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Reduced LVEF is considered a strong predictor of CV events in patients undergoing vascular surgery. However, most studies analyze LVEF by dichotomizing it as greater or less than 40%. A study involving 174 patients with HF revealed that only severely reduced LVEF (&lt; 30%) was an independent predictor of mortality. The presence of moderately (30-40%) or mildly (40-50%) reduced LVEF, or HF with preserved LVEF (&gt; 50%), were not independent predictors of 30-day mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> Despite the predictive power of LVEF for CV events, routine echocardiography for all patients scheduled for noncardiac surgery is not indicated. A Canadian cohort study involving more than 250,000 patients (15% with preoperative echocardiography, n = 40,084) revealed that preoperative echocardiography is not associated with improved survival or reduced length of hospital stay after major noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Preoperative elevation of natriuretic peptide levels is associated with a worse prognosis in the perioperative period, as it is associated with worsening ventricular function and a higher rate of CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> Measuring these biomarkers can assist in the risk stratification of patients with HF.</p>
          <p>Perioperative clinical management of patients with HF should involve special attention to volemia. Both hypovolemia, which can intensify hypotension, and hypervolemia, which can cause pulmonary edema and systemic venous congestion, should be avoided. The Austrian IMPROVE study aims to determine if the use of an inodilator, levosimendan, may benefit postoperative outcomes by evaluating the impact of the medication on natriuretic peptide levels. Its results may provide a new perioperative management approach for patients with HF undergoing noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The flowchart for preoperative evaluation of patients with known or suspected HF in is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
          <fig id="f13">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Preoperative approach for patients with known or suspected heart failure. HF: heart failure; NYHA: New York Heart Association. #In patients with an echocardiogram from the past year and without new symptoms, it is not necessary to repeat the echocardiogram. *Optimized treatment of HF according to current guidelines (maximum tolerated dose of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers/sacubitril/valsartan, beta-blockers, spironolactone, and sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 [SGLT2] inhibitors for HF with reduced ejection fraction and adequate control of blood volume and blood pressure, spironolactone and SGLT2 inhibitors for patients with HF and preserved ejection fraction), evaluation and correction of myocardial ischemia, and correction of valvular heart disease in significant cases.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t77">Chart 8</xref> presents recommendations for the perioperative management of patients with HF.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t77">
            <label>Chart 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for the perioperative management of patients with heart failure</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Elective surgery in patients with decompensated heart failure (NYHA class III/IV) should be postponed until the patient&#8217;s clinical condition has stabilized.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Elective surgery in patients with newly diagnosed heart failure, whose treatment has not yet been optimized, should be postponed for at least 3 months to allow adequate adjustment of medication doses.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">All chronic medications should be maintained in the perioperative period and reintroduced as soon as possible postoperatively. If oral administration is not possible, consider the placement of a nasoenteric tube or intravenous administration.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">The use of beta-blockers should be maintained in the perioperative period; however, initiating high doses in patients not previously on beta-blockers is not recommended unless there is sufficient time for dose adjustment before surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN26">
                <p>NYHA: New York Heart Association.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2. Arterial Hypertension</title>
          <p>Systemic hypertension is a highly prevalent clinical condition, both in the general population and in patients undergoing surgery, being responsible for approximately 50% of deaths from CAD and stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> Although the importance of strict blood pressure (BP) control in the prevention of long-term CV events is well established, its perioperative management remains controversial.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.1. Preoperative BP Management</title>
            <p>A previous diagnosis of hypertension is an independent predictor of mortality in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup> However, there is no solid evidence linking BP measurement at the time of hospital admission with perioperative CV complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> This suggests that the perioperative risk attributed to hypertension is primarily due to its impact on target organ damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Regarding hypotension, the literature provides more concrete data. A prospective cohort study involving 251,567 patients demonstrated that systolic BP levels &lt; 119 mm Hg and diastolic levels &lt; 63 mm Hg are associated with increased 30-day postoperative mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> Therefore, BP management should also consider this probable J-curve phenomenon, in which low BP levels also represent a risk.</p>
            <p>Regarding hypertension, it is recommended that high-risk elective operations be postponed only if systolic BP is &#8805; 180 mm Hg and/or diastolic BP is &#8805; 110 mm Hg. It is important to note that this threshold is based on older observational data<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> and was defined before the current understanding of the risks associated with perioperative hypotension. Thus, the defined BP target should be maintained, but care must be taken to avoid hypotension.</p>
            <p>Finally, patients with suspected secondary hypertension should be investigated before surgery. Although there is no robust evidence of increased perioperative risk in patients with secondary hypertension, those with undiagnosed pheochromocytoma are known to have very high surgical mortality rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.2. Intraoperative BP Management</title>
            <p>When the introduction of antihypertensives is required intraoperatively, the medication should ideally be easily titratable, have a rapid onset of action, few side effects, and low cost. Several classes are available, including beta-blockers (esmolol and labetalol), calcium channel blockers (nicardipine), and nitrates (sodium nitroprusside and nitroglycerin).</p>
            <p>Hypertensive patients are also more susceptible to hypotension, often due to intravascular volume depletion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> Excessive concern about strict BP control in the preoperative period can lead to hypotension both during and after surgery, which is particularly associated with cardiac, renal, and cerebral injury, as well as increased mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In this setting, the INPRESS study (Effect of Individualized vs Standard Blood Pressure Management Strategies on Postoperative Organ Dysfunction Among High-Risk Patients Undergoing Major Surgery) compared an individualized strategy aimed at achieving a systolic BP within 10% of the reference value vs. a standard strategy where patients received vasoconstrictors only if systolic BP was &lt; 80 mm Hg or 40% of the reference value. The individualized strategy reduced the incidence of systemic inflammatory response syndrome and organ dysfunction 7 days after surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup> A retrospective analysis involving patients undergoing elective noncardiac surgery underscored the deleterious effects of perioperative hypotension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.3. Postoperative BP Management</title>
            <p>A previous diagnosis of hypertension is the main risk factor for postoperative hypertension. However, other factors such as pain, hypercapnia, and agitation after anesthesia also contribute. Intravenous antihypertensive therapy should be considered in patients with sustained systolic BP &#8805; 180 mm Hg and/or diastolic BP &#8805; 110 mm Hg, as these levels increase the risk of bleeding, especially in cardiac, vascular, and endoscopic procedures, such as transurethral resection of the prostate. Hypotension should also be properly treated and prevented by maintaining an adequate volume status.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t78">Chart 9</xref> shows recommendations for perioperative BP management.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t78">
              <label>Chart 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for perioperative blood pressure management</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Elective high-risk surgery should be postponed if systolic blood pressure is &#8805; 180 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure is &#8805; 110 mm Hg.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Optimization of volemia (avoid dehydration) should be conducted throughout the perioperative period.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Episodes of hypotension should be avoided throughout the entire perioperative period.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with suspected secondary hypertension should be investigated before surgery, except in emergency/urgent cases.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Antihypertensive therapy, preferably the one the patient used before surgery, should be restarted postoperatively as soon as possible.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.4. Perioperative Management of Antihypertensives</title>
            <sec>
              <title>3.2.4.1. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Inhibitors</title>
              <p>The use of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors in the perioperative period is highly controversial due to conflicting study results. Large retrospective studies comparing the discontinuation vs. continuation of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) perioperatively have not shown differences between groups in terms of hypotension incidence, need for fluid resuscitation, and 30-day mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup> Furthermore, discontinuing these medications on the day of surgery did not significantly increase the incidence of preoperative hypertension or result in higher surgery cancellation rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup></p>
              <p>However, Roshanov et al. observed a decrease in the intraoperative risk of hypotension and a reduction in the composite outcome of death, MI, and stroke with the discontinuation of these medications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref></sup> Despite the potential for increased hypotension with the maintenance of ACEIs/ARBs, there was no observed increase in acute kidney injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup> It is also noteworthy that if ARBs were discontinued and not reintroduced within 2 days after surgery, mortality rates increased.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Thus, current evidence does not provide a definitive answer on whether to maintain or discontinue ACEIs/ARBs in the perioperative period, requiring individualized decision-making. The ongoing randomized trial STOP-or-NOT may provide additional information on this topic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup> For this, factors such as the type of surgery, patient BP variability, and bleeding risk should be considered. Importantly, if these medications are discontinued, they should ideally be reintroduced postoperatively as soon as clinically feasible.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.2.4.2. Calcium Channel Blockers</title>
              <p>In patients undergoing noncardiac surgery, no significant differences in BP levels were observed with the use of calcium channel blockers compared with other antihypertensive medications, and their use was not associated with increased occurrence of adverse events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> Therefore, while the formal recommendation is to continue chronic therapy with calcium channel blockers perioperatively, this decision should be individualized, considering the risks of hypotension and the lack of deleterious effects from their discontinuation.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.2.4.3. Diuretics</title>
              <p>There is no robust evidence regarding the use of diuretics in the perioperative period. Their maintenance, including administration on the day of surgery, has been shown to be safe and not associated with increased risk of hypotension, need for fluid resuscitation, or use of vasopressor agents, nor with increased risk of postoperative CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.2.4.4. Central Sympatholytic Drugs</title>
              <p>Early studies on the use of clonidine in the perioperative period of noncardiac surgery showed a reduction in myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> However, larger, more recent studies have failed to confirm this association, instead linking its use to increased incidence of nonfatal cardiac arrest, particularly due to asystole or pulseless electrical activity. The use of clonidine is also associated with a significant increase in bradycardia and hypotension, with hypotension being an independent predictor of MI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup> Thus, clonidine may be used in cases of uncontrolled hypertension with insufficient time for effective management, but it should not be introduced to reduce CV events. Discontinuation in chronic users is not recommended due to the potential for rebound hypertension.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.5. Final Considerations</title>
            <p>The perioperative management of hypertension is highly challenging. While it is crucial to avoid extremely high BP levels (systolic BP &gt; 180 mm Hg and diastolic BP &gt; 110 mm Hg), it is equally important to prevent hypotension, which has been increasingly recognized in recent studies as a predictor of poor prognosis and increased risk of mortality. Therefore, aside from beta-blockers and central sympatholytic drugs, whose discontinuation may be harmful, the perioperative management of antihypertensives should be individualized to avoid significant BP increase, variability, and particularly hypotension. Perioperative clinical evaluation should include BP monitoring and vigilance for symptoms of hypotension such as dizziness, fainting, drowsiness, signs of low cardiac output, renal function deterioration, low urine output, and delirium.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t79">Chart 10</xref> shows recommendations for the perioperative management of antihypertensives.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t79">
              <label>Chart 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for the perioperative management of antihypertensives</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Chronic therapy with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system antagonists may be maintained in the perioperative period; discontinuation is allowed in selected cases.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Chronic therapy with calcium channel blockers may be maintained in the perioperative period; discontinuation is allowed in selected cases.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Chronic therapy with diuretics may be maintained in the perioperative period; discontinuation is allowed in selected cases.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Chronic therapy with clonidine should be maintained in the perioperative period.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec sec-type="methods">
          <title>3.3. Patient Management in Low-Risk Procedures</title>
          <p>In this Guideline, "low-risk procedures" refers exclusively to the risk of bleeding and CV complications. We are aware that there are low risk surgical procedures in all medical specialties, but specific surgical considerations are beyond the scope of this document.</p>
          <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>3.3.1. Dental Procedures</title>
            <p>Maintaining adequate oral health is crucial for reducing the risk of systemic complications, especially in patients with CVD, leading to better glycemic control, reduced risk of bacteremia, and possibly better BP control.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup> Oral diseases, such as periodontal diseases and endodontic infections, may pose a postoperative risk of bacteremia and sepsis in patients requiring intubation and in transplant recipients<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> and should be treated before surgical procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Mouth rinsing with 15 mL of 0.2% chlorhexidine (most effective) or 5% povidone-iodine for 30 to 60 seconds is recommended before dental procedures and before intermediate- and high-risk procedures to reduce the risk of sepsis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup></p>
            <sec>
              <title>3.3.1.1. Antithrombotic Agents</title>
              <p>When patients on antithrombotic therapy, including anticoagulants and antiplatelet medications, undergo dental surgical treatment, a decision must be made regarding the continuation of anticoagulation therapy, balancing the risk of hemorrhagic complications against the risk of embolic complications. Decades of studies involving thousands of patients on anticoagulation therapy undergoing dental procedures have shown that hemorrhagic complications requiring more than local hemostatic measures are rare and never fatal. However, some embolic complications have been fatal or debilitating in patients in whom anticoagulation therapy was interrupted due to a dental procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Most dental procedures have a low risk of bleeding, with a bleeding rate of up to 3.63%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref></sup> There is strong evidence for older medications (e.g., warfarin, antiplatelet medications) and limited evidence for newer oral anticoagulants that, for most patients, the occurrence of significant uncontrollable bleeding is very low. For these reasons, this Guideline does not recommend altering or interrupting anticoagulation or antiplatelet therapy before dental procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup></p>
              <p>In general, dental procedures can be safely performed in patients on warfarin with an international normalized ratio (INR) &lt; 3.5, provided local measures to reduce bleeding are employed. For patients with an INR above this range or those expected to have a higher risk of bleeding, the best strategy should be discussed between the dentist and the physician who prescribed anticoagulant therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Bleeding management in dental practice can include lysine analogs (tranexamic acid 250mg, 15 to 25 mg/kg, ie, 2 tablets of 250 mg, 2-3 times a day) and local application of hemostatic sponges and cyanoacrylates, among other methods.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.3.1.2. Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices</title>
              <p>In addition to the risk of infection, the functioning of cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) may be impaired by the action of dental equipment during some procedures, particularly battery-operated composite curing light, ultrasonic scalers, and cleaning systems, when the distance between them and the CIED is less than 23 cm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup> In these cases, alternative dental equipment should be used.</p>
              <p>Conversely, other dental electronic devices such as electric toothbrushes, electric scalpels, electric pulp testers, high- and low-speed handpieces, apex locators, and amalgamators have not shown interference.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.3.1.3. Local Anesthetics</title>
              <p>Excessive use of local anesthetics combined with vasoconstrictors can increase heart rate (HR), BP, and subsequent myocardial oxygen demand. However, recent studies confirm that the use of 1-4 anesthetic cartridges with vasoconstrictor (lidocaine with epinephrine 1:800,00, 1:100,000, and 1:200,000) is relatively safe for patients with controlled CVD and hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup></p>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t80">Chart 11</xref> presents a summary of recommendations for dental procedures.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t80">
                <label>Chart 11</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Summary of recommendations for dental procedures</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Dental evaluation and treatment are important in the perioperative period.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Use of antimicrobial mouthwash before and after dental procedures and before intermediate- and high-risk noncardiac surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">The use of 1-4 anesthetic cartridges with vasoconstrictor is safe for dental treatment in patients with heart disease.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy should be maintained during most dental treatments, including extraction of up to 2 teeth, restorations, prosthetics, endodontics, cleaning, and implants.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.2. Dermatological Surgery</title>
            <p>Dermatological surgical procedures have a low risk of both CV events and bleeding. Data from the literature suggest that approximately 50% of patients undergoing dermatological surgery are on antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> In these cases, the surgical team and anesthesiologist should be informed about current medications and necessary precautions, including more careful and prolonged hemostasis, as the risk associated with discontinuing antithrombotic therapy usually outweighs the risk of bleeding inherent to the procedure.</p>
            <p>In patients on acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) for secondary prevention of CV events, discontinuation is not recommended before any dermatological surgical procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In patients on clopidogrel monotherapy, the risk of bleeding during surgery is increased, and some studies recommend discontinuing the medication at least 6 days before the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup> However, no studies have demonstrated the safety of discontinuation in relation to CV events. Although there is a tendency to extrapolate evidence from ASA monotherapy to clopidogrel, there is insufficient evidence to support maintenance or discontinuation. Since bleeding in dermatological surgery is typically minimal and controllable, we recommend maintaining clopidogrel.</p>
            <p>In patients on DAPT due to a coronary stent who are out of the critical thrombosis period, the recommendation is to discontinue the second antiplatelet medication,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> respecting the intervals described in this Guideline (see section on antiplatelet medications, item 4.1.3).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In patients on warfarin, it is recommended not to discontinue the medication, adjusting the INR to &#8804; 3.5 to minimize the risk of bleeding. However, some studies have not shown a correlation between INR level and increased risk of bleeding in patients on warfarin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In patients on direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), despite limited evidence, it is recommended to maintain these medications during most dermatological procedures<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> and schedule the surgery a few hours before the next dose to avoid peak serum concentration.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t81">Chart 12</xref> shows recommendations for patients scheduled for dermatological surgery.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t81">
              <label>Chart 12</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for patients scheduled for dermatological surgery</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) should be maintained for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in patients undergoing any dermatological surgical intervention.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">In patients on dual antiplatelet therapy due to a stent who are out of the critical thrombosis period, ASA should be maintained, and the second antiplatelet medication should be discontinued.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Clopidogrel (monotherapy) may be maintained for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in patients undergoing dermatological surgical interventions.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Warfarin should be maintained in patients undergoing dermatological surgery, with an INR &#8804; 3.5.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">DOACs should be maintained in patients undergoing dermatological surgery, and the surgery should be scheduled a few hours before the next dose.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>3.3.3. Endoscopic Procedures</title>
