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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">g8JrbcBNSqgdtwVbs3QjF9G</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000900401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240252</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Escores de Risco Polig&#234;nico: O Pr&#243;ximo Passo para Melhorar a Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de Risco na Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2357-5176</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6929-8392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferrari</surname>
            <given-names>Filipe</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani</surname>
            <given-names>Diego</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Medicina Interna</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Investigaci&#243;n Biom&#233;dica de A Coru&#241;a</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Coru&#241;a</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Galicia</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Espanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Investigaci&#243;n Biom&#233;dica de A Coru&#241;a (INIBIC), Coru&#241;a, Galicia &#8211; Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia</label>: Ricardo Stein &#8226; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. CEP 90035-903, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil; E-mail: <email>rstein@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by" id="fn1">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Nat&#225;lia Olivetti</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict" id="fn2">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>9</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20240252</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Escores de Risco Polig&#234;nico: O Pr&#243;ximo Passo para Melhorar a Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de Risco na Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana?</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Papel dos escores de risco polig&#234;nico na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana. DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.</attrib>
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      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os significativos no tratamento da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) e das redu&#231;&#245;es nas taxas de mortalidade anuais nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, a DAC continua sendo a principal causa de morte no mundo. Consequentemente, h&#225; uma necessidade cont&#237;nua de esfor&#231;os para abordar essa situa&#231;&#227;o. Os algoritmos cl&#237;nicos atuais para identificar pacientes em risco s&#227;o particularmente imprecisos para indiv&#237;duos de risco moderado. Por esse motivo, foi sugerido que s&#227;o necess&#225;rios testes auxiliares, incluindo triagem gen&#233;tica preditiva. &#192; medida que os estudos gen&#233;ticos se expandem rapidamente e os dados gen&#244;micos se tornam mais acess&#237;veis, diversos escores de risco gen&#233;tico t&#234;m sido propostos para identificar e avaliar a suscetibilidade de um indiv&#237;duo ao desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as, incluindo a DAC. De fato, o campo da gen&#233;tica tem contribu&#237;do substancialmente para a previs&#227;o de risco, particularmente nos casos em que as crian&#231;as t&#234;m genitores com DAC prematura, resultando em um risco aumentado de at&#233; 75%. Os escores de risco polig&#234;nico (PRSs, do ingl&#234;s <italic>polygenic risk scores</italic>) surgiram como uma ferramenta potencialmente valiosa para compreender e estratificar o risco gen&#233;tico de um indiv&#237;duo. O PRS &#233; calculado como uma soma ponderada de variantes de nucleot&#237;deo &#250;nico presentes em todo o genoma humano, identific&#225;veis por meio de estudos de associa&#231;&#227;o gen&#244;mica ampla, e associadas a v&#225;rias doen&#231;as cardiometab&#243;licas. O uso dos PRSs &#233; promissor, pois permite o desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias personalizadas para prevenir ou diagnosticar patologias espec&#237;ficas de forma precoce. Ademais, seu uso &#233; capaz de complementar os escores cl&#237;nicos existentes, aumentando a precis&#227;o da previs&#227;o de risco individual. Consequentemente, a aplica&#231;&#227;o dos PRSs tem o potencial de impactar positivamente os custos e os desfechos adversos associados &#224; DAC. A presente revis&#227;o narrativa oferece uma vis&#227;o ampla do papel dos PRSs no contexto da DAC.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana</kwd>
        <kwd>Risco</kwd>
        <kwd>Genoma Humano</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="50"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Por d&#233;cadas, v&#225;rios algoritmos cl&#237;nicos foram desenvolvidos para identificar pacientes em risco de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) e formular estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria. No entanto, esses algoritmos provaram ser menos eficazes em indiv&#237;duos com risco intermedi&#225;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Portanto, nos &#250;ltimos anos, testes adicionais conhecidos como intensificadores de risco ou modificadores de risco t&#234;m sido investigados para identificar esse grupo de risco espec&#237;fico com mais precis&#227;o. Alguns desses testes auxiliares incluem apolipoprote&#237;na B, lipoprote&#237;na (a) ou medidas de inflama&#231;&#227;o, como prote&#237;na C-reativa de alta sensibilidade ou escore de c&#225;lcio coronariano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Essas ferramentas cl&#237;nicas devem atender &#224; condi&#231;&#227;o de estarem independentemente associadas &#224; DAC e conferirem pelo menos um risco duas vezes maior de doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Al&#233;m das ferramentas cl&#237;nicas investigadas, resultados anteriores da coorte de descendentes do Framingham Heart Study demonstraram que um hist&#243;rico de DAC prematura estava associado a um aumento de duas vezes na probabilidade de doen&#231;a cardiovascular ap&#243;s o ajuste para fatores de risco cl&#237;nicos tradicionais. Isso sugere uma base heredit&#225;ria clara para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Avan&#231;os recentes na identifica&#231;&#227;o de dados gen&#244;micos, particularmente nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, apresentaram oportunidades significativas para o desenvolvimento de preditores gen&#233;ticos independentes. A elucida&#231;&#227;o da base gen&#233;tica de doen&#231;as, apoiada por estudos recentes que revelaram um aumento de quase duas vezes nos n&#237;veis de risco entre popula&#231;&#245;es com alto percentil de escore de risco, &#233; promissora para a integra&#231;&#227;o desses escores na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Essa integra&#231;&#227;o pode ser alcan&#231;ada pela incorpora&#231;&#227;o de escores de risco polig&#234;nico (PRSs, do ingl&#234;s <italic>polygenic risk scores</italic>) nos modelos de avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco existentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A presente revis&#227;o narrativa aborda a compreens&#227;o atual dos PRSs em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; DAC. Visamos destacar os benef&#237;cios e limita&#231;&#245;es potenciais dos PRSs para avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco de DAC, ao mesmo tempo em que consideramos a sua custo-efetividade.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Empregamos uma abordagem narrativa, permitindo uma s&#237;ntese qualitativa de estudos relevantes. As informa&#231;&#245;es extra&#237;das foram ent&#227;o organizadas para construir uma narrativa coesa sobre o papel de PRSs no contexto do diagn&#243;stico e manejo de DAC. Uma busca bibliogr&#225;fica no PubMed/MEDLINE foi realizada para estudos publicados desde o in&#237;cio at&#233; 26 de mar&#231;o de 2024. Foi utilizada a seguinte estrat&#233;gia de busca em ingl&#234;s: (polygenic risk scores OU genetic risk scores) e (coronary artery disease OU CAD). Realizamos uma busca manual nas listas de refer&#234;ncias de todos os estudos inclu&#237;dos para identificar outros artigos potenciais. Dos 1.017 artigos identificados, 19 foram inclu&#237;dos, compreendendo 15 estudos de coorte, 3 an&#225;lises de custo-efetividade e 1 diretriz.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Escores de risco polig&#234;nico &#8211; defini&#231;&#227;o e conceito</title>
        <p>O PRS &#233; uma soma calculada de alelos de risco portados por um indiv&#237;duo, servindo como uma ferramenta preditiva para avaliar o risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Resumidamente, PRSs s&#227;o medidas que quantificam a predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica de um indiv&#237;duo a uma doen&#231;a, considerando m&#250;ltiplas variantes gen&#233;ticas em todo o genoma. Esses escores integram informa&#231;&#245;es de um grande n&#250;mero de marcadores gen&#233;ticos, cada um contribuindo com uma pequena por&#231;&#227;o para o risco total. Sua constru&#231;&#227;o envolve o uso e a valida&#231;&#227;o de variantes de nucleot&#237;deo &#250;nico (SNVs, do ingl&#234;s <italic>single-nucleotide variants</italic>), representando altera&#231;&#245;es de um &#250;nico nucleot&#237;deo em uma posi&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica no genoma, obtidas principalmente a partir de estudos de associa&#231;&#227;o gen&#244;mica ampla (GWAS, do ingl&#234;s <italic>genome-wide association studies</italic>).</p>
        <p>Em termos mais simples, um PRS &#233; um algoritmo computacional que incorpora informa&#231;&#245;es derivadas de SNVs. Inicialmente, os escores de risco eram baseados em c&#225;lculos n&#227;o ponderados, mas essa abordagem foi substitu&#237;da por escores ponderados, reconhecendo os efeitos variados de SNVs individuais em doen&#231;as espec&#237;ficas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Os PRSs por si s&#243; n&#227;o levam em conta fatores cr&#237;ticos envolvidos no desenvolvimento de uma doen&#231;a espec&#237;fica, por exemplo, influ&#234;ncias ambientais. Portanto, deve ser considerado como um dos v&#225;rios riscos independentes contribuintes e n&#227;o pode prever definitivamente se um indiv&#237;duo desenvolver&#225; a doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Para fornecer contexto, &#233; essencial entender que, mesmo que um indiv&#237;duo possua uma forte predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica para o v&#237;cio em drogas, isso se torna irrelevante se ele nunca iniciar o uso de drogas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Constru&#231;&#227;o de Escores de Risco Polig&#234;nico</title>
        <p>Essencialmente, um PRS &#233; constru&#237;do com base em GWAS, usando polimorfismos de nucleot&#237;deo &#250;nico (SNPs, do ingl&#234;s <italic>single-nucleotide polymorphisms</italic>) genotipados. Cada SNP tem atributos, incluindo identificador, posi&#231;&#227;o, classifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, tamanho do efeito, medida de confian&#231;a e valor p. O c&#225;lculo do PRS envolve a soma de alelos de risco (0, 1 ou 2) de dados alvo, ponderados pelos tamanhos de efeito dos alelos de risco. Os tamanhos de efeito s&#227;o representados como log (<italic>odds ratio</italic>) para caracter&#237;sticas bin&#225;rias ou como declives de regress&#227;o para caracter&#237;sticas cont&#237;nuas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s identificar os SNPs e seus pesos, o PRS &#233; calculado somando suas contribui&#231;&#245;es. Um PRS mais alto indica uma predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica mais alta, enquanto pontua&#231;&#245;es mais baixas sugerem um risco menor.</p>
        <p>PRSs ponderados s&#227;o prefer&#237;veis devido &#224; melhor precis&#227;o preditiva em rela&#231;&#227;o aos PRSs n&#227;o ponderados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> O limiar de valor p escolhido determina o n&#250;mero de SNPs em um modelo de PRS, impactando a sensibilidade e a especificidade na predi&#231;&#227;o. Portanto, &#233; comum testar diferentes tamanhos de PRS com v&#225;rios limites de valor p durante o desenvolvimento.</p>
