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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">V3vFjpdhZvZBQdfN8Ck8fGD</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000800101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240494</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Cem Anos do Pr&#234;mio Nobel na Eletrocardiografia: Uma Tecnologia Ainda Essencial e Preparada para o Pr&#243;ximo S&#233;culo</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1886-6641</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9582-7881</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bettencourt</surname>
            <given-names>Nuno</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Unidade Local de Sa&#250;de de Gaia e Espinho</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Vila Nova de Gaia</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Unidade Local de Sa&#250;de de Gaia e Espinho, Vila Nova de Gaia &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Porto</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Porto</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Centro de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular (UniC@RISE), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia: Nuno Bettencourt &#8226;</label>Universidade do Porto Faculdade de Medicina - Unidade de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular - Alameda Professor Hern&#226;ni Monteiro Porto <postal-code>4200-319</postal-code> - Portugal E-mail: <email>bettencourt.n@gmail.com</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20240494</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Cardiologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Eletrocardiografia</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="17"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Willem Einthoven &#8211; breve revis&#227;o biogr&#225;fica</title>
      <p>Em 1924, o Pr&#234;mio Nobel de Fisiologia ou Medicina foi atribu&#237;do a Willem Einthoven pela "descoberta do mecanismo do eletrocardiograma" (ECG), evidenciando a relev&#226;ncia da investiga&#231;&#227;o de Einthoven, que forneceu dados importantes sobre a fisiopatologia cardiovascular, e que viria a formar um dos pilares da Cardiologia moderna.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Willem Einthoven nasceu em 1860 em Semarang, na ilha de Java, ent&#227;o parte das &#205;ndias Orientais Holandesas (na atual Indon&#233;sia), filho de um m&#233;dico militar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s a morte do pai, mudou-se com a fam&#237;lia para os Pa&#237;ses Baixos, onde deu continuidade a seus estudos, formando-se em medicina pela Universidade de Utrecht.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Nesta fase de forma&#231;&#227;o, ele foi profundamente influenciado pelo renomado fisiologista holand&#234;s Donders, que mais tarde o ajudou na obten&#231;&#227;o de um cargo na Universidade de Leiden, onde permaneceu como professor de Fisiologia pelo resto de sua carreira (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Descrito como modesto, cort&#234;s e dedicado ao seu trabalho, al&#233;m de suas pesquisas cont&#237;nuas em ECG, Einthoven tamb&#233;m era fluente em diversos idiomas e um defensor da import&#226;ncia da pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos, tendo praticado remo e sendo conhecido por ir de bicicleta para o trabalho.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Casou-se com uma de suas primas e teve quatro filhos, morrendo em 1927, aos 67 anos, por decorr&#234;ncia de um c&#226;ncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Apesar da &#225;rdua constru&#231;&#227;o de uma base de pesquisa diversificada ao longo de d&#233;cadas, incluindo desde os relat&#243;rios de Galvani e mais tarde de Matteucci, von Kolliker e Muller sobre correntes el&#233;tricas at&#233; o eletr&#244;metro capilar de Lippman e a representa&#231;&#227;o de Waller do "eletrograma" humano, a aplica&#231;&#227;o da tecnologia por Einthoven, juntamente com seus insights sobre sua poss&#237;vel utilidade futura, provou ser fundamental no aproveitamento de seu potencial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Retrato de Willem Einthoven. Reproduzido das Bibliotecas da Universidade de Leiden.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Esta reprodu&#231;&#227;o fotogr&#225;fica &#233; de dom&#237;nio p&#250;blico.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20240494-40494-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>O eletrocardiograma &#8211; desenvolvimento e primeiras aplica&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <p>Em 1887, Augustus Desir&#233; Waller (nascido em Paris em 1856, filho do cientista ingl&#234;s Augustus Volney Waller, famoso por suas pesquisas sobre a degenera&#231;&#227;o nervosa, conhecida como degenera&#231;&#227;o Walleriana), trabalhando em Londres, foi creditado pela realiza&#231;&#227;o do primeiro ECG, chamado de "eletrograma" &#224; &#233;poca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Esse marco (curiosamente tamb&#233;m realizado na &#233;poca no buldogue de Waller, "Jimmy") abriu o caminho para um novo campo de aplica&#231;&#227;o, embora a t&#233;cnica e a qualidade resultante do tra&#231;ado limitassem sua aplicabilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Os refinamentos de Einthoven com a introdu&#231;&#227;o do galvan&#244;metro de corda, melhorando muito a sensibilidade de seus antecessores, permitiram uma representa&#231;&#227;o detalhada da atividade el&#233;trica do cora&#231;&#227;o no in&#237;cio do s&#233;culo XX.