            <p>Endoscopic procedures are considered low risk for the occurrence of CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> Cancelling endoscopic procedures for CV intervention is usually unnecessary, except for severe CV conditions, as outlined in the section on perioperative assessment algorithms of this Guideline (item 2.1.1). Additionally, most CV medications do not need to be discontinued and can be taken with a minimal amount of water. The most crucial decision is whether to maintain or discontinue antithrombotic medications in patients on antithrombotic therapy, as their maintenance during an endoscopic procedure may lead to bleeding, whereas their interruption poses a risk of thromboembolic events. The risk of bleeding in endoscopic procedures is variable, which should always be considered when determining the best strategy to be used. The risk varies according to the type of procedure and is particularly related to the presence of therapeutic interventions and biopsies. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t60">Table 9</xref> describes the risk of bleeding associated with common endoscopic procedures in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref></sup> The risk of thromboembolic events from discontinuing antithrombotic therapy varies according to the therapy&#8217;s indication and the patient&#8217;s condition.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t60">
              <label>Table 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Risk of bleeding according to endoscopic procedure</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">High-risk procedures</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Low-risk procedures</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Polypectomy</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Diagnostic (EGD, colonoscopy, flexible sigmoidoscopy), including mucosal biopsy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Biliary or pancreatic sphincterotomy</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">ERCP with stent placement or papillary balloon dilation without sphincterotomy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Therapeutic balloon-assisted enteroscopy</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Push enteroscopy and diagnostic balloon-assisted enteroscopy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Gastrostomy or percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Capsule endoscopy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Endoscopic ultrasound with fine-needle biopsy</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Endoscopic ultrasound without fine-needle biopsy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Cystogastrostomy</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Enteral stent deployment</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Esophageal dilation</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Barrett&#8217;s ablation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Mucosectomy and submucosal dissection</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Argon plasma coagulation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Tumor ablation</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN27">
                  <p>Adapted from Acosta et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref></sup> EGD: esophagogastroduodenoscopy; ERCP: endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <sec sec-type="methods">
              <title>3.3.3.1. Management of Antiplatelet Therapy in Endoscopic Procedures</title>
              <p>In endoscopic procedures with a low risk of bleeding, antiplatelet therapy can be maintained, whether as monotherapy (regardless of the medication) or DAPT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref></sup> In procedures with a high risk of bleeding, several considerations should be made. Patients on DAPT due to recent stent placement or acute coronary syndrome (see itens 4.1 and 4.2) are at a higher risk of suffering CV events from discontinuation of antiplatelet therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> Thus, elective endoscopic procedures with a high risk of bleeding should be postponed whenever possible until this high-risk period has passed. However, for procedures that must be performed during this period, the most accepted strategy is maintaining ASA and discontinuing the second antiplatelet medication,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref></sup> although evidence for this strategy is limited. ASA monotherapy for secondary prevention of CV events may be maintained in the perioperative period of endoscopic procedures, including high-risk ones, as most evidence shows a low risk of significant bleeding in these circumstances.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup> Some studies have shown increased bleeding in procedures such as endoscopic submucosal dissection in patients with gastric neoplasia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup> and mucosectomy for colonic tumors larger than 20 mm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref></sup> Such cases should be assessed individually, considering the risk of thrombotic events from ASA discontinuation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> The maintenance of clopidogrel monotherapy during percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy may be considered as there is some evidence supporting its use in this setting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup> Conversely, evidence on the use of prasugrel and ticagrelor during endoscopic procedures with a high risk of bleeding is scarce. If antiplatelet therapy is to be discontinued, the interval between discontinuation and the endoscopic procedure should follow the recommendations in the section on antiplatelet management of this Guideline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> Antiplatelet therapy can be resumed after the procedure once hemostasis has been achieved, and a loading dose may be considered in patients at high risk of CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec sec-type="methods">
              <title>3.3.3.2. Management of Anticoagulants in Endoscopic Procedures</title>
              <p>Anticoagulation therapy with warfarin may be maintained during endoscopic procedures with a low risk of bleeding<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup> but should be discontinued in high-risk ones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref></sup> There is no current evidence on the use of DOACs in this setting. It is suggested to maintain DOACs during procedures with a low risk of bleeding but discontinue them in high-risk ones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup> The intervals between discontinuation and resumption of DOACs and warfarin (including bridging therapy in high-thromboembolic-risk patients) should follow the recommendations in the section on perioperative anticoagulation management of this Guideline (item 4.3). Regarding the use of DOACs, if possible, the endoscopic procedure should be performed before the next dose to avoid peak concentration, which occurs in the first 2 hours after administration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup></p>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t82">Chart 13</xref> presents recommendations for patients scheduled for endoscopic procedures.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t82">
                <label>Chart 13</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recommendations for patients scheduled for endoscopic procedures</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of Recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Antiplatelet (monotherapy or dual antiplatelet therapy [DAPT]) and anticoagulation therapy with warfarin should be maintained during endoscopic procedures with a low risk of bleeding.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Acetylsalicylic acid monotherapy for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events should be maintained in the perioperative period of endoscopic procedures, including most high-bleeding-risk procedures.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Anticoagulation therapy with warfarin or direct oral anticoagulants should be discontinued for endoscopic procedures with a high risk of bleeding.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Ideally, patients on DAPT after coronary angioplasty should not undergo endoscopic procedures with a high risk of bleeding during the duration of treatment.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In patients who need to undergo endoscopic procedures with a high risk of bleeding before the anticipated end of DAPT after coronary angioplasty, ASA should be maintained, and the second antiplatelet medication should be discontinued.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Anticoagulation therapy with DOACs may be maintained for endoscopic procedures with a low risk of bleeding.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>3.3.4. Ophthalmic Procedures</title>
            <p>Ophthalmic surgery is relatively common among the older population. CV comorbidities requiring antithrombotic therapy, and its perioperative management are topics of intense debate among ophthalmologists and cardiologists. In Brazil, the fear of hemorrhagic events, including periorbital hematomas, leads to the indiscriminate discontinuation of ASA and warfarin in 82.7% of patients undergoing glaucoma surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref></sup> However, the available evidence, although limited, suggests that this fear is not justified. The rate of bleeding events reported in observational studies is low and without major consequences, particularly in cataract surgery using conventional anesthesia techniques.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> Certain types of ophthalmic surgery, however, have a higher risk of bleeding events, such as trabeculectomy for glaucoma<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup> and vitrectomy for retinal diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181">181</xref></sup> Nonetheless, the available evidence does not demonstrate an increased risk of significant hemorrhagic events in these procedures with the use of ASA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B182">182</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup> In these cases, management should be individualized, but it is generally recommended to maintain ASA perioperatively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref></sup> Patients on DAPT due to recent stent placement or acute coronary syndrome (see itens 4.1 and 4.2) are at higher risk of CV events with the interruption of antiplatelet therapy. Thus, ophthalmic surgical procedures, whenever possible, should be postponed until this high-risk period has passed. For procedures that need to be performed during this period, the approach depends on the risk of hemorrhagic events associated with the intervention. For low-risk interventions (intravitreal injections, cataract surgery, and peribulbar anesthesia), ASA and P2Y12 receptor inhibitors should be maintained. However, for high-risk interventions, such as vitrectomy and trabeculectomy, the most accepted recommendation is to maintain ASA and suspend the second antiplatelet medication, following the intervals described in the specific section of this Guideline (item 4.2),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> although evidence for this strategy is limited. Similar to patients on ASA monotherapy, published evidence supports maintaining clopidogrel monotherapy in the perioperative period of cataract surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> Evidence for glaucoma and retinal surgery is even scarcer, thus it is recommended to discontinue clopidogrel 5 days before the procedure.</p>
            <p>In patients on warfarin, the available evidence supports its maintenance during procedures with a low risk of hemorrhagic events, such as cataract surgery, provided the INR is within the therapeutic range.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup> A meta-analysis of observational studies with patients undergoing cataract surgery while on warfarin found a bleeding incidence of approximately 10%. The bleedings were mostly self-limiting and subconjunctival, and no patients experienced compromised visual acuity related to a bleeding event.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup> For glaucoma and retinal surgery, warfarin should be discontinued, and perioperative management should follow the strategy described in the section on perioperative anticoagulation management of this Guideline (item 4.3), according to the individual thrombotic risk of each patient. To date, evidence on the risk of bleeding in patients on DOACs undergoing ophthalmic surgery has only been well established for cataract surgery. The risk of bleeding associated with warfarin in cataract surgery has been well studied, and most guidelines recommend maintaining warfarin if the INR is within the therapeutic range. DOACs present a lower risk of bleeding than warfarin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup> A systematic review and meta-analysis revealed that patients on DOACs have a 22% relative risk reduction in spontaneous intraocular bleeding compared with warfarin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup> Two small studies compared the discontinuation and maintenance of DOACs during cataract surgery and found no increase in complications when maintaining DOAC therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup> Therefore, most major centers tend to maintain the use of DOACs during cataract surgery, primarily due to the absence of evidence suggesting otherwise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup> In high-risk procedures, there is no evidence regarding the safety of DOAC use. They are typically interrupted 24 hours before surgery.</p>
            <p>Recommendations for the management of patients with coronary stents and prosthetic heart valves should be individualized, considering the risk of both thrombotic and hemorrhagic events. For patients recommended to continue anticoagulant and/or antiplatelet therapy, the surgeon should be informed of the need to ensure adequate hemostasis. A suggestion that can be considered and discussed with the anesthesiologist&#8212;who makes the final decision&#8212;is to use a specific type of anesthesia less associated with hemorrhagic complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> As for antiplatelets, if they are interrupted, they should be resumed postoperatively as soon as possible. It is also recommended that procedures with a higher risk of CV events be performed in hospitals equipped for urgent hemodynamic intervention (coronary angioplasty) if needed.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t83">Chart 14</xref> presents recommendations for patients scheduled for ophthalmic surgery.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t83">
              <label>Chart 14</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for patients scheduled for ophthalmic surgery</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">For patients recommended to continue anticoagulation and/or antiplatelet therapy, the ophthalmologist should be informed of the need to maintain adequate hemostasis.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) for secondary cardiovascular prevention should be maintained in the perioperative period of ophthalmic surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Clopidogrel monotherapy should be interrupted in the perioperative period of glaucoma and vitrectomy surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Warfarin should be interrupted in the perioperative period of vitrectomy and trabeculectomy.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Warfarin should be maintained in patients undergoing cataract surgery, provided the INR is within the therapeutic range.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Direct oral anticoagulants may be maintained in patients undergoing cataract surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Clopidogrel monotherapy for secondary cardiovascular prevention should be maintained in the perioperative period of cataract surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Dual antiplatelet therapy due to recent stent placement (see item 4.2) or acute coronary syndrome within the past year should be maintained in the perioperative period of low-risk interventions (intravitreal injections, cataract surgery, and peribulbar anesthesia).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">In patients on dual antiplatelet therapy due to recent stent placement (see item 4.2) or acute coronary syndrome within the past year undergoing high-risk interventions (vitrectomy or trabeculectomy), ASA should be maintained and P2Y12 receptor inhibitors should be interrupted in the perioperative period.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4. Valvular Heart Disease</title>
          <p>Patients with valvular heart disease (VHD) who are candidates for noncardiac surgery have a higher risk of perioperative CV complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> This risk is related to the type and anatomical severity of the disease, the presence of symptoms, and the type of surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The main CV complications that may occur in this setting include pulmonary congestion, acute pulmonary edema, cardiogenic shock, MI, tachyarrhythmias, embolic events, bleeding, and IE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Upon suspicion of VHD following a detailed clinical history and physical examination, a TTE should be performed. The TTE aims to assess the anatomical severity of the disease, ventricular function, cardiac remodeling, and to estimate pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP). If uncertainty remains, other diagnostic methods may be used, such as transesophageal echocardiography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and cardiac catheterization.</p>
          <p>Symptomatic patients with significant VHD present high morbidity and mortality and should undergo valvular intervention,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup> which should be performed before elective procedures. Conversely, emergency noncardiac procedures should be performed following specific recommendations for each VHD to minimize the chances of CV decompensation.</p>
          <p>Heart valve stenosis carries a higher perioperative risk compared with valve regurgitation. Therefore, extra care should be taken with patients with aortic and/or mitral stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref></sup> If there is more than one valvular lesion and/or a combination of stenosis and regurgitation, the approach should be based on the most significant lesion.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.1. Aortic Valve Stenosis</title>
            <p>Aortic valve stenosis is a common type of VHD in elderly patients, affecting approximately 2% to 4% of adults over 75 years,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> and this number is expected to increase in the coming years. Significant aortic stenosis is a well-established risk factor for perioperative mortality, HF, and MI in noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Asymptomatic patients with significant aortic stenosis can safely undergo low-risk noncardiac surgery as long as volume overload is avoided.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> In these cases, if there is doubt as to whether the patient is asymptomatic, a stress test should be performed. The Heart Team, including the surgeon and anesthesiologist, plays an important role in decision-making.</p>
            <p>In symptomatic patients with significant aortic stenosis or those scheduled for moderate-to-high risk surgery, aortic valve intervention should be performed before noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> Aortic valve replacement is associated with lower in-hospital and 30-day mortality in individuals undergoing intermediate- or high-risk surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> Additionally, a study by Mizuno et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref></sup> with 218 patients demonstrated that those with aortic stenosis undergoing high-risk noncardiac surgery experienced faster progression of aortic stenosis compared with those who did not undergo surgical intervention. The choice between surgery or transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) should be based on the latest guidelines on VHD. When noncardiac surgery needs to be performed promptly, TAVI should be considered due to the quicker recovery associated with this procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In cases where TAVI and heart valve surgery are unfeasible, balloon valvuloplasty is an alternative, although the risks of this procedure should be weighed and restenosis will occur later.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200">200</xref></sup></p>
            <p>If noncardiac surgery is urgent or time-sensitive, such as in the case of femur fracture, invasive hemodynamic monitoring during anesthesia is necessary, avoiding changes in volume status, especially due to the high risk of hypervolemia. In these cases, postoperative care in an intensive care unit (ICU) with continuous hemodynamic and ECG monitoring, as well as serial cardiac troponin (cTn) measurements, is recommended. In time-sensitive procedures, balloon valvuloplasty and TAVI may be considered depending on the anatomical severity of the disease and the availability of these resources.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.2. Mitral Valve Stenosis</title>
            <p>Patients with mild-to-moderate mitral valve stenosis can undergo noncardiac surgery safely, provided measures are taken to prevent tachycardia and volume overload before and after the procedure.</p>
            <p>Patients with significant mitral stenosis, even in the absence of symptoms, have a higher risk of CV complications. In cases for which surgical or percutaneous correction is indicated, patients should undergo the procedure before any elective noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B201">201</xref></sup> In asymptomatic patients with significant mitral stenosis without an indication for interventional treatment, mitral valve intervention should be considered before any high-risk procedure.</p>
            <p>In emergency noncardiac surgery, invasive hemodynamic monitoring and prevention of tachycardia and hypervolemia are recommended. Increased HR, especially if atrial fibrillation (AF) develops, can lead to congestion and pulmonary edema. Thus, the use of beta-blockers and/or diuretics can be implemented in the perioperative period.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.3. Aortic and Mitral Regurgitation</title>
            <p>Primary valve regurgitation is associated with increased CV risk during noncardiac surgery, but it is better tolerated than valve stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203">203</xref></sup> Mild-to-moderate aortic and mitral regurgitation do not increase the risk of CV complications during noncardiac surgery. In the case of significant valvular dysfunction, provided there are no symptoms and ejection fraction is preserved, noncardiac operations can also be performed, with caution to avoid volume overload.</p>
            <p>Conversely, patients with significant primary aortic or mitral regurgitation with an indication for heart valve replacement have an increased risk of CV complications and should undergo surgical correction before noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> In symptomatic patients with moderate-to-severe secondary mitral regurgitation, it is important to assess, in conjunction with the Heart Team, whether the patient is a candidate for surgery or transcatheter edge-to-edge repair before the elective noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup></p>
            <p>If the noncardiac procedure is urgent or an emergency, it should be performed after optimization of pharmacological treatment and hemodynamic stabilization, preferably using vasodilators and diuretics, with postoperative care in an ICU.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.4. Prosthetic Heart Valves</title>
            <p>Patients with normally functioning prosthetic heart valves and no left ventricular dysfunction can undergo noncardiac surgery without additional risk.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t84">Chart 15</xref> presents recommendations for patients with VHD.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t84">
              <label>Chart 15</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for patients with valvular heart disease</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Echocardiography should be performed in patients with known or suspected moderate-to-significant valvular heart disease scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk surgery, without evaluation in the past 6 to 12 months or with clinical worsening.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with valvular heart disease requiring interventional treatment should undergo cardiac treatment first, followed by the proposed noncardiac surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Asymptomatic patients with significant aortic stenosis scheduled for intermediate- or high-risk noncardiac surgery should undergo correction of aortic stenosis before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Asymptomatic patients with significant mitral stenosis and other risk factors (pulmonary artery systolic pressure [PASP] &#8805; 50 mm Hg at rest or PASP &#8805; 60 mm Hg on exertion) should undergo correction of mitral stenosis before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Asymptomatic patients with significant valve regurgitation may undergo elective noncardiac surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5. Solid Organ Transplantation</title>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.1. Liver</title>
