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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">Sh5BqdsN7TK4qpNVbpXtbPx</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000900402</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00402</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230154</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Miocardiopatias em Crian&#231;as e Adolescentes na Era da Medicina de Precis&#227;o</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7935-7966</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Torbey</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Fl&#225;via Mallheiros</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Couto</surname>
            <given-names>Raquel Germer Toja</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Grippa</surname>
            <given-names>Aurea</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9011-7779</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Maia</surname>
            <given-names>Eduarda Corr&#234;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Miranda</surname>
            <given-names>Sara Aim&#233;e</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Adriano Cardoso dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Peres</surname>
            <given-names>Elion Tavares</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7012-1252</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Olimpio Patrick Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7875-4676</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Everton Mattos de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Ant&#244;nio Pedro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense Hospital Universit&#225;rio Ant&#244;nio Pedro (EBSERH), Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Complexo Hospitalar de Niteroi</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niteroi, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label> Ana Flavia Torbey &#8226; Universidade Federal Fluminense &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina - Departamento Materno Infantil &#8211; Rua Des. Athayde Parreiras, 100. CEP 24070-090, F&#225;tima, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil; E-mail: <email>anatorbey@id.uff.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p>Dr. Evandro Tinoco Mesquita - Recebeu honor&#225;rios por palestras da Pfizer e BMS. Dra. Aurea Grippa recebeu honor&#225;rios por palestras da Astra Zeneca.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p> Vitor Guerra</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>21</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>9</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230154</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia, as miocardiopatias apresentam caracter&#237;sticas pr&#243;prias e s&#227;o uma importante causa de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, arritmias, morte s&#250;bita e indica&#231;&#227;o de transplante card&#237;aco. O diagn&#243;stico &#233; um desafio na pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria devido &#224; sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica variada, etiologias heterog&#234;neas e conhecimento limitado das ferramentas de gen&#233;tica cl&#237;nica e molecular. Entretanto, &#233; fundamental reconhecer os diferentes fen&#243;tipos e priorizar a busca pela etiologia. Os avan&#231;os recentes na medicina de precis&#227;o tornaram o diagn&#243;stico molecular mais acess&#237;vel, permitindo individualizar condutas terap&#234;uticas, estratificar o progn&#243;stico e identificar indiv&#237;duos da fam&#237;lia que estejam em risco de desenvolver doen&#231;a. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; enfatizar as particularidades das miocardiopatias na pediatria e como o enfoque individualizado influencia a terap&#234;utica e o progn&#243;stico do paciente. Atrav&#233;s de uma abordagem sistematizada, o protocolo &#233; apresentado em cinco etapas em nosso servi&#231;o. Estas etapas incluem a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica para determina&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo morfofuncional, identifica&#231;&#227;o da etiologia, classifica&#231;&#227;o, estabelecimento do progn&#243;stico e busca por terapias personalizadas.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Crian&#231;a</kwd>
        <kwd>Medicina de Precis&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Gen&#233;tica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="76"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>As miocardiopatias s&#227;o um grupo heterog&#234;neo de altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais, mec&#226;nicas e el&#233;tricas do mioc&#225;rdio, sendo a principal causa de transplante card&#237;aco no primeiro ano de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>Embora sejam raras na pediatria, podem estar subdiagnosticadas, considerando o aumento do n&#250;mero de casos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) na popula&#231;&#227;o pedi&#225;trica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os avan&#231;os nas t&#233;cnicas de gen&#233;tica molecular e cardioimagem promoveram uma mudan&#231;a no conhecimento e na classifica&#231;&#227;o das miocardiopatias nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Entretanto, ainda existe uma lacuna significativa no entendimento das principais etiologias, na apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e na abordagem terap&#234;utica em crian&#231;as e adolescentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Atualmente, no Brasil, iniciativas na abordagem das miocardiopatias est&#227;o em desenvolvimento, como a Rede Nacional de Gen&#244;mica Cardiovascular - RENOMICA, um programa de pesquisa que estuda as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares heredit&#225;rias e a an&#225;lise de custo-efetividade do diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico no SUS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup>Nosso grupo est&#225; desenvolvendo o Registro de Miocardiopatias e Miocardites em Crian&#231;as e Adolescentes na regi&#227;o metropolitana II do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (Registro CHARISMA), estudando a rela&#231;&#227;o gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo.</p>
      <p>Este trabalho tem como objetivos descrever, atrav&#233;s de revis&#227;o da literatura, a abordagem atualizada das miocardiopatias pedi&#225;tricas diante dos principais avan&#231;os da medicina de precis&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, visa apresentar o modelo de racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico em 5 etapas utilizado em nosso servi&#231;o, que incorpora uma abordagem personalizada nas miocardiopatias pedi&#225;tricas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Realizou-se uma busca nas bases de dados indexadas PUBMED, LILACS e SCIELO utilizando os termos: Cardiomiopatias/Cardiomyopathy; Crian&#231;a<underline>/Children;</underline> Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<underline>/Heart Failure</underline>; Pediatria/Pediatrics; Gen&#233;tica/Genetics; e Medicina de Precis&#227;o/Precision Medicine. Foram selecionados artigos publicados em ingl&#234;s e portugu&#234;s, entre os anos de 1997 e 2022.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Epidemiologia</title>
        <p>O impacto da IC na inf&#226;ncia vem aumentando. As principais causas de IC pedi&#225;tricas s&#227;o cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas, miocardiopatias e arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>Em estudo publicado por Salim et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> a miocardiopatia representou 32% dos &#243;bitos por causas cardiovasculares em crian&#231;as com menos de um ano de idade no Brasil, destacando-se como a principal causa de morte neste subgrupo entre 2000 e 2015. No estado do Rio de Janeiro, as miocardiopatias apresentaram as maiores taxas de mortalidade proporcional anual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudos realizados na Am&#233;rica do Norte, Europa (Finl&#226;ndia) e Austr&#225;lia apontam para uma incid&#234;ncia estimada de 1:100.000 pessoas por ano, com idade inferior a 20 anos, diagnosticadas com miocardiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Esses estudos mostraram um predom&#237;nio no sexo masculino e em crian&#231;as de origem negra e abor&#237;gene.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> A miocardiopatia dilatada (MCD) e a miocardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (MCH) representam a maioria dos fen&#243;tipos (cerca de 50% cada); as miocardiopatias restritiva (MCR) e n&#227;o compactada (MCNC) correspondem a 5%. Entretanto, essa incid&#234;ncia pode variar de acordo com a faixa et&#225;ria estudada. A incid&#234;ncia da MCH &#233; tr&#234;s vezes maior entre lactentes com menos de um ano de idade. O Registro Australiano mostrou uma incid&#234;ncia mais elevada, de aproximadamente 10%, de MCNC quando comparada aos outros registros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar dos estudos descritos, a real incid&#234;ncia das miocardiopatias na popula&#231;&#227;o pedi&#225;trica ainda n&#227;o &#233; conhecida. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; uma lacuna significativa no conhecimento das caracter&#237;sticas epidemiol&#243;gicas no Brasil e na Am&#233;rica Latina, onde faltam estudos sobre o tema.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Recentemente, Huertas-Qui&#241;ones et al. demonstraram que as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas das miocardiopatias pedi&#225;tricas em um centro de refer&#234;ncia na Col&#244;mbia est&#227;o alinhadas com as tend&#234;ncias globais, sendo a MCD a mais frequente, seguida pela MCH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As classifica&#231;&#245;es atuais baseiam-se principalmente no fen&#243;tipo morfofuncional e ressaltam a import&#226;ncia das bases gen&#233;ticas das miocardiopatias. Atualmente, est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis as classifica&#231;&#245;es da <italic>American Heart Association</italic> (AHA) de 2006, da <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> (ESC) de 2008 e da <italic>World Heart Federation</italic> (WHF) de 2013 (MOGE(S)).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A Classifica&#231;&#227;o de MOGE(S), certificada pela WHF em 2013, foi desenvolvida com o objetivo de integrar as diferentes caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes com miocardiopatias e baseia-se em fen&#243;tipo morfofuncional, &#243;rg&#227;o envolvido, origem gen&#233;tica ou familiar, etiologia, est&#225;gio da IC (A-D da AHA) e classe funcional (I-IV da New York Heart Association).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A utiliza&#231;&#227;o das classes funcionais tem valor limitado nas crian&#231;as e geralmente n&#227;o s&#227;o utilizadas. Entretanto, para crian&#231;as com idade inferior a seis anos e quadro cl&#237;nico de IC, recomenda-se utilizar a classifica&#231;&#227;o modificada de Ross,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> conforme <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Classifica&#231;&#227;o funcional para crian&#231;as com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2">Capacidade funcional (NYHA)*</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Classifica&#231;&#227;o de Ross para crian&#231;as e lactentes</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Classe Funcional</th>
                  <th align="left">Descri&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Classe Funcional</th>
