<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "http://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" article-type="review-article" xml:lang="pt">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">nzWNCWTJmVQZ3N8SPnvDGkM</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000800401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230767</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Patog&#234;nese, Avalia&#231;&#227;o e Tratamento da Disfun&#231;&#227;o da Microcircula&#231;&#227;o Coronariana</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2657-6425</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ji</surname>
            <given-names>Bing</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Liu</surname>
            <given-names>Xue-Bo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Tongji University</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Tongji Hospital</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Shanghai</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="CN">China</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Tongji University &#8211; Tongji Hospital, Shanghai &#8211; China</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Tongji University</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Cardiology</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Shanghai</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="CN">China</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Tongji University &#8211; Department of Cardiology, Shanghai &#8211; China</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Bing Ji &#8226;</bold> Tongji University - Tongji Hospital - XinCun Road Shanghai &#8211; <postal-code>404993</postal-code> &#8211; China E-mail: 1902663586@qq.com</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o: Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>02</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230767</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A doen&#231;a cardiovascular &#233; a causa predominante de mortalidade em escala global. A pesquisa indica que as mulheres, em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens, apresentam maior probabilidade de apresentar doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) n&#227;o obstrutiva quando t&#234;m sintomas de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Al&#233;m disso, as mulheres tendem a apresentar uma maior carga de sintomas em rela&#231;&#227;o aos homens e, apesar da presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica, s&#227;o frequentemente tranquilizadas erroneamente devido &#224; aus&#234;ncia de DAC obstrutiva. Nos casos de cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica acompanhada de sintomas de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, mas sem DAC obstrutiva, &#233; imperativo considerar a disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana como uma potencial causa subjacente. A disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, caracterizada por reserva de fluxo coronariano prejudicada resultante de anormalidades funcionais e/ou estruturais na microcircula&#231;&#227;o, est&#225; associada a desfechos cardiovasculares adversos. Modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida e o uso de medicamentos antiateroscler&#243;ticos e antianginosos podem oferecer benef&#237;cios potenciais, embora sejam necess&#225;rios mais ensaios cl&#237;nicos para informar estrat&#233;gias de tratamento. Esta revis&#227;o tem como objetivo explorar a preval&#234;ncia, mecanismos subjacentes, abordagens diagn&#243;sticas e interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas para disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Circula&#231;&#227;o Coron&#225;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>Reserva Fracionada de Fluxo Mioc&#225;rdico</kwd>
        <kwd>Terap&#234;utica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="68"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <fig id="f1">
      <attrib>RFC: reserva de fluxo coronariano; IMR: &#237;ndice de resist&#234;ncia microcirculat&#243;ria; PET: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; TC: tomografia computadorizada; IECAs: inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina.</attrib>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230767-30767-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Estudos recentes descobriram que uma das principais causas de sintomas cl&#237;nicos &#233; a doen&#231;a microvascular coronariana (DMC) e que 39,7% &#8764; 62,4% dos pacientes com angina e isquemia n&#227;o apresentam obstru&#231;&#227;o vascular epic&#225;rdica significativa na angiografia coronariana (estenose visual de &lt;50- 70%). No entanto, h&#225; muito se pensa que a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) &#233; uma doen&#231;a vascular de condu&#231;&#227;o epic&#225;rdica para a qual a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica &#233; um tratamento clinicamente eficaz.