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Isto possibilitou a an&#225;lise de diferentes formas de onda, como onda P, complexo QRS e onda T, representando diversos fen&#244;menos fisiol&#243;gicos (despolariza&#231;&#227;o auricular, despolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular e repolariza&#231;&#227;o, respetivamente), semelhante &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o realizada nos registos atuais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Embora fosse uma grande melhoria, o aparelho completo necess&#225;rio para produzir um ECG precoce pesava cerca de 270 kg, demandando o uso de duas salas e cinco pessoas para sua opera&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, um sistema de resfriamento de &#225;gua era necess&#225;rio para prevenir o superaquecimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Demonstrando uma vis&#227;o impressionante, Einthoven, seguindo a sugest&#227;o de Johannes Bosscha (tamb&#233;m professor da Universidade de Leiden), posteriormente ligou o laborat&#243;rio em que a m&#225;quina estava instalada a um hospital a cerca de 1,5 quil&#244;metros de dist&#226;ncia por meio de um cabo telef&#244;nico, produzindo assim o primeiro "telecardiograma", conforme publicado em um artigo seminal em 1906.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Essa inova&#231;&#227;o mostra duas facetas que ressoam profundamente nos cen&#225;rios contempor&#226;neos: a relev&#226;ncia da telemedicina, mesmo no in&#237;cio daquilo que, posteriormente, evoluiria para o campo da medicina cardiovascular, e os benef&#237;cios de uma intera&#231;&#227;o positiva entre o ambiente acad&#234;mico e a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Einthoven esteve, desde cedo, profundamente interessado nas poss&#237;veis aplica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas do ECG, especialmente devido ao seu proeminente papel acad&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Diferentes padr&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos foram rapidamente relatados, alguns associados a processos patol&#243;gicos, como angina e arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Embora esteja al&#233;m do escopo deste artigo, &#233; importante lembrar que muitos indiv&#237;duos contribu&#237;ram grandemente para o uso cl&#237;nico do ECG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Entre eles, entretanto, Sir Thomas Lewis, da University College London teve um papel fundamental nesta fase, conforme reconhecido por Einthoven.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Por outro lado, embora tenha apresentado uma primeira itera&#231;&#227;o desta t&#233;cnica, Waller (pelo menos em um primeiro momento) n&#227;o compartilhava do mesmo entusiasmo com as suas aplica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Ainda assim, mais tarde tamb&#233;m forneceria novos dados sobre a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o, nomeadamente sob a forma de uma s&#233;rie de ECGs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Da bancada ao leito &#8211; uso atual e perspectivas futuras para o eletrocardiograma</title>
      <p>Ao longo da sua hist&#243;ria ilustre, o ECG acompanhou diversos avan&#231;os importantes na medicina cardiovascular, incluindo modalidades de diagn&#243;stico invasivas e n&#227;o invasivas, bem como interven&#231;&#245;es cada vez mais complexas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> De forma not&#225;vel, e considerando as melhorias tecnol&#243;gicas desde o seu in&#237;cio &#8211; principalmente aquelas que compreendem a aquisi&#231;&#227;o de sinais, a an&#225;lise digital e o armazenamento, mas tamb&#233;m o gigantesco salto em sua portabilidade quando comparado aos designs originais &#8211;, o ECG resistiu ao teste do tempo em uma infinidade de ambientes cl&#237;nicos. Desde a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o como exame de primeira linha, na avalia&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com suspeita de s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas, seu papel no estudo de arritmias e na sele&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos para interven&#231;&#245;es como a terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, at&#233; sua combina&#231;&#227;o com outras metodologias (como o teste de esfor&#231;o ou monitoramento cont&#237;nuo), o ECG permanece onipresente na cardiologia contempor&#226;nea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, &#224; medida que novas estruturas, como o advento e a r&#225;pida expans&#227;o da intelig&#234;ncia artificial, continuam transformando paradigmas anteriores, o uso do ECG como um modelo para novas avalia&#231;&#245;es enfatiza ainda mais sua relev&#226;ncia duradoura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Dada a vis&#227;o de Einthoven do ECG como uma ferramenta cl&#237;nica &#250;til, &#233; interessante formular hip&#243;teses sobre qual seria sua rea&#231;&#227;o ao testemunhar suas in&#250;meras aplica&#231;&#245;es nos dias de hoje. Al&#233;m disso, ao recordarmos