                  <th align="left">Descri&#231;&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td>Sem limites &#224; atividade f&#237;sica; aus&#234;ncia de sintomas nas atividades f&#237;sicas comuns.</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td>Sem limita&#231;&#227;o ou sintomas.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">II</td>
                  <td>Atividades f&#237;sicas de rotina causam fadiga, palpita&#231;&#227;o ou dispneia. Confort&#225;vel em repouso.</td>
                  <td align="center">II</td>
                  <td>Taquipneia leve ou sudorese durante as mamadas. Dispneia aos esfor&#231;os nas crian&#231;as mais velhas, sem preju&#237;zo ao ganho ponderal.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">III</td>
                  <td>Atividades f&#237;sicas menores que a de rotina causam fadiga, palpita&#231;&#245;es ou dispneia. Confort&#225;vel em repouso.</td>
                  <td align="center">III</td>
                  <td>Importante taquipneia ou sudorese durante as mamadas. Prolongamento do per&#237;odo de amamenta&#231;&#227;o. Atraso do crescimento devido a IC.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">IV</td>
                  <td>Incapacidade de realizar qualquer atividade f&#237;sica sem desconforto, sintomas de IC em repouso. Piora do desconforto se qualquer atividade f&#237;sica for realizada.</td>
                  <td align="center">IV</td>
                  <td>Sintomas em repouso com taquipneia, retra&#231;&#245;es, gemidos e sudorese.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>*New York Heart Association. Fonte: Azeka et al., 2014<sup>27</sup> e Monda et al., 2021.<sup>28</sup></attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Abordagem dos pacientes pedi&#225;tricos com miocardiopatia em cinco etapas</title>
        <p>A abordagem das miocardiopatias pedi&#225;tricas consiste em uma medicina personalizada, com protocolos padronizados que auxiliam os m&#233;dicos na investiga&#231;&#227;o etiol&#243;gica dessas condi&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Como o quadro cl&#237;nico &#233; heterog&#234;neo, os pacientes podem ser assintom&#225;ticos ou apresentar sinais e sintomas de IC, arritmias, dor no peito, s&#237;ncope ou morte s&#250;bita (MS). Portanto, para que o diagn&#243;stico seja feito, &#233; necess&#225;rio n&#237;vel de suspei&#231;&#227;o elevado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Inicialmente, realiza-se a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica para confirmar o fen&#243;tipo e determinar se a miocardiopatia &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o isolada ou sindr&#244;mica. Geralmente, &#233; poss&#237;vel observar &#8220;<italic>red flags</italic>&#8221; espec&#237;ficas que podem orientar o diagn&#243;stico adequado (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Em seguida, busca-se a etiologia para definir um plano terap&#234;utico e progn&#243;stico. &#201; importante utilizar a classifica&#231;&#227;o de MOGE(S) para um diagn&#243;stico cardiol&#243;gico completo das miocardiopatias, considerando as particularidades da pediatria, especialmente em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; classe funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Por fim, avalia-se o progn&#243;stico e aplica-se uma terapia personalizada, individualizando condutas medicamentosas e n&#227;o medicamentosas de acordo com a etiologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Red Flags no exame f&#237;sico e miocardiopatias</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas/laboratoriais (<italic>red flags</italic>)</th>
                  <th>Fen&#243;tipo da miocardiopatia</th>
                  <th align="left">Etiologia poss&#237;vel</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Caracter&#237;sticas faciais grosseiras, opacifica&#231;&#227;o das c&#243;rneas, atraso do crescimento e desenvolvimento, d&#233;ficit intelectual, hepatoesplenomegalia.</td>
                  <td align="center">MCD MCH</td>
                  <td>Mucopolissacaridoses</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hipotonia, fraqueza muscular, atraso do desenvolvimento.</td>
                  <td align="center">MCH</td>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a de Pompe</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baixa estatura, atraso do desenvolvimento, hipertelorismo ocular, pesco&#231;o alado, ptose palpebral.</td>
                  <td align="center">MCH</td>
                  <td>S&#237;ndrome de Noonan e outras RASopatias</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ataxia progressiva, aus&#234;ncia de reflexos.</td>
                  <td align="center">MCH, mais raramente MCD</td>
                  <td>Ataxia Friedreich</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Eleva&#231;&#227;o de creatinofosfoquinase e transaminases, atraso do desenvolvimento e retinopatia.</td>
                  <td align="center">MCH</td>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a de Danon</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dor neurop&#225;tica em extremidades, angioqueratomas, microalbumin&#250;ria, sintomas gastrointestinais, c&#243;rnea verticilata, hipoidrose.</td>
                  <td align="center">MCH</td>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a de Fabry</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>MCD: miocardiopatia dilatada; MCH: miocardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Apresentamos a seguir as etapas de avalia&#231;&#227;o do paciente pedi&#225;trico com suspeita de miocardiopatia que utilizamos em nosso servi&#231;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Miocardiopatias em Crian&#231;as e Adolescentes na Era da Medicina de Precis&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Abordagem sistematizada em cinco etapas das miocardiopatias de in&#237;cio na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia. A por&#231;&#227;o superior da figura mostra o fluxograma do racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico, a por&#231;&#227;o inferior da figura traz o detalhamento de cada etapa.MCP: miocardiopatia, ECG: eletrocardiograma, ECO: ecocardiograma, RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca, Angio TC: angiotomografia. *os principais exemplos s&#227;o as doen&#231;as de Pompe, Fabry e Mucopolissacaridoses <sup>&#8224;</sup> dispon&#237;vel para adultos com miocardiopatia obstrutiva hipertr&#243;fica, <sup>&#8225;</sup> algumas variantes g&#234;nicas est&#227;o mais associadas ao risco de arritmias e morte s&#250;bita, <sup>&#167;</sup> existem em andamento estudos promissores para a distrofia muscular de Duchenne e para a doen&#231;a de Danon.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20230154-30154-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Etapa 1</title>
          <p>A hist&#243;ria pessoal &#233; de fundamental import&#226;ncia, destacando-se a idade do diagn&#243;stico ou de in&#237;cio dos sintomas. Neonatos e lactentes apresentam, com maior frequ&#234;ncia, erros inatos do metabolismo (EIM) e s&#237;ndromes gen&#233;ticas como etiologia, em compara&#231;&#227;o com escolares e adolescentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>No exame f&#237;sico de lactentes e pr&#233;-escolares com MCD, &#233; comum observar os sinais cl&#225;ssicos de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Hist&#243;ria de s&#237;ncope, sopro card&#237;aco e dor tor&#225;cica tamb&#233;m podem estar presentes em todos os fen&#243;tipos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Estima-se que 40% das crian&#231;as sintom&#225;ticas desenvolvem IC t&#227;o grave que necessitam de transplante card&#237;aco ou evoluem para o &#243;bito em cinco anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup>Nas crian&#231;as com MCH, a MS &#233; a principal causa de &#243;bito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          <p>&#201; essencial realizar uma avalia&#231;&#227;o global da crian&#231;a, com foco nos marcos do desenvolvimento motor e cognitivo, na presen&#231;a de dismorfismos, nas altera&#231;&#245;es antropom&#233;tricas e em sinais de fraqueza muscular ou envolvimento de outros &#243;rg&#227;os e sistemas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Estima-se que cerca 10% das crian&#231;as com miocardiopatia tenham um diagn&#243;stico de s&#237;ndrome gen&#233;tica, e 15% das causas conhecidas s&#227;o atribu&#237;das aos EIM, o que os diferencia da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Na hist&#243;ria patol&#243;gica pregressa, deve-se investigar a presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#245;es recentes (respirat&#243;rias e gastrointestinais), hist&#243;ria de tratamento oncol&#243;gico, condi&#231;&#245;es inflamat&#243;rias ou doen&#231;a autoimune, e doen&#231;as end&#243;crinas, descartando causas n&#227;o gen&#233;ticas para a miocardiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Recomenda-se a elabora&#231;&#227;o de uma hist&#243;ria familiar detalhada, incluindo no m&#237;nimo tr&#234;s gera&#231;&#245;es em formato de heredograma. Assim, &#233; poss&#237;vel reconhecer o padr&#227;o de heran&#231;a, realizar o aconselhamento gen&#233;tico e identificar indiv&#237;duos em risco de desenvolver a doen&#231;a, al&#233;m de fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es como idade de apresenta&#231;&#227;o, poss&#237;veis desfechos e varia&#231;&#227;o de fen&#243;tipos em uma mesma fam&#237;lia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> &#201; importante ressaltar que uma crian&#231;a com diagn&#243;stico de miocardiopatia gen&#233;tica pode ter hist&#243;ria familiar negativa, com a presen&#231;a de uma muta&#231;&#227;o <italic>de novo</italic>, ou ter herdado a altera&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica de um progenitor assintom&#225;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O padr&#227;o de heran&#231;a geralmente &#233; autoss&#244;mico dominante, mas tamb&#233;m podem ocorrer padr&#245;es autoss&#244;micos recessivos, ligado ao X ou doen&#231;a mitocondrial (padr&#227;o matrilinear), sendo mais frequentes em crian&#231;as do que em adultos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Altera&#231;&#245;es em genes do sarc&#244;mero s&#227;o as mais comuns em crian&#231;as com MCH isolada, mas tamb&#233;m podem ser encontradas em crian&#231;as com MCD, MCNC e MCR. Muta&#231;&#245;es tamb&#233;m podem ocorrer em genes do citoesqueleto, membrana nuclear e desmossomos. Al&#233;m disso, uma mesma variante patog&#234;nica pode causar diferentes fen&#243;tipos, e diferentes fen&#243;tipos das miocardiopatias podem ocorrer dentro da mesma fam&#237;lia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Ap&#243;s realiza&#231;&#227;o de anamnese e exame f&#237;sico, o fen&#243;tipo morfofuncional &#233; determinado por meio de exames complementares de cardioimagem e testes laboratoriais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">figura 1</xref> mostra os principais fen&#243;tipos na pediatria e suas caracter&#237;sticas.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Principais fen&#243;tipos e caracter&#237;sticas das miocardiopatias pedi&#225;tricas. VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; MCP: miocardiopatia; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20230154-30154-gf02.