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Acredita-se que a DMC seja um fator que contribui para os sintomas e sinais de isquemia, em oposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; DAC obstrutiva. A DMC &#233; considerada fator contribuinte para os sinais e sintomas de isquemia e n&#227;o est&#225; relacionada &#224; DAC obstrutiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A DMC parece ser mais prevalente em mulheres do que em homens, sendo as mulheres respons&#225;veis por 70% dos pacientes com DMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Entretanto, pacientes do sexo masculino s&#227;o frequentemente subdiagnosticados em termos de DMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Camici e Crea propuseram classificar as DMC em quatro categorias: DMC sem doen&#231;a mioc&#225;rdica e DAC obstrutiva, DMC com doen&#231;a mioc&#225;rdica, DMC com DAC obstrutiva e DMC cong&#234;nita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Este artigo enfoca DMC sem DAC obstrutiva e doen&#231;a mioc&#225;rdica, reserva de fluxo coronariano (RFC) prejudicada devido a anormalidades funcionais e/ou estruturais da microcircula&#231;&#227;o na aus&#234;ncia de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, cardiomiopatia ou anormalidades valvares.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Mecanismos fisiol&#243;gicos da microcircula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria</title>
        <p>O sistema microcirculat&#243;rio do cora&#231;&#227;o composto por microveias, microarter&#237;olas e capilares &#233; conhecido como microcircula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria do sistema arterial coronariano. DMC refere-se a um grupo de dist&#250;rbios que afetam a composi&#231;&#227;o e o funcionamento da microcircula&#231;&#227;o coronariana, prejudicando o fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano e, em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, levando &#224; isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. O sistema arterial coronariano &#233; uma rede cont&#237;nua que consiste em segmentos vasculares de tamanhos e fun&#231;&#245;es variados. O sistema arterial coronariano consiste em art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas (&gt; 400 &#956;m), pequenas art&#233;rias anteriores (100-400 &#956;m), pequenas art&#233;rias intermurais (&lt; 100 &#956;m) e leitos capilares coron&#225;rios (&lt; 10 &#956;m).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> As art&#233;rias epic&#225;rdicas t&#234;m uma fun&#231;&#227;o de condu&#231;&#227;o significativa e, em condi&#231;&#245;es normais, proporcionam resist&#234;ncia insignificante ao fluxo sangu&#237;neo coron&#225;rio, com o di&#226;metro da art&#233;ria epic&#225;rdica controlado pelo estresse de cisalhamento e pela fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Em contraste, as pequenas art&#233;rias anteriores e intermurais fornecem a maior parte da resist&#234;ncia ao fluxo sangu&#237;neo coron&#225;rio e s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por controlar e distribuir o fluxo sangu&#237;neo para satisfazer as exig&#234;ncias din&#226;micas do metabolismo tecidual local atrav&#233;s dos capilares coron&#225;rios. Em condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas normais, a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica est&#225; fortemente relacionada com a demanda metab&#243;lica, e a resist&#234;ncia vascular coronariana &#233; regulada por altera&#231;&#245;es no t&#244;nus vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Na vasculatura saud&#225;vel, o fluxo sangu&#237;neo coron&#225;rio e a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica s&#227;o regulados pelo t&#244;nus da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria, com a por&#231;&#227;o arterial da circula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria fornecendo aproximadamente 60% da resist&#234;ncia vascular coronariana, e os capilares e veias fornecendo 25% e 15%, respectivamente, da resist&#234;ncia vascular coronariana. resist&#234;ncia vascular de repouso, que &#233; controlada por controles metab&#243;licos, musculares (dependentes de press&#227;o), endoteliais e neuro-hormonais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Pequenas arter&#237;olas intermurais menores que 100 &#956;m s&#227;o reguladas pelo metabolismo tecidual local para garantir que o ambiente extracelular seja ideal para a contra&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Pequenas arter&#237;olas intermurais s&#227;o afetadas principalmente por altera&#231;&#245;es na press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o devido a influ&#234;ncias miog&#234;nicas, e algumas arter&#237;olas maiores tamb&#233;m s&#227;o afetadas pela press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Em contraste, as pequenas arter&#237;olas anteriores n&#227;o s&#227;o reguladas pelo ambiente metab&#243;lico local e s&#227;o, portanto, afetadas por outros fatores reguladores. Mais proximalmente, a vasculatura anterior &#233; afetada por mecanismos semelhantes aos da vasculatura epic&#225;rdica, principalmente