        <p>Outra considera&#231;&#227;o crucial &#233; avaliar se as variantes no modelo est&#227;o em desequil&#237;brio de liga&#231;&#227;o (LD, do ingl&#234;s <italic>linkage disequilibrium</italic>), indicando co-heran&#231;a. O ajuste de LD ajuda a evitar a super-representa&#231;&#227;o de variantes gen&#233;ticas em regi&#245;es de alto LD, sendo essencial para o desempenho dos PRSs. Ferramentas computacionais modernas como LDPred e meta-genetic risk score (metaGRS) abordam isso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Por exemplo, metaGRS oferece melhor discrimina&#231;&#227;o de risco em compara&#231;&#227;o com calculadoras mais antigas baseadas em SNPs selecionados, capturando uma propor&#231;&#227;o maior de herdabilidade de DAC, em torno de 27%, com melhorias significativas na previs&#227;o de risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O pr&#243;ximo passo trata de identificar o modelo de PRS ideal testando v&#225;rios limiares de valor p e avaliando diferentes modelos por meio de estudos de associa&#231;&#227;o. O escore com melhor desempenho &#233; ent&#227;o validado usando medidas epidemiol&#243;gicas padr&#227;o, como <italic>odds ratios</italic> ou <italic>hazards ratios</italic> por desvio padr&#227;o (DP) de mudan&#231;a no PRS (para doen&#231;as bin&#225;rias), a propor&#231;&#227;o de varia&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica explicada (R2 ou pseudo-R2), a &#225;rea sob a curva ROC (<italic>receiver operator characteristic</italic>) ou estat&#237;stica C e o valor p de associa&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Essa abordagem permite a classifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos nas categorias de baixo, intermedi&#225;rio ou alto risco. Indiv&#237;duos com menos polimorfismos relacionados &#224; doen&#231;a geralmente se enquadram na categoria de baixo risco. &#201; importante observar que os PRSs podem variar entre diferentes doen&#231;as e popula&#231;&#245;es. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref> resume os aspectos essenciais de uma an&#225;lise de PRS.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Aspectos essenciais de uma an&#225;lise de escore de risco polig&#234;nico. AUC: &#225;rea sob a curva ROC (receiver operator characteristic); GWAS: estudos de associa&#231;&#227;o gen&#244;mica ampla; LD: desequil&#237;brio de liga&#231;&#227;o; PRS: escore de risco polig&#234;nico; SNP: polimorfismos de nucleot&#237;deo &#250;nico.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240252-40252-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica para doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</title>
        <p>Fatores gen&#233;ticos contribuem significativamente para o desenvolvimento de DAC, com evid&#234;ncias que datam da d&#233;cada de 1950, quando destacaram a import&#226;ncia de fatores heredit&#225;rios a esse respeito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, cerca de um ter&#231;o dos pacientes com DAC apresentam hist&#243;rico familiar positivo, correlacionando-se com um risco aproximadamente 1,5 vez maior de DAC ao longo de suas vidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>Um estudo em larga escala do Framingham Heart Study envolvendo mais de 2.300 homens e mulheres com idade m&#233;dia de 44 anos mostrou um risco significativamente maior de eventos cardiovasculares para indiv&#237;duos com um genitor que teve doen&#231;a cardiovascular de in&#237;cio precoce (pai antes dos 55 anos, m&#227;e antes dos 65 anos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Esse achado se alinha ao conceito de que um hist&#243;rico familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular de in&#237;cio precoce (antes dos 50 anos) est&#225; associado a um risco maior de morte por DAC. Um estudo recente de Taylor et al. oferece corrobora&#231;&#227;o adicional, com mais de 6.200 participantes acompanhados por uma m&#233;dia de 15 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Em seu estudo, mais de 40% dos participantes tinham pelo menos um dos genitores com hist&#243;rico de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, enquanto pouco mais da metade n&#227;o tinha hist&#243;rico familiar conhecido. Os resultados demonstraram que o hist&#243;rico familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular aumentou o risco de desenvolver doen&#231;a cardiovascular futura em 1,7 vez (<italic>hazard ratio</italic> [HR]: 1,71; intervalo de confian&#231;a [IC] de 95%, 1,33 a 2,21; p &lt; 0,001).</p>
        <p>Ademais, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o hist&#243;rico parental de DAC e o risco de desenvolver a doen&#231;a foi coletada pela associa&#231;&#227;o observada entre DAC e outros fatores de risco comuns, como press&#227;o alta, n&#237;veis elevados de colesterol e tabagismo. Tamb&#233;m foram encontradas evid&#234;ncias que sugerem uma correla&#231;&#227;o entre hist&#243;rico familiar de DAC e marcadores de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica (por exemplo, c&#225;lcio da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria, espessura &#237;ntima da car&#243;tida e fun&#231;&#227;o vascular), mesmo ap&#243;s a considera&#231;&#227;o de fatores de risco tradicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Isso sugere que esses indiv&#237;duos podem ser identificados como fortes candidatos para avalia&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a cardiovascular subcl&#237;nica, auxiliando assim na melhoria das metas de tratamento e manejo de risco.</p>
        <p>Esses dados sugerem que o hist&#243;rico familiar de DAC &#233; significativo como um fator de risco que deve ser avaliado em conjunto com outros fatores de risco reconhecidos ao determinar a probabilidade de desenvolver DAC.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Escores de Risco Polig&#234;nico como ferramenta complementar na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Identifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos em risco de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</title>
          <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos em preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria que apresentam alto risco de DAC &#233; crucial, pois permite melhor triagem ou terapias preventivas. O reconhecimento do risco cardiovascular representa o primeiro passo para determinar a abordagem do tratamento individual para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria. Nesse contexto, v&#225;rias ferramentas foram criadas para auxiliar nessa avalia&#231;&#227;o, incluindo PRSs.</p>
          <p>Tikkanen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> desenvolveram um escore de risco gen&#233;tico e avaliaram sua correla&#231;&#227;o com eventos de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares incidentes ao longo de 12 anos. Analisando 28 variantes gen&#233;ticas associadas &#224; DAC em uma amostra de mais de 24.000 indiv&#237;duos de 4 coortes prospectivas populacionais, os autores compararam o escore de risco gen&#233;tico com fatores de risco convencionais e hist&#243;rico familiar. O estudo revelou que o escore de risco gen&#233;tico aumentou significativamente a capacidade de prever o risco de DAC para novos eventos. Indiv&#237;duos entre os 10% mais altos no escore de risco gen&#233;tico, com base em 28 SNPs apresentaram um aumento de duas vezes no risco de DAC em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles entre os 20% do meio.</p>
          <p>No estudo de Khera et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> foi calculado um conjunto de PRS em todo o genoma usando o algoritmo LDPred para v&#225;rias doen&#231;as, incluindo DAC. O 1% mais alto na distribui&#231;&#227;o das 6,6 milh&#245;es de variantes de PRS teve quase cinco vezes mais chances de desenvolver DAC (<italic>odds ratio</italic>: 4,83; IC de 95%, 4,25 a 5,46). A <italic>odds ratio</italic> foi calculada comparando aqueles com escores polig&#234;nicos elevados em todo o genoma (um preditor quantitativo de risco herdado) com o resto da popula&#231;&#227;o em um modelo de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica ajustado para idade, sexo, matriz de genotipagem e os quatro primeiros componentes principais da ancestralidade. Inouye et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> realizaram uma metan&#225;lise de aproximadamente 500.000 indiv&#237;duos para desenvolver um escore de risco gen&#244;mico para DAC com base em mais de 1,7 milh&#227;o de variantes gen&#233;ticas. Os autores verificaram que essas variantes eram respons&#225;veis por 26,8% da herdabilidade da doen&#231;a. Ademais, seus resultados revelaram que indiv&#237;duos classificados no quintil superior do PRS (entre os 20% mais altos) apresentaram um risco quatro vezes maior de DAC (HR: 4,17) em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles entre os 20% mais baixos. O estudo tamb&#233;m demonstrou que o escore de risco gen&#244;mico combinado provou ser um preditor mais confi&#225;vel de DAC em compara&#231;&#227;o com v&#225;rios fatores de risco bem estabelecidos, incluindo colesterol alto e hipertens&#227;o. Tanto o escore polig&#234;nico de todo o genoma quanto o escore metaGRS foram validados na popula&#231;&#227;o franco-canadense.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Os autores confirmaram que os PRSs foram capazes de identificar aproximadamente 6% a 7% da popula&#231;&#227;o com risco igual ou maior de DAC do que portadores de uma muta&#231;&#227;o monog&#234;nica de hipercolesterolemia familiar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Esses resultados significativos ressaltam as capacidades preditivas complementares do PRS juntamente com os fatores de risco estabelecidos para DAC, em vez de promover sua substitui&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Lu et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> desenvolveram um PRS com 540 variantes gen&#233;ticas para DAC, avaliando sua utilidade cl&#237;nica na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria em um conjunto de treinamento com 2.800 casos de DAC e 2.055 controles. Durante um acompanhamento m&#233;dio de 13 anos, 1.303 casos incidentes de DAC foram identificados. Aqueles com PRS elevado (entre os 20% mais altos) tiveram um risco aproximadamente 3 vezes maior de DAC em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles entre os 20% mais baixos (HR: 2,91; IC de 95%, 2,43 a 3,49). Adicionar o PRS ao escore de risco cl&#237;nico resultou em uma melhora modesta, mas significativa, na estat&#237;stica C (1%) e uma melhora ajustada na reclassifica&#231;&#227;o (3,5%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Esse estudo destacou o potencial consider&#225;vel de identificar indiv&#237;duos de alto risco para interven&#231;&#245;es direcionadas na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
          <p>Um PRS extremamente elevado para DAC tamb&#233;m pode desempenhar um papel importante na terapia precoce com estatina. Mega et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> investigaram a associa&#231;&#227;o entre um escore de risco baseado em 27 variantes gen&#233;ticas e a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos de DAC novos ou recorrentes, considerando preditores cl&#237;nicos. Os pesquisadores coletaram dados de uma coorte baseada na comunidade e quatro grandes ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados (JUPITER, ASCOT, CARE e PROVE IT-TIME 22), envolvendo mais de 48.000 indiv&#237;duos e quase 3.500 eventos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Entre os indiv&#237;duos nas popula&#231;&#245;es de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, riscos mais altos de incid&#234;ncia de DAC foram observados nas categorias de risco gen&#233;tico intermedi&#225;rio e alto, com taxas de risco de 1,31 e 1,72, respectivamente, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a categoria de baixo risco gen&#233;tico (p &lt; 0,0001 para ambos). &#201; interessante notar que o estudo tamb&#233;m verificou que a terapia com estatina reduziu significativamente o risco relativo de eventos na categoria de alto risco gen&#233;tico em compara&#231;&#227;o com a categoria de baixo risco (48% versus 13%, respectivamente). Al&#233;m disso, um aumento de tr&#234;s vezes no n&#250;mero necess&#225;rio para tratar (NNT) foi observado nos estudos de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria entre indiv&#237;duos nas categorias de risco gen&#233;tico mais alto e aqueles na categoria de risco gen&#233;tico mais baixo. Especificamente, entre os participantes do ensaio JUPITER inscritos na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, o NNT para prevenir um evento cardiovascular isqu&#234;mico ao longo de 10 anos foi de 66, 42 e 25 para indiv&#237;duos nos grupos de pontua&#231;&#227;o de risco gen&#233;tico baixo, intermedi&#225;rio e alto, respectivamente. Esses achados destacam que indiv&#237;duos com maior risco gen&#233;tico para DAC recebem os benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos mais significativos do uso de estatinas. Al&#233;m disso, o estudo de Tada et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> indica uma vantagem potencialmente maior na utiliza&#231;&#227;o de PRS para indiv&#237;duos jovens. Nessa pesquisa, a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de 23 SNPs em um PRS aumentou a previs&#227;o do risco de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica com um acompanhamento mediano de 14,4 anos, independentemente do hist&#243;rico familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular autorrelatada. O estudo envolveu 23.595 participantes do Malm&#246; Diet and Cancer Study, um estudo prospectivo de base populacional.</p>