            <p>Considered the treatment of choice for many end-stage liver diseases, liver transplantation has become a routine procedure in several centers. Advances in anesthetic approaches, increased surgical experience, and improved postoperative care have allowed practices that, just over a decade ago, would have been exceptions. Consequently, many groups have expanded transplant indications to increasingly older populations and more complex cases for which transplant was previously contraindicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup> Additionally, indications for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, typically associated with obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and CVDs, have become more frequent, being leading causes of liver transplantation in some centers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B205">205</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Studies show that up to 26% of patients undergoing liver transplantation have at least one critical coronary artery stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> Within 1 year after the transplant, 15.2% of patients have at least one CV event, and 2.8% die from it.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup> Thus, CVD is the third most common cause of death following liver transplantation, after infections and graft rejection or dysfunction. The most common CV events are arrhythmias, pulmonary edema, ventricular dysfunction, sudden death and AMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> For these reasons, pretransplant CV evaluation is crucial to determine the correct management of these patients both preoperatively and postoperatively.</p>
            <p>In addition to CAD-related events, other comorbidities commonly found in patients with liver disease can increase morbidity and mortality after liver transplantation. These include alcoholic cardiomyopathy, cirrhotic cardiomyopathy, pulmonary hypertension (PH), and hepatopulmonary syndrome (HPS).</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t61">Table 10</xref><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup> summarizes the main cardiopulmonary comorbidities of liver transplant candidates, clinical findings, diagnosis, and expected outcomes after the transplant.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t61">
              <label>Table 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Prevalence of cardiopulmonary comorbidities in liver transplant candidates</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Prevalence</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Expected outcome after liver transplantation</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Coronary artery disease</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">2.5%-27%</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Progression, expected worsening of risk factors</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Cirrhotic cardiomyopathy</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Unknown, but probably high</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Reversal after liver transplantation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Valvular heart disease</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Unknown, but probably low</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Progression irrespective of liver transplantation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">18%</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Progression irrespective of liver transplantation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Hepatic hydrothorax</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">5%-12%</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Resolution after liver transplantation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Hepatopulmonary syndrome</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">20%</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Resolution after liver transplantation in most cases</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Pulmonary hypertension</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">4%</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Unchanged or slowly progressive</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN28">
                  <p>Adapted from Martinez-Palli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup></p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.1.1. Cirrhotic Cardiomyopathy</title>
              <p>Cirrhotic cardiomyopathy is characterized by the following triad in patients with cirrhosis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref></sup>: systolic dysfunction (primarily due to a deficit in stress-induced contractile response, with a resting LVEF &lt; 55%), diastolic dysfunction, and electrophysiological abnormalities (especially prolonged QT intervals, chronotropic incompetence, and bradycardia, as well as ventricular repolarization abnormalities). Left atrial enlargement, increased myocardial mass, and elevated type B natriuretic peptide (BNP), N-terminal pro BNP (NT-proBNP), and cTnI levels are also commonly found.</p>
              <p>Despite these findings increasing morbidity and mortality in liver transplant candidates, no specific treatment for these abnormalities has shown benefit.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.1.2. Alcoholic Cardiomyopathy</title>
              <p>Alcoholic cardiomyopathy affects 21% to 32% of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy in some centers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B212">212</xref></sup> Considering that alcoholic cirrhosis is among the leading causes of liver disease, the concomitant occurrence of cirrhosis with dilated cardiomyopathy is relatively common.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.1.3. Portopulmonary Hypertension</title>
              <p>The hyperdynamic state of patients with portal hypertension can lead to vasoconstriction and pulmonary vascular remodeling, resulting in PH. This condition affects 5% to 10% of transplant candidates and is not related to the etiology or severity of portal hypertension, even in the absence of liver cirrhosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> Portopulmonary hypertension (POPH) is a subset of group 1 PH due to its pathological and hemodynamic similarities with other causes of precapillary PH. POPH can be classified, based on mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP), as mild (&gt; 25 and &lt; 35 mm Hg), moderate (&gt; 35 and &lt; 45 mm Hg), or severe (&gt; 45 mm Hg).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup> Clinical status and medical tests present unique features.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
              <p>As the symptoms of POPH are nonspecific and its diagnosis directly impacts liver transplant eligibility, screening with TTE is recommended for all candidates. A PASP &gt; 50 mm Hg has a high diagnostic accuracy for POPH in liver transplant candidates (97% sensitivity and 77% specificity for moderate-to-severe POPH).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup> In addition, echocardiography is useful to assess right ventricular function and rule out left ventricular dysfunction and/or VHD that could contribute to postcapillary PH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup> The International Liver Transplantation Society guidelines suggest right heart catheterization for definitive POPH if estimated PASP on TTE is &gt; 50 mm Hg. However, new evidence indicates increased diagnostic sensitivity with an estimated PASP cutoff &gt; 40 mm Hg. Depending on service availability, a PASP between 40 and 45 mm Hg on echocardiography may indicate the need for cardiac catheterization, especially if there are other signs of PH (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup></p>
              <fig id="f14">
                <label>Figure 3</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Evaluation of pulmonary artery pressure in liver transplant candidates. mPAP: mean pulmonary arterial pressure; PASP: pulmonary artery systolic pressure; PH: pulmonary hypertension; TTE: transthoracic echocardiogram. Adapted from Cartin-Ceba and Krowka.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
              <p>The diagnosis of POPH involves ruling out other causes of PH and the presence of the following hemodynamic criteria confirmed by right heart catheterization<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup>:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; mPAP &gt; 25 mm Hg.</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) &gt; 3 Wood units (or 240 dyn.s.cm-5).</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) &lt; 15 mm Hg. If PCWP &gt; 15 mm Hg, likely due to hypervolemia (common in patients with cirrhosis), a transpulmonary pressure gradient (mPAP&#8211;PCWP) &gt; 12 mm Hg suggests the presence of POPH.</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>Importantly, approximately 20% of patients with cirrhosis have a moderate increase in pulmonary pressure on echocardiography, but only a small fraction of these actually have POPH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Management of POPH depends on the presence of hemodynamic criteria assessed by right heart catheterization (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> In patients with a mPAP between 35 mm Hg and 50 mm Hg and increased PVR (&gt; 240), liver transplantation cannot be performed unless there is a reduction in mPAP and PVR after pharmacological treatment of PH. The medications used in the treatment of PH have vasodilatory, antiplatelet, and antiproliferative effects, which can reduce pulmonary artery pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> The main available medication classes are:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Phosphodiesterase inhibitors (eg, sildenafil).</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Endothelin receptor antagonists (eg, bosentan, ambrisentan, macitentan).</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Soluble guanylate cyclase stimulators (eg, riociguat).</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Prostanoids (eg, epoprostenol, iloprost, treprostinil).</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>However, an equivalence in morbidity and mortality between patients with HP treated with these medications and those without a diagnosis of PH has not yet been demonstrated. Further studies are needed in this area.</p>
              <p>Perioperative mortality in patients with severe POPH is close to 100%, making it a contraindication for isolated liver transplantation. In select centers, combined lung-liver transplantation should be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.1.4. Hepatopulmonary Syndrome</title>
              <p>Although sometimes mistaken for POPH, HPS presents different characteristics, such as hypoxia in the presence of liver disease that worsens in the upright position, with evidence of intrapulmonary vasodilation. Hypoxia occurs due to vasodilation in the pulmonary vascular bed, induced mainly by the accumulation of nitric oxide, leading to intrapulmonary arteriovenous shunting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref></sup></p>
              <p>HPS is diagnosed by the presence of the following triad<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup>:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Portal hypertension, chronic liver disease, or congenital portosystemic shunts.</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Hypoxemia (alveolar&#8211;arterial gradient &gt; 15 mm Hg or &gt; 20 mm Hg if age &gt; 64 years).</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>&#8226; Intrapulmonary vasodilation, leading to shunting (visualization of bubbles in the left heart after 3 cardiac cycles on contrast echocardiography with microbubbles).</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>HPS affects 5% to 32% of transplant candidates and is not related to the etiology or severity of liver disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221">221</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B222">222</xref></sup></p>
              <p>The typical clinical presentation includes signs of chronic liver disease associated with cyanosis, nail clubbing, dyspnea when standing upright (platypnea), and hypoxia when also standing upright (orthodeoxia). Hypoxemia is a prominent finding in this syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Screening is conducted with pulse oximetry. An oxygen saturation &lt; 96% has a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 88% for detecting PaO<sub>2</sub> &lt; 60 mm Hg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> Therefore, arterial blood gas analysis is recommended in these patients. If arterial blood gas analysis shows an elevated alveolar&#8211;arterial gradient (&#8805; 15 mm Hg or &gt; 20 mm Hg if age &gt; 64 years) and a PaO<sub>2</sub> &lt; 80 mm Hg, a transthoracic echocardiogram with microbubbles should be performed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> If there is an intracardiac shunt (eg, atrial septal defect, patent foramen ovale), the bubbles pass to the left heart 1 or 2 cardiac cycles after the visualization of bubbles in the right atrium. If these bubbles appear in the left atrium after 3 cardiac cycles, the presence of a pulmonary shunt is confirmed (the bubbles can pass through the dilated pulmonary vessels in HPS). It is important to note that echocardiography with microbubble contrast agents is sensitive but not specific for HPS, as many patients with cirrhosis have a positive test (intrapulmonary shunts) without meeting the criteria for HPS due to the absence of hypoxemia. A more specific test for HPS is Tc-99m macroaggregated albumin scintigraphy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
              <p>The management of HPS consists of oxygen support, although it does not show sustained benefits in improving dyspnea and quality of life for these patients. Several pharmacological therapies have been tested, but none have shown proven benefits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Unlike PH, the treatment of choice for HPS is liver transplantation, although nondefinitive data correlate the degree of hypoxia with perioperative mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B223">223</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.1.5. Coronary Artery Disease</title>
              <p>Risk factors for CAD are as prevalent or even more prevalent in patients with cirrhosis than in the general population. In patients with advanced liver disease, the prevalence of diabetes and CAD is equal to or greater than in the general population. Particularly in patients with diabetes, the prevalence of CAD ranges from 2.5% to 27%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B225">225</xref></sup> Conversely, the extent of the disease (degree of stenosis) does not appear to correlate with a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> A comparison between liver and kidney transplant candidates revealed that the latter have a higher frequency of diabetes, hypertension, and CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B227">227</xref></sup></p>
              <sec>
                <title>3.5.1.5.1. When to Investigate CAD?</title>
                <p>Indications for noninvasive tests to assess CV risk in liver transplant candidates vary among medical societies: some recommend it for all liver transplant candidates, while others suggest CV risk stratification before requesting a test.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref></sup> An interesting strategy for asymptomatic patients with CAD awaiting liver transplantation is to evaluate the presence of CV risk factors (male sex, hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, past or current smoking, and a family history of early CAD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup> If the patient does not have any risk factor or has 1 risk factor, the negative predictive value for obstructive CAD is high, so there is no need to request a noninvasive test. However, if the patient has 2 or more risk factors, noninvasive testing is indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B225">225</xref></sup></p>
                <p>For symptomatic patients, usual CAD evaluation should be performed as recommended in specific guidelines, stratifying the patient according to symptoms (eg, angina and dyspnea) and risk factors (eg, sex, age).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> After stratification, the pretest probability of CAD is determined. If the probability is low/intermediate (&lt; 15%), noninvasive tests (anatomic or functional) may be performed, or the investigation may be interrupted if the probability of CAD is very low. If the probability is high (&gt; 15%), preference should be given to cardiac catheterization. In general, the preference for invasive approaches is given to patients with significant angina refractory to medical treatment, left ventricular dysfunction, or high-risk findings in noninvasive tests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref></sup></p>
              </sec>
              <sec>
                <title>3.5.1.5.2. Which Test to Request for CAD Investigation?</title>
                <p>Once the patient&#8217;s risk has been determined, the best complementary method for CAD investigation can be chosen. Due to the characteristics of liver transplant candidates, this investigation lacks formal standardization. Many patients have mobility limitations, ascites, and neuropathy due to the chronic nature of the disease, preventing, for example, the performance of exercise ECG. Furthermore, approximately 50% of patients with cirrhosis have prolonged QT intervals, which can hinder test evaluation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup> Additionally, terminal liver disease is characterized by vasodilation and tachycardia, impairing the response induced by vasodilators (dipyridamole and adenosine) in myocardial scintigraphy. Beta-adrenergic receptors respond poorly to sympathetic stimuli, leading to inconclusive responses on DSE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup> Comparisons between the use of dobutamine vs. vasodilators as pharmacological stress agents in liver transplant candidates favor dobutamine, particularly DSE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup> The choice of which test to use should also respect the regional characteristics of each center.</p>
                <p>CCTA has also been investigated in this setting and, when normal or showing nonobstructive coronary lesions, achieved a negative predictive value of 95% for MACE and 100% for clinical coronary events. A calcium score &gt; 400 has high predictive power for early CV events in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> Care should be taken with CCTA and cardiac catheterization due to the use of contrast agents. Terminal liver disease is usually accompanied by renal dysfunction, which should be considered before indicating any of these tests.</p>
              </sec>
              <sec>
                <title>3.5.1.5.3. When and How to Intervene in CAD?</title>
                <p>The decision to treat CAD should be made when the lack of intervention could lead to excessive risk during and after noncardiac surgery. However, the best treatment option has not been established and should be individualized for each patient.</p>
                <p>The indication for percutaneous procedures with stent placement (current consensus is that these should be drug-eluting stents) should consider the time-sensitive nature of liver transplant surgery, opting for the choice that has the least impact on waiting list time.</p>
                <p>Surgical revascularization should, when possible, be postponed until after the transplant due to the high risk of hemorrhagic events or worsening liver condition associated with the surgery. Coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) before transplantation should be reserved only for patients in whom the risk of death from CAD exceeds the risk of death from liver disease. CABG can be performed after liver transplantation with reasonable safety and low complication rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B229">229</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup></p>
                <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t85">Chart 16</xref> presents recommendations for patients awaiting liver transplantation.</p>
                <table-wrap id="t85">
                  <label>Chart 16</label>
                  <caption>
                    <title>Recommendations for patients awaiting liver transplant</title>
                  </caption>
                  <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                    <colgroup width="33%">
                      <col/>
                      <col/>
                      <col/>
                    </colgroup>
                    <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                      <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                        <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                        <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                        <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                      </tr>
                    </thead>
                    <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                      <tr>
                        <td align="left" valign="top">An electrocardiogram and chest radiograph must be requested for all patients.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                        <td align="left" valign="top">An echocardiogram must be requested for all patients.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr>
                        <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with an echocardiogram showing a pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) &gt; 50 mm Hg, right heart catheterization with measurement of pulmonary artery pressure must be requested.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                        <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with an echocardiogram showing a PASP &gt; 40 mm Hg, especially if other signs of pulmonary hypertension (PH) are present, right heart catheterization with measurement of pulmonary artery pressure should be considered.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr>
                        <td align="left" valign="top">In asymptomatic patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) without segmental dysfunction on echocardiography and with 2 or more risk factors for CAD<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN29">*</xref>, DSE should be preferably requested.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                        <td align="left" valign="top">In symptomatic patients with CAD, the pretest probability of CAD should be calculated, and additional tests should be requested according to specific guidelines.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr>
                        <td align="left" valign="top">Coronary cineangiography should be performed in patients with a high pretest probability of CAD, significant angina refractory to clinical treatment, new left ventricular dysfunction, or high-risk findings on noninvasive tests, despite hemorrhagic complications being more common and alterations such as elevated creatinine potentially contributing to increased morbidity in patients with cirrhosis.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                        <td align="left" valign="top">In patients scheduled for percutaneous coronary intervention with stent placement (when necessary prior to transplantation due to CAD severity), the possibility of the patient dying from liver disease while awaiting the antiplatelet period and the real benefit of the intervention in minimizing perioperative risks should be considered.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr>
                        <td align="left" valign="top">Coronary artery bypass graft before transplantation should be reserved only for patients in whom the risk of death from CAD exceeds the risk of death from liver disease, and this decision should be discussed with a multidisciplinary team.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                        <td align="left" valign="top">Pulmonary vasodilators may be used to try to reduce PH in patients with a mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) between 35 and 45 mm Hg and increased systemic vascular resistance (&gt; 240 dynes).</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr>
                        <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with a mPAP &#8805; 35 mm Hg on right heart catheterization should be referred to a PH specialist.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup></td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                      </tr>
                      <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                        <td align="left" valign="top">Liver transplantation in patients with severe PH in centers that do not offer aggressive therapies to reduce PAP or the possibility of combined lung-kidney transplantation.</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                        <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                      </tr>
                    </tbody>
                  </table>
                  <table-wrap-foot>
                    <fn id="TFN29">
                      <label>*</label>
                      <p>Male sex, hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, past or current smoking, and family history of early CAD.</p>
                    </fn>
                  </table-wrap-foot>
                </table-wrap>
              </sec>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.2. Kidney</title>