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Muitas vezes, devido &#224; complexidade da miocardiopatia, &#233; necess&#225;ria uma avalia&#231;&#227;o multidisciplinar envolvendo m&#233;dicos que possuam conhecimentos em cardiologia, pediatria, metabolismo, radiologia, neurologia e gen&#233;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Eletrocardiograma (ECG): de f&#225;cil acesso e baixo custo, auxilia no diagn&#243;stico das miocardiopatias, identificando altera&#231;&#245;es como baixa voltagem do QRS, aumento de cavidades card&#237;acas, altera&#231;&#245;es na condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular, repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular, e a presen&#231;a de arritmias atriais e ventriculares. Em alguns pacientes, a altera&#231;&#227;o no ECG pode ser a &#250;nica manifesta&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica de doen&#231;a mioc&#225;rdica. A presen&#231;a de Wolff-Parkinson-White e pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o ventricular est&#225; associada a doen&#231;as de dep&#243;sito, como nas muta&#231;&#245;es na PRKAG2 e na LAMP2 (doen&#231;a de Danon) e doen&#231;a de Pompe. Altera&#231;&#245;es progressivas na condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular e bloqueio atrioventricular s&#227;o comuns nas laminopatias, doen&#231;as mitocondriais e doen&#231;as de dep&#243;sito ou infiltrativas, al&#233;m de estarem presentes em doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias, como miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes e sarcoidose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Ecocardiograma: fornece informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a anatomia, ajudando a confirmar ou excluir a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a cong&#234;nita e determinando as dimens&#245;es das cavidades e paredes card&#237;acas, que devem ser expressas em z-escores. Al&#233;m disso, avalia as fun&#231;&#245;es sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica. O uso do <italic>Strain</italic> (longitudinal, circunferencial e radial) &#233; sens&#237;vel para disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, e permite o diagn&#243;stico precoce de miocardiopatia induzida por quimioterapia e de miocardiopatias heredit&#225;rias, principalmente nos fen&#243;tipos de MCH e MCNC como demonstrado em revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica realizada por Dorobantu et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Ainda, a observa&#231;&#227;o de caracter&#237;sticas do mioc&#225;rdio auxilia no diagn&#243;stico de MCNC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica do VE maior que 3 cm geralmente est&#225; associada a doen&#231;as de dep&#243;sito, como a doen&#231;a de Pompe nos lactentes e a doen&#231;a de Danon em adolescentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Holter de 24 horas e Teste Ergom&#233;trico: detectam a presen&#231;a de arritmias atriais e ventriculares, auxiliam na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para MS, e s&#227;o fundamentais neste grupo de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC): auxilia na determina&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo morfol&#243;gico e estuda as fun&#231;&#245;es sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica. A presen&#231;a de edema mioc&#225;rdio, hiperemia e fibrose de padr&#227;o n&#227;o isqu&#234;mico est&#225; associada &#224; miocardite, enquanto a presen&#231;a de substitui&#231;&#227;o de tecido fibrogorduroso pode indicar miocardiopatia arritmog&#234;nica. A fibrose (realce tardio) tamb&#233;m auxilia no diagn&#243;stico das doen&#231;as neuromusculares e em pacientes submetidos a terapia com antrac&#237;clicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Tomografia card&#237;aca: indicada para pacientes com janela ecocardiogr&#225;fica dif&#237;cil e com contraindica&#231;&#245;es para a RMC. &#201; indispens&#225;vel no estudo das coron&#225;rias e da anatomia card&#237;aca. Pode revelar a presen&#231;a de tecido gorduroso, caracter&#237;stico da miocardiopatia arritmog&#234;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Biomarcadores: O pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral (BNP) e o fragmento aminoterminal de seu precursor (NT-ProBNP) s&#227;o produzidos em resposta &#224; sobrecarga de volume, press&#227;o e tens&#227;o na parede ventricular. Sua dosagem auxilia no progn&#243;stico de crian&#231;as com miocardiopatias e IC; com n&#237;veis mais elevados, indicam maior risco de piores desfechos em crian&#231;as com MCD. Tamb&#233;m auxiliam no diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre cardiomiopatia restritiva (n&#237;veis mais elevados) e pericardite constritiva. Em pacientes submetidos a tratamento com quimioter&#225;picos cardiot&#243;xicos, sua eleva&#231;&#227;o indica precocemente a les&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup>A troponina eleva-se em crian&#231;as com miocardiopatias, embora n&#227;o haja associa&#231;&#227;o com progn&#243;stico. A eleva&#231;&#227;o geralmente ocorre na MCD, decorrente de miocardiopatia inflamat&#243;ria como as miocardites.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Em pacientes com miocardiopatia arritmog&#234;nica, a troponina pode aumentar na &#8220;fase quente&#8221;, conforme descrito por Bariani et al., onde h&#225; apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica com dor tor&#225;cica e eleva&#231;&#227;o da troponina na aus&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es coronarianas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> A dosagem das enzimas musculares, bem como a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica e renal, &#233; fundamental para a an&#225;lise de comprometimento multi-org&#226;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Cateterismo card&#237;aco: indicado para condi&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas. Determina a resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar, avalia a circula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, afasta anomalias coron&#225;rias, confirma a fisiologia da miocardiopatia restritiva (MR) e realiza bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Etapa 2</title>
          <p>A Etapa 2 consiste na identifica&#231;&#227;o da etiologia. Embora o fen&#243;tipo morfofuncional seja semelhante aos observados na popula&#231;&#227;o adulta, a preval&#234;ncia das etiologias difere entre crian&#231;as e adolescentes. Doen&#231;as neuromusculares, metab&#243;licas, mitocondriais e outras s&#237;ndromes gen&#233;ticas s&#227;o causas importantes, principalmente em lactentes e pr&#233;-escolares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Na inf&#226;ncia, a investiga&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica e a dosagem de enzimas musculares ajudam a esclarecer algumas condi&#231;&#245;es. A eleva&#231;&#227;o de creatinofosfoquinase pode indicar doen&#231;a mitocondrial e doen&#231;a de Danon em pacientes com MCH, enquanto nos pacientes com MCD, a eleva&#231;&#227;o das enzimas musculares est&#225; associada a distrofinopatias, sarcoglicanopatias, laminopatias, distrofia miot&#244;nica e desminopatias. J&#225; a presen&#231;a de acidose l&#225;tica e a eleva&#231;&#227;o de transaminases apontam para doen&#231;a mitocondrial, enquanto os pacientes com doen&#231;a de Fabry podem apresentar protein&#250;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os EIM correspondem a cerca de 15% das causas conhecidas de miocardiopatias, sendo etiologias frequentes das MCH e MCD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Exemplos incluem as doen&#231;as de dep&#243;sito do glicog&#234;nio, como a doen&#231;a de Pompe e a doen&#231;a de Danon, as doen&#231;as de dep&#243;sito lisossomal, como as mucopolissacaridoses (MPS), e a doen&#231;a de Fabry, que representa os dist&#250;rbios do metabolismo dos glicoesfingolip&#237;deos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A triagem neonatal para EIM realizada rotineiramente n&#227;o cobre todos os testes diagn&#243;sticos necess&#225;rio, o que pode levar ao subdiagn&#243;stico desses dist&#250;rbios associados &#224; miocardiopatia devido &#224; falta de conhecimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup>A doen&#231;a de Pompe deve ser afastada em lactentes com MCH acompanhada de hipotonia, atrav&#233;s da dosagem da atividade da enzima alfa glicosidase &#225;cida. A suspeita de doen&#231;a de Fabry exige a dosagem da enzima alfa galactosidase A. Para as MPS, &#233; importante dosar os glicosaminoglicanos urin&#225;rios, enquanto a doen&#231;a de Danon &#233; causada pela defici&#234;ncia de prote&#237;na de membrana 2 associada ao lisossomo (LAMP2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico etiol&#243;gico deste grupo de doen&#231;as &#233; fundamental, pois pode permitir tratamento espec&#237;fico e requer abordagem multidisciplinar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A s&#237;ndrome de Noonan &#233; a principal causa gen&#233;tica de MCH em crian&#231;as com menos de um ano de idade, sendo acompanhada de elevado risco de mortalidade precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica consiste em uma abordagem sistem&#225;tica que inclui uma hist&#243;ria familiar detalhada (ETAPA 1), aconselhamento gen&#233;tico e a realiza&#231;&#227;o de testes gen&#233;ticos espec&#237;ficos, quando indicados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O geneticista cl&#237;nico afasta condi&#231;&#245;es sindr&#244;micas e indica quais exames gen&#233;ticos devem ser solicitados. &#201; fundamental compreender os aspectos &#233;tico-legais que variam em cada pa&#237;s e os impactos psicossociais que podem ser gerados. Assim, essas quest&#245;es devem ser discutidas durante o aconselhamento. Nesse momento, o m&#233;dico geneticista tamb&#233;m aponta quais familiares estariam em risco de desenvolver a doen&#231;a, orientando o rastreio cl&#237;nico e gen&#233;tico em cascata destes parentes. Os consensos atuais recomendam que a investiga&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica seja realizada em crian&#231;as e adultos com diagn&#243;stico de miocardiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Exames gen&#233;ticos</title>
          <p>Durante o aconselhamento gen&#233;tico, a fam&#237;lia &#233; informada sobre os poss&#237;veis resultados da investiga&#231;&#227;o: (1) resultado conclusivo, onde &#233; identificada uma variante patog&#234;nica ou provavelmente patog&#234;nica que justifique o fen&#243;tipo em quest&#227;o, (2) resultado negativo, onde nenhuma variante que justifique a miocardiopatia &#233; detectada, ou (3) resultado inconclusivo, onde uma variante identificada &#233; classificada como de significado incerto (VUS). Nesse caso, &#233; importante manter o acompanhamento e reavaliar o potencial patog&#234;nico da variante futuramente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup>&#201; essencial que a interpreta&#231;&#227;o desses achados seja realizada por profissional com treinamento em cardiogen&#233;tica.</p>