          <p>Outro estudo baseado em achados sobre as estatinas e a DAC demonstrou que um PRS para DAC tinha uma capacidade preditiva mais forte em indiv&#237;duos mais jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> O PRS para DAC consistia em 241 varia&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas significativas distribu&#237;das pelo genoma. Para estimar o risco de doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica em 10 anos, os pesquisadores empregaram equa&#231;&#245;es de coorte agrupadas, que classificaram os indiv&#237;duos em categorias de risco baixo (&lt; 5%), lim&#237;trofe (5 a &lt; 7,5%), intermedi&#225;rio (7,5 a &lt; 20%) ou alto (&#8805; 20%). A an&#225;lise revelou uma forte associa&#231;&#227;o entre o PRS para DAC e o risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio em todas as faixas et&#225;rias. Entretanto, o poder preditivo foi notavelmente mais robusto em indiv&#237;duos mais jovens (idade &lt; 50 anos: HR por 1 DP de PRS, 1,72; IC de 95%, 1,56 a 1,89; idade de 50 a 60 anos: HR, 1,46; IC de 95%, 1,38 a 1,53; idade &gt; 60 anos: HR, 1,42; IC de 95%, 1,37 a 1,48; p para intera&#231;&#227;o &lt; 0,001). Em pacientes com menos de 50 anos, aqueles com PRS alto apresentaram um risco tr&#234;s a quatro vezes maior de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles na categoria de PRS baixo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Consistente com esses achados, um estudo que incluiu participantes do ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado controlado de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria com terapia com estatina (WOSCOPS; N = 4.910) e dois estudos de coorte observacionais (CARDIA e BioImage; N = 1.154 e N = 4.392, respectivamente)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> relatou que indiv&#237;duos com alto risco gen&#233;tico tinham uma carga maior de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica e obtiveram maiores benef&#237;cios relativos e absolutos da terapia com estatina para prevenir um primeiro evento de DAC. Al&#233;m disso, a Diretriz Americana para Preven&#231;&#227;o Prim&#225;ria de DAC recomenda terapia preventiva com estatina para indiv&#237;duos portadores de uma muta&#231;&#227;o rara de hipercolesterolemia familiar monog&#234;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Resultados de um estudo envolvendo uma coorte do mundo real em preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria apoiam a racionaliza&#231;&#227;o do uso de PRS para CAD como uma ferramenta de medicina de precis&#227;o para otimizar ainda mais o equil&#237;brio risco-benef&#237;cio da terapia com estatina em combina&#231;&#227;o com fatores de risco tradicionais para doen&#231;a cardiovascular. A magnitude da efic&#225;cia da estatina tornou-se progressivamente mais robusta em grupos com PRS baixo (quintil 1; HR: 0,67; IC de 95%, 0,47 a 0,97), intermedi&#225;rio (quintis 2 a 4; HR: 0,56; IC de 95%, 0,47 a 0,66) e alto (quintil 5; HR: 0,41; IC de 95%, 0,31 a 0,53), com um benef&#237;cio menor das estatinas no grupo com PRS baixo (p = 0,01 comparando alto versus baixo).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Finalmente, um estudo de aut&#243;psia investigou as conex&#245;es entre o PRS e a gravidade da aterosclerose em um n&#237;vel histopatol&#243;gico em indiv&#237;duos que sofreram morte s&#250;bita. Ao analisar uma amostra composta por mais de 900 casos, com idade m&#233;dia de 48 anos, os autores verificaram que aqueles no quintil mais alto do PRS tinham aterosclerose mais grave em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles no quintil mais baixo, bem como maior incid&#234;ncia de calcifica&#231;&#227;o e fibroateroma de capa fina, todos achados com signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Mesmo ap&#243;s o ajuste para fatores de risco tradicionais de DAC, aqueles no quintil mais alto do PRS tinham maiores chances de ter aterosclerose grave (definida como estenose &#8805; 75%; <italic>odds ratio</italic> ajustada: 3,8; IC de 95%, 2,1 a 6,8; p &lt; 0,001) e ruptura de placa (<italic>odds ratio</italic> ajustada: 4,1; IC de 95%, 2,3 a 7,2; p &lt; 0,001). Ademais, indiv&#237;duos no quintil mais alto tinham maior probabilidade de ter causas de morte associadas &#224; DAC, especialmente entre pessoas mais jovens (idade &#8804; 50 anos; <italic>odds ratio</italic> ajustada: 4,1; IC de 95%, 2,0 a 8,3; p &lt; 0,001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Esses resultados fornecem evid&#234;ncias s&#243;lidas de uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre PRS e aterosclerose avan&#231;ada, sugerindo que o PRS pode servir como uma ferramenta valiosa para estratificar o risco de DAC, especialmente em popula&#231;&#245;es mais jovens.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Escores de Risco Polig&#234;nico na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</title>
      <p>A preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca coron&#225;ria visa prevenir a recorr&#234;ncia de eventos coron&#225;rios. Um alto grau de ades&#227;o a medidas de preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria, especialmente mudan&#231;as intensivas no estilo de vida e uso de medicamentos, pode resultar em uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na incid&#234;ncia de eventos coron&#225;rios recorrentes. O PRS, por sua vez, tamb&#233;m pode fornecer uma estrat&#233;gia valiosa para auxiliar na identifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de um novo evento cardiovascular.</p>
      <p>Uma coorte do UK Biobank, compreendendo mais de 7.000 adultos de meia-idade (idade m&#233;dia: 62 anos) diagnosticados com DAC estabelecida, foi monitorada por uma dura&#231;&#227;o mediana de aproximadamente 12 anos. Essa investiga&#231;&#227;o identificou o PRS de DAC (&#237;ndice C: 0,58; IC de 95%, 0,57 a 0,59) como um dos preditores mais robustos de recorr&#234;ncia de DAC. Tanto o hist&#243;rico de um evento de DAC prematuro inicial quanto um elevado PRS para DAC foram fatores de risco significativos e mutuamente refor&#231;adores para DAC recorrente. &#201; importante notar que o PRS para DAC mostrou uma associa&#231;&#227;o independente com um risco 12% maior de eventos de DAC recorrentes (HR: 1,12; IC de 95%, 1,05 a 1,19).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Conforme destacado em um editorial, &#233; importante ressaltar certas limita&#231;&#245;es inerentes a esse estudo. Em primeiro lugar, os modelos empregados n&#227;o tinham uma avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, da presen&#231;a de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou doen&#231;a valvar concomitante, da extens&#227;o anat&#244;mica da DAC e da carga de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica associada em outros leitos vasculares. A incorpora&#231;&#227;o dessas vari&#225;veis seria capaz de melhorar significativamente a previs&#227;o de risco. Ademais, embora a inclus&#227;o do PRS tenha contribu&#237;do para um &#237;ndice C geral modesto de 0,676, a capacidade discriminat&#243;ria exibiu apenas uma melhora limitada e incremental em compara&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de risco tradicionais sozinhos (&#237;ndice C de 0,644).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Mesmo com as limita&#231;&#245;es descritas, esses achados enfatizam o potencial do escore de risco gen&#233;tico tanto na previs&#227;o quanto na preven&#231;&#227;o de DAC futura.</p>
      <p>Em uma coorte de 1.776 pacientes chineses com DAC que foram acompanhados por at&#233; 11 anos, a suscetibilidade gen&#233;tica &#224; DAC e seus fatores de risco tradicionais (por exemplo, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, angina, diabetes e colesterol LDL) foram avaliados para prever a morte por todas as causas. Os resultados mostraram que a integra&#231;&#227;o do metaPRS para DAC e seus fatores de risco foi significativamente associada &#224; mortalidade. Nesse estudo, os participantes foram divididos em tr&#234;s grupos com base nos quartis dos escores do metaPRS. Pacientes com DAC no terceiro quartil apresentaram uma incid&#234;ncia cumulativa significativamente maior de mortalidade por todas as causas em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles no primeiro quartil (HR: 3,99; IC de 95%, 2,4 a 6,6) por aumento de DP (p = 9,10 &#215; 10<sup>8</sup>). Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com DAC e valores intermedi&#225;rios de metaPRS tamb&#233;m apresentaram uma incid&#234;ncia cumulativa significativamente maior de mortalidade por todas as causas em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles no primeiro quartil (HR: 2,18; IC de 95%, 1,3 a 3,6) por aumento de DP (p = 2,10 &#215; 10<sup>3</sup>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Por sua vez, Howe et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> realizaram um estudo para investigar se o PRS seria capaz de estratificar o risco de eventos subsequentes em sobreviventes de um evento card&#237;aco isqu&#234;mico. Os pesquisadores analisaram duas subamostras do UK Biobank: indiv&#237;duos com casos prevalentes de DAC (N = 10.287) e indiv&#237;duos sem DAC (N = 393.108) como linha de base. O estudo revelou uma diferen&#231;a significativa nas associa&#231;&#245;es entre o PRS para DAC e eventos cardiovasculares para indiv&#237;duos com e sem DAC anterior. No grupo sem DAC, houve forte evid&#234;ncia de uma associa&#231;&#227;o positiva entre o PRS para DAC e um aumento de 33% no risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, enquanto o aumento foi de 15% no grupo com DAC. Consequentemente, a utilidade do PRS parece diminuir em indiv&#237;duos submetidos &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria. Outros autores, incluindo Thompson et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m encontraram sucesso limitado na previs&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares futuros (ao longo de um per&#237;odo de acompanhamento de 10 anos) usando escores de risco gen&#233;tico em pacientes com hist&#243;rico de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda. Esses autores utilizaram SNPs espec&#237;ficos associados &#224; doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica prevalente ou incidente em GWAS, bem como escores de risco gen&#233;tico de 27 SNPs validados com base nessas variantes. As raz&#245;es subjacentes para essas discrep&#226;ncias continuam sem esclarecimento, e pesquisas adicionais s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para determinar a verdadeira contribui&#231;&#227;o dos escores de risco gen&#233;tico na previs&#227;o de risco futuro entre indiv&#237;duos que j&#225; sofreram um evento cardiovascular.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Custo-efetividade</title>
      <p>Como a aplica&#231;&#227;o dos PRSs pode aumentar consideravelmente em todo o mundo nas pr&#243;ximas d&#233;cadas, um tema importante a ser abordado &#233; a custo-efetividade da sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o. Portanto, &#233; vital que a aplica&#231;&#227;o do PRS, al&#233;m de ser eficaz, seja custo-efetiva o suficiente para permitir seu uso em grande escala.</p>
      <p>Kiflen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup>investigaram a rela&#231;&#227;o custo-efetividade do PRS em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; terapia com estatina, utilizando uma coorte do UK Biobank (N = 96.111; descend&#234;ncia branca e brit&#226;nica) com risco intermedi&#225;rio de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, acompanhada durante pelo menos 10 anos. A an&#225;lise do caso-base, com um custo de genotipagem de US$ 70, resultou em uma rela&#231;&#227;o custo-efetividade incremental de US$ 172.906 por ano de vida ajustado pela qualidade. Na an&#225;lise de sensibilidade probabil&#237;stica, a interven&#231;&#227;o apresentou uma probabilidade de aproximadamente 50% de ser custo-efetiva a US$ 179.100 por ano de vida ajustado pela qualidade. Esse estudo sugere que incorporar o PRS juntamente com as diretrizes existentes pode ser custo-efetiva para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Maior previsibilidade combinada com um custo reduzido do PRS poderia melhorar ainda mais a rela&#231;&#227;o custo-efetividade, fornecendo uma base econ&#244;mica para sua inclus&#227;o no atendimento cl&#237;nico.</p>
      <p>Outro estudo envolvendo indiv&#237;duos de 40 a 75 anos nos Estados Unidos revelou que a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de um PRS para CAD em um programa de preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares no local de trabalho provou ser custo-efetiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> A an&#225;lise mostrou que a inclus&#227;o do PRS para CAD incorreu em custos adicionais de mais de US$ 53 por funcion&#225;rio examinado em compara&#231;&#227;o ao programa de preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular no local de trabalho sem o PRS para CAD, e mais de US$ 575 em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; aus&#234;ncia de um programa de sa&#250;de no local de trabalho. Os autores consequentemente afirmam que a integra&#231;&#227;o de testes polig&#234;nicos em um programa de preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular no local de trabalho n&#227;o apenas melhora a qualidade de vida dos funcion&#225;rios, mas tamb&#233;m diminui simultaneamente os custos de sa&#250;de e atenua as perdas financeiras de produtividade para os empregadores. Os mesmos pesquisadores verificaram que considerar um escore de risco gen&#233;tico (CAD-PRS) para doen&#231;as card&#237;acas levou a melhores resultados em compara&#231;&#227;o ao uso isolado de uma ferramenta de avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco padr&#227;o. Os pesquisadores observaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o nos custos de sa&#250;de por pessoa, melhor qualidade de vida e menos casos de DAC e acidente vascular cerebral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es e &#225;reas de incerteza</title>
      <p>Apesar de representar uma &#225;rea promissora e em r&#225;pida expans&#227;o, os PRSs n&#227;o est&#227;o isentos de limita&#231;&#245;es, particularmente no que diz respeito &#224; sua validade externa devido ao foco predominante em indiv&#237;duos de ascend&#234;ncia europeia. A heterogeneidade entre diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es em todo o mundo dificulta a generaliza&#231;&#227;o dos PRSs e sua utilidade em diversos grupos de ancestralidade, o que pode sub-representar certas popula&#231;&#245;es, diminuindo assim a utilidade dos PRSs e limitando a aplicabilidade das ferramentas de previs&#227;o de risco.</p>
      <p>Um desafio fundamental &#233; a varia&#231;&#227;o potencial na frequ&#234;ncia e nos efeitos das variantes gen&#233;ticas em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es. Isso &#233; apoiado por achados de pesquisas anteriores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, popula&#231;&#245;es com alto grau de mistura, ou mistura de origens ancestrais, tendem a ter maior diversidade gen&#233;tica. Essa complexidade pode dificultar ainda mais a precis&#227;o dos PRSs. Para abordar essas quest&#245;es e melhorar a precis&#227;o, &#233; essencial aumentar a diversidade de participantes na pesquisa gen&#244;mica e desenvolver modelos que levem em conta as varia&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas espec&#237;ficas dentro de cada grupo populacional.</p>
      <p>Consequentemente, conduzir estudos adicionais aplicando PRSs em popula&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o europeias torna-se imperativo para confirmar ou refutar o papel como um preditor de risco cardiovascular futuro nesses grupos. Uma revis&#227;o cienciom&#233;trica por Mills e Rahal revelou uma tend&#234;ncia preocupante: embora a diversidade ancestral entre os participantes do GWAS tenha aumentado ao longo do tempo, disparidades significativas permanecem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Mesmo em 2017, impressionantes 88% dos participantes eram de ascend&#234;ncia europeia. Al&#233;m disso, um foco geogr&#225;fico estreito persiste, com 72% das descobertas baseadas em estudos conduzidos em apenas tr&#234;s pa&#237;ses: Estados Unidos, Reino Unido e Isl&#226;ndia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Essas descobertas levantam preocupa&#231;&#245;es sobre um potencial &#8220;ciclo de desvantagem&#8221; para popula&#231;&#245;es sub-representadas. Apesar dos esfor&#231;os cont&#237;nuos, Mills e Rahal enfatizam o desafio cont&#237;nuo de aumentar a diversidade na pesquisa gen&#244;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Outros pesquisadores ecoam esse sentimento, destacando a necessidade cr&#237;tica de pol&#237;ticas e pr&#225;ticas que promovam uma inclus&#227;o mais ampla dos participantes. Isso &#233; essencial para maximizar o impacto global da pesquisa gen&#233;tica e da medicina de precis&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Um estudo recente de Patel et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> oferece not&#237;cias promissoras para abordar essa limita&#231;&#227;o fundamental. Os pesquisadores desenvolveram um novo escore gen&#233;tico para DAC integrando dados de associa&#231;&#227;o de todo o genoma com informa&#231;&#245;es de um conjunto diversificado de mais de 269.000 casos de DAC em v&#225;rias ascend&#234;ncias. Esse escore superou significativamente todos os PRSs para DAC existentes em an&#225;lises que inclu&#237;ram indiv&#237;duos de v&#225;rias etnias. Mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para replicar esses achados.</p>
      <p>Outra limita&#231;&#227;o dos PRSs &#233; que caracter&#237;sticas complexas s&#227;o influenciadas por in&#250;meras varia&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas comuns, cada uma com efeitos individuais m&#237;nimos. Essas variantes geralmente est&#227;o em LD com SNPs n&#227;o causais pr&#243;ximos, dificultando a distin&#231;&#227;o entre elas. Para enfrentar esse desafio, Zheng et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> desenvolveram recentemente um modelo chamado SBayesRC. Esse modelo aplica anota&#231;&#245;es gen&#244;micas funcionais de SNPs candidatos, incorporando informa&#231;&#245;es biol&#243;gicas para diferenciar variantes causais prov&#225;veis daquelas irrelevantes. Notavelmente, o SBayesRC demonstrou uma melhora significativa na precis&#227;o da previs&#227;o. Conseguiu um aumento de 14% para 28 caracter&#237;sticas e doen&#231;as complexas, e uma melhoria ainda maior, de 34%, na previs&#227;o m&#233;dia de ancestralidade para 18 caracter&#237;sticas bem estudadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, &#233; importante reconhecer que v&#225;rios fatores de risco que contribuem para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares est&#227;o al&#233;m do escopo dos escores polig&#234;nicos. Embora os PRSs possam estimar o risco de doen&#231;a, eles podem n&#227;o identificar com precis&#227;o os indiv&#237;duos que permanecer&#227;o saud&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A acur&#225;cia preditiva dos PRSs pode variar significativamente com base em fatores como sexo e idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um estudo recente sugere que a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de determinantes sociais da sa&#250;de, fatores de estilo de vida e PRS em avalia&#231;&#245;es de risco pode melhorar significativamente a previs&#227;o de DAC em compara&#231;&#227;o ao uso isolado do PRS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Pesquisadores usando dados do UK Biobank verificaram que escores tanto de PRS quanto de determinantes sociais de sa&#250;de estavam correlacionadas com o risco cl&#237;nico de DAC. Por&#233;m, uma medida combinada superou significativamente ambos os escores individuais. Ao analisar dados de mais de 471.000 indiv&#237;duos inicialmente saud&#225;veis, o estudo mostrou que a combina&#231;&#227;o desses fatores levou a uma melhor previs&#227;o do risco de DAC, permitindo interven&#231;&#245;es preventivas mais precoces.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Apesar de sua contribui&#231;&#227;o potencial para a compreens&#227;o do desenvolvimento de DAC, os determinantes sociais da sa&#250;de e os PRSs ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o inclu&#237;dos nos modelos atuais de previs&#227;o de risco. Ademais, a extens&#227;o das disparidades entre os PRSs e outras abordagens importantes, como hist&#243;rico m&#233;dico familiar, ainda carece de clareza. Por fim, a aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica atual dos modelos de PRS &#233; limitada &#224; identifica&#231;&#227;o de popula&#231;&#245;es de alto risco determinadas por percentis superiores de suscetibilidade gen&#233;tica.</p>
      <p>Young et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> identificaram varia&#231;&#245;es ambientais como outro fator que pode limitar a precis&#227;o dos PRSs. Essas varia&#231;&#245;es ambientais podem interagir com genes, fazendo com que os tamanhos de efeito das variantes gen&#233;ticas flutuem. Para abordar essa limita&#231;&#227;o, os pesquisadores enfatizam a import&#226;ncia de desconstruir os sinais de GWAS. Ao separar esses sinais, podemos identificar os componentes que levam a previs&#245;es mais generaliz&#225;veis, ou seja, previs&#245;es mais precisas em diferentes ambientes. Al&#233;m disso, conforme afirmado pela American Heart Association,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> &#233; crucial que a utilidade dos PRSs seja equilibrada e respons&#225;vel, levando em considera&#231;&#227;o quaisquer riscos potenciais. Como a maioria dos estudos estima o progn&#243;stico ou os efeitos do tratamento usando an&#225;lises retrospectivas, a estima&#231;&#227;o dos danos potenciais ainda representa um desafio. Andreoli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> realizaram uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica investigando as considera&#231;&#245;es &#233;ticas em torno do uso cl&#237;nico dos PRSs. A an&#225;lise dos autores identificou v&#225;rias preocupa&#231;&#245;es importantes que merecem aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; medida que esses escores s&#227;o integrados &#224; pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica. Uma preocupa&#231;&#227;o central envolve o desenvolvimento de pol&#237;ticas e pr&#225;ticas cl&#237;nicas que garantam acesso equitativo aos benef&#237;cios potenciais dos PRSs para todos os pacientes. Al&#233;m disso, os autores destacam o risco potencial dos PRSs exacerbar as disparidades de sa&#250;de existentes.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</title>
      <p>Conforme discutido nas se&#231;&#245;es anteriores, o uso de PRSs &#233; promissor tanto para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria quanto secund&#225;ria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>), mas h&#225; diferen&#231;as entre elas, como ser&#225; discutido abaixo. Um resumo dos estudos inclu&#237;dos na presente revis&#227;o &#233; apresentado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas dos estudos inclu&#237;dos e seus achados principais</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="17%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Estudo</th>
                <th>Ano</th>
                <th>Desenho</th>
                <th>Regi&#227;o</th>
                <th>Participantes (N)</th>
                <th>Achados principais</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>W&#252;nnemann et al.<sup>15</sup></td>
                <td align="center">2019</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Am&#233;rica do Norte</td>
                <td align="center">11.021</td>
                <td align="center">Dois PRS foram eficazes na identifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos franco-canadenses com alto risco de desenvolver DAC.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tikkanen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2013</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">24.124</td>
                <td align="center">A incorpora&#231;&#227;o de informa&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas na avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco melhorou a preven&#231;&#227;o e o manejo de DAC</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Khera et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2018</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">288.978</td>
                <td align="center">Indiv&#237;duos no 1% mais alto da distribui&#231;&#227;o do PRS para mais de 6 milh&#245;es de variantes tiveram quase 5 vezes mais probabilidade de desenvolver DAC.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Inouye et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2018</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">482.629</td>
                <td align="center">A previs&#227;o de risco gen&#244;mico pode identificar efetivamente indiv&#237;duos com alto risco de desenvolver DAC.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lu et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2022</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">China</td>
                <td align="center">41.271</td>
                <td align="center">O uso de um PRS melhorou significativamente a identifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com alto risco de desenvolver DAC na popula&#231;&#227;o chinesa.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mega et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2015</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">48.421</td>
                <td align="center">Indiv&#237;duos com maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica a eventos coron&#225;rios apresentaram maior redu&#231;&#227;o no risco quando tratados com estatinas.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tada et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2021</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">23.595</td>
                <td align="center">PRS foi capaz de avaliar com precis&#227;o o risco de DAC sem considerar o hist&#243;rico familiar, ressaltando sua utilidade como uma ferramenta independente de previs&#227;o de risco.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marston et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2023</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">330.201</td>
                <td align="center">O uso de um PRS para DAC previu efetivamente o risco em estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Natarajan et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2017</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">4.392</td>
                <td align="center">O uso de PRS identificou um subgrupo de indiv&#237;duos com maior carga de aterosclerose que podem se beneficiar mais da terapia com estatinas para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Oni-Orisan et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2022</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Am&#233;rica do Norte</td>
                <td align="center">32.196</td>
                <td align="center">Indiv&#237;duos com PRS mais alto apresentaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o mais significativa no risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio com o uso de estatina em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles com PRS mais baixo.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cornelissen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2024</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Am&#233;rica do Norte</td>
                <td align="center">954</td>
                <td align="center">Indiv&#237;duos com PRS mais alto tenderam a desenvolver placas ateroscler&#243;ticas mais extensas e complexas, caracterizadas por caracter&#237;sticas mais desfavor&#225;veis, incluindo uma maior propens&#227;o &#224; ruptura.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cho et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2023</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">7.024</td>
                <td align="center">Fatores gen&#233;ticos interagiram com estilo de vida e fatores cl&#237;nicos, influenciando a probabilidade de recorr&#234;ncia de eventos coron&#225;rios.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Qin et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2024</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">China</td>
                <td align="center">1.776</td>
                <td align="center">Indiv&#237;duos asi&#225;ticos com PRS mais alto apresentaram um risco mais alto de mortalidade por todas as causas.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Howe et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2020</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">403.395</td>
                <td align="center">O PRS ajudou a identificar pacientes com DAC estabelecida que tinham maior probabilidade de apresentar eventos adicionais.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Thompson et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2022</td>
                <td align="center">Coorte</td>
                <td align="center">Oceania</td>
                <td align="center">4.932</td>
                <td align="center">Variantes gen&#233;ticas n&#227;o previram significativamente a ocorr&#234;ncia de DAC ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Kiflen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2022</td>
                <td align="center">Custo-efetividade</td>
                <td align="center">Europa</td>
                <td align="center">96.116</td>
                <td align="center">O uso de PRS para orientar a terapia com estatina foi custo-efetivo em compara&#231;&#227;o com estrat&#233;gias baseadas apenas em fatores de risco tradicionais.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mujwara et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2023</td>
                <td align="center">Custo-efetividade</td>
                <td align="center">Am&#233;rica do Norte</td>
                <td align="center">47.108</td>
                <td align="center">A implementa&#231;&#227;o de um PRS em um programa de preven&#231;&#227;o no local de trabalho provou ser custo-efetiva.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mujwara et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> </td>
                <td align="center">2022</td>
                <td align="center">Custo-efetividade</td>
                <td align="center">Am&#233;rica do Norte</td>
                <td align="center">47.108</td>
                <td align="center">A integra&#231;&#227;o de um PRS como um fator de risco adicional em equa&#231;&#245;es de coorte agrupadas aumentou a acur&#225;cia da estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de DAC, mantendo custo-efetividade.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; PRS: escore de risco polig&#234;nico.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria da DAC, a aplica&#231;&#227;o de PRSs &#233; uma estrat&#233;gia racional, visando reduzir o risco do primeiro evento, o que, em teoria, caracterizaria o indiv&#237;duo como de menor risco. Nesse contexto, medidas preventivas personalizadas podem ser altamente eficazes, incluindo mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida e monitoramento m&#233;dico mais rigoroso. Por fim, o impacto potencial dos PRSs na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria &#233; significativo, pois permite interven&#231;&#245;es antes do desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a.</p>
      <p>Na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria, os PRSs ajudam a estratificar o risco em pacientes com DAC estabelecida, otimizando o tratamento e identificando aqueles com maior risco de eventos futuros. Isso permite medidas preventivas mais intensivas, como ajustes de tratamento ou acompanhamento frequente.</p>
      <p>Os PRSs s&#227;o promissores para revolucionar o atendimento aos pacientes por aprimorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e melhorar os desfechos cl&#237;nicos. No entanto, sua aplica&#231;&#227;o requer uma abordagem multifacetada. Primeiramente, considera&#231;&#245;es &#233;ticas e psicossociais exigem uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa. Em segundo lugar, os PRSs devem ser vistos como complementares aos fatores de risco estabelecidos e aos dados cl&#237;nicos. A integra&#231;&#227;o com essas ferramentas existentes facilitar&#225;, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, o desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias personalizadas de manejo de pacientes. Finalmente, a valida&#231;&#227;o rigorosa por meio de estudos prospectivos &#233; necess&#225;ria para confirmar a verdadeira efic&#225;cia dos PRSs.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Avan&#231;os consider&#225;veis t&#234;m sido feitos na &#225;rea da gen&#244;mica nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas. Os PRSs representam a combina&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;rios fatores de risco causais, em oposi&#231;&#227;o a um &#250;nico caminho que leva &#224; doen&#231;a. Indiv&#237;duos com risco gen&#233;tico aumentado para DAC, seja polig&#234;nica ou monog&#234;nica, podem se beneficiar de tratamentos e abordagens abrangentes de redu&#231;&#227;o de risco. A aplica&#231;&#227;o dos PRSs traz a possibilidade de quantificar o risco de um indiv&#237;duo desenvolver DAC, permitindo a preven&#231;&#227;o precoce e/ou o in&#237;cio de um tratamento espec&#237;fico. Ao contr&#225;rio dos altos custos inerentes a grandes ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados, o uso dos PRSs tem o potencial de permitir um enriquecimento preditivo ou progn&#243;stico substancial e pode ter um impacto profundo ao inaugurar uma nova era no desenvolvimento cl&#237;nico. Finalmente, os PRSs mostram-se promissores na preven&#231;&#227;o de DAC, abrangendo tanto a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria quanto a secund&#225;ria. No entanto, &#233; importante reconhecer as distin&#231;&#245;es entre essas duas aplica&#231;&#245;es para maximizar a efetividade dessa ferramenta.</p>
    </sec>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label/>
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <label/>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
        <label/>
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
        <label/>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn7">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240252i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Polygenic Risk Scores: The Next Step for Improved Risk Stratification in Coronary Artery Disease?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2357-5176</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6929-8392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferrari</surname>
            <given-names>Filipe</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garc&#237;a-Giustiniani</surname>
            <given-names>Diego</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina Interna, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="ES">Spain</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Investigaci&#243;n Biom&#233;dica de A Coru&#241;a (INIBIC), Coru&#241;a, Galicia &#8211; Spain</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address</label>: Ricardo Stein &#8226; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. Postal Code 90035-903, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil; E-mail: rstein@cardiol.br </corresp>
        <fn id="fn1001">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Nat&#225;lia Olivetti</p>
        </fn>
        <fn id="fn2001">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest :</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Polygenic Risk Scores: The Next Step for Improved Risk Stratification in Coronary Artery Disease?</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Role of polygenic risk scores in primary and secondary prevention for coronary artery disease. CAD: coronary artery disease.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240252-40252-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Despite significant advances in the management of coronary artery disease (CAD) and reductions in annual mortality rates in recent decades, this disease remains the leading cause of death worldwide. Consequently, there is an ongoing need for efforts to address this situation. Current clinical algorithms to identify at-risk patients are particularly inaccurate in moderate-risk individuals. For this reason, the need for ancillary tests has been suggested, including predictive genetic screening. As genetic studies rapidly expand and genomic data becomes more accessible, numerous genetic risk scores have been proposed to identify and evaluate an individual&#8217;s susceptibility to developing diseases, including CAD. The field of genetics has indeed made substantial contributions to risk prediction, particularly in cases where children have parents with premature CAD, resulting in an increased risk of up to 75%. The polygenic risk scores (PRSs) have emerged as a potentially valuable tool for understanding and stratifying an individual&#8217;s genetic risk. The PRS is calculated as a weighted sum of single-nucleotide variants present throughout the human genome, identifiable through genome-wide association studies, and associated with various cardiometabolic diseases. The use of PRSs holds promise, as it enables the development of personalized strategies for preventing or diagnosing specific pathologies early. Furthermore, it can complement existing clinical scores, increasing the accuracy of individual risk prediction. Consequently, the application of PRSs has the potential to impact the costs and adverse outcomes associated with CAD positively. This narrative review provides an overview of the role of PRSs in the context of CAD.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Coronary Artery Disease</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk</kwd>
        <kwd>Human Genome</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>For decades, various clinical algorithms have been developed to identify patients at risk for coronary artery disease (CAD) and to formulate primary prevention strategies. However, these algorithms prove less effective in individuals at intermediate risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Therefore, in recent years, additional tests known as risk enhancers or risk modifiers have been investigated to more accurately identify this specific risk group. Some of these ancillary tests include apolipoprotein B, lipoprotein (a), or measures of inflammation, such as high-sensitivity C-reactive protein or coronary artery calcium score.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> These clinical enhancers must meet the condition of being independently associated with CAD and conferring at least a two-fold increased risk of disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In addition to the investigated clinical enhancers, earlier results from the Framingham Heart Study offspring cohort demonstrated that a history of premature CAD was associated with a two-fold increase in the likelihood of cardiovascular disease after adjustment for traditional clinical risk factors. This suggests a clear heritable basis for cardiovascular disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recent advances in the identification of genomic data, particularly in the last decades, have presented significant opportunities for the development of independent genetic predictors. The elucidation of the genetic basis of diseases, coupled with recent studies revealing a nearly two-fold increase in risk levels among populations with high percentile risk scores, holds promise for integrating these scores into clinical practice. This integration can be achieved by incorporating polygenic risk scores (PRSs) into the existing risk assessment models.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This narrative review explores the current understanding of PRSs in relation to CAD, and we aim to highlight both the potential benefits and limitations of PRSs for CAD risk assessment, while also considering their cost-effectiveness.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>We employed a narrative approach, allowing for a qualitative synthesis of relevant studies. Extracted information was then organized to construct a cohesive narrative on the role of PRSs in the context of CAD diagnosis and management. A PubMed/MEDLINE literature search was conducted for studies published from inception to March 26, 2024. The following search strategy was utilized: (polygenic risk scores OR genetic risk scores) and (coronary artery disease OR CAD). We hand-searched the reference lists of all included studies to identify other potential articles. Of the 1,017 articles retrieved, 19 were included, comprising 15 cohort studies, 3 cost-effectiveness analyses, and 1 guideline.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Polygenic risk scores &#8211; definition and concept</title>
          <p>The PRS is a computed sum of risk alleles carried by an individual, serving as a predictive tool for assessing risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> In short, PRSs are measures that quantify an individual&#8217;s genetic predisposition to a disease by considering multiple genetic variants across the entire genome. These scores integrate information from a large number of genetic markers, with each contributing a small portion to the overall risk. Their construction involves the use and validation of single-nucleotide variants (SNVs), representing alterations of a single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome, primarily obtained from genome-wide association studies (GWAS).</p>
          <p>In simpler terms, a PRS is a computational algorithm that incorporates information derived from SNVs. Initially, risk scores were based on unweighted calculations, but this approach has been replaced by weighted scores, recognizing the varying effects of individual SNVs on specific diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> PRSs alone do not account for critical factors involved in developing a particular disease, such as environmental influences. Therefore, it should be considered as one of several contributing independent risks, and it cannot definitively predict whether an individual will develop the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>To provide context, it is essential to understand that, even if an individual possesses a strong genetic predisposition to drug addiction, it becomes irrelevant if he or she never initiates drug use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Construction of Polygenic Risk Scores</title>
          <p>In essence, a PRS is constructed based on GWAS using genotyped single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Each SNP has attributes including identifier, position, risk classification, effect size, confidence measure, and p-value. PRS calculation involves summing risk alleles (0, 1, or 2) from target data, weighted by the effect sizes of the risk alleles. Effect sizes are represented as log (odds ratio) for binary traits or as regression slopes for continuous traits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> After identifying SNPs and their weights, PRS is computed by summing their contributions. A higher PRS indicates a higher genetic predisposition, while lower scores suggest a lower risk.</p>
          <p>Weighted PRSs are preferred for better predictive accuracy over unweighted PRSs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup>The chosen p-value threshold determines the number of SNPs in a PRS model, impacting sensitivity and specificity in prediction. Hence, it is common to test different PRS sizes with various p-value thresholds during development.</p>
          <p>Another crucial consideration is to assess whether the variants in the model are in linkage disequilibrium (LD), indicating co-inheritance. LD adjustment helps prevent the overrepresentation of genetic variants in high LD regions, essential for PRS performance. Modern computational tools like LDPred and meta-genetic risk score (metaGRS) address it.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> For instance, metaGRS offers better risk discrimination compared to older calculators based on selected SNPs. It captures a larger proportion of CAD heritability, around 27%, with significant improvements in risk prediction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The next step involves finding the optimal PRS model by testing various p-value thresholds, and evaluating different models through association studies. The top-performing score is then validated using standard epidemiological measures such as odds ratios or hazards ratios per standard deviation (SD) change in PRS (for binary diseases), the proportion of phenotypic variation explained (R2 or pseudo-R2), the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve or C statistic, and the p-value of association.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> This approach enables the classification of individuals into low, intermediate, or high-risk categories. Individuals with fewer disease-related polymorphisms typically fall into the low-risk category. It is important to note that PRSs can vary across different diseases and populations. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref> summarizes the essential aspects of a PRS analysis.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Essential aspects of a polygenic risk score analysis. AUC: area under the receiver operating characteristic curve; GWAS: genome-wide association studies; LD: linkage disequilibrium; OR: odds ratio; PRS: polygenic risk score; SNPs: single nucleotide polymorphisms.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20240252-40252-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Genetic predisposition to coronary artery disease</title>
          <p>Genetic factors significantly contribute to the development of CAD, with evidence dating back to the 1950s, when evidence highlighted the importance of hereditary factors in this regard.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> In this context, around one third of CAD patients exhibit a positive family history, correlating with approximately a 1.5-fold heightened risk of CAD over their lifetimes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>A large-scale study from the Framingham Heart Study involving over 2,300 men and women with an average age of 44 years showed a significantly increased risk of cardiovascular events for individuals with a parent who had early-onset cardiovascular disease (father before 55 years, mother before 65 years).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> This finding aligns with the concept that a family history of early-onset cardiovascular disease (before age 50) is associated with a higher risk of death from CAD. A recent study by Taylor et al. further supports this, with over 6,200 participants followed for an average of 15 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> In their study, over 40% had at least one parent with a history of cardiovascular disease, while slightly more than half had no known family history. The results demonstrated that a family history of cardiovascular disease increased the risk of developing future cardiovascular disease by 1.7 times (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.71; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.33 to 2.21; p &lt; 0.001).</p>
          <p>Furthermore, the relationship between parental history of CAD and the risk of developing the disease was collected by the observed association between CAD and other common risk factors, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, and smoking. Evidence was also found to suggest a correlation between family history of CAD and markers of subclinical atherosclerosis (e.g., coronary artery calcium, carotid intima thickness, and vascular function), even after consideration of traditional risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> This implies that these individuals can be identified as strong candidates for evaluation of subclinical cardiovascular disease, thereby assisting in improving treatment goals and risk management.</p>
          <p>These data suggest that family history of CAD is significant as a risk factor that should be evaluated in conjunction with other recognized risk factors when determining the likelihood of developing CAD.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Polygenic Risk Scores as a complementary tool in coronary artery disease primary prevention</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Identification of individuals at risk for coronary artery disease</title>
            <p>The identification of individuals undergoing primary prevention who are at high risk for CAD is crucial, as it allows for better screening or preventive therapies. Recognizing cardiovascular risk represents the first step in determining the approach to individual treatment for primary prevention. Within this context, numerous tools have been devised to aid in this evaluation, including PRSs.</p>
            <p>Tikkanen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> developed a genetic risk score and evaluated its correlation with incident cardiovascular disease events over 12 years. Analyzing 28 genetic variants associated with CAD in a sample size of over 24,000 individuals from four population-based prospective cohorts, they compared the genetic risk score with conventional risk factors and family history. The study revealed that the genetic risk score significantly enhanced the ability to predict CAD risk for new events. Individuals within the top 10% of the genetic risk score, based on 28 SNPs, exhibited a two-fold increase in CAD risk compared to those in the middle 20%.</p>
            <p>In the study by Khera et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> a genome-wide set of PRS was calculated using the LDPred algorithm for various diseases, including CAD. The top 1% of the distribution of the 6.6 million PRS variants had almost five times greater chances of developing CAD (odds ratio: 4.83; 95% CI, 4.25 to 5.46). The odds ratio was calculated by comparing those with elevated genome-wide polygenic scores (a quantitative predictor of inherited risk) to the rest of the population in a logistic regression model adjusted for age, sex, genotyping matrix, and the first four principal components of ancestry. Inouye et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> conducted a meta-analysis of approximately 500,000 individuals to develop a genomic risk score for CAD based on over 1.7 million genetic variants. They discovered that these variants accounted for 26.8% of the heritability of this disease. Moreover, their findings unveiled that individuals classified in the highest PRS quintile (top 20%) exhibited a four-fold increased risk of CAD (HR: 4.17) compared with those in the bottom 20%. The study further showcased that the combined genomic risk score proved to be a more reliable predictor of CAD compared to various well-established risk factors, including high cholesterol and hypertension. Both the genome-wide polygenic score and metaGRS have been validated in the French-Canadian population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> The authors confirmed that the PRS can identify approximately 6% to 7% of the population at equal or greater risk of CAD than carriers of a monogenic familial hypercholesterolemia mutation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> These significant findings underscore the complementary predictive capabilities of the PRS alongside established risk factors for CAD, rather than advocating for their replacement.</p>
            <p>Lu et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> developed a PRS with 540 genetic variants for CAD, evaluating its clinical utility in primary prevention in a training set with 2,800 CAD cases and 2,055 controls. During an average follow-up of 13 years, 1,303 incident cases of CAD were identified. Those with elevated PRS (top 20%) had about a three-fold increased risk of CAD compared with the lowest 20% (HR: 2.91; 95% CI, 2.43 to 3.49). Adding the PRS to the clinical risk score resulted in a modest but significant improvement in C statistic (1%) and a net improvement in reclassification (3.5%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> This study highlighted the considerable potential of identifying high-risk individuals for targeted interventions in clinical practice.</p>
            <p>Extremely elevated PRS for CAD may also play an important role in early statin therapy. Mega et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> investigated the association between a risk score based on 27 genetic variants and the occurrence of new or recurrent CAD events while considering clinical predictors. The researchers gathered data from a community-based cohort and four large randomized clinical trials (JUPITER, ASCOT, CARE, and PROVE IT-TIME 22), involving over 48,000 individuals and nearly 3,500 events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Among individuals in the primary prevention populations, higher risks of CAD incidence were observed in the intermediate and high genetic risk categories, with hazard ratios of 1.31 and 1.72, respectively, compared to the low genetic risk category (p &lt; 0.0001 for both). Interestingly, the study also found that statin therapy significantly reduced the relative risk of events in the high genetic risk category compared to the low risk category (48% vs. 13%, respectively). Additionally, a three-fold gradient in the number needed to treat (NNT) was observed in primary prevention studies between individuals in the highest genetic risk categories and those in the lowest genetic risk category. Specifically, among participants in the JUPITER trial enrolled in primary prevention, the NNT to prevent an ischemic cardiovascular event over 10 years was 66, 42, and 25 for individuals in the low, intermediate, and high genetic risk score groups, respectively. These findings highlight that individuals with a higher genetic risk for CAD derive the most significant clinical benefits from statin use. Furthermore, the study conducted by Tada et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> indicates a potentially greater advantage in utilizing PRS for young individuals. In this research, the incorporation of 23 SNPs into a PRS enhanced the prediction of ischemic heart disease risk with a median follow-up of 14.4 years, irrespective of the family history of self-reported cardiovascular disease. The study involved 23,595 participants from the Malm&#246; Diet and Cancer Study, a prospective, population-based study.</p>
            <p>Another study based on findings regarding statins and CAD demonstrated that a PRS for CAD had a stronger predictive ability in younger individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> The CAD PRS consisted of 241 significant genetic variations distributed across the genome. To estimate the 10-year risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, the researchers employed pooled cohort equations, which classified subjects into low (&lt; 5%), borderline (5 to &lt; 7.5%), intermediate (7.5 to &lt; 20%), or high-risk (&#8805; 20%) categories. The analysis revealed a strong association between the CAD PRS and the risk of myocardial infarction across all age groups. However, the predictive power was notably more robust in younger individuals (age &lt; 50 years: HR per 1 SD of PRS, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.56 to 1.89; age 50 to 60 years: HR, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.38 to 1.53; age &gt; 60 years: HR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.37 to 1.48; p for interaction &lt; 0.001). In patients under 50 years old, those with a high PRS exhibited a three to four times higher risk of myocardial infarction compared to those in the low PRS category.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Consistent with these findings, a study that included participants from the randomized controlled trial of primary prevention with statin therapy (WOSCOPS; N = 4,910) and two observational cohort studies (CARDIA and BioImage; N = 1,154 and N = 4,392, respectively)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> reported that individuals at high genetic risk had a greater burden of subclinical atherosclerosis and derived greater relative and absolute benefits from statin therapy to prevent a first CAD event. Furthermore, the American Guideline for Primary Prevention of CAD recommends preventive statin therapy for individuals carrying a rare monogenic familial hypercholesterolemia mutation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Results from a study involving a real-world cohort in primary prevention support rationalizing the use of CAD PRS as a precision medicine tool to further optimize the risk-benefit balance of statin therapy in combination with traditional risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The magnitude of statin efficacy became progressively more robust in groups with low (quintile 1; HR: 0.67; 95% CI, 0.47 to 0.97), intermediate (quintiles 2 to 4; HR: 0.56; 95% CI, 0.47 to 0.66), and high PRS (quintile 5; HR: 0.41; 95% CI, 0.31 to 0.53), with a smaller benefit of statins in the group with low PRS (p = 0.01 comparing high versus low).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Finally, an autopsy study investigated the connections between the PRS and the severity of atherosclerosis at a histopathological level in individuals who suffered sudden death. By analyzing a sample consisting of over 900 cases, with a mean age of 48 years, the authors discovered that those in the highest PRS quintile had more severe atherosclerosis compared to those in the lowest quintile, as well as a higher incidence of calcification and thin-cap fibroatheroma, all with statistical significance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Even after adjusting for traditional CAD risk factors, those in the highest PRS quintile had higher odds of having severe atherosclerosis (defined as &#8805; 75% stenosis; adjusted odds ratio: 3.8; 95% CI, 2.1 to 6.8; p &lt; 0.001) and plaque rupture (adjusted odds ratio: 4.1; 95% CI, 2.3 to 7.2; p &lt; 0.001). Furthermore, individuals in the highest quintile were more likely to have CAD-associated causes of death, especially among younger people (age &#8804; 50 years; adjusted odds ratio: 4.1; 95% CI, 2.0 to 8.3; p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> These results provide solid evidence of an association between PRS and advanced atherosclerosis, suggesting that PRS could serve as a valuable tool for stratifying CAD risk, especially in younger populations.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Polygenic Risk Scores in secondary prevention for coronary artery disease</title>
        <p>Secondary prevention of coronary heart disease aims to prevent the recurrence of coronary events. A high degree of adherence to secondary prevention measures, especially intensive lifestyle changes and medication use, can result in a significant reduction in the incidence of recurrent coronary events. The PRS, in turn, can also provide a valuable strategy to aid in identifying the risk of a new cardiovascular event.</p>
        <p>A cohort from the UK Biobank, comprising over 7,000 middle-aged adults (mean age: 62 years) diagnosed with established CAD, was monitored for a median duration of approximately 12 years. This investigation identified CAD PRS (C index: 0.58; 95% CI, 0.57 to 0.59) as one of the most robust predictors of CAD recurrence. Both history of an initial premature CAD event and an elevated CAD PRS were significant and mutually reinforcing risk factors for recurrent CAD. Importantly, CAD PRS exhibited an independent association with a 12% heightened risk of recurrent CAD events (HR: 1.12; 95% CI, 1.05 to 1.19).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> As highlighted in an editorial, it is important to underscore certain limitations inherent in this study. Firstly, the models employed lacked an evaluation of left ventricular function, the presence of heart failure, concurrent valve disease, the anatomical extent of CAD, and associated atherosclerotic disease burden in other vascular beds. The incorporation of these variables could significantly enhance risk prediction. Moreover, although the inclusion of the PRS contributed to an overall modest C index of 0.676, the discriminatory capacity exhibited only limited and incremental improvement compared to traditional risk factors alone (C index of 0.644).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Even with the described limitations, these findings emphasize the potential of the genetic risk score in both predicting and preventing future CAD.</p>
        <p>In a cohort of 1,776 Chinese patients with CAD who were followed for up to 11 years, genetic susceptibility to CAD and its traditional risk factors (e.g., heart failure, angina, diabetes, and LDL cholesterol) were evaluated to predict death from all causes. The results showed that the integration of metaPRS for CAD and its risk factors was significantly associated with mortality. In this study, participants were divided into three groups based on quartiles of metaPRS scores. Patients with CAD in the third quartile exhibited a significantly higher cumulative incidence of all-cause mortality compared to those in the first quartile (HR: 3.99; 95% CI, 2.4 to 6.6) per SD increase (p = 9.10 &#215; 10<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>). Additionally, patients with CAD and intermediate metaPRS scores also showed a significantly higher cumulative incidence of all-cause mortality compared to those in the first quartile (HR: 2.18; 95% CI, 1.3 to 3.6) per SD increase (p = 2.10 &#215; 10<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> In turn, Howe et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> conducted a study to investigate whether the PRS could stratify the risk of subsequent events in survivors of an ischemic cardiac event. They analyzed two subsamples from the UK Biobank: individuals with prevalent CAD cases (N = 10,287) and individuals without CAD (N = 393,108) as the baseline. The study revealed a significant difference in the associations between CAD PRS and cardiovascular events for individuals with and without previous CAD. In the group without CAD, there was strong evidence of a positive association between CAD PRS and a 33% increase in the risk for myocardial infarction, whereas this increase was 15% in the group with CAD. Consequently, the utility of PRS appears to be diminished in individuals undergoing secondary prevention. Other authors, including Thompson et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> have also found limited success in predicting future cardiovascular events (over a 10-year follow-up period) using genetic risk scores in patients with a history of acute coronary syndrome. These authors utilized specific SNPs associated with prevalent or incident ischemic heart disease in GWAS, as well as validated 27-SNP genetic risk scores based on these variants. The underlying reasons for these discrepancies remain unclear, and further research is required to determine the true contribution of genetic risk scores in predicting future risk among individuals who have already experienced a cardiovascular event.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cost-Effectiveness</title>
        <p>As the application of PRSs may increase considerably across the world in the coming decades, an important topic to address is the cost-effectiveness of their utilization. Therefore, it is vital that the application of PRS, in addition to being effective, is cost-effective enough to allow for its use on a broad spectrum.</p>
        <p>Kiflen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup>investigated the cost-effectiveness of PRS concerning statin therapy, utilizing a UK Biobank cohort (N = 96,111; White and British descent) with an intermediate risk of cardiovascular disease, followed for at least 10 years. The base case analysis, with a genotyping cost of $70, resulted in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $172,906 per quality-adjusted life year. In probabilistic sensitivity analysis, the intervention had an approximately 50% probability of being cost-effective at $179,100 per quality-adjusted life year. This study suggests that incorporating PRS alongside existing guidelines may be cost-effective for cardiovascular disease. Greater predictability combined with a decreased cost of PRS could further improve cost-effectiveness, providing an economic basis for its inclusion in clinical care.</p>
        <p>Another study involving individuals aged 40 to 75 in the United States revealed that the incorporation of a CAD-PRS into a workplace cardiovascular disease prevention program proved cost-effective.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> The analysis showed that the inclusion of CAD-PRS incurred additional costs of over $53 per employee examined compared to the workplace cardiovascular prevention program without CAD-PRS, and over $575 compared to the absence of a workplace health program. The authors consequently assert that integrating polygenic testing into a workplace cardiovascular prevention program not only enhances the quality of life for employees, but also concurrently diminishes healthcare costs and mitigates financial losses in productivity for employers. The same researchers found that considering a genetic risk score (CAD-PRS) for heart disease led to better outcomes compared to using only a standard risk assessment tool. They saw a decrease in healthcare costs per person, improved quality of life, and fewer cases of CAD and stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Limitations and areas of uncertainty</title>
        <p>Despite representing a promising and rapidly expanding area, PRSs are not exempt from limitations, particularly concerning their external validity due to the predominant focus on individuals of European ancestry. Heterogeneity among different populations worldwide hampers the generalizability of PRSs and their usefulness across diverse ancestry groups, which might underrepresent certain populations, thus diminishing the utility of PRSs and limiting the applicability of the risk prediction tools.</p>
        <p>One key challenge is the potential variation in the frequency and effects of genetic variants across different populations. This is supported by findings from previous research.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Additionally, populations with a high degree of admixture, or mixing of ancestral origins, tend to have greater genetic diversity. This complexity can further hinder the accuracy of PRSs. To address these issues and improve the accuracy, it is essential to increase the diversity of participants in genomic research and to develop models that account for the specific genetic variations within each population group.</p>
        <p>Consequently, conducting additional studies applying PRSs in non-European populations becomes imperative to confirm or refute their role as a predictor of future cardiovascular risk in these groups. A scientometric review by Mills and Rahal revealed a concerning trend: while ancestral diversity among participants in GWAS has increased over time, significant disparities remain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Even in 2017, a staggering 88% of participants were of European descent. Furthermore, a narrow geographic focus persists, with 72% of discoveries based on studies conducted in just three countries: the United States, the United Kingdom, and Iceland.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> These findings raise concerns about a potential &#8220;cycle of disadvantage&#8221; for underrepresented populations. Despite ongoing efforts, Mills and Rahal emphasize the ongoing challenge of increasing diversity in genomics research.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Other researchers echo this sentiment, highlighting the critical need for policies and practices that promote broader participant inclusion. This is essential to maximize the global impact of genetic research and precision medicine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup>A recent study by Patel et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> offers promising news in addressing this key limitation. The researchers developed a novel genetic score for CAD by integrating genome-wide association data with information from a diverse pool of over 269,000 CAD cases across various ancestries. This score significantly outperformed all existing CAD PRS in analyses that included individuals from multiple ethnicities. Further studies are warranted to replicate these findings.</p>
        <p>Another limitation of PRSs is that complex traits are influenced by numerous common genetic variants, each with minimal individual effects. These variants are often in LD with nearby non-causal SNPs, making it difficult to distinguish between them. To address this challenge, Zheng et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> recently developed a model called SBayesRC. This model leverages functional genomic annotations of candidate SNPs, incorporating biological information to differentiate likely causal variants from irrelevant ones. Notably, SBayesRC demonstrated a significant improvement in prediction accuracy. It achieved a 14% increase for 28 complex traits and diseases, and an even greater improvement of 34% in average ancestry prediction for 18 well-studied traits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Moreover, it is important to acknowledge that numerous risk factors contributing to the development of cardiovascular disease lie beyond the scope of polygenic scores. While PRSs can estimate disease risk, they may not accurately identify individuals who will remain healthy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> The predictive accuracy of the PRSs can vary significantly based on factors such as sex and age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A recent study suggests that incorporating social determinants of health, lifestyle factors, and PRS into risk assessments can significantly improve CAD prediction compared to using PRS alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Researchers using UK Biobank data found that scores for both PRS and social determinants of health correlated with clinical CAD risk. However, a combined measure significantly outperformed both individual scores. By analyzing data from over 471,000 initially healthy individuals, the study showed that combining these factors led to better prediction of CAD risk, enabling earlier preventive interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Despite their potential contribution to understanding CAD development, social determinants of health and PRSs are still not included in current risk prediction models. Moreover, the extent of disparities between PRSs and other important approaches, such as family medical history, still lacks clarity. Lastly, the present clinical applicability of PRSs models is constrained to the identification of high-risk populations determined by upper percentiles of genetic susceptibility.</p>
        <p>Young et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> identified environmental variations as another factor that can limit the accuracy of PRSs. These environmental variations can interact with genes, causing the effect sizes of genetic variants to fluctuate. To address this limitation, researchers emphasize the importance of decomposing the signals from GWAS. By separating these signals, we can identify the components that lead to more generalizable predictions, meaning predictions that are more accurate across different environments. Additionally, as stated by the American Heart Association,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> it is crucial that the utility of PRSs be balanced and responsible, taking into account any potential risks. Since the majority of studies estimate prognosis or treatment effects using retrospective analyses, estimating potential harm still poses a challenge. Andreoli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> conducted a systematic review exploring the ethical considerations surrounding the clinical use of PRSs. Their analysis identified several key concerns that warrant attention as these scores become integrated into medical practice. A central concern involves developing policies and clinical practices that guarantee equitable access to the potential benefits of PRSs for all patients. Additionally, the authors highlight the potential risk of PRSs exacerbating existing health disparities.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Final considerations</title>
        <p>As discussed in previous sections, the use of PRSs is promising for both primary and secondary prevention (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>), but there are differences between them, as will be discussed below. A summary of the studies included in this review is presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Characteristics of included studies with major findings</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="17%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Study</th>
                  <th>Year</th>
                  <th>Design</th>
                  <th>Region</th>
                  <th>Participants (N)</th>
                  <th>Major findings</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>W&#252;nnemann et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2019</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">North America</td>
                  <td align="center">11,021</td>
                  <td align="center">Two PRS were effective in identifying French-Canadian individuals at high risk of developing CAD.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tikkanen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2013</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">24,124</td>
                  <td align="center">Incorporating genetic information into risk assessment has enhanced the prevention and management of CAD.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Khera et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2018</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">288,978</td>
                  <td align="center">Individuals in the top 1% of the PRS distribution for over 6 million variants were nearly five times more likely to develop CAD.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Inouye et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2018</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">482,629</td>
                  <td align="center">Genomic risk prediction can effectively identify individuals at a high risk of developing CAD.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lu et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2022</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">China</td>
                  <td align="center">41,271</td>
                  <td align="center">The use of a PRS significantly enhanced the identification of individuals at high risk of developing CAD in the Chinese population.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mega et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2015</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">48,421</td>
                  <td align="center">Individuals with a higher genetic predisposition to coronary events experienced a greater reduction in risk when treated with statins.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tada et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2021</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">23,595</td>
                  <td align="center">PRS can accurately assess CAD risk without considering family history, underscoring its utility as an independent risk prediction tool.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Marston et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2023</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">330,201</td>
                  <td align="center">The use of a PRS for CAD effectively predicted risk in primary prevention strategies.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Natarajan et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2017</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">4,392</td>
                  <td align="center">The use of PRS identified a subgroup of individuals with a higher burden of atherosclerosis who may benefit most from statin therapy for primary prevention.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oni-Orisan et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2022</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">North America</td>
                  <td align="center">32,196</td>
                  <td align="center">Individuals with a higher PRS experienced a more significant reduction in myocardial infarction risk with statin use compared to those with a lower PRS.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cornelissen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2024</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">North America</td>
                  <td align="center">954</td>
                  <td align="center">Individuals with a higher PRS tended to develop more extensive and complex atherosclerotic plaques, characterized by more unfavorable traits, including a greater propensity to rupture.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cho et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2023</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">7,024</td>
                  <td align="center">Genetic factors interacted with lifestyle and clinical factors, influencing the likelihood of recurrence of coronary events.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Qin et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2024</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">China</td>
                  <td align="center">1,776</td>
                  <td align="center">Asian individuals with a higher PRS faced an increased risk of all-cause mortality.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Howe et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2020</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">403,395</td>
                  <td align="center">The PRS helped identify patients with established CAD who were most likely to experience additional events.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Thompson et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2022</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohort</td>
                  <td align="center">Oceania</td>
                  <td align="center">4,932</td>
                  <td align="center">Genetic variants did not significantly predict the occurrence of CAD after the disease was diagnosed.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Kiflen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2022</td>
                  <td align="center">Cost-effectiveness</td>
                  <td align="center">Europe</td>
                  <td align="center">96,116</td>
                  <td align="center">Using PRS to guide statin therapy was cost-effective compared to strategies based solely on traditional risk factors.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mujwara et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2023</td>
                  <td align="center">Cost-effectiveness</td>
                  <td align="center">North America</td>
                  <td align="center">47,108</td>
                  <td align="center">Implementing PRS in a workplace prevention program proved to be cost-effective.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mujwara et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">2022</td>
                  <td align="center">Cost-effectiveness</td>
                  <td align="center">North America</td>
                  <td align="center">47,108</td>
                  <td align="center">Integrating PRS as an additional risk factor into pooled cohort equations enhanced the accuracy of CAD risk stratification while remaining cost-effective.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>CAD: coronary artery disease; PRS: polygenic risk score</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>In the primary prevention of CAD, the application of PRSs is a rational strategy, aiming to reduce the risk of the first event, which, in theory, would characterize the individual as being at lower risk. In this context, personalized preventive measures can be highly effective, including lifestyle changes and more rigorous medical monitoring. Lastly, the potential impact of PRSs on primary prevention is significant, as it allows interventions before disease development.</p>
        <p>In secondary prevention, PRSs help to stratify risk in patients with established CAD, optimizing treatment and identifying those at the highest risk of future events. This allows for more intensive preventative measures, such as treatment adjustments or frequent follow-up.</p>
        <p>PRSs hold promise for revolutionizing patient care by enhancing risk stratification and improving clinical outcomes. However, their application requires a multifaceted approach. Firstly, ethical and psychosocial considerations necessitate careful evaluation. Secondly, PRSs should be viewed as complementary to established risk factors and clinical data. Integration with these existing tools will ultimately facilitate the development of personalized patient management strategies. Finally, rigorous validation through prospective studies is necessary to confirm the true effectiveness of PRSs.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>Considerable advances have been made in the area of genomics in recent decades. PRSs represent the combination of several causal risk factors, as opposed to a single pathway leading to the disease. Individuals with an increased genetic risk for CAD, whether polygenic or monogenic, may benefit from comprehensive risk reduction approaches and treatment. The application of PRSs brings the possibility of quantifying an individual&#8217;s risk for developing CAD, allowing for early prevention and/or initiation of specific treatment. Unlike the high costs inherent in large randomized clinical trials, PRSs have the potential to enable substantial predictive or prognostic enrichment and could have a profound impact by opening a new era in clinical development. Finally, PRSs show promise in preventing CAD, encompassing both primary and secondary prevention. However, it is important to discern the distinctions between these two applications to maximize the effectiveness of this tool.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3001">
          <label/>
          <p>Study association</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4001">
          <label/>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5001">
          <label/>
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6001">
          <label/>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn7001">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