sua forte defesa do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, &#233; interessante notar que a combina&#231;&#227;o destas duas facetas distintas, t&#227;o estimadas por Einthoven (o ECG e o exerc&#237;cio), tornou-se um dos testes mais extensivamente estudados e generalizados em toda a medicina cardiovascular: o teste ergom&#233;trico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Estes fatores constituem mais um elo entre os paradigmas atuais e uma das figuras mais eminentes da Cardiologia. Conforme aprimoramos nossa compreens&#227;o sobre a fisiologia cardiovascular, ao mesmo tempo em que desenvolvemos novas estrat&#233;gias para otimizar o cuidado global ao paciente, &#233; importante que haja uma reflex&#227;o sobre a sabedoria de nossos antepassados. Parafraseando a elegante express&#227;o usada por Sir Isaac Newton, se conseguimos ver mais longe, &#233; porque estamos sobre os ombros de gigantes.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240494i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>One Hundred Years of the Nobel Prize for Electrocardiography: A Technology Still Essential and Fit for the Next Century</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1886-6641</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9582-7881</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bettencourt</surname>
            <given-names>Nuno</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Vila Nova de Gaia</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Unidade Local de Sa&#250;de de Gaia e Espinho, Vila Nova de Gaia &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Medicina, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular (UniC@RISE), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Mailing Address: Nuno Bettencourt &#8226;</label> Universidade do Porto Faculdade de Medicina - Unidade de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular - Alameda Professor Hern&#226;ni Monteiro Porto <postal-code>4200-319</postal-code> - Portugal E-mail: <email>bettencourt.n@gmail.com</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Cardiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Electrocardiography</kwd>
        <kwd>Acute Coronary Syndrome</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Willem Einthoven &#8211; A Brief Biographical Overview</title>
        <p>In 1924, the Nobel prize for Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Willem Einthoven for "the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram" (ECG). This prestigious award illustrated the relevance of Einthoven's research, which provided crucial data on cardiovascular pathophysiology, and that would go on to form one of the pillars of modern Cardiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Willem Einthoven was born in 1860 in Semarang, on the island of Java, then part of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), the son of a military physician.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> After his father's death, he moved with his family to the Netherlands, where he pursued his studies, earning a medical degree at the University of Utrecht.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> During this formative period, he was deeply influenced by the renowned Dutch physiologist Donders, who later supported him in obtaining a position at the University of Leiden, where he remained as professor of Physiology for the rest of his career (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Described as modest, courteous, and devoted to his work, besides his continued research in the ECG, Einthoven was also fluent in several languages and a proponent of physical exercise, practicing rowing and being known for riding his bicycle to work.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> He married one of his cousins and had four children, passing away in 1927 at the age of 67 from cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Despite building on a diverse research background over decades, from Galvani's and later Matteucci's, von Kolliker and Muller's reports on electrical currents to Lippman's capillary electrometer and Waller's depiction of the human "electrogram," Einthoven's application of technology, coupled with far-reaching insights into its potential utility, proved pivotal in harnessing its potential.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Portrait of Willem Einthoven. Reproduced from Leiden University Libraries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> This photographic reproduction falls within the public domain.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20240494-40494-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>The Electrocardiogram &#8211; Development and Early Applications</title>