          <p>A probabilidade de um exame gen&#233;tico ser positivo depende n&#227;o s&#243; do tipo de miocardiopatia em quest&#227;o, mas tamb&#233;m das caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas que podem indicar doen&#231;as associadas espec&#237;ficas, como no caso das distrofias musculares. Para pacientes adultos, a taxa de positividade do exame gen&#233;tico pode variar de 60% a 70% para a MCH, de 30% a 40% para a MCD e de 50% a 60% para a miocardiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> A determina&#231;&#227;o da etiologia gen&#233;tica das miocardiopatias pedi&#225;tricas, por outro lado, ocorre em torno de 32 a 39%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A maioria das miocardiopatias apresenta altera&#231;&#245;es monog&#234;nicas, sendo indicada a realiza&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica de sequenciamento gen&#233;tico de nova gera&#231;&#227;o (NGS). Existem pain&#233;is espec&#237;ficos para determinados fen&#243;tipos, sendo estes exames indicados para indiv&#237;duos com um fen&#243;tipo bem definido e isolado de miocardiopatia. Entretanto, quando houver comprometimento multissist&#234;mico, presen&#231;a de dismorfias ou suspeita de miocardiopatia sindr&#244;mica, a an&#225;lise completa do exoma &#233; &#250;til. Para estudar a presen&#231;a de uma variante j&#225; identificada em casos de rastreio gen&#233;tico familiar, utiliza-se a t&#233;cnica de Sanger.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Embora raras, altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas podem estar associadas &#224;s miocardiopatias, como na s&#237;ndrome de Pallister-Killian, uma tetrassomia de 12p que pode cursar com MCH, e na MCR com anomalia do cromossomo 6. Para o diagn&#243;stico desses casos, o cari&#243;tipo de sangue perif&#233;rico &#233; o exame preferencial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O alto custo dos exames gen&#233;ticos e a necessidade de profissionais treinados em cardiogen&#233;tica para a correta indica&#231;&#227;o e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos resultados limitam a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, com a dissemina&#231;&#227;o do uso do exoma, &#233; poss&#237;vel a detec&#231;&#227;o de achados secund&#225;rios ou incidentais que n&#227;o s&#227;o relacionados com a doen&#231;a cardiovascular a ser investigada, como variantes patog&#234;nicas em genes relacionados ao desenvolvimento de c&#226;ncer. &#201; fundamental que a possibilidade de tais achados seja discutida com o paciente antes da coleta do exame, e que o paciente d&#234; consentimento para receber ou n&#227;o tais resultados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Rastreio familiar</title>
          <p>Ocorre quando um indiv&#237;duo da fam&#237;lia do probando &#233; avaliado devido &#224; hist&#243;ria familiar de uma miocardiopatia previamente definida, independentemente de apresentar ou n&#227;o fen&#243;tipo/sintomas cl&#237;nicos. Aqueles com padr&#227;o de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica dominante t&#234;m 50% de probabilidade de transmitir a variante para seus filhos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O rastreio cl&#237;nico &#233; recomendado para todo parente de primeiro grau que esteja sob risco de desenvolver a miocardiopatia, mesmo que assintom&#225;tico. Portanto, a avalia&#231;&#227;o com anamnese, exame f&#237;sico, ECG e ecodoppler colorido deve ser realizada para identificar o fen&#243;tipo. A Sociedade Americana de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (<italic>Heart Failure Society of America</italic>) recomenda a triagem cl&#237;nica anual para crian&#231;as at&#233; 5 anos de idade, a cada 1 a 2 anos para crian&#231;as entre 6 e 12 anos de idade, e a cada 1 a 3 anos para os adolescentes entre 13 e 19 anos. A triagem deve continuar na vida adulta com avalia&#231;&#245;es regulares a cada 3 a 5 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Rastreio gen&#233;tico: uma vez que uma variante patog&#234;nica seja identificada, ela poder&#225; ser pesquisada atrav&#233;s do <italic>rastreio em cascata</italic> nos parentes de primeiro grau. Caso a variante seja detectada, o indiv&#237;duo dever&#225; manter a investiga&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica em busca do fen&#243;tipo e receber aconselhamento gen&#233;tico. Diante da presen&#231;a de um gen&#243;tipo positivo, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel determinar se uma miocardiopatia ir&#225; se manifestar clinicamente, caracterizando que a penetr&#226;ncia pode ser vari&#225;vel, assim como a expressividade, onde diferentes fen&#243;tipos podem ocorrer associados a uma mesma variante. Caso a variante n&#227;o seja identificada nos parentes estudados, n&#227;o h&#225; necessidade de manter rastreio fenot&#237;pico com realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames cardiovasculares rotineiros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>&#201; comum que pais e respons&#225;veis temam que seus filhos sejam estigmatizados, enfrentem discrimina&#231;&#227;o e sofram danos psicol&#243;gicos caso testem positivo para uma variante gen&#233;tica familiar. Entretanto, os benef&#237;cios do conhecimento do gen&#243;tipo s&#227;o potenciais e incluem a capacidade de esclarecer quais crian&#231;as precisam cuidados card&#237;acos, orienta&#231;&#227;o na participa&#231;&#227;o de atividades esportivas e redu&#231;&#227;o da preocupa&#231;&#227;o quando o teste &#233; negativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Etapa 3</title>
          <p>Nesta etapa, j&#225; temos o fen&#243;tipo morfofuncional e a etiologia definidos. Com base nessas informa&#231;&#245;es, &#233; poss&#237;vel utilizar a classifica&#231;&#227;o de MOGE(S).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Etapa 4</title>
          <p>Em seguida, &#233; fundamental determinar o progn&#243;stico. Ele pode variar e relaciona-se diretamente com o fen&#243;tipo, gen&#243;tipo, idade do paciente, presen&#231;a de arritmias card&#237;acas, eleva&#231;&#227;o de biomarcadores e classe funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A MCD apresenta progn&#243;stico reservado, onde cerca de 30% dos pacientes evoluem para &#243;bito ou necessitam de transplante card&#237;aco ap&#243;s tr&#234;s anos da doen&#231;a, devido a IC avan&#231;ada ou arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup>Estudos mostram que a idade ao diagn&#243;stico (inferior a 1 e acima de 12 anos), altera&#231;&#245;es nas fun&#231;&#245;es sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica do VE, al&#233;m do di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico final do VE s&#227;o preditores de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a, eventos adversos, transplante card&#237;aco e &#243;bito. A eleva&#231;&#227;o do NT-proBNP/BNP tamb&#233;m est&#225; associada a piores desfechos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup>A sobrevida, sem necessidade de transplante card&#237;aco, pode variar de 60% a 75% dentro de 5 anos ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Um ter&#231;o dos pacientes pode recuperar a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, ocorrendo com maior frequ&#234;ncia nos pacientes com miocardite comprovada por biopsia, com menor dimens&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do VE e maior espessura da parede septal. A MCD &#233; a principal indica&#231;&#227;o de transplante card&#237;aco em crian&#231;as, com uma boa taxa de sobrevida de 94% no primeiro ano do transplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A MCH apresenta um progn&#243;stico pior em crian&#231;as no primeiro ano de vida, especialmente quando os EIM e s&#237;ndromes de malforma&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o a etiologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de desnutri&#231;&#227;o e IC no diagn&#243;stico agrava o progn&#243;stico, conforme demonstrado nos dados obtidos do Registro Pedi&#225;trico Norte Americano de Miocardiopatias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os pacientes com MCH podem ter diferentes taxas de sobrevida de acordo com a etiologia subjacente. A pior relaciona-se aos EIM, com 42% em cinco anos, seguido das s&#237;ndromes de malforma&#231;&#227;o com 74%. Quando o diagn&#243;stico &#233; realizado ap&#243;s um ano de idade e a causa n&#227;o &#233; determinada, a sobrevida chega a 94% em cinco anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A principal causa de &#243;bito em crian&#231;as com MCH &#233; a MS, sendo mais comum do que em adultos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Os principais fatores de risco associados &#224; MS incluem s&#237;ncope inexplicada, espessura m&#225;xima da parede do VE, di&#226;metro AE, gradiente na via de sa&#237;da do VE e taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada. A hist&#243;ria familiar de MS parece n&#227;o estar associada a risco aumentado na inf&#226;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Dados do estudo ShaRe (<italic>The Sarcomeric Human Cardiomyopathy Registry)</italic> mostraram que, quando a presen&#231;a de variantes sarcom&#233;ricas s&#227;o detectadas em crian&#231;as com MCH, h&#225; maior risco de desenvolver arritmias ventriculares e necessidade de tratamento avan&#231;ado para a IC. Est&#225; associado a um risco elevado de 67% para a ocorr&#234;ncia de desfechos card&#237;acos, com risco duas vezes maior de desenvolver IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Variantes nos genes MYBPC3 e MYH7 relacionam-se a arritmias malignas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> As calculadoras de risco para a popula&#231;&#227;o pedi&#225;trica est&#227;o sendo validadas para serem utilizadas em menores de 16 anos (<italic>HCM Risk-Kids</italic> https://hcmriskkids.org/).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Pacientes com o fen&#243;tipo de MR caracterizam-se por possuir um progn&#243;stico desfavor&#225;vel, sendo o pior de todas as miocardiopatias. A sobrevida em 5 anos &#233; de 68%, e a presen&#231;a de IC e redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de encurtamento complica o progn&#243;stico. Geralmente, s&#227;o referidos aos programas de transplante card&#237;aco precocemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Na MCNC, o progn&#243;stico est&#225; mais relacionado &#224; apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do que ao fen&#243;tipo. Pacientes assintom&#225;ticos e fen&#243;tipo isolado de MCNC apresentam melhor evolu&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Etapa 5</title>
          <p>Nesta &#250;ltima etapa, deve-se buscar o que h&#225; dispon&#237;vel para o tratamento das miocardiopatias pedi&#225;tricas, &#224; luz da aplica&#231;&#227;o da medicina de precis&#227;o.</p>
          <p>O tratamento personalizado do paciente e sua fam&#237;lia torna-se poss&#237;vel a partir da confirma&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo. Pacientes com MCH e miocardiopatia arritmog&#234;nica s&#227;o proibidos de atividade f&#237;sica competitiva e podem ser candidatos a cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel (CDI) como preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de MS. Conhecer o gen&#243;tipo do paciente e correlacionar com a hist&#243;ria natural e progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a permitem a tomada de decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas importantes, como a prioriza&#231;&#227;o do transplante card&#237;aco ou o uso de terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica (TRE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Atualmente, muitos dos EIM s&#227;o trat&#225;veis usando abordagens que visam a fisiopatologia envolvida no desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a, sendo poss&#237;vel, em alguns casos, a revers&#227;o da miocardiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup>Na defici&#234;ncia sist&#234;mica de carnitina, por exemplo, h&#225; melhora da miocardiopatia dilatada com a reposi&#231;&#227;o de altas doses de carnitina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O desenvolvimento de terapias espec&#237;ficas tem progredido devido ao avan&#231;o nas pesquisas cl&#237;nicas. A TRE realizada na doen&#231;a de Pompe melhora a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, com melhores resultados quando o tratamento &#233; iniciado precocemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Outras doen&#231;as do dep&#243;sito lisossomal, que s&#227;o associadas &#224; miocardiopatia, incluindo doen&#231;a de Gaucher, Doen&#231;a de Fabry, mucopolissacaridoses I, II, IV e VI, s&#227;o tratadas com TRE ou transplante de medula &#243;ssea, obtendo-se bons resultados. A TRE tamb&#233;m tem sido bem-sucedida na muta&#231;&#227;o PRKAG2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Ao se identificar muta&#231;&#245;es em genes como DES, SCN5A, FLNC e LMNA, os quais apresentam risco proeminente de arritmias fatais, o uso precoce do CDI pode ser ben&#233;fico, j&#225; que a MS pode ser o primeiro sintoma e preceder o desenvolvimento da miocardiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A decis&#227;o do implante do CDI ainda &#233; um desafio entre pacientes pedi&#225;tricos. H&#225; uma calculadora de risco (<italic>HCM Risk-Kids</italic> https://hcmriskkids.org/) dispon&#237;vel que pode auxiliar na avalia&#231;&#227;o individualizada destes pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os moduladores de miosina s&#227;o uma nova classe de agentes farmac&#234;uticos que est&#227;o sendo desenvolvidos para tratar pacientes com uma variedade de miocardiopatias. Uma estrat&#233;gia para diminuir a taxa de ATPase da miosina provou, recentemente, ser eficaz para o tratamento da miocardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica obstrutiva em pacientes adultos, o f&#225;rmaco mavacamten.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A terapia g&#234;nica tem como objetivo o tratamento da etiologia a n&#237;vel molecular. Recentemente, Bains et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> publicaram uma revis&#227;o acerca de sua aplica&#231;&#227;o nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares monog&#234;nicas, dentre elas as miocardiopatias. &#201; poss&#237;vel realizar edi&#231;&#227;o, silenciamento e substitui&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica.</p>
          <p>A terapia de substitui&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica tem aplica&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica quando h&#225; uma variante com perda de fun&#231;&#227;o. Assim, objetiva-se introduzir o gene funcionante na c&#233;lula atrav&#233;s de um vetor, geralmente o adenov&#237;rus. Atualmente, h&#225; um ensaio cl&#237;nico deste tipo de tratamento para a miocardiopatia por variante patog&#234;nica em LAMP2, que caracteriza a doen&#231;a de Danon. Muta&#231;&#245;es em FLNC, MYBPC3, TTN, DSP, PKPs, BAG3 e LMNA s&#227;o exemplos potenciais onde pode haver aplica&#231;&#227;o desta terapia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A terapia de silenciamento gen&#233;tico tem por objetivo reduzir a express&#227;o de um gene com variante patog&#234;nica onde haja produ&#231;&#227;o de uma prote&#237;na alterada. Tratamentos espec&#237;ficos para a distrofia muscular de Duchenne e amiloidose por transtirretina (ATTR) t&#234;m apresentado resultados promissores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A edi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica ocorre com o uso da tecnologia da CRISPR-Cas9, sendo poss&#237;vel uma clivagem de DNA direcionada num local preciso no genoma, determinado pela sequ&#234;ncia &#250;nica de um RNA guia, corrigindo a muta&#231;&#227;o presente no gene.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os avan&#231;os da medicina translacional e de precis&#227;o tornam poss&#237;vel que o tratamento das miocardiopatias esteja muito pr&#243;ximo &#224; etiologia gen&#233;tica, corrigindo a causa ou as altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais celulares. Existem aplica&#231;&#245;es promissoras destas terapias; entretanto, ainda possuem custo elevado, o que limita o seu uso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>As miocardiopatias diagnosticadas na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia constituem um grupo muito complexo de etiologias, fen&#243;tipos, apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e progn&#243;stico diversos. A abordagem em etapas, de modo a padronizar o racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico, assegura a determina&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo morfofuncional, a investiga&#231;&#227;o da etiologia pelos m&#233;todos dispon&#237;veis, a classifica&#231;&#227;o adequada do paciente para a defini&#231;&#227;o do progn&#243;stico e aplica&#231;&#227;o individualizada das terapias vigentes, espec&#237;ficas para cada caso.</p>
      <p>Esta abordagem sistematizada confere a import&#226;ncia do conhecimento da etiologia na defini&#231;&#227;o de planos terap&#234;uticos individualizados, levando a um melhor progn&#243;stico. Portanto, constru&#237;mos uma abordagem sistematizada com cinco etapas, conectando a classifica&#231;&#227;o de MOGE(S) e refor&#231;ando o papel do geneticista cl&#237;nico.</p>
      <p>O estudo do impacto da incorpora&#231;&#227;o dos testes gen&#233;ticos nas miocardiopatias no SUS poder&#225; promover importantes avan&#231;os no cuidado destes pacientes, sendo fundamental a pesquisa cl&#237;nica nesta &#225;rea.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</label>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
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          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Grippa</surname>
            <given-names>Aurea</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9011-7779</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Maia</surname>
            <given-names>Eduarda Corr&#234;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Miranda</surname>
            <given-names>Sara Aim&#233;e</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Adriano Cardoso dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Peres</surname>
            <given-names>Elion Tavares</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7012-1252</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Olimpio Patrick Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7875-4676</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Everton Mattos de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense Hospital Universit&#225;rio Ant&#244;nio Pedro (EBSERH), Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niteroi, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Ana Flavia Torbey &#8226; Universidade Federal Fluminense &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina - Departamento Materno Infantil &#8211; Rua Des. Athayde Parreiras, 100. Postal Code 24070-090, F&#225;tima, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil;E-mail: anatorbey@id.uff.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p> Dr. Evandro Tinoco Mesquita - Received fees for lectures from Pfizer e BMS. Dra. Aurea Grippa - Received fees for lectures from Astra Zeneca.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p> Vitor Guerra</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>In childhood and adolescence, cardiomyopathies have their own characteristics and are an important cause of heart failure, arrhythmias, sudden death, and indication for heart transplantation. Diagnosis is a challenge in daily practice due to its varied clinical presentation, heterogeneous etiologies, and limited knowledge of tools related to clinical and molecular genetics. However, it is essential to recognize the different phenotypes and prioritize the search for the etiology. Recent advances in precision medicine have made molecular diagnosis accessible, which makes it possible to individualize therapeutic approaches, stratify the prognosis, and identify individuals in the family who are at risk of developing the disease. The objective of this review is to emphasize the particularities of cardiomyopathies in pediatrics and how the individualized approach impacts the therapy and prognosis of the patient. Through a systematized approach, the five-stage protocol used in our service is presented. These stages bring together clinical evaluation for determining the morphofunctional phenotype, identification of etiology, classification, establishment of prognosis, and the search for personalized therapies.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Child</kwd>
        <kwd>Precision Medicine</kwd>
        <kwd>Genetics</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Cardiomyopathies are a heterogeneous group of structural, mechanical, and electrical alterations of the myocardium and the main cause of heart transplantation in the first year of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> While uncommon in pediatrics, they may be overlooked, considering the rising number of cases of heart failure (HF) in the pediatric population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Advances in molecular genetics and cardiac imaging techniques have promoted changes in the knowledge and classification of cardiomyopathies in recent decades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> However, there is still a significant gap in knowledge of the main etiologies, clinical presentation, and therapeutic approach in children and adolescents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Brazil is currently advancing initiatives to address cardiomyopathies, including the Brazilian National Cardiovascular Genomics Network - RENOMICA, which investigates hereditary cardiovascular diseases and assesses the cost-effectiveness of genetic diagnosis within the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS).18 Our team is establishing the Registry of Cardiomyopathies and Myocarditis in Children and Adolescents in Metropolitan Region II of the State of Rio de Janeiro (CHARISMA Registry), which will focus on the genotype/phenotype relationship.</p>
        <p>This work aims to describe, through a literature review, the updated approach to pediatric cardiomyopathies in light of the major advances in precision medicine. It also presents the 5-step clinical reasoning model employed in our service, which incorporates a personalized approach to pediatric cardiomyopathies.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>The research was conducted in the indexed databases PUBMED, LILACS and SCIELO using the terms: Cardiomiopatias/Cardiomyopathy; Crian&#231;a/Children; Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca/Heart Failure; Pediatria/Pediatrics; Gen&#233;tica/Genetics; e Medicina de Precis&#227;o/Precision Medicine. Articles published in English and Portuguese between 1997 and 2022 were selected.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Epidemiology</title>
          <p>The impact of HF in childhood has increased. The main causes of pediatric HF are congenital heart disease, cardiomyopathies and arrhythmias.3,4,19,20 In a study by Salim et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> cardiomyopathy accounted for 32% of deaths from cardiovascular origin in children under one year of age in Brazil, standing out as the main cause of death in this subgroup between 2000 and 2015. In the state of Rio de Janeiro, cardiomyopathies had the highest annual proportional mortality rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Studies conducted in North America, Europe (Finland), and Australia show an estimated incidence of 1:100,000 people per year under the age of 20 years diagnosed with cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> These studies revealed a predominance in males and children of black and Aboriginal origin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) represent the majority of phenotypes (approximately 50% each), with restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM) and non-compaction cardiomyopathy (NCCM) accounting for 5%. However, this incidence may vary according to the age group investigated. The incidence of HCM is three times higher among infants under one year of age. The Australian Registry showed a higher incidence of NCCM of approximately 10% when compared to other registries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite the results of the studies described, the real incidence of cardiomyopathies in the pediatric population is yet unknown. Moreover, there is a large knowledge gap regarding the epidemiological characteristics in Brazil and Latin America, where there is a lack of studies on the subject.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup>Huertas-Qui&#241;ones et al. have recently demonstrated that the clinical characteristics of pediatric cardiomyopathies in a reference center in Colombia agree with global trends, with DCM being the most frequent, followed by HCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Classification</title>
          <p>Current classifications are based mainly on the morphofunctional phenotype and emphasize the importance of the genetic basis of cardiomyopathies. The 2006 American Heart Association (AHA) classification, the 2008 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) classification, and the 2013 World Heart Federation (WHF) classification (MOGE(S)) are currently available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The MOGE(S) classification, as endorsed by the WHF in 2013, was designed to integrate diverse aspects of cardiomyopathy patients, as it considers the morphofunctional phenotype, affected organ, genetic or familial origin, etiology, HF stage (AHA A-D), and functional class (New York Heart Association I-IV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The utility of functional classes is limited in children and is typically not applied. However, for children under six years of age with clinical signs of HF, the modified Ross classification<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> is recommended, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Functional classification for children with heart failure</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th colspan="2">Functional capacity (NYHA)*</th>
                    <th colspan="2">Ross&#8217; classification for children and infants</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Functional Class</th>
                    <th align="left">Description</th>
                    <th>Functional Class</th>
                    <th align="left">Description</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">I</td>
                    <td>No limitation to physical activity; absence of symptoms during common physical activities.</td>
                    <td align="center">I</td>
                    <td>No limitations or symptoms.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">II</td>
                    <td>Routine physical activities cause fatigue, palpitations or dyspnea. Comfortable at rest.</td>
                    <td align="center">II</td>
                    <td>Slight tachypnea or sweating during breastfeeding. Dyspnea on exertion in older children, without compromising weight gain.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">III</td>
                    <td>Minor routine physical activities cause fatigue, palpitations or dyspnea. Comfortable at rest.</td>
                    <td align="center">III</td>
                    <td>Significant tachypnea or sweating during breastfeeding. Prolongation of the breastfeeding time. Growth delay due to HF.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">IV</td>
                    <td>Inability to perform any physical activity without discomfort, HF symptoms at rest. Worsening of discomfort signs when any physical activity is performed.</td>
                    <td align="center">IV</td>
                    <td>Symptoms at rest include tachypnea, retractions, groaning, and sweating.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <attrib>*New York Heart Association. Source: Azeka et al., 2014<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> Monda et al., 2021.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> </attrib>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>A five-step approach to pediatric patients with cardiomyopathy</title>
          <p>The approach to pediatric cardiomyopathies consists of personalized medicine, with standardized protocols that assist physicians in the etiological investigation of these conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> As the clinical picture is heterogeneous, patients may be asymptomatic or present with signs and symptoms of HF, arrhythmias, chest pain, syncope or sudden death. Therefore, a high level of suspicion is required for a proper diagnosis to be made.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Initially, a clinical evaluation is performed to confirm the phenotype and determine whether the cardiomyopathy is an isolated or syndromic condition. Generally, specific &#8220;red flags&#8221; can be seen, which can lead to an appropriate diagnosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Next, the etiology is sought to define a therapeutic and prognostic plan. Using the MOGE(S) classification is crucial for a comprehensive cardiological diagnosis of cardiomyopathies, considering the specificities of pediatrics, particularly regarding the functional class.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Ultimately, prognosis is evaluated, and personalized therapy is implemented, tailoring drug and non-drug interventions based on the underlying etiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Red Flags in the physical examination and cardiomyopathies</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Clinical/laboratory characteristics (red flags)</th>
                    <th>Cardiomyopathy phenotype</th>
                    <th align="left">Possible etiology</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Coarse facial features, corneal opacification, growth and development delay, intellectual deficit, hepatosplenomegaly.</td>
                    <td align="center">DCM HCM</td>
                    <td>Mucopolysaccharidoses</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hypotonia, muscle weakness, developmental delay.</td>
                    <td align="center">HCM</td>
                    <td>Pompe disease</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Short stature, developmental delay, ocular hypertelorism, webbed neck, eyelid ptosis.</td>
                    <td align="center">HCM</td>
                    <td>Noonan syndrome and other RASopathies</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Progressive ataxia, absence of reflexes.</td>
                    <td align="center">HCM, more rarely DCM</td>
                    <td>Friedreich ataxia</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Elevated creatine phosphokinase and transaminases, developmental delay and retinopathy.</td>
                    <td align="center">HCM</td>
                    <td>Danon disease</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Neuropathic pain in the extremities, angiokeratomas, microalbuminuria, gastrointestinal symptoms, cornea verticillata, hypohidrosis.</td>
                    <td align="center">HCM</td>
                    <td>Fabry disease</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>DCM: dilated cardiomyopathy; HCM: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Below are shown the stages of evaluation of pediatric patients with suspected cardiomyopathy employed in our service (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Central Illustration</label>
              <caption>
                <title>: Cardiomyopathy in Children and Adolescents in the Era of Precision Medicine</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Systematic approach in five stages for cardiomyopathies starting in childhood and adolescence. The upper part of the figure shows the flowchart of clinical reasoning, while the lower part provides details of each stage. MCP: cardiomyopathy, ECG: electrocardiogram, ECHO: echocardiogram, CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance, CT Angio: computed tomography angiography. *Main examples include Pompe disease, Fabry disease, and mucopolysaccharidoses. &#8224; Available for adults with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy. &#8225; Some genetic variants are more associated with the risk of arrhythmias and sudden death. &#167; Promising studies are underway for Duchenne muscular dystrophy and Danon disease.</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20230154-30154-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 1</title>
            <p>Personal history is crucial, as it highlights the age of diagnosis or symptoms onset. Neonates and infants present more frequently inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) and genetic syndromes as etiology when compared to schoolchildren and adolescents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
            <p>During physical examination of infants and preschoolers with DCM, the classic signs of HF are commonly observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> History of syncope, heart murmur, and chest pain may also be present in all phenotypes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> It is estimated that 40% of symptomatic children develop HF of such severity that they require heart transplantation or die within five years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> In children with HCM, sudden death (SD) is the main cause of death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A global assessment of the child is essential, focusing on the motor and cognitive development milestones, as well as any dysmorphisms, anthropometric changes, signs of muscle weakness or involvement of other organs and systems.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> It is estimated that approximately 10% of children with cardiomyopathy have a genetic syndrome diagnosis, and 15% of the known causes are attributed to IEM, which differentiates them from the adult population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Previous pathological history analysis must include recent infections (respiratory and gastrointestinal), history of oncological treatment, inflammatory conditions or autoimmune disease and endocrine diseases, thereby ruling out non-genetic causes for cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A detailed family history analysis, including at least three generations to build the genogram, is recommended. Therefore, it is possible to determine the inheritance pattern and provide genetic counseling, identifying individuals at risk of developing the disease. Additionally, information such as age of onset, potential outcomes, and variation of phenotypes within the same family can be provided.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> It is worth noting that a child diagnosed with genetic cardiomyopathy may lack a positive family history, either due to a de novo mutation or inheritance from an asymptomatic parent carrying the genetic alteration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The inheritance pattern is usually autosomal dominant; however, autosomal recessive patterns, X-linked or mitochondrial disease (matrilineal pattern) also occur and are more frequent in children than adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Mutations in sarcomere genes are prevalent in children diagnosed with isolated HCM, but can also be present in those with DCM, NCCM, and RCM. Mutations may also affect genes related to the cytoskeleton, nuclear membrane, and desmosomes. Furthermore, the same pathogenic variant can lead to various phenotypes, and different types of cardiomyopathies can manifest within the same family.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
            <p>After performing anamnesis and physical examination, the morphofunctional phenotype is determined using complementary cardiac imaging exams and laboratory tests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref> shows the main phenotypes in pediatric populations and their characteristics.</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f02001">
                <label>Figure 1</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Main phenotypes and characteristics of pediatric cardiomyopathies. LV: left ventricle; CMP: cardiomyopathy; RV: right ventricle.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-09-e20230154-30154-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>Due to the complexity of cardiomyopathy, a multidisciplinary evaluation is often required, with physicians specializing in cardiology, pediatrics, metabolism, radiology, neurology, and genetics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Electrocardiogram (ECG): a readily available and cost-effective diagnostic tool that aids in identifying cardiomyopathies by detecting changes such as low QRS voltage, cardiac chamber enlargement, alterations in atrioventricular conduction, ventricular repolarization, as well as the presence of atrial and ventricular arrhythmias. In some patients, ECG changes may represent the sole phenotypic manifestation of myocardial disease. Conditions like Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome and ventricular pre-excitation are associated with storage diseases such as mutations in PRKAG2 and LAMP2 (Danon disease) and Pompe disease. Progressive alterations in atrioventricular conduction and atrioventricular block are frequently observed in laminopathies, mitochondrial diseases, and storage or infiltrative disorders, as well as in inflammatory conditions like giant cell myocarditis and sarcoidosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Echocardiogram: provides anatomical information, ruling out or confirming congenital disease, determining the dimensions of the heart chambers and their walls, which should be expressed in z-scores. Additionally, it assesses systolic and diastolic functions. The use of Strain (longitudinal, circumferential, and radial) is sensitive to systolic dysfunction and provides early diagnosis of chemotherapy-induced cardiomyopathy, as well as hereditary cardiomyopathies, especially in the HCM and NCCM phenotypes, as demonstrated in a systematic review by Dorobantu et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Furthermore, observation of myocardial characteristics helps in the diagnosis of NCCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> The presence of LV concentric hypertrophy greater than 3 cm is generally related to storage diseases such as Pompe disease in infants and Danon disease in adolescents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>24-hour Holter and Exercise Test: detect the presence of atrial and ventricular arrhythmias, aid in risk stratification for SD, and are essential for this group of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI): aids in determining the morphological phenotype and studies systolic and diastolic function. The presence of myocardial edema, hyperemia, and non-ischemic fibrosis correlates with myocarditis, while fibrofatty tissue replacement is indicative of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Fibrosis (delayed enhancement) also helps in diagnosing neuromuscular diseases and in patients undergoing anthracycline therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Cardiac tomography: indicated for patients with difficult echocardiographic windows and contraindications for CMRI. It is essential in the study of the coronary arteries and cardiac anatomy. It can reveal the presence of fatty tissue, a hallmark of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Biomarkers: Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and the amino-terminal fragment of its precursor (NT-proBNP) are produced in response to volume overload, pressure and tension in the ventricular wall. Its measurement helps in the prognosis of children with cardiomyopathies and HF; higher levels indicate a greater risk of worse outcomes in children with DCM. It also helps in the differential diagnosis between restrictive cardiomyopathy (higher levels) and constrictive pericarditis. In patients undergoing treatment with cardiotoxic chemotherapy, its elevation indicates early myocardial injury and dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Troponin levels increase in children with cardiomyopathies; however, this elevation is not typically correlated with prognosis. It happens particularly in cases of DCM and is often associated with inflammatory conditions like myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In patients with arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, troponin may increase in the &#8220;warm phase,&#8221; as described by Bariani et al., where there is a clinical presentation with chest pain and elevated troponin in the absence of coronary alterations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> The measurement of muscle enzymes and assessment of liver and kidney function are essential for the analysis of multi-organ involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Cardiac catheterization: indicated in specific conditions. It determines pulmonary vascular resistance, assesses coronary circulation, rules out coronary anomalies, confirms the physiology of RCM and performs endomyocardial biopsy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 2</title>
            <p>Step 2 consists of identifying the etiology. Although the morphofunctional phenotype resembles that seen in adults, the prevalence of etiologies differs between children and adolescents. Neuromuscular, metabolic, mitochondrial diseases and other genetic syndromes are major causes, especially in infants and preschool children.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Some conditions in childhood are clarified with metabolic investigation and muscle enzyme measurement. Elevated creatine phosphokinase levels may suggest mitochondrial disease and Danon disease in patients with HCM. In contrast, in patients with DCM, elevated muscle enzymes are associated with dystrophinopathies, sarcoglycanopathies, laminopathies, myotonic dystrophy, and desminopathies. Lactic acidosis and elevated transaminases are indicative of mitochondrial disease, while patients with Fabry disease may present with proteinuria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
            <p>IEM account for approximately 15% of the known causes of cardiomyopathies, and they are common etiologies of HCM and DCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Examples include glycogen storage diseases (Pompe disease and Danon disease), lysosomal storage diseases such as mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS), and Fabry disease, which are disorders of glycosphingolipid metabolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Neonatal screening protocols for IEM may not include all necessary diagnostic tests, potentially leading to underdiagnosis of IEM-associated cardiomyopathies due to limited awareness.32 Pompe disease should be ruled out in infants with HCM accompanied by hypotonia by measuring the activity of the acid alpha-glucosidase enzyme. If Fabry disease is suspected, the alpha-galactosidase A enzyme should be measured. For MPS, it is important to measure urinary glycosaminoglycans, while Danon disease is caused by a deficiency of lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> The etiological diagnosis of this group of diseases is essential due to the possibility of specific treatment, requiring a multidisciplinary approach.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Noonan syndrome is the main genetic cause of HCM in children under one year and is accompanied by a high risk of early mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Genetic evaluation consists of a systematic approach, including a detailed family history analysis (STEP 1), genetic counseling, and specific genetic tests when indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The clinical geneticist rules out syndromic conditions and indicates which genetic tests should be requested. It is essential to understand the ethical and legal aspects that vary in each country and the psychosocial impacts that may be generated. Thus, these issues should be discussed during counseling, where the geneticist will also indicate which family members would be at risk of developing the disease, guiding the cascade of clinical and genetic screening of these relatives. The current consensus recommends that genetic investigation be performed on children and adults diagnosed with cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Genetic tests</title>
            <p>During genetic counseling, the family is informed of the possible results of this investigation: (1) conclusive result, where a pathogenic or probably pathogenic variant is found that justifies the phenotype in question; (2) negative result, where no variant is detected that justifies the cardiomyopathy, or (3) inconclusive result, where an identified variant is classified as a variant of uncertain significance (VUS). In this case, it is important to continue monitoring and reassessing the pathogenic potential of the variant in the future.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup>It is essential that the interpretation of these findings be performed by a professional with training in cardiogenetics.</p>
            <p>The likelihood of a positive genetic test result depends not only on the type of cardiomyopathy being evaluated but also on specific clinical features that may suggest associated diseases, such as muscular dystrophies. Thus, the positivity rate of genetic testing can range from 60% to 70% for HCM, 30% to 40% for DCM, and 50% to 60% for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy in adult patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup>In pediatric cardiomyopathies, the determination of genetic etiology occurs in approximately 32% to 39% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Most cardiomyopathies involve monogenic alterations, and next-generation genetic sequencing (NGS) is recommended. Specific panels are available for certain phenotypes. These tests are indicated for individuals who present a well-defined and isolated phenotype of cardiomyopathy. However, in cases of multisystem involvement, dysmorphisms or suspected syndromic cardiomyopathy, complete exome analysis is recommended. The Sanger technique is used for investigating already identified variants in family genetic screening cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Rarely, chromosomal alterations may be associated with cardiomyopathies, such as Pallister-Killian syndrome, a 12p tetrasomy that may occur with HCM, and RCM with an anomaly of chromosome 6. In these cases, the preferred diagnostic test is the peripheral blood karyotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The high cost of genetic tests and the need for professionals trained in cardiogenetics to indicate and adequately interpret the results limit their use. Moreover, with the widespread use of the exome, secondary or incidental findings can be detected that are not related to the cardiovascular disease being investigated, such as pathogenic variants in genes related to the development of cancer. It is crucial to inform patients about the potential outcomes of genetic testing beforehand, and patients must consent to receive or decline such results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Family screening</title>
            <p>This process involves evaluating individuals from the proband&#8217;s family, whether they exhibit clinical symptoms or not, due to a family history of a previously defined cardiomyopathy. Those with an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern have a 50% chance of transmitting the variant to their children.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Clinical screening is advised for all first-degree relatives who are at risk of developing cardiomyopathy, even if they are asymptomatic. Therefore, an evaluation including anamnesis, physical examination, electrocardiogram and color Doppler ultrasound should be performed the identify the phenotype. The Heart Failure Society of America recommends annual clinical screening for children up to age 5, screening every 1 to 2 years for children aged 6 to 12, and screening every 1 to 3 years for adolescents aged 13 to 19. Screening should continue into adulthood, with regular evaluations every 3 to 5 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Genetic Screening: once a pathogenic variant is identified, it can be further investigated through cascade screening in first-degree relatives. If the variant is detected, the individual should continue clinical evaluations to identify the phenotype and undergo genetic counseling. A positive genotype does not guarantee clinical manifestation of cardiomyopathy, as penetrance can vary, and different phenotypes can arise from the same variant, illustrating variable expressivity. If the variant is not identified in the studied relatives, there is no need to maintain phenotypic screening with routine cardiovascular exams.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Parents and guardians often express concerns about potential stigma, discrimination, and psychological impact on their children if they test positive for a family genetic variant. However, the benefits of knowing the genotype are significant and include identifying children who require cardiac care, providing guidance on participation in sports activities, and reducing anxiety when the test results are negative.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 3</title>
            <p>At this stage, the morphofunctional phenotype and etiology are already defined. Based on this information, the MOGE(S) classification can be employed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 4</title>
            <p>Next, prognosis determination is essential. This varies and is directly related to phenotype, genotype, patient age, presence of cardiac arrhythmias, elevation of biomarkers, and functional class.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
            <p>DCS has a poor prognosis, with approximately 30% of patients dying or requiring heart transplantation within three years of the disease due to advanced HF or arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup>Studies indicate that age at diagnosis (under 1 year and over 12 years), changes in LV systolic and diastolic functions, and LV end-diastolic diameter are predictors of disease progression, adverse events, heart transplantation, and death. Increased NT-proBNP/BNP levels are also associated with worse outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Survival without the need for heart transplantation can range from 60% to 75% within 5 years after diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> One third of patients can recover ventricular function, occurring more frequently in patients with biopsy-proven myocarditis, with smaller LV end-diastolic dimension and thicker septal wall. DCM is the primary indication for heart transplantation in children, with a favorable survival rate of 94% in the first year post-transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
            <p>HCM has a poorer prognosis in children during the first year of life, particularly when caused by inborn errors of metabolism and malformation syndromes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> The presence of malnutrition and HF at diagnosis worsens the prognosis, as evidenced by data from the North American Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Survival rates among patients with HCM may vary depending on the underlying etiology. The lowest rates are associated with inborn errors of metabolism (42% at 5 years), followed by malformation syndromes (74%). When the diagnosis is made after one year of age, and the cause is not determined, survival reaches 94% at five years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The main cause of death in children with HCM is SD, which is more common than in adults.64 The main risk factors associated with SD are unexplained syncope, maximum LV wall thickness, LA diameter, LV outflow tract gradient, and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia. A family history of SD does not appear to be associated with an increased risk in childhood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Data from the ShaRe (The Sarcomeric Human Cardiomyopathy Registry) study revealed that the presence of sarcomeric variants in children with HCM increases the risk of developing ventricular arrhythmias and necessitating advanced HF treatment. It is associated with a 67% high risk of cardiac outcomes, with a two-fold increased risk of developing HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Variants in the MYBPC3 and MYH7 genes are related to malignant arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Risk calculators for the pediatric population are being validated for use in children under 16 years of age (<italic>HCM Risk-Kids</italic> https://hcmriskkids.org/).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Patients with the restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM) phenotype are characterized by the worst prognosis among all cardiomyopathies. The 5-year survival rate is 68%, and the occurrence of HF and reduced shortening fraction complicate the prognosis. They are generally referred to heart transplant programs early.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In NCCM, prognosis is more closely associated with clinical presentation than with phenotype. Asymptomatic patients with isolated phenotypes of NCCM have better outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 5</title>
            <p>In this final stage, we should explore available treatments for pediatric cardiomyopathies, considering the application of precision medicine.</p>
            <p>Individualized patient and family treatment becomes feasible following confirmation of the phenotype. For patients diagnosed with HCM and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, competitive physical activities are restricted, and consideration for implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) placement as primary prevention against sudden death is warranted. Identifying the patient&#8217;s genotype and its correlation with the natural history and progression of the disease enables crucial therapeutic decisions, such as prioritizing heart transplantation or initiating enzyme replacement therapy (ERT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Several IEMs are now treatable with therapeutic strategies targeting their pathophysiology, thus offering the potential for cardiomyopathy reversal in certain cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup>In systemic carnitine deficiency, for example, replacing high doses of carnitine improves DCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The development of specific therapies has progressed due to advances in clinical research. ERT performed in Pompe disease improves myocardial hypertrophy; the earlier specific treatment is initiated, the better the results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Other lysosomal storage diseases associated with cardiomyopathy, including Gaucher disease, Fabry disease, and mucopolysaccharidosis I, II, IV, and VI, are treated with ERT or bone marrow transplantation with good results. ERT has also been successfully used for the PRKAG2 mutation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Early initiation of ICD therapy may be advantageous when mutations in high-risk genes such as DES, SCN5A, FLNC, and LMNA are identified. This is crucial as SD could potentially manifest as the initial symptom before the onset of cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The decision to implant an ICD is still a challenge among pediatric patients. There is a risk calculator available (<italic>HCM Risk-Kids</italic> https://hcmriskkids.org/) that can help in the individualized assessment of these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Myosin modulators are a new class of pharmaceutical agents under development aimed at treating patients with a variety of cardiomyopathies. A strategy to decrease the myosin ATPase rate has recently proven to be effective for the treatment of obstructive HCM in adult patients, the drug mavacamten.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Gene therapy aims to treat the etiology at the molecular level. Bains et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> recently published a review on its application in monogenic cardiovascular diseases, including cardiomyopathies. Gene editing, silencing and replacement are also possible.</p>
            <p>Gene replacement therapy has therapeutic applications when there is a variant with function loss. Thus, the objective is to introduce the functioning gene into the cell through a vector, usually adenovirus. Currently, a clinical trial is testing this type of treatment for cardiomyopathy caused by a pathogenic variant in LAMP2, indicative of Danon disease. Mutations in FLNC, MYBPC3, TTN, DSP, PKPs, BAG3 and LMNA are potential examples to which this therapy could be applied.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Gene silencing therapy aims to reduce the expression of a gene containing a pathogenic variant that leads to the production of an altered protein. Specific treatments for Duchenne muscular dystrophy and transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR) have produced promising results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Gene editing occurs using CRISPR-Cas9 technology, enabling targeted DNA cleavage at a precise location in the genome, determined by the unique sequence of a guide RNA, correcting the mutation present in the gene.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Advances in translational and precision medicine enable the treatment of cardiomyopathies very closely to the genetic etiology, correcting the cause or cellular functional alterations. These therapies have promising applications; however, they are still expensive, which limits their use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Cardiomyopathies diagnosed during childhood and adolescence form a highly intricate group characterized by diverse etiologies, phenotypes, clinical presentations, and prognoses. A systematic approach is crucial to standardize clinical assessment, thereby ensuring identification of the morphofunctional phenotype, thorough investigation into the etiology using available methods, accurate patient classification for prognosis determination, and personalized application of current therapies tailored to each case.</p>
        <p>This structured approach underscores the significance of understanding etiology in shaping personalized treatment plans, ultimately leading to improved prognostic outcomes. Thus, we have developed a systematic five-step approach that integrates the MOGE(S) classification, emphasizing the pivotal role of clinical geneticists.</p>
        <p>Exploring the impact of integrating genetic testing for cardiomyopathies within the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS) has the potential to significantly advance patient care. Therefore, ongoing clinical research in this field remains essential.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association</label>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Ana Fl&#225;via Malheiros Torbey, from Programa de Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding:</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