            <p>Patients with stage 5 chronic kidney disease (CKD) (glomerular filtration rate &lt; 15 mL/min/1.73 m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>) undergoing dialysis or not constitute one of the highest CV risk groups, with CV mortality rates 5 to 100 times higher than those in the general population for the same age group. Although kidney transplant recipients have a lower rate of CV complications compared with patients maintained on dialysis, it is still higher than in the general population. In fact, CVD is the leading cause of post-transplant death, especially due to CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B231">231</xref></sup> The post-transplant period presents a high risk of MI, particularly during the first year.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B232">232</xref></sup> In a cohort of 600 patients, Gill et al. reported a significant increase in the incidence of CV events in the first year after transplantation (39.6/100 patient-years, 95%CI 20.6-76.1) compared with the pre-transplant period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref></sup> In the first 30 days after kidney transplantation, approximately half of deaths result from MI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B234">234</xref></sup> Similarly, in the long-term follow-up, chronic ischemic heart disease accounts for over a third of deaths in patients with functioning grafts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B234">234</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Thus, the preoperative evaluation of kidney transplant candidates aims not only to reduce the short-term CV risk related to the procedure but also to reduce late CV events. During the evaluation of kidney transplant candidates, identifying the presence and extent of CAD is of fundamental importance as it allows the medical team to more accurately establish the risk/benefit of transplantation, the potential need for preoperative coronary intervention, the use of perioperative cardioprotective measures, and the control of risk factors postoperatively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B236">236</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The purpose of this section is to provide cardiologists with the most appropriate means of establishing CV risk in a very special population, almost always excluded from surgical risk stratification studies. The main goal is to identify, among kidney transplant candidates, those most likely of being diagnosed with CAD. Thus, the recommendations included in this section should only be applied to asymptomatic patients or those with atypical symptoms; for those individuals with clinical evidence and/or diagnostic findings suggestive of CAD, complementary investigation and treatment should follow the recommendations proposed for the general population contained in specific sections of this Guideline.</p>
            <p>Identifying CAD is a significant challenge in kidney transplant candidates. Significant obstructive CAD, defined as stenosis &#8805; 70% in major epicardial vessels (or &#8805; 50% in the left main coronary artery), is described in kidney transplant candidates, being observed in up to 50% of individuals depending on the inclusion criteria for angiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B237">237</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B238">238</xref></sup> However, in the presence of advanced CAD, these patients are commonly asymptomatic or present with atypical symptoms. Noninvasive methods for detecting MI, such as exercise ECG, MPI, or pharmacological stress echocardiography&#8212;all routinely used in the general population&#8212;, show lower sensitivity and specificity in patients with CKD than in individuals with normal renal function, leading to a great number of false-negative results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B239">239</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B241">241</xref></sup> More recently, the ISCHEMIA-CKD study showed in a population of patients with stage 4 and 5 CKD that myocardial revascularization based on severity of ischemia was not superior to optimized clinical treatment in the occurrence of composite CV outcomes. It is worth noting that the study did not specifically target patients on dialysis, as only 53.4% of included patients were on renal replacement therapy. Nonetheless, there was no significant interaction between the treatment effect (intervention vs. conservative treatment) for the primary outcome in the dialysis vs. nondialysis subgroups.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B242">242</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The indiscriminate use of coronary cineangiography is not justified as it is an invasive method, not free of complications, costly, and results in more than 50% of normal results or without significant obstructive lesions. Conversely, observational studies suggest that patients with significant CAD have a high risk of events and CV death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B243">243</xref></sup> Advances in CV imaging may lead to the replacement of invasive evaluation with noninvasive tests to document not only the presence and extent of coronary atherosclerosis but also its functional significance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B244">244</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B245">245</xref></sup></p>
            <p>To date, evidence does not support the indication of intervention based on the finding of obstructive CAD during pre-kidney transplant evaluation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B246">246</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B248">248</xref></sup> In a retrospective study involving 406 patients undergoing invasive coronary angiography before kidney transplantation, the occurrence of CV events (CV death, acute coronary syndrome, or the need for post-transplant revascularization) was similar between patients with obstructive CAD and revascularization (23%) and those with CAD and no revascularization (26%) during a follow-up period of 5 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B249">249</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Thus, the investigation of the presence and extent of obstructive CAD in kidney transplant candidates should be just one step in the overall risk assessment of this population, to identify individuals most likely to benefit from revascularization and who should therefore be referred for angiography. Such a strategy should reduce the number of unnecessary invasive tests, optimizing available economic resources,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B250">250</xref></sup> and lead to a more favorable relationship between the inherent risk of intervention (greater in these patients than in the general population) and long-term prognostic benefit.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>3.5.2.1. CAD Risk Stratification</title>
              <p>There is no consensus regarding the best strategy for investigating and treating CAD in kidney transplant candidates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B251">251</xref></sup> This topic is controversial, with some suggesting the complete elimination of screening for occult CAD in asymptomatic individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B252">252</xref></sup> This is primarily due to the lack of prospective studies in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref></sup> However, it is known that the clinical parameters most strongly associated with ischemic heart disease after kidney transplantation are age &gt; 50 years, diabetes, and previous evidence of CVD (clinical history and/or test findings). The prevalence of significant CAD (stenosis &#8805; 70%) increases with the number of risk factors present. These three risk factors have served as the basis for formulating algorithms for investigating CAD in patients with CKD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B254">254</xref></sup> Other factors considered predictors of CV events in kidney transplant candidates include systemic hypertension, ventricular dysfunction, left ventricular hypertrophy, smoking, dyslipidemia, and time on dialysis &gt; 1 year. In general, traditional risk factors have less impact on renal patients, and risk scores such as the Framingham score underestimate the actual risk of events in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B255">255</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Based on the results of mostly observational studies, we proposed a model for CV risk stratification in asymptomatic patients with CKD being screened for kidney transplantation, according to the presence or absence of the three cited risk factors (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figure 4</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B256">256</xref></sup> If there is any delay between the initial stratification and the transplant, we suggest a period of 3 years for restratification, provided the patient remains stable and without new symptoms or CV events.</p>
              <fig id="f15">
                <label>Figure 4</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Flowchart of perioperative assessment of kidney transplant candidates. CVD: cardiovascular disease; MPI: myocardial perfusion imaging; PO: postoperative.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
              <p>High-sensitivity cTn (hs-cTn) levels can be used as an additional predictor of perioperative CV events in kidney transplantation. We recommend measuring hs-cTn levels in all patients before the procedure and serially at 24 and 48 hours after the transplant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B257">257</xref></sup> An absolute increase in hs-cTn concentration on postoperative days 1 or 2 compared with preoperative values is indicative of perioperative infarction/injury. In the absence of baseline values, a significant increase in hs-cTn concentration on postoperative day 1 (eg, &gt; 5 times the upper reference limit [URL]) or a significant change in these concentrations between days 1 and 2 (absolute rise or fall above the URL vs day 1) also indicates the occurrence of perioperativeinfarction/injury.</p>
              <p>Finally, we recommend that decision-making regarding diagnostic investigation in asymptomatic kidney transplant candidates and in the face of potential obstructive CAD findings be made by a multidisciplinary team (Heart-Kidney Team).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B258">258</xref></sup></p>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t86">Chart 17</xref> presents recommendations for the perioperative risk assessment of kidney transplant candidates.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t86">
                <label>Chart 17</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recommendations for the perioperative risk assessment of kidney transplant candidates</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">All kidney transplant candidates should be evaluated for the presence and severity of cardiovascular disease based on clinical history, physical examination, and routine tests.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Patients without major risk factors<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN30">*</xref> are considered at low cardiovascular risk and can be cleared for kidney transplantation without the need for additional investigation.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Measurement of high-sensitivity troponin is recommended before and 24 and 48 hours after kidney transplantation to detect perioperative infarction/injury.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Diagnostic decision-making and the definition of a therapeutic strategy should be discussed by a Heart-Kidney Team, including a clinical cardiologist, interventional cardiologist, cardiovascular surgeon, nephrologist, and/or kidney transplant specialist.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with only 1 major risk factor<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN30">*</xref> are considered at intermediate cardiovascular risk and should undergo functional imaging for myocardial ischaemia If there is evidence of stress-induced myocardial ischemia, proceed with invasive investigation via coronary angiography; if there is no evidence of stress-induced ischemia or other findings suggestive of coronary artery disease (CAD) (eg, reduced LVEF), the patient can be cleared for kidney transplantation.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with at least 2 major risk factors<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN30">*</xref> are considered at high cardiovascular risk and should be directly referred for coronary angiography before kidney transplantation.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Stable patients with obstructive CAD should be clinically reassessed for disease progression every 12 months; patients without significant obstructive CAD should be reassessed every 36 months to detect de novo CAD.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Asymptomatic patients with obstructive CAD should not be routinely referred for myocardial revascularization only because they might undergo kidney transplantation ("prophylactic intervention"), unless there is an unequivocal prognostic impact of the intervention.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN30">
                    <label>*</label>
                    <p>Age &gt; 50 years, diabetes, and previous evidence of cardiovascular disease.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Measures for Reducing CV Surgical Risk</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1. Perioperative Pharmacological Therapy</title>
          <sec>
            <title>4.1.1. Beta-Blockers</title>
            <p>Although early studies suggested the benefits of beta-blockers in reducing perioperative CV events, this topic remains somewhat controversial, and the best approach seems to be individualized treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B259">259</xref></sup> Indeed, the benefit of beta-blockers was shown to be directly associated with individual CV risk, with benefits observed in high-risk patients, whereas no such benefit was seen in low-risk ones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B260">260</xref></sup> In this context, the POISE study (Effects of Extended-Release Metoprolol Succinate in Patients Undergoing Non-Cardiac Surgery) evaluated the use of beta-blockers in high-risk patients or those with established atherosclerotic disease and demonstrated a reduction in AMI, but with an increase in the incidence of stroke and overall mortality, which was likely associated with increased rates of bradycardia and hypotension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B261">261</xref></sup> The major criticism of the study was that metoprolol was introduced 2 to 4 hours before the surgical procedure, potentially reaching a dose of 400 mg per day, which is rarely used in clinical practice and very close to the maximum recommended dose. This means there was insufficient time for more appropriate titration of the medication. However, when started at least a week in advance, beta-blockers demonstrated a reduction in long-term mortality in patients undergoing vascular surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B262">262</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Therefore, in general, we suggest that beta-blockers should be maintained in chronic users. Additionally, in patients who are not already on beta-blockers, they should not be introduced in the week (7 days) preceding the procedure.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t87">Chart 18</xref> shows recommendations for the perioperative management of beta-blockers.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t87">
              <label>Chart 18</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for the perioperative management of beta-blockers</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendations</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Chronic therapy (&gt; 7 days) with beta-blockers should be maintained perioperatively.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">The introduction of beta-blockers within 7 days before surgery is not recommended in patients not already on beta-blockers.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.1.2. Statins</title>
            <p>Statins, in addition to reducing cholesterol levels, have pleiotropic effects, which reduce inflammation and stabilize atherosclerotic plaques. The use of statins for the prevention of CV events following vascular surgery is well-established, based on prospective, randomized, and placebo-controlled studies. In 2004, a randomized study involving 100 patients demonstrated that the use of 20 mg of atorvastatin was associated with a significant reduction in major CV events (death, AMI, stroke, unstable angina) in the perioperative period and at 6 months of follow-up, regardless of baseline cholesterol levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B263">263</xref></sup> In 2009, the use of fluvastatin slow-release (xl 80 mg) in 250 patients undergoing vascular surgery was shown to reduce the occurrence of postoperative MI and the combined outcome of AMI and cardiac arrest at 30 days compared with placebo (247 patients).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B264">264</xref></sup> These data were confirmed in a meta-analysis involving 23,536 patients, in which the perioperative use of statins in vascular surgery reduced overall mortality and the rates of AMI and stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B265">265</xref></sup> Atorvastatin 20 mg in patients undergoing vascular surgery should preferably be introduced 2 weeks before the procedure and maintained for 30 days. After this period, the dose should be adjusted according to each patient&#8217;s LDL target.</p>
            <p>Conversely, evidence on the use of statins for preventing CV complications in nonvascular surgery is more heterogeneous. Lindenauer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B266">266</xref></sup> evaluated 780,591 patients undergoing noncardiac surgery (92% nonvascular) in a retrospective cohort study, of whom 77,082 (9.9%) received statins. Patients who received statins had lower in-hospital mortality. Another retrospective case-control study, including 989 patients who died within 30 days postoperatively and 1,879 controls, demonstrated that statin use was also associated with reduced mortality (OR 0.4, 95%CI 0.24-0.68).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B267">267</xref></sup> In a retrospective cohort study including 752 patients undergoing nonvascular surgery, a reduction in the composite outcome of nonfatal MI, AF, and 30-day mortality was seen in patients using statins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B268">268</xref></sup> In an analysis of patients included in the VISION study, Berwanger et al. evaluated 2,842 patients who received statins and 4,492 controls and compared the occurrence of all-cause mortality, postoperative cardiac troponin elevation myocardial injury after noncardiac surgery (MINS) (ie, without evidence of a nonischemic etiology), or stroke at 30 days after surgery using propensity score matching. Statin use was associated with lower risk of the composite outcome (relative risk [RR] 0.83; IC95% 0.73-0.95; p = 0.007). Statins were also associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality (RR 0.58, 95%CI 0.40-0.83, p = 0.003), CV mortality (RR 0.42, 95%CI 0.23-0.76, p = 0.004), and MINS (RR 0.86; 95%CI 0.73-0.98; p = 0.02). There was no reduction in non-CV mortality, MI, or stroke. It is noteworthy that, despite the propensity score matching analysis, patients in the statin group more frequently had CAD, diabetes, peripheral vascular disease, and were more likely to use ASA and ACE inhibitors/ARBs compared with patients not treated with statins. Therefore, despite having more risk factors, patients in the statin group had fewer CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref></sup> In a recent retrospective study involving 180,000 patients, statin use on the day of surgery or postoperative day 1 was associated with lower 30-day mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B270">270</xref></sup> However, the randomized LOAD study, in which 648 patients were randomized to a loading dose of atorvastatin 80 mg before surgery (or placebo) followed by a dose of 40 mg (or placebo) for 7 days, showed no difference in the combined outcome of all-cause mortality, nonfatal MI, and stroke at 30 days (hazard ratio 0.87, 95%CI 0.60-1.26, p = 0.46).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B271">271</xref></sup> It should be noted that the study lacked statistical power to draw definitive conclusions. Conversely, in a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, Putzu et al. demonstrated that perioperative statin use was associated with a lower occurrence of perioperative MI, without reducing mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B272">272</xref></sup> Thus, due to conflicting results, routine statin prescription to reduce complications in patients undergoing nonvascular surgery is not recommended. However, patients with an indication for statin use due to comorbidities (CAD, diabetes, peripheral vascular disease) regardless of the perioperative context may benefit from statin initiation in the perioperative period of nonvascular surgery.</p>
            <p>Statins are often discontinued postoperatively. The main reasons for discontinuing statins are postoperative ileus and the impossibility of administering oral medications, hemodynamic instability, concerns about side effects, and lack of awareness of the importance of maintaining statin use. The perioperative discontinuation of statins in chronic users is an independent predictor of CV events after vascular surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B273">273</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B274">274</xref></sup> Perioperative statin use is safe. Although patients on statins have higher baseline creatine phosphokinase levels, elevations exceeding 5 times the reference value or rhabdomyolysis are rare.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B273">273</xref></sup> Therefore, in patients already using statins, the medication should be maintained throughout the perioperative period.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t88">Chart 19</xref> presents the recommendations for the perioperative use of statins.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t88">
              <label>Chart 19</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for the perioperative use of statins</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Patients scheduled for vascular surgery.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Maintenance of statins in patients already using statins.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Patients undergoing nonvascular surgery with clinical indications for statin use due to associated diseases (coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral arterial disease, diabetes), regardless of the perioperative setting.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.1.3. Antiplatelet Medications</title>
            <p>Surgical procedures performed while the patient is on antiplatelet therapy are associated with an increased risk of bleeding<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B275">275</xref></sup>; however, discontinuing antiplatelets can lead to a rebound effect<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B276">276</xref></sup> and an increase in the occurrence of atherothrombotic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B277">277</xref></sup></p>
            <sec>
              <title>4.1.3.1. Monotherapy with ASA</title>
              <p>Regarding the use of ASA, several studies, such as the POISE-2,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B275">275</xref></sup> which evaluated 10,010 patients (70% in primary prevention), support the discontinuation of ASA for primary prevention 7 days before surgery and its nonreintroduction postoperatively.</p>
              <p>Conversely, patients on ASA for secondary prevention should continue its use throughout the perioperative period to avoid rebound effects and increased risk of atherothrombotic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B278">278</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B279">279</xref></sup> The only exceptions include neurosurgery, in which any minimal bleeding can be catastrophic, and transurethral resection of the prostate,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> which lacks direct hemostasis is are associated with a higher bleeding risk. In these cases, ASA should be discontinued 7 days before surgery. However, for patients undergoing transurethral resection of the prostate with the use of greenlight lasers, ASA may be maintained.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B280">280</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B281">281</xref></sup> Additionally, there is no recommendation for the routine discontinuation of ASA for transrectal biopsy, a common urology procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B280">280</xref></sup></p>
              <p>There is no recommendation to introduce ASA before noncardiac surgery. If patients with established vascular disease were not previously on antiplatelet therapy, this Guideline recommends, by expert consensus, that this therapy should be planned at hospital discharge, because no studies currently support starting ASA before surgery.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.1.3.2. Monotherapy with Antiplatelet Medications Other than ASA</title>
              <p>Although ASA remains the most prescribed antiplatelet medication for monotherapy, many patients use a substitute due to allergy, gastrointestinal intolerance, a history of stroke, or according to new coronary syndrome guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B282">282</xref></sup> For patients on clopidogrel monotherapy, the risk of bleeding during surgery is increased.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup> However, there are no studies demonstrating the safety of its discontinuation in relation to CV events. Therefore, the evidence on ASA maintenance or discontinuation cannot be extrapolated to clopidogrel.</p>
              <p>The experts involved in the writing of this Guideline recommend maintaining clopidogrel during the perioperative period of noncardiac surgery with a low risk of bleeding, such as dermatological interventions. However, for procedures with a moderate-to-high-risk of bleeding, clopidogrel should be discontinued 5 days before the procedure.</p>
              <p>For patients on antiplatelet monotherapy with ticagrelor, it should be stopped 5 days before the surgery. In the case of prasugrel, it should be discontinued 7 days before surgery. For patients on ticagrelor and prasugrel undergoing noncardiac surgery with a low risk of bleeding, such as dermatological interventions, there is insufficient scientific evidence. It is recommended that each case be individually assessed by a multidisciplinary team.</p>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t89">Chart 20</xref> presents recommendations for the perioperative management of antiplatelet monotherapy.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t89">
                <label>Chart 20</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recommendations for the perioperative management of antiplatelet monotherapy</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) for primary prevention should be discontinued 7 days before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">ASA for secondary prevention should be maintained at 100 mg daily throughout the perioperative period, except in patients undergoing neurosurgery or procedures with prohibitive bleeding risk.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Clopidogrel monotherapy may be maintained in patients undergoing procedures with a low risk of bleeding but should be discontinued 5 days before procedures with a moderate- or high-risk of bleeding.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Ticagrelor monotherapy should be discontinued 5 days before surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Prasugrel monotherapy should be discontinued 7 days before surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.1.3.3. Dual Antiplatelet Therapy</title>
              <p>For updated recommendations on the management of DAPT, refer to the specific guideline "Focus on Managing Patients with Percutaneous Coronary Intervention &#8211; 2022." A summary of the recommendations is presented below.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t90">Chart 21</xref> presents recommendations for the perioperative management of DAPT.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t90">
                <label>Chart 21</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recommendations for the perioperative management of dual antiplatelet therapy</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Acetylsalicylic acid should be maintained at 100 mg daily throughout the perioperative period, except in patients undergoing neurosurgery or procedures with prohibitive bleeding risk.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Clopidogrel and ticagrelor should be discontinued 5 days before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Prasugrel should be discontinued 7 days before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">For early interruption of dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) before the minimum duration time, noncardiac surgery should be performed in centers with multidisciplinary care and hemodynamic monitoring.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Operations with a low risk of bleeding may be performed during DAPT if the interval since angioplasty is less than 3 months.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">A platelet aggregation test should be used to reduce the discontinuation time of P2Y12 inhibitors before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In cases with very high thrombotic risk (less than 1 month since percutaneous coronary intervention and DAPT interruption), bridging therapy with tirofiban should be used.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Bridging therapy with low-molecular-weight heparin.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Routine platelet aggregation testing should be performed to assess the discontinuation of ASA or P2Y12 inhibitors before noncardiac surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Myocardial Revascularization</title>
          <p>Recent evidence has failed to demonstrate the beneficial role of prophylactic myocardial revascularization in patients with stable CAD in the preoperative period of noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B283">283</xref></sup> This is due to advancements in pharmacological therapy and, consequently, perioperative medication management, which make the potential benefit of prophylactic myocardial revascularization increasingly restricted. Therefore, the indications for myocardial revascularization before noncardiac surgery are the same as outside the perioperative period, aiming to improve the long-term prognosis and not just to reduce perioperative ischemic events.</p>
          <p>For cases with unequivocal indications for myocardial revascularization in patients scheduled for noncardiac surgery, factors such as clinical stability, prognosis of the underlying condition that prompted the surgical indication, and potential risk of bleeding from the procedure should be considered in decision-making. Regarding the interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery, no study has specifically investigated this topic. Therefore, the optimal interval refers to the necessary recovery time after cardiac surgery (approximately 30 days), with no minimum established period, requiring individual assessment considering the patient&#8217;s general clinical status and the urgency of the noncardiac surgery.</p>
          <p>Conversely, the interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery is crucial in cases of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).</p>
          <p>The latest evidence on the safe interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery is available in the specific guideline "Focus on Managing Patients with Percutaneous Coronary Intervention &#8211; 2022." Below is a summary of the recommendations. The classes of recommendation in this Guideline reflect available evidence, common sense, and clinical experience, particularly regarding the urgency of noncardiac surgery. For this reason, shorter intervals were attributed a weaker class of recommendation but are justifiable in individual cases of urgent noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t91">Chart 22</xref> presents recommendations for the interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery in patients undergoing elective percutaneous coronary interventions.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t91">
            <label>Chart 22</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for the interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery in patients undergoing elective percutaneous coronary interventions</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8805; 6 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Between 3 and 6 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Between 30 days and 3 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&lt; 30 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t92">Chart 23</xref> presents recommendations for the interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions due to acute coronary syndromes.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t92">
            <label>Chart 23</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for the interval between myocardial revascularization and noncardiac surgery in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions due to acute coronary syndromes</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#8805; 12 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Between 6 and 12 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Between 30 days and 6 months</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&lt; 30 days</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3. Perioperative Anticoagulation Management</title>
          <p>Anticoagulation is increasingly common in clinical practice for patients with AF, VTE prevention or treatment, and in patients with mechanical heart valves. It is estimated that a quarter of these patients will require temporary interruption of anticoagulation for a scheduled surgical intervention within 2 years after starting therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B284">284</xref></sup> The main challenge of perioperative anticoagulation management is that interruption of anticoagulation therapy temporarily increases thromboembolic risk, while its maintenance during invasive procedures can increase the risk of bleeding events, both of which increase the risk of mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B285">285</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B288">288</xref></sup> When assessing perioperative thromboembolic risk, it is essential to recognize different risk situations. One involves patients receiving anticoagulation therapy for VTE prevention, while the other includes patients on anticoagulation therapy due to mechanical heart valves and/or AF to prevent arterial thromboembolism. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t62">Table 11</xref> provides a proposed risk stratification for these patients, considering high-risk individuals as those with an annual thromboembolism risk of &gt; 10%, moderate risk 5%-10%, and low risk &lt; 5%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B289">289</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup>Patients with mechanical heart valves are generally considered at high thromboembolic risk.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t62">
            <label>Table 11</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Risk stratification for thromboembolism</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Risk classification</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">AF</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">VTE</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">High<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN32">*</xref> </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">CHADS<sub>2</sub> score of 5 or 6 Recent stroke or TIA (&lt; 3 months) Rheumatic heart disease</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Recent VTE (&lt; 3 months) Severe thrombophilia<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN33">&#8224;</xref> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Moderate</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">CHADS<sub>2</sub> score of 3 or 4</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">VTE 3-12 months ago <break/>Mild thrombophilia<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN34">&#8225;</xref> <break/>New VTE <break/>Active cancer</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Low</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">CHADS<sub>2</sub> score of 0 to 2 (no previous stroke or previous TIA)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">VTE &gt; 12 months without other risk factors</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN31">
                <p>CHADS<sub>2</sub> score: heart failure = 1 point; hypertension = 1 point; age &gt; 75 years = 1 point; diabetes = 1 point; stroke/TIA = 2 points.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN32">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>High-risk patients may also include those with stroke or TIA &gt; 3 months before planned surgery with a CHADS<sub>2</sub> score &lt; 5, those who developed thromboembolism during temporary anticoagulation interruption, or those undergoing operations with a high risk of stroke or other type of thromboembolism (eg, heart valve replacement, carotid endarterectomy, major vascular surgery).</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN33">
                <label>&#8224;</label>
                <p>Severe thrombophilia: deficiency of protein C, S, antithrombin or presence of antiphospholipid antibodies.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN34">
                <label>&#8225;</label>
                <p>Mild thrombophilia: heterozygous mutation of factor V Leiden or the prothrombin gene. AF: atrial fibrillation; TIA: transient ischemic attack; VTE: venous thromboembolism.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>In addition to evaluating thromboembolic risk, the bleeding risk associated with certain surgical procedures while patients are on antithrombotic medications should also be considered. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t63">Table 12</xref> describes the risk of bleeding associated with different surgical procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B286">286</xref></sup> In general, procedures are divided into those with a high risk of major bleeding within 2 to 4 days (2%-4%) and those with a low risk (0%-2%). Major bleeding is typically defined as intracranial bleeding or bleeding leading to death, requiring reoperation, causing a hemoglobin drop &#8805; 2 g/dL, or necessitating transfusion of &#8805; 2 units of red blood cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B292">292</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t63">
            <label>Table 12</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Risk of bleeding according to surgical procedure</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">High risk (risk of major bleeding within 2 days 2%-4%)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Abdominal aortic aneurysm repair <break/>Any major surgery (&gt; 45 minutes) <break/>Bilateral knee replacement surgery <break/>Endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration <break/>Renal biopsy <break/>Laminectomy <break/>Urology, head and neck, abdominal, neurosurgery, breast cancer surgery <break/>Polypectomy, esophageal varices, biliary sphincterotomy, pneumatic dilation <break/>Transurethral resection of the prostate</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Low risk (risk of major bleeding within 2 days 0%-2%)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ventral hernia repair <break/>Abdominal hysterectomy <break/>Axillary lymph node dissection <break/>Bronchoscopy with or without biopsy <break/>Carpal tunnel release surgery <break/>Ophthalmic surgery <break/>Central venous catheter removal <break/>Cholecystectomy <break/>Skin, bladder, prostate, breast, thyroid, lymph node biopsies <break/>Dilation and curettage <break/>Gastrointestinal endoscopy with or without biopsy, enteroscopy, biliary or pancreatic stent without sphincterotomy <break/>Hemorrhoid surgery <break/>Hydrocelectomy <break/>Knee or hip replacement, hand, shoulder, foot surgery, arthroscopy <break/>Noncoronary angiography <break/>Dental extractions and other minor dental procedures</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Furthermore, clinical conditions inherent to each patient can increase the risk of bleeding. Scores such as the HAS-BLED can quantify bleeding risk based on clinical characteristics of patients on anticoagulant therapy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref></sup> with a HAS-BLED score &#8805; 3 being associated with a higher risk.</p>
          <p>Some procedures have a minimal risk of bleeding and can be performed without interruption of anticoagulant therapy, such as pacemaker/implantable cardioverter-defibrillator insertion, coronary angiography, minor dental procedures (extraction of up to 2 teeth, restorations, prostheses, endodontics, cleaning, and implants), cataract surgery, minor dermatologic procedures, arthrocentesis, and intra-articular injection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B294">294</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1. Warfarin<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B289">289</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref></sup></title>
            <p>Warfarin is a vitamin K antagonist whose anticoagulant effect takes days to wear off (half-life of 36 to 42 hours) and a similar time to be re-established after surgery. The flowchart for perioperative management of patients on warfarin is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figure 5</xref>.</p>
            <fig id="f16">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Perioperative management of patients anticoagulated with warfarin. *See item 3.3. **Severe thrombophilia: deficiency of protein C, S, antithrombin or presence of antiphospholipid antibodies. **Mild thrombophilia: heterozygous mutation of factor V Leiden or the prothrombin gene. AF: atrial fibrillation; INR: international normalized ratio; TIA: transient ischemic attack; VTE: venous thromboembolism.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
            <p>High-risk thromboembolism patients may require bridging therapy with parenteral anticoagulants such as unfractionated heparin (UFH) or low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH). These anticoagulants have a faster onset of action and a shorter half-life, allowing for the anticoagulant to be interrupted as close as possible to the surgery, minimizing thromboembolic risk. As warfarin metabolism can be influenced by factors such as patient age, renal function, and drug interactions, it is suggested to measure the INR the day before surgery to ensure it is &lt; 1.5, and if not, reverse it with oral vitamin K (1-2 mg) and reassess the INR the next day.</p>
            <p>The decision whether to perform bridging therapy in patients on warfarin depends on a joint analysis of thromboembolic risk (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t62">Table 11</xref>), bleeding risk (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t63">Table 12</xref>), and the patient himself/herself (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref>). The goal of heparin bridging is to minimize the time the patient is not on anticoagulation, thus reducing thromboembolic risk. However, observational studies and meta-analyses have shown that heparin bridging may increase bleeding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B296">296</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B297">297</xref></sup> The BRIDGE study, which randomized 1,884 patients to receive bridging therapy with heparin or placebo, found that bridging did not significantly reduce thrombotic events but increased major bleeding. Notably, the mean CHADS<sub>2</sub> score of the study population was 2.3, indicating a low thrombotic risk. This could mean that outcomes might differ for patients with a higher thrombotic risk (CHADS<sub>2</sub> score &gt; 4).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B298">298</xref></sup> Therefore, heparin bridging should not be indiscriminately administered to all anticoagulated patients.</p>
            <sec sec-type="subjects">
              <title>4.3.1.1. Patients with Moderate Thromboembolic Risk</title>
              <p>There is a lack of evidence on the best approach for patients with moderate thromboembolic risk regarding bridging therapy. Thus, the decision should be based on individual patient and surgery characteristics, with bridging therapy indicated only in specific cases at the discretion of the attending physician.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec sec-type="methods">
              <title>4.3.1.2. Urgent or Emergency Procedures</title>
              <p>The therapeutic measures used to reverse oral anticoagulation with warfarin will depend on how quickly the prothrombin time (PT) measured by the INR needs to be corrected. In operations that can wait 18-24 hours, stopping warfarin and using intravenous vitamin K (2.5-5 mg) typically reduces the INR if it is within the therapeutic range.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B289">289</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup></p>
              <p>For rapid INR reduction, clotting factor deficiencies need to be treated with fresh frozen plasma (FFP) and prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC). Resolution No. 10 of January 23, 2004, of the Brazilian National Health Surveillance Agency (Ag&#234;ncia Nacional de Vigil&#226;ngia Sanit&#225;ria, ANVISA) states that PCC is the treatment of choice for bleeding caused by coumarin anticoagulants and for rapid reversal of coumarin-associated complications. However, as PCC is not widely available in Brazilian hospitals, FFP is an acceptable alternative.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B299">299</xref></sup> The recommended dose of FFP is 15 mL/kg, avoiding volume overload,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B300">300</xref></sup> while there is no standardized dose for PCC. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t64">Table 13</xref> outlines the doses used in some English services. However, regardless of the method used to replenish vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors, it is essential to administer vitamin K1 (2.5-5.0 mg orally or slowly intravenously) to maintain normal perioperative prothrombin levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B289">289</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup></p>
              <table-wrap id="t64">
                <label>Table 13</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Prothrombin complex concentrate doses for anticoagulation reversal according to INR values</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="50%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">INR</th>
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Dose based on factor IX</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">2.0&#8211;3.9</td>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">25 U/kg</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">4.0&#8211;5.9</td>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">35 U/kg</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">&#8805; 6.0</td>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">50 U/kg</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN35">
                    <p>INR: international normalized ratio.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t93">Chart 24</xref> presents recommendations for patients anticoagulated with warfarin undergoing urgent/emergency surgery.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t93">
                <label>Chart 24</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recommendations for patients anticoagulated with warfarin undergoing urgent/emergency surgery</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Discontinuation of anticoagulation therapy, administration of intravenous vitamin K, and treatment of clotting factor deficiencies with prothrombin complex concentrate or fresh frozen plasma, depending on availability.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t94">Chart 25</xref> presents recommendations for patients anticoagulated with warfarin.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t94">
                <label>Chart 25</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recommendations for patients anticoagulated with warfarin</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendations for patients with high thromboembolic risk and patients with a mechanical heart valve</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Warfarin should be discontinued 5 days before surgery until INR &lt; 1.5.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Bridging therapy with full-dose unfractionated heparin (UFH) or low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) when INR &lt; 2.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">UFH should be discontinued 4-6 hours before surgery and LMWH 24 hours before surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Postoperatively, full-dose UFH or LMWH and warfarin should be resumed at least 24 hours after surgery and heparin should be discontinued only when the INR is within the therapeutic range.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">In patients undergoing surgery with high risk of hemorrhagic events, LMWH should be resumed 48-72 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">
                        <bold>Recommendations for patients with low thromboembolic risk</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">
                        <bold>Grade of recommendation</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">
                        <bold>Level of evidence</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Bridging therapy should not be performed (warfarin should be discontinued 5 days before surgery, and wait for INR &lt; 1.5 before surgery).</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Preoperative prophylactic UFH or LMWH may be used when indicated.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">Postoperative prophylactic UFH or LMWH may be used when indicated and warfarin should be resumed 12-24 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2. Direct Oral Anticoagulants</title>
            <p>Since 2010, the development of anticoagulants that act directly on the coagulation cascade, known as DOACs, has provided a promising alternative to vitamin K antagonists, which were the only available anticoagulants until then.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B301">301</xref></sup> DOACs offer easier dosing regimens, pre-established doses, greater pharmacokinetic stability, and fewer drug and food interactions, without the need for serial PT/INR monitoring. These medications have been approved for use in the prevention of stroke in patients with nonvalvular AF, treatment of VTE (deep vein thrombosis/PE), prevention of recurrent VTE, and prevention of VTE in major orthopedic surgery.</p>
            <p>The term "nonvalvular FA" has spawned confusion regarding which patients benefit from the use of DOACs. All pivotal trials of DOACs excluded patients with mechanical mitral valves or moderate-to-severe mitral stenosis, generating doubts regarding their use in other types of VHD. Currently, with new trials available, DOACs are authorized for anticoagulation in patients with the following valvular conditions: aortic regurgitation, mitral regurgitation, aortic stenosis, and mild mitral stenosis. Patients with bioprosthetic heart valves may also use DOACs instead of warfarin. In patients undergoing TAVI, DOACs may be used alone when anticoagulation is indicated. If anticoagulation is not indicated, it is not recommended to replace antiplatelets with DOACs.</p>
            <p>In patients with moderate-to-severe mitral stenosis and those with a mechanical heart valve, current evidence contraindicates the use of DOACs. Regarding moderate-to-severe mitral stenosis, the INVICTUS study demonstrated that warfarin is superior to rivaroxaban in patients with rheumatic disease (reducing CV events and mortality), remaining the medication of choice in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref></sup> Regarding the use of DOACs in patients with mechanical aortic valves, the PROACT-Xa trial was prematurely terminated due to an increase in thromboembolic events with the use of apixaban.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.2.1. Dabigatran<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B303">303</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup></title>
              <p>Dabigatran is an anticoagulant medication that acts as a reversible, direct thrombin inhibitor, preventing the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin (factor IIa). It has a rapid onset of action, reaching peak activity between 30 and 120 minutes after administration, and a half-life of 12-17 hours. Excretion is predominantly renal (80%). Due to its rapid onset of action and shorter half-life, there is no need for bridging therapy with this medication. One concern associated with dabigatran use was the lack of specific antidotes until recently, when the available options were limited to PCC and hemodialysis, which had limited effect. The first antidote for reversal of direct thrombin inhibitors (dabigatran), idarucizumab, was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in October 2015. Idarucizumab is a monoclonal antibody fragment that binds both free and thrombin-bound dabigatran with higher affinity than the binding affinity of dabigatran for factor II, completely reversing the anticoagulant effect of dabigatran. The recommended dose is 5 g administered intravenously as two bolus infusions of 2.5 g/50 mL 15 minutes apart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B307">307</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.2.2. Rivaroxaban<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B286">286</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B303">303</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B304">304</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup></title>
              <p>Rivaroxaban is a factor Xa inhibitor that blocks the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. It also has a rapid onset of action, reaching peak activity between 2 and 4 hours after administration, and a short half-life (5-9 hours in young individuals and 11-13 hours in older patients). Rivaroxaban is eliminated by both hepatic metabolism and renal excretion (66%). Due to its rapid onset of action and short half-life, bridging therapy is also not necessary with this medication. Previously, only PCC was available for attempting to reverse the effects of rivaroxaban, as no specific antidotes were available. Currently, andexanet alfa is a specific antidote that binds factor Xa inhibitors in the active site, rapidly reversing the anticoagulant effect of apixaban and rivaroxaban within minutes after administration. Andexanet alfa can be administered as an 800 mg IV bolus followed by an 8 mg/min continuous infusion for 120 minutes (high dose) or as a 400 mg IV bolus followed by a 4 mg/min continuous infusion for 120 minutes (low dose).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B308">308</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.2.3. Apixaban<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B286">286</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B304">304</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup></title>
              <p>Apixaban is another factor Xa inhibitor that prevents the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. It has a rapid onset of action, reaching peak activity 3 hours after administration, and a short half-life (8-15 hours). Apixaban is eliminated by hepatic metabolism and renal (27%) and fecal excretion. Due to its rapid onset of action and short half-life, bridging therapy is also not necessary with this medication. Andexanet alfa is currently the specific antidote for factor Xa inhibitors, rapidly reversing the anticoagulant effect of apixaban and rivaroxaban within minutes after administration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B308">308</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.2.4. Edoxaban<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B309">309</xref></sup></title>
              <p>Edoxaban is another factor Xa inhibitor. It has a rapid onset of action, reaching peak activity between 1 and 2 hours after administration, and a short half-life (10-14 hours). Edoxaban is eliminated by renal (50%) and biliary/intestinal (50%) excretion. Due to its rapid onset of action and short half-life, bridging therapy is also not necessary with this medication. Despite being the most recently approved DOAC, andexanet alfa is also available as an antidote for this edoxaban.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B310">310</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.2.5. Evaluation of the Anticoagulant Effect of DOACs</title>
              <p>Although there is no universal test to accurately determine the anticoagulant effect of DOACs, conventional qualitative tests can be useful for this purpose and may be used in urgent situations. For dabigatran, thrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time are used, and if elevated, it indicates the medication is still active. For factor Xa inhibitors, prothrombin activity and PT are used, but the INR should not be used.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.2.6. Interruption of DOACs Before Elective Surgery</title>
              <p>Previous guidelines have relied on the pharmacokinetics of DOACs to estimate the optimal time to interrupt them before elective surgery, evaluating data on half-life, renal clearance, and patient renal function. However, in 2019, the PAUSE study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B311">311</xref></sup> was published, which included 3,007 patients with AF using dabigatran, rivaroxaban, or apixaban. The study followed a standardized protocol for DOAC interruption and resumption based on DOAC pharmacokinetic properties, patient renal function, and procedure-associated bleeding risk, without using routine coagulation tests or heparin bridging. This strategy was associated with low rates of bleeding and thromboembolism, and these results can be extrapolated to clinical practice (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figure 6</xref>). Several guidelines have incorporated the PAUSE study protocol into their recommendations for DOAC interruption before surgical procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B312">312</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B313">313</xref></sup> For patients undergoing surgical procedures with a low bleeding risk, DOAC can be suspended 1 day before surgery, and for those undergoing procedures with a high bleeding risk, DOAC should be discontinued 2 days before surgery. High-bleeding-risk procedures include any operation requiring neuraxial or epidural anesthesia, neurosurgery, major thoracic surgery (lobectomy, pneumonectomy, esophagectomy), major vascular surgery (aorta, lower limb revascularization, carotid endarterectomy), major abdominal and pelvic surgery (resection of hepatobiliary cancer, pancreatic cancer or pseudocyst, gastric and colorectal cancer; bower resection; resection of kidney, bladder, endometrial, or ovarian cancer; radical prostatectomy), major orthopedic surgery (hip arthroplasty or hip fracture, knee arthroplasty, metatarsal osteotomy), and other major cancer or reconstructive surgery (head and neck cancer).</p>
              <fig id="f17">
                <label>Figure 6</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>CrCl: creatinine clearance; DOAC: direct oral anticoagulant. The black squares indicate the days on which the patient should not receive DOAC doses. High bleeding risk: any operation requiring neuraxial or epidural anesthesia, neurosurgery, major thoracic surgery (lobectomy, pneumonectomy, esophagectomy), major vascular surgery (aorta, lower limb revascularization, carotid endarterectomy), major abdominal and pelvic surgery (resection of hepatobiliary cancer, pancreatic cancer or pseudocyst, gastric and colorectal cancer; bower resection; resection of kidney, bladder, endometrial, or ovarian cancer; radical prostatectomy), major orthopedic surgery (hip arthroplasty or hip fracture, knee arthroplasty, metatarsal osteotomy), and other major cancer or reconstructive surgery (head and neck cancer).</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf07-en.tif"/></fig>
              <p>Specifically for dabigatran, due to its high rate of renal excretion, if creatinine clearance is less than 50 mL/min, the medication should be interrupted 2 days before low-bleeding-risk operations and 4 days before high-bleeding-risk operations. In cases of regional anesthesia with an epidural catheter, wait at least 6 hours after catheter removal before the next DOAC dose.</p>
              <p>Regarding edoxaban, as it is the most recently developed DOAC, studies evaluating its management in the perioperative period are scarce. The most accepted approach is to interrupt edoxaban 24 hours before low-bleeding-risk operations and 48 to 72 hours before high-bleeding-risk operations.</p>
              <p>According to several guidelines,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B312">312</xref></sup> prophylactic doses of LMWH should be started 12 hours after surgery (if adequate hemostasis) in patients/procedures with a high risk of VTE. The prophylactic doses should be stopped concomitantly with the reintroduction of oral anticoagulation.t</p>
              <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t95">Chart 26</xref> presents recommendations for DOAC management.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t95">
                <label>Chart 26</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recommendations for direct oral anticoagulant management</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendations for patients on chronic therapy with dabigatran</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with normal renal function undergoing low-bleeding-risk surgery, dabigatran should be interrupted 24 hours before surgery and reintroduced 24 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with normal renal function undergoing high-bleeding-risk surgery, dabigatran should be interrupted 48 hours before surgery and reintroduced 48 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with renal dysfunction (creatinine clearance &lt; 50 mL/min) undergoing low-bleeding-risk surgery, dabigatran should be interrupted 48 hours before surgery and reintroduced 24 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with renal dysfunction (creatinine clearance &lt; 50 mL/min) undergoing high-bleeding-risk surgery, dabigatran should be suspended 96 hours before surgery and reintroduced 48 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">In cases of regional anesthesia with an epidural catheter, wait at least 6 hours after catheter removal before starting the first dose of dabigatran.</td>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">
                        <bold>Recommendations for patients on chronic therapy with rivaroxaban</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">
                        <bold>Grade of recommendation</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">
                        <bold>Level of evidence</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with normal renal function, rivaroxaban should be interrupted 24 hours before surgery and reintroduced 24 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In cases of severe renal dysfunction (creatinine clearance 15 to 30 mL/min) or high-bleeding-risk surgery, rivaroxaban should be interrupted at least 48 hours before the procedure and reintroduced 48 hours after the procedure.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">In cases of regional anesthesia with an epidural catheter, wait at least 6 hours after catheter removal before the next dose of rivaroxaban.</td>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">
                        <bold>Recommendations for patients on chronic therapy with apixaban</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">
                        <bold>Grade of recommendation</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">
                        <bold>Level of evidence</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with normal renal function, apixaban should be interrupted 24 hours before surgery and reintroduced 24 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In cases of moderate renal dysfunction (creatinine clearance 15 to 50 mL/min) or high-bleeding-risk surgery, apixaban should be interrupted 48 hours before surgery and reintroduced 48 hours after surgery.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="top">In cases of regional anesthesia with an epidural catheter, wait at least 6 hours after catheter removal before the next dose of apixaban.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4. Infective Endocarditis (IE) Prophylaxis</title>
          <p>IE has high morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B314">314</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B315">315</xref></sup> Strategies to reduce its incidence are predominantly based on experimental models, observational studies, and expert opinions and show some divergences among the main guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B316">316</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B318">318</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The primary determinant of IE is structural heart disease, particularly VHDs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B315">315</xref></sup> In Brazil, the main cause of chronic VHD is rheumatic fever, whose prevalence and mortality have been increasing annually, predominantly affecting young adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> Endothelial injury caused by structural lesions promotes subendothelial exposure, leading to platelet activation followed by fibrin deposition. Circulating microorganisms adhere to damaged or inflamed endothelium and proliferate, culminating in IE. In the case of highly virulent microorganisms such as <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic>, intravenous drug use, and intravascular devices, IE can occur in individuals with structurally normal hearts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B320">320</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Because IE is most caused by bacterial infection, several studies have investigated the risk of bacteremia related to routine activities and invasive procedures. In low- and middle-income countries, such as Brazil, IE is mostly caused by <italic>Streptococcus spp</italic>., particularly the viridans group streptococci found in the oral cavity. In high-income countries, there is a greater incidence of health-care-associated IE caused by <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B315">315</xref></sup> We describe below the prophylaxis recommendations for each type of procedure based on the latest scientific evidence, focusing on the particularities of the Brazilian population.</p>
          <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>4.4.1. Dental Procedures</title>
            <p>Since the 1930s, several studies have correlated dental extraction and endodontic and/or periodontal manipulation with the presence of transient bacteremia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B321">321</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B324">324</xref></sup> After experimental animal models confirmed the reduction of bacteremia after dental extraction with the use of prophylactic antibiotics,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B325">325</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B326">326</xref></sup> prophylaxis before dental procedures has been recommended for individuals with structural heart disease.</p>
            <p>The positive impact of prophylaxis and the risks associated with antibiotic use have been evaluated in recent years. Observational studies have estimated the prevalence of IE related to dental procedures to be 2.7% to 13%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B327">327</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B329">329</xref></sup> Routine activities such as chewing, tooth brushing, and flossing have also been correlated with transient bacteremia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B325">325</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B330">330</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B333">333</xref></sup> Additionally, the use of antibiotics carries potential risks of adverse events, such as anaphylaxis, and frequent use increases the likelihood of antimicrobial resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B333">333</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B334">334</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Given the lack of strong scientific evidence and the potential risks of prescribing antibiotics vs. the high morbidity and mortality of IE, recommendations for prophylaxis before dental procedures have been revised. Currently, prophylaxis is recommended for individuals at high risk of IE, with some differences between guidelines.</p>
            <p>In 2008, the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) started not recommending prophylaxis against IE for individuals undergoing dental procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B318">318</xref></sup> An observational study from England showed an increase in the incidence of IE after the restriction of prophylaxis from 2008 onwards, although it is not possible to establish a direct correlation with NICE recommendations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B335">335</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B336">336</xref></sup> In 2016, the recommendation was updated to "prophylaxis is not routinely recommended," allowing the use of antibiotics on an individualized basis and specifically mentioning patients at high risk of IE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B337">337</xref></sup> In 2020, another observational study found an increase in the incidence of IE in England, but did not detect any change in trends directly following the update of prophylaxis recommendations in 2008, either overall or in cases associated with oral streptococci.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B338">338</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The American Heart Association (AHA) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) have recommended prophylaxis for individuals at high risk of IE since 2007<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B339">339</xref></sup> and 2009, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup> The population considered at high risk of developing IE-related complications is described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t65">Table 14</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B339">339</xref></sup> A study showed an increase in the incidence of streptococcus IE in the United States compared with other etiologies following the update of prophylaxis recommendations in 2007, although there was no increase in the rates of hospitalization and valve surgery for IE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B340">340</xref></sup> Other observational studies did not find an increase in the total number of IE cases or IE caused by microorganisms related to the oral cavity in the USA after the 2007 update of prophylaxis recommendations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B335">335</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B341">341</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B342">342</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t65">
              <label>Table 14</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Patients indicated for infective endocarditis (IE) prophylaxis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B316">316</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B318">318</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="99%">
                  <col width="1%"/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Brazilian Society of Cardiology</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">
                      <bold>Individuals at high risk of developing IE:</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Acquired valvular heart disease with stenosis or regurgitation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Prosthetic heart valve</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Acquired valvular heart disease repaired with prosthetic material</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Previous IE</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Uncorrected congenital heart disease</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Congenital heart disease repaired with prosthetic material (first 6 months)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Corrected congenital heart disease with residual lesions</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Valvular heart disease in heart transplant recipients</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"><bold>Not indicated for prophylaxis:</bold> patients with cardiac implantable electronic devices (pacemaker, cardioverter-defibrillator), repaired septal defect, vascular stents, inferior vena cava filter, central nervous system shunts, fistulas, or venous catheters.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">
                      <bold>American Heart Association (AHA)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"><bold>Particularities:</bold> prophylaxis is indicated for individuals at high risk of adverse outcomes from infective endocarditis. Does not include acquired valvular heart disease with stenosis or regurgitation.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">
                      <bold>European Society of Cardiology (ESC)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"><bold>Particularities:</bold> does not include acquired valvular heart disease with stenosis or regurgitation, valvular disease in heart transplant recipients, and congenital heart disease.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">
                      <bold>National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top"><bold>Particularities:</bold> does not include acquired valvular disease corrected with prosthetic material and valvular heart disease in heart transplant recipients. Prophylaxis is recommended for congenital heart disease, except isolated atrial septal defect, fully repaired ventricular septal defect, and fully repaired patent ductus arteriosus.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Given the low access to dental care in Brazil, potentially leading to high rates of poor dental hygiene and thus a higher risk of bacteremia related to invasive dental procedures,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B343">343</xref></sup> coupled with the rarity of severe adverse events with antibiotic use and the lack of prophylaxis studies in our country, this Guideline recommends prophylaxis for patients with native VHD.</p>
            <p>Therefore, IE prophylaxis is recommended for all patients with significant VHD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t66">Table 14</xref>) undergoing dental procedures involving gingival and periodontal manipulation or mucosal incision (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t66">Table 15</xref>). The antibiotic should be administered in a single dose 30 to 60 minutes before the procedure (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t67">Table 16</xref>). If the antibiotic is not used before the procedure, it can be administered up to 2 hours after the procedure.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t66">
              <label>Table 15</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Infective endocarditis prophylaxis in dental procedures</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Prophylaxis indicated</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Patients undergoing procedures involving gingival and periodontal manipulation and/or mucosal incision</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="5" valign="top">
                      <bold>Prophylaxis not indicated</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Local anesthesia in noninfected tissue</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Dental radiography</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Placement, adjustment, or removal of dental appliances</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Natural loss of deciduous teeth</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Bleeding from oral mucosa or lip trauma</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t67">
              <label>Table 16</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Prophylactic regimens to be administered 1 hour before dental procedures</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="20%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Route of administration</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Antibiotics</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Dose (adults)</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Dose (children)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="5" valign="top">Oral</td>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Amoxicillin</td>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">2 g</td>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">50 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" rowspan="4" valign="top">Allergy to penicillin</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Azithromycin or clarithromycin</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">500 mg</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">15 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Cephalexin<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN36">*</xref> </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">2 g</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">50 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Doxycycline</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">100 mg</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">2,2 mg/kg &lt; 45 kg, 100 mg &gt; 45 kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Clindamycin</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">600 mg</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">20 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" rowspan="3" valign="top">Parenteral (IV or IM)</td>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Ampicilin</td>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">2 g</td>
                    <td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">50 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="top">Allergy to penicillin</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Cefazolin or ceftriaxone<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN36">*</xref> </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">1 g</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">50 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Clindamycin</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">600 mg</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">20 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN36">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Avoid cephalosporins in cases of anaphylaxis, angioedema, or urticaria with penicillin due to the risk of cross-reactivity.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>IE more commonly results from bacteremia due to daily routine activities than dental procedures. There is no doubt that maintaining good oral health is the best strategy for preventing IE. In individuals with periodontal and endodontic disease, the incidence and magnitude of bacteremia due to daily activities and surgical procedures are higher compared with individuals with healthy teeth.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B343">343</xref></sup> Therefore, we recommend daily dental care and biannual evaluation by a dentist.</p>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t96">Chart 27</xref> presents recommendations for prophylaxis before dental procedures.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t96">
              <label>Chart 27</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for prophylaxis before dental procedures</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with risk factors for infective endocarditis according to the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">Table 14</xref>) undergoing procedures involving gingival and periodontal manipulation and/or mucosal incision.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>4.4.2. Respiratory Tract Procedures</title>
            <p>Patients undergoing procedures that involve incision or biopsy of the respiratory mucosa, such as otorhinolaryngological surgery, should receive an antibiotic regimen similar to that used before dental procedures with a high risk of bacteremia. Antibiotic prophylaxis is not recommended for bronchoscopy, laryngoscopy, and orotracheal intubation. Patients undergoing treatment for an established infection, such as drainage of an abscess, should receive an antibiotic regimen that contains an antistaphylococcal medication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>4.4.3. Gastrointestinal and Genitourinary Procedures</title>
            <p>Despite limited evidence, we recommend prophylaxis before gastrointestinal and genitourinary procedures involving mucosal incision or biopsy in patients at high risk of IE. These include cesarean section and vaginal delivery, which have the potential for bacteremia, although there are no specific studies on the efficacy of this conduct.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B344">344</xref></sup></p>
            <p>For upper gastrointestinal endoscopy and colonoscopy, we recommend prescribing prophylaxis whenever there is a high possibility of mucosal manipulation (eg, biopsies, resections). If unexpected mucosal manipulation occurs without prior prophylaxis administration, antibiotics can be administered up to 2 hours after the procedure. Prophylaxis is not indicated for other endoscopic exams, such as transesophageal echocardiography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.</p>
            <p>The recommended antibiotic prophylactic regimen for gastrointestinal and genitourinary procedures is described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t68">Table 17</xref>.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t68">
              <label>Table 17</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Prophylactic regimens to be administered 30 minutes before gastrointestinal and genitourinary procedures</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="32%">
                  <col width="1%"/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="middle">Antibiotic</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Dose (adults)</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Dose (children)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Intravenous ampicillin<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN37">*</xref> + intravenous gentamicin</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">2 g 1.5 mg/kg</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">50 mg/kg 1.5 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Allergy to penicillin:</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Intravenous vancomycin + intravenous gentamicin</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">1 g 1.5 mg/kg</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">20 mg/kg 1.5 mg/kg</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN37">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Administer an additional dose of intravenous ampicillin 1 g 6 hours after the procedure, or alternatively, oral amoxicillin 1 g.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t97">Chart 28</xref> presents recommendations for prophylaxis before gastrointestinal and genitourinary procedures.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t97">
              <label>Chart 28</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for prophylaxis before gastrointestinal and genitourinary procedures</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with risk factors for infective endocarditis according to the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">Table 14</xref>).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>4.4.4. Dermatological or Musculoskeletal Procedures</title>
            <p>Patients undergoing treatment for an established infection, such as drainage of an abscess, should receive an antibiotic regimen that contains an agent active against staphylococci and streptococci.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.5. Body Piercing and Tattooing</title>
            <p>There are case reports of IE after piercing and tattooing, particularly tongue piercing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B345">345</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B346">346</xref></sup> Therefore, patients should be warned about the risks associated with piercing and tattooing, and these procedures should be discouraged.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. Perioperative Biomarkers</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1. Natriuretic Peptides</title>
          <p>Natriuretic peptides are released into the bloodstream by the myocardium in response to several physiological stimuli, such as myocardial stress and ischemia, among others. Several studies have demonstrated that elevated preoperative BNP levels are strong predictors of perioperative CV complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B347">347</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B348">348</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In 2012, Biccard et al. conducted a prospective observational study involving 788 patients undergoing noncardiac surgery to investigate the clinical utility of preoperative BNP measurement compared with other biomarkers, such as cardiac troponins (cTn). Elevated preoperative levels of both cTn and BNP were independent predictors of CV events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B349">349</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A meta-analysis of 15 prospective observational studies including 4,856 patients found that elevated preoperative levels of BNP or NTproBNP were associated with a significantly increased risk (20 times higher) of MACE, CV mortality, and all-cause mortality (10 times higher) in the perioperative period (&lt; 43 days post-surgery).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B350">350</xref></sup> However, the data from these studies did not establish a specific cutoff point for BNP levels nor did they determine whether these biomarkers add prognostic value to existing risk indices.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B351">351</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A multicenter prospective observational study including 979 patients assessed the incremental value of hs-cTnT for risk prediction prior to noncardiac surgery in comparison with the RCRI score. The study also investigated the role of natriuretic peptides as risk predictors in noncardiac surgery. Both hs-cTnT and NTproBNP levels were higher among individuals who died compared to those who survived. The authors suggested that NTproBNP levels greater than 300 pg/mL confer a higher risk of mortality (4.8% vs 1.4%, p = 0.002).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B352">352</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In 2014, a meta-analysis of 18 prospective observational studies assessed individual data from 2,179 patients undergoing noncardiac surgery and revealed that pre and postoperative BNP and NTproBNP levels enhance risk stratification for death or nonfatal MI within 30 days after the procedure. Preoperative BNP levels &gt; 92 pg/mL or NTproBNP &gt; 300 pg/mL increased the risk of death or nonfatal MI by 3.4 times (OR 3.4, 95%CI 2.6-4.5), while postoperative BNP levels &gt; 400 pg/mL and NTproBNP &gt; 900 pg/mL increased the risk by 2.7 and 1.8 times, respectively. Both pre and postoperative natriuretic peptide levels were independent predictors of death and nonfatal MI within 30 days. The meta-analysis also indicated that BNP levels &lt; 30 pg/mL have a negative predictive value for perioperative CV events.</p>
          <p>Additional postoperative natriuretic peptide measurement can improve risk stratification for CV events at 30 and 180 days after noncardiac surgery compared with preoperative measurement alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B353">353</xref></sup> More recently, a subanalysis of the VISION (Vascular Events in Noncardiac Surgery Patients Cohort Evaluation) study involving 10,402 patients over 45 years of age undergoing noncardiac surgery (vascular and nonvascular) confirmed previous findings that natriuretic peptides are good predictors of vascular death or MI in the postoperative period of noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B354">354</xref></sup> NTproBNP values between 100-200 pg/mL increased the risk of primary events by 2.3 times, values between 200-1500 pg/mL by 3.6 times, and values greater than 1,500 pg/mL by 5.5 times. The authors also showed that preoperative NTproBNP improves CV risk prediction in addition to the RCRI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B355">355</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Given the evidence presented, a slight modification in recommendations is proposed as described below.</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t98">Chart 29</xref> presents recommendations for preoperative BNP/NTproBNP measurement for risk prediction of perioperative CV events.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t98">
            <label>Chart 29</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for preoperative BNP/NTproBNP measurement for risk prediction of perioperative cardiovascular events</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients older than 65 years or patients aged 45-64 years with established cardiovascular disease or risk factors<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN38">*</xref> undergoing noncardiac surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN38">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Diabetes, hypertension, coronary artery disease, obesity, atrial fibrillation (risk factors for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. Cardiac Troponins and Surveillance CV Complications</title>
          <p>Despite the several algorithms and tools available for adequate risk stratification in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery, the accuracy in predicting adverse events remains suboptimal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B356">356</xref></sup> Among the different tools that can assist in the prediction of CV events and postoperative mortality, the use of biomarkers has gained prominence due to the scientific evidence accumulated over recent decades, particularly the use of natriuretic peptides (BNP/NT-proBNP) and hs-cTnT/I.</p>
          <p>Several studies have consolidated the role of hs-cTn in the optimization of preoperative risk stratification in noncardiac surgery. In a study with 979 patients undergoing noncardiac surgery, a preoperative hs-cTnT measurement above the 99th percentile was related to an increased risk for the combined outcome of mortality, MI, recovered cardiac arrest, and acute HF (RR 2.6, 95%CI 1.3-5.3). Hs-cTnT was also superior to the RCRI in predicting in-hospital mortality (AUC 0.809 vs 0.658, p = 0.006).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B352">352</xref></sup> A meta-analysis of 7 studies with over 4,000 patients revealed an increase in combined CV events (RR 2.9, 95%CI 1.9-4.4), short-term mortality (RR 5.4, 95%CI 3.21-9.06), and long-term mortality (RR 2.9, 95%CI 1.8-4.6) in patients with elevated hs-cTnT before noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B357">357</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Hs-cTnI assays have also been evaluated in the perioperative setting. In the BASEL-PMI and Tropovasc studies, hs-cTnT and hs-cTnI levels were measured in 1,022 patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. Both hs-cTnI and hs-cTnT showed good accuracy in predicting combined CV events within 30 days after noncardiac and nonvascular surgery (AUC hs-cTnI 0.77, 95%CI 0.71-0.83; and AUC hs-cTnT 0.79, 95%CI 0.73-0.85). In patients undergoing vascular surgery, hs-cTnI performed better than hs-cTnT (AUC hs-cTnI 0.67, 95%CI 0.59-0.75; and AUC hs-cTnT 0.59, 95%CI 0.51-0.67).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B358">358</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Finally, in hospitalized patients scheduled for surgery, several comorbidities and acute and chronic conditions can affect cTn levels (eg, anemia, sepsis, renal failure, HF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B359">359</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B360">360</xref></sup> Different cohorts have observed that hs-cTn levels, particularly hs-cTnT, may be above the 99th percentile of the URL in up to 50% of patients undergoing noncardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B352">352</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B358">358</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Therefore, although elevated preoperative cTn levels are a risk factor for postoperative CV events, there is no specific evidence or recommendations for additional investigations or specific measures to reduce risk in this population. Elevated values should be interpreted as chronic myocardial injury (defined by the Fourth Universal Definition of MI as at least one cTn value above the 99th percentile of the URL without dynamic changes).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B360">360</xref></sup> Abnormally high values in relation to known comorbidities should be investigated before elective operations. In other cases, the value should be considered the patient&#8217;s baseline and used for the correct interpretation of subsequent measurements, facilitating the correct diagnosis of acute perioperative myocardial infarction/injury (PMI) and differentiating acute from chronic biomarker elevations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref></sup></p>
          <p>As PMI is often asymptomatic, measuring of cTn levels on postoperative days 1 and 2 should be performed to diagnose PMI (see item 6.1). There is still no definitive consensus on which patients benefit the most cost-effectively from cTn screening. Indiscriminate cTn screening ensures no PMI is missed but results in many normal results. Conversely, cTn screening only on very high-risk patients increases the identification of PMI but misses the diagnosis in many patients.</p>
          <p>In the VISION study, cTn levels were measured in all patients over 45 years of age undergoing surgery with regional or general anesthesia, who were hospitalized for at least 1 day.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup> In the BASEL-PMI study, patients over 65 years of age or over 45 with known atherosclerotic disease (coronary, cerebrovascular, or peripheral) were screened.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref></sup> Recent data show that the relative percentage of individuals with myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery (MINS) was higher among those classified as high risk by the RCRI (7.9%, 14.2%, 25.3%, and 38% in classes I, II, III, and IV, respectively). However, in absolute numbers, 30% of all MINS cases were in class I patients (ie, with a RCRI score of 0).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B366">366</xref></sup> Conversely, there is no evidence to recommend routine cTn measurements in patients without risk factors or RCRI class I undergoing low-complexity procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B367">367</xref></sup> However, perioperative cTn screening in patients over 65 years of age or with a history of atherosclerotic disease has been shown to be cost-effective and has received support from some authors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B368">368</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B369">369</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The 2022 ESC Guidelines recommend cTn screening for patients with CV risk factors (age &#8805; 65 years, dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes, smoking, family history), known CVD, or CVD symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Considering the Brazilian context and the available evidence, this Guideline recommends systematic surveillance with ECG and cTn measurement before surgery and daily for 48 hours after surgery in patients with an intermediate- or high-risk estimate according to preoperative evaluation algorithms. Of note, approximately 80% to 90% of cTn changes, alone or not, occurred up to postoperative day 2,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup> making it reasonable to measure cTn levels for 48 hours after surgery.</p>
          <p>It is worth noting that with the availability of hs-cTn and new evidence, systematic ECG monitoring and automated ST-segment monitoring stopped being used due to significant variability in sensitivity (between 55% and 100%) and specificity (between 37% and 85%) for the detection of intra and postoperative ischemia, as its effectiveness depends on the technique used and the baseline characteristics of the study population (pretest probability of CAD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B370">370</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B372">372</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t99">Chart 30</xref> presents recommendations for perioperative surveillance.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t99">
            <label>Chart 30</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for perioperative surveillance</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Measurement of cardiac troponin before surgery and on postoperative days 1 and 2 in patients at intermediate or high risk of complications according to algorithms, undergoing intermediate-or high-risk noncardiac surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Electrocardiography before surgery and on postoperative days 1 and 2 in patients at intermediate or high risk of complications according to algorithms, undergoing intermediate-or high-risk noncardiac surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">High-risk patients according to algorithms undergoing intermediate-or high-risk noncardiac surgery should stay in the ICU for 48 hours after surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Intermediate-risk patients according to algorithms undergoing intermediate- or high-risk noncardiac surgery should stay in the ICU for 48 hours after surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Measurement of troponin levels in low-risk patients or those undergoing low-risk surgery.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. Diagnosis and Treatment of Perioperative CV Complications</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1. Perioperative Acute myocardial Infarction/Injury (PMI)</title>
          <p>AMI is the most feared perioperative CV complication, occurring in 0.3% to 3% of low-risk patients with no history of CAD and in almost 33% of high-risk patients with a history of CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B373">373</xref></sup> In recent observational studies, AMI incidence ranged from 0.4% to 0.9%, although it may be underdiagnosed without adequate monitoring.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B374">374</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B375">375</xref></sup> Although mortality rates have decreased in recent decades, hospital readmission or death within 30 days due to AMI still occurs in 1 in 3 patients,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B375">375</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B377">377</xref></sup> which is likely to be related to the presence of comorbidities, diagnostic difficulties, and limitations in using antithrombotic and antiplatelet therapies in patients with perioperative AMI.</p>
          <p>Most patients with perioperative AMI are asymptomatic because some of the events occur during the intraoperative period and the administration of potent analgesia postoperatively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B356">356</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B379">379</xref></sup> Additionally, when present, chest pain is often attributed to more obvious causes such as incisional or postural pain. Other perioperative manifestations, such as dyspnea and nausea, may be explained by alternative causes (atelectasis and medication effects), meaning that the hypothesis of perioperative AMI is often not considered by the medical team. Furthermore, only 25% of patients present ischemic changes on the ECG,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B380">380</xref></sup> and these changes need to be differentiated from other causes of ECG alterations, such as electrolyte disturbances, hypothermia, medication effects, or incorrect lead placement. Therefore, cTn screening is crucial for the diagnosis of AMI.</p>
          <p>In recent years, postoperative cTn elevation has been associated with increased 30-day and 1-year mortality, regardless of the presence of other criteria from the universal definition of AMI (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18">Figure 7</xref>). Considering all the particularities of perioperative AMI, we have chosen to use the term "perioperative acute myocardial infarction/injury (PMI)" for events occurring within the first 2 days after surgery during the phase of cTn screening.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f18">
            <label>Figure 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fourth universal definition of acute myocardial infarction.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf08-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>PMI is defined as the occurrence of an acute increase in cTn, defined as an absolute delta above or equal to the 99th percentile of the URL of the cTn assay between the preoperative value and the value on postoperative day 1 or 2, or between two postoperative concentrations if the preoperative value is missing (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figure 8</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref></sup> In the BASEL-PMI study, in which cTn screening was performed in patients over 65 years or over 45 years with atherosclerotic disease (coronary, cerebral, or peripheral) undergoing noncardiac surgery, the incidence of PMI using hs-cTnT (delta &#8805; 14 ng/L) was 16%. In alignment with findings from previous studies, only 18% of patients were symptomatic. Patients with PMI had significantly higher mortality than patients without PMI at 30 days (9% vs 1%, p &lt; 0.001, adjusted hazard ratio 2.7; 95%CI 1.5-4.8) and 1 year (23% vs 9%, p &lt; 0.001, adjusted hazard ratio 1.6; 95%CI 1.2-2.2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B361">361</xref></sup> These findings were later validated for hs-cTnI as well.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f19">