        <p>In 1887, Augustus Desir&#233; Waller (born in Paris in 1856, the son of English scientist Augustus Volney Waller, renowned for his research on nerve degeneration eponymously celebrated as Wallerian degeneration), working in London, was credited with performing the first ECG, then referred to as the "electrogram".<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> This landmark (curiously also at the time performed on Waller's bulldog, "Jimmy") paved the way for a novel field, though the technique and the quality of the tracings limited its applicability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Einthoven's refinements with the introduction of the string galvanometer, greatly improving the sensitivity of its predecessors, allowed for a detailed representation of the heart's electrical activity at the beginning of the twentieth century.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> This advancement allowed for the analysis of different waveforms, such as the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave, representing several physiological phenomena (atrial depolarization, ventricular depolarization, and repolarization, respectively), similar to the assessment performed on modern-day recordings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> While a major improvement, the full apparatus necessary to produce an early ECG weighed around 270 kilograms, requiring two rooms and five individuals in its operation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Additionally, a water cooling system was necessary to prevent overheating.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Showing remarkable vision, Einthoven, following the suggestion of Johannes Bosscha (also a professor at the University of Leiden), later connected the laboratory housing the machine to a hospital <italic>circa</italic> 1.5 kilometers away via a telephone cable, thus producing the first "telecardiogram," as documented in a seminal article in 1906).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> This innovation shows two facets that resonate deeply with contemporary settings: the relevance of telemedicine, even at the dawn of what would evolve into the field of cardiovascular medicine, and the benefits of a positive interaction between academia and clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Notably, particularly given his prominent academic role, Einthoven was keenly interested in the possible clinical applications of the ECG from an early stage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Different electrocardiographic patterns were soon being reported, some associated with pathological processes such as angina and arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Though beyond the scope of this article, it should be recalled that several individuals contributed greatly to the clinical use of the ECG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Among these, however, Sir Thomas Lewis at the University College London had a key role at this stage, as acknowledged by Einthoven.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> On the other hand, although having presented a first iteration of this technique, Waller (at least at first) did not share the same enthusiasm with its clinical applications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Nonetheless, later on he would also provide new data on its use, namely in the form of a series of ECGs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>From Bench to Bedside &#8211; Current Use and Future Perspectives of the Electrocardiogram</title>
        <p>Over the course of its illustrious history, the ECG has accompanied several major breakthroughs in cardiovascular medicine. These encompass both invasive and non-invasive diagnostic modalities, as well as increasingly complex interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Remarkably, and while taking into consideration the technological improvements since its inception &#8211; namely those comprising signal acquisition, digital analysis, and storage, but also the giant leap in portability when compared to original designs &#8211;, the ECG has stood the test of time as a pivotal test across a plethora of clinical settings. From its use as a first-line test in assessing individuals with suspected acute coronary syndromes to its role in studying arrhythmias and selecting individuals for interventions such as cardiac resynchronization therapy, and its combination with other methodologies (such as in the case of exercise stress testing or continuous monitoring), the ECG remains ubiquitous in contemporary cardiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Moreover, as novel frameworks, such as the advent and rapid expansion of artificial intelligence, continue to disrupt prior paradigms, the use of the ECG as a blueprint for novel assessments further emphasizes its enduring relevance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Given Einthoven's view of the ECG as a valuable clinical tool, it is interesting to hypothesize on what his reaction would be upon seeing its current manifold uses. In addition, recalling his strong advocacy for physical exercise, it is interesting to note that the combination of these two distinct facets so dear to Einthoven (the ECG and exercise) has rendered one of the most extensively studied and generalized tests across cardiovascular medicine: the exercise stress test.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> These provide yet another link between current paradigms and one of cardiology's most eminent figures. As we deepen our understanding of cardiovascular physiology while developing novel strategies to optimize overall patient care, it is valuable to remember the wisdom of those who came before us. To paraphrase Sir Isaac Newton's elegant expression, if we can see further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.</p>
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