            <label>Figure 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>PMI diagnosis. URL: 99th percentile upper reference limit value of the troponin assay &#8211; URL hs-cTnT (Roche) 14 ng/L, URL hs-cTnI (Abbott) 26 ng/L, URL hs-cTnI (Siemens) 40 ng/L. ECG: electrocardiogram; hs-cTn: high-sensitivity cardiac troponin; PMI: perioperative myocardial infarction/injury.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf09-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Hs-cTnI is produced by several manufacturers, and each has its own 99th percentile URL. The definition of PMI has been validated for Abbott (delta &#8805; 26 ng/L) and Siemens (delta &#8805; 40ng/L) hs-cTnI assays, but may be extrapolated to other assays.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref></sup> Although there was no difference in mortality between patients with PMI meeting one of the criteria from the universal definition of AMI or not, patients with PMI meeting any additional criteria from the AMI definition (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 7</xref>) had a higher incidence of MACE (including AMI, acute HF, arrhythmias, and CV death) than patients with PMI and increased cTn alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B378">378</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Another condition specific to the perioperative period is MINS (myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery), which is defined as a postoperative cTnT value &#8805; 65 ng/L <underline>or</underline> a cTnT value between 20 and 65 ng/L <underline>AND</underline> an absolute delta &#8805; 5 ng/L between pre and postoperative values. MINS also refers to cTn elevation caused by ischemia, excluding other causes such as sepsis, PE, tachyarrhythmias, and HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup> The VISION study included patients over 45 years undergoing noncardiac surgery and found an incidence of MINS of 18%, with 93% of patients with MINS being asymptomatic. MINS occurrence was associated with a significant increase in mortality (adjusted hazard ratio 3.20; 95%CI 2.4-4.3). Furthermore, higher absolute postoperative cTn values, as well as greater acute deltas, were associated with increased mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B365">365</xref></sup> It should be noted that the definition of MINS considers only the absolute postoperative cTn value and does not differentiate acute from chronic myocardial injury.</p>
          <p>Traditionally, the etiology of perioperative AMI was considered a combination of type 1 AMI (plaque rupture due to increased platelet aggregation, intraplaque inflammation, decreased fibrinolysis, or increased catecholamine) and type 2 AMI (oxygen supply/demand mismatch due to anemia, tachycardia, hypoxemia, or hypotension).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B356">356</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B373">373</xref></sup> Pathologic and <italic>in vivo</italic> studies have shown that approximately 50% of perioperative AMIs are type 1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B379">379</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B381">381</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B383">383</xref></sup> However, with the development of hs-cTn tests, increases in cTn can be detected in several other conditions in addition to AMI, such as sepsis, HF, renal failure, and even after strenuous exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B359">359</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B384">384</xref></sup> Therefore, the etiology of PMI is much broader, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figure 9</xref>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B385">385</xref></sup> and the prognosis of PMI also directly depends on its etiology. Patients with PMI due to extracardiac causes (eg, sepsis), HF, and tachyarrhythmias have the highest mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B386">386</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f20">
            <label>Figure 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>PMI and MINS etiology. PMI: perioperative acute myocardial infarction/injury, AMI: acute myocardial infarction, MINS: myocardial injury after noncardiac surgery; hs-cTnT: high-sensitivity troponin T.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf10-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>ECG is mandatory in patients with PMI, and an echocardiogram should be considered to assess biventricular systolic function, VHD, and wall motion abnormalities.</p>
          <p>Treatment of PMI fundamentally depends on its etiology. The adequate approach for a patient with PMI is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figure 10</xref>. It is worth noting that in the presence of type 1 AMI, the choice of antiplatelet medication to be added to ASA depends on the bleeding risk, which should be discussed with the surgeon. In high-bleeding-risk patients, clopidogrel should be preferred. In cases of non-ST-elevation MI, the second antiplatelet medication should be administered during or after coronary cineangiography. Additionally, secondary causes of ischemia (tachycardia, hypotension, hypertension, anemia, pain) should always be treated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B373">373</xref></sup> Although evidence for PMI treatment is scarce, retrospective studies suggest that optimized clinical management of CV risk factors (dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes, smoking cessation) is associated with improved prognosis and should therefore be performed in all patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B387">387</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f21">
            <label>Figure 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Flowchart for the management of patients with perioperative acute myocardial infarction/injury. *Clopidogrel or ticagrelor depending on bleeding risk; <sup>#</sup>Timing depending on bleeding risk after discussion by the multidisciplinary team; <sup>&amp;</sup>If not performed preoperatively, perform on an outpatient basis or before discharge, as applicable; <sup>$</sup>On an outpatient basis or before discharge, as applicable. AMI: acute myocardial infarction; ASA: acetylsalicylic acid; CAD: coronary artery disease; CCA: coronary cineangiography; CT: computed tomography; DAPT: dual antiplatelet therapy; ECG: electrocardiogram; Hb: hemoglobin; LMWH: low-molecular-weight heparin; PMI: perioperative acute myocardial infarction/injury; UFH: unfractionated heparin.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf11-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>A recent study showed that risk factors for MACE in patients with PMI likely due cardiac coronary causes include the presence of angina or dyspnea, an absolute increase in cTn 2 to 4 times the 99th percentile of the URL, emergency surgery, and high-risk surgery. Surprisingly, the presence of perioperative bleeding was a protective factor, probably because no other events occurred after the cause of ischemia was corrected.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B386">386</xref></sup></p>
          <p>There is currently no evidence to determine the best time for performing noninvasive functional imaging for myocardial ischaemia tests in patients with PMI. However, considering that the risk of CV events and mortality after PMI is highest in the first 120 days after surgery, it is reasonable to perform the functional stress test before this period.</p>
          <p>Regarding MINS treatment, the randomized MANAGE study investigated the use of dabigatran 110 mg twice daily in patients with MINS and demonstrated a reduction in the combined outcome of vascular mortality, nonfatal AMI, ischemic stroke, arterial thrombosis, amputation, and VTE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B388">388</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although less frequent, perioperative AMI can occur after postoperative day 2, following the cTn screening period. In these cases, diagnosis should be made using the universal definition of MI criteria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 7</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B360">360</xref></sup> Treatment is the same as for AMI outside the perioperative setting, respecting the particularities previously described (consider bleeding risk and multidisciplinary discussion with the surgeon).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B389">389</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t100">Chart 31</xref> presents recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of perioperative AMI.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t100">
            <label>Chart 31</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of perioperative AMI</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">PMI diagnosis should be made in the presence of an absolute delta &#8805; the 99th percentile of the upper reference limit of the troponin assay between the preoperative value and the value on postoperative day 1 or 2, or between two postoperative concentrations if the preoperative value is missing.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Clinical evaluation, ECG, and hemoglobin measurement in patients with PMI.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Determination of PMI etiology using the management flowchart.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Treatment of PMI cause according to specific guidelines.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Diagnosis of AMI after postoperative day 2 should be based on the universal definition of MI, and treatment should be based on current guidelines.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with perioperative AMI or PMI due to ischemia, all secondary causes of ischemia (anemia, tachycardia, hypotension, hypertension) should be treated, the risk of bleeding should be determined, and multidisciplinary discussion with the surgeon should be conducted.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.2. Acute Atrial Fibrillation/Flutter</title>
          <p>The diagnosis of AF/flutter requires assessment of heart rhythm, preferably with a standard 12-lead ECG to avoid artifacts and misdiagnoses. When using a single lead (including hospital monitors), AF is defined as an arrhythmia lasting &#8805; 30 seconds.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B390">390</xref></sup> In noncardiac surgery, a meta-analysis showed a 10%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B391">391</xref></sup> incidence of postoperative AF (POAF), with a higher incidence in thoracic surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B392">392</xref></sup> Although often self-limiting and asymptomatic, POAF is associated with a higher risk of late recurrence and cardioembolic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B393">393</xref></sup></p>
          <p>POAF is defined as new-onset AF during or after the first hours of surgery, with a peak incidence between postoperative days 2 and 4.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B394">394</xref></sup> The pathogenesis of POAF results from the interaction between inflammation, pre-existing triggers, structural disease, and perioperative insults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B395">395</xref></sup> Its occurrence after noncardiac surgery is associated with a 3-fold increase in the risk of stroke, a 5-fold increase in the risk of MI, and a 3-fold increase in mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B396">396</xref></sup> Preventive measures against AF include adequate pre and postoperative regulation of hydroelectrolytic balance (normovolemia, monitoring, and replenishment of magnesium and potassium) and maintenance of current medications when appropriate in the hemodynamic setting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B397">397</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Several medications have been studied to reduce the incidence of AF and its deleterious effects. Preventive antiarrhythmic therapy with amiodarone or intravenous magnesium can be individually discussed in patients scheduled for thoracic surgery. The use of oral magnesium (total of 3.2 g over 3 days and 1.6 g on the day of surgery) in patients undergoing myocardial revascularization (POMAF-CS single-center, randomized controlled study) reduced the incidence of POAF compared with placebo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B398">398</xref></sup> In a retrospective study by Tisdale et al., the use of intravenous amiodarone during anesthetic induction (43.75 mg/hour for 96 hours) in patients undergoing esophagectomy reduced the rate of perioperative AF but had no impact on length of hospital stay. Additionally, amiodarone resulted in hypotension, bradycardia, and prolonged corrected QT intervals, raising questions about whether it should be used routinely.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B399">399</xref></sup> Riber et al., in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of patients undergoing pneumonectomy, demonstrated that administration of intravenous amiodarone 300 mg postoperatively, followed by 1200 mg orally per day for 5 days in hemodynamically stable patients, reduced the rate of perioperative AF (9% vs 32% in the control group).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B392">392</xref></sup> Khalil et al. compared three groups in the immediate postoperative period: group 1 received amiodarone (5 mg/kg bolus, followed by 15 mg/kg per day for 48 hours); group 2 received intravenous magnesium (80 mg/kg bolus, followed by 8 mg/kg/h for 48 hours); and the control group was derived from a retrospective analysis of patients undergoing lung resection. They found an AF rate of 10% in group 1, 12.5% in group 2, and 20.5% in the control group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B400">400</xref></sup> Other nonantiarrhythmic medications have also been evaluated. Statins showed a potential role in preventing POAF in cardiac surgery, particularly myocardial revascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B401">401</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B402">402</xref></sup> However, a later meta-analysis focusing on the postoperative period of noncardiac surgery did not observe any effect of statin use on POAF prevention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B272">272</xref></sup> Colchicine is currently under investigation (Colchicine For The Prevention Of Perioperative Atrial Fibrillation In Patients Undergoing Thoracic Surgery [COP-AF], NCT03310125).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B403">403</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The management of POAF in patients with conditions that decrease the likelihood of obtaining rhythm control involves initially correction of volemia and electrolyte imbalance, reduction of pain and postoperative inflammation, and HR control (&lt; 100 to 110 bpm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B404">404</xref></sup> In patients with preserved ejection fraction, calcium channel blockers and beta-blockers are preferred, while in patients with reduced ejection fraction, digoxin and specific beta-blockers are preferred. Digoxin may be less effective in hyperadrenergic states during surgery. When initiating treatment with a new medication, the dose should be slowly titrated to avoid hypotension, which is known to be deleterious in the postoperative period. In patients with rapid ventricular response and difficult chronotropic control, rhythm control (that is, conversion of AF) is the preferred choice, either by electrical or pharmacological cardioversion with monitoring of arrhythmia onset and the potential need for transesophageal echocardiography, as per the Brazilian AF guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B405">405</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regardless of the rhythm or HR control strategy, patients should be evaluated for anticoagulation initiation. The use of long-term anticoagulation for POAF was previously discussed individually for each patient. However, a meta-analysis of cardiac and noncardiac surgery observed a 37% higher risk of stroke, which was higher among patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. Therefore, long-term anticoagulation in patients with POAF and risk factors (CHA2DS2VASc) is recommended to prevent thromboembolic events, considering the net clinical benefit, bleeding risk based on the surgery performed, and patient preference (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22">Figure 11</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f22">
            <label>Figure 11</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Flowchart for the treatment of postoperative atrial fibrillation. *Dosages according to AF Guideline and clinical judgment. AF: atrial fibrillation; POAF: postoperative atrial fibrillation; HR: heart rate; ECV: electrical cardioversion; PE: pulmonary embolism.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240590-40590-gf12-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t101">Chart 32</xref> presents recommendations for patients with POAF.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t101">
            <label>Chart 32</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for patients with POAF</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Long-term anticoagulation should be considered in patients with AF detected after noncardiac surgery, when stroke risk is assessed according to CHA2DS2VASc and bleeding risk according to the surgery performed.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3. Acute Heart Failure</title>
          <p>With the aging of the world&#8217;s population, the prevalence of HF is increasing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> Older patients with multiple comorbidities are increasingly undergoing noncardiac surgery, which means that the occurrence of postoperative acute HF as a complication of noncardiac surgery is also likely to increase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> Few studies have specifically evaluated the occurrence of postoperative acute HF. Its incidence in retrospective studies or studies evaluating postoperative acute HF as part of a combined endpoint of MACE ranges from 1% to 3.8%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B406">406</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B412">412</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A retrospective study with data from a U.S. database found that 4.9% of patients undergoing noncardiac surgery experienced HF during hospitalization (not specified if pre or postoperative), with an in-hospital mortality rate higher than that of patients without HF (5% vs 0.8%, p &lt; 0.001). Most cases occurred in orthopedic and vascular operations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A recent prospective cohort study involving 11,162 noncardiac operations found an incidence of postoperative acute HF of 2.5%. Independent risk factors for postoperative acute HF include age, chronic HF, diabetes, AF, anemia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, CAD, peripheral artery disease, chronic myocardial injury, and emergency surgery. Approximately 50% of patients with postoperative acute HF had no known preoperative history of HF. The 1-year mortality rate for these patients was 44%, compared with 11% for those without postoperative acute HF (p &lt; 0.001). Additionally, patients with postoperative acute HF had a rate of rehospitalization for HF of 15%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B412">412</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Therefore, postoperative acute HF is a perioperative complication associated with high mortality rates that is often overlooked.</p>
          <p>Diagnosing postoperative acute HF is challenging because patients are bedridden, older, and often asymptomatic. Thus, in older patients with risk factors undergoing orthopedic or vascular operations, attention should be given to signs of postoperative acute HF. Diagnosis is clinical and supported by natriuretic peptide levels. An echocardiogram is recommended to assess biventricular systolic function and exclude significant VHD.</p>
          <p>Treatment of postoperative acute HF should follow current guidelines for HF management outside the perioperative period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B413">413</xref></sup> Medical therapy should be optimized before hospital discharge to prevent rehospitalizations for HF, and early outpatient follow-up should be scheduled for clinical reassessment and medication adjustment.</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t102">Chart 33</xref> presents recommendations for patients with postoperative acute HF.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t102">
            <label>Chart 33</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for patients with postoperative acute heart failure</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Natriuretic peptide measurement and echocardiogram during hospitalization.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Treatment according to current guidelines and optimization of medication and volemia before discharge.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Early outpatient follow-up for clinical reassessment and medication adjustment.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4. Venous Thromboembolism</title>
          <p>The treatment of patients with perioperative venous thromboembolism (VTE) follows the principles applied to general patients. Special attention should be given to the bleeding risk associated with surgical procedures. In this setting, the surgical team should always be consulted before initiating antithrombotic therapy.</p>
          <p>In the acute phase of VTE, LMWH or fondaparinux is preferred over UFH. If these medications are contraindicated or there is a high bleeding risk, UFH is the treatment of choice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B414">414</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B417">417</xref></sup> For hemodynamically unstable patients, systemic thrombolysis is the treatment of choice, although often contraindicated postoperatively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B418">418</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B421">421</xref></sup> In such cases, pulmonary embolectomy or catheter-directed therapy should be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B422">422</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B425">425</xref></sup></p>
          <p>For patients with an indication for oral anticoagulation, DOACs are preferred over vitamin K antagonists<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B426">426</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B431">431</xref></sup> due to lower bleeding rates and greater convenience for patients and health care professionals (fixed doses, fewer drug and food interactions, and no need for serial blood tests to ensure a specific therapeutic range). If there is an absolute contraindication to anticoagulation, a vena cava filter may be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B432">432</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B434">434</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Anticoagulant therapy is recommended for a minimum duration of 3 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B435">435</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B436">436</xref></sup> Prolonging treatment generally reduces the recurrence of thromboembolic events but increases the risk of bleeding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B437">437</xref></sup> Several criteria should be evaluated before deciding to prolong treatment, which is beyond the scope of this Guideline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B438">438</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t103">Chart 34</xref> presents recommendations for patients with postoperative VTE.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t103">
            <label>Chart 34</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommendations for patients with postoperative venous thromboembolism</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Grade of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" colspan="3" valign="middle">Unstable patients with pulmonary embolism (PE)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Thrombolytic therapy in unstable patients with PE if there are no contraindications.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pulmonary embolectomy in unstable patients with contraindications for thrombolytic therapy or when thrombolytic therapy fails.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In hemodynamically unstable patients, parenteral anticoagulation with unfractionated heparin (UFH) is preferred over low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) or fondaparinux.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">Catheter-directed therapy in unstable patients with contraindications for thrombolytic therapy when thrombolytic therapy fails, or with high surgical risk.</td>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="center" colspan="3" valign="top">
                    <bold>Anticoagulation in stable patients</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with venous thromboembolism (VTE) indicated for parenteral anticoagulation, LMWH or fondaparinux is preferred over UFH.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with VTE requiring parenteral anticoagulation who have contraindications for LMWH or fondaparinux, UFH should be used.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with VTE indicated for oral anticoagulation, DOACs are preferred over warfarin.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">In patients with VTE requiring oral anticoagulation who have contraindications for DOACs, warfarin should be used.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">A vena cava filter may be considered in patients with an absolute contraindication to anticoagulation.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Patients with PE should receive anticoagulation therapy for at least 3 months.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">A</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p><bold>Development:</bold> Perioperative Assessment Group (Grupo de Estudos de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Perioperat&#243;ria &#8211; GAPO) and Clinical Cardiology Department (Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica &#8211; DCC) of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; SBC)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <p><bold>Writing committee:</bold> Danielle M. Gualandro, Luciana S. Fornari, Bruno Caramelli</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <p><bold>SBC Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee:</bold> Carisi Anne Polanczyk (Coordinator), Humberto Graner Moreira, M&#225;rio de Seixas Rocha, Jose Airton de Arruda, Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva &#8211; Period 2022-2023</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn9">
          <p><bold>Note:</bold> These guidelines are for information purposes and should not replace the clinical judgment of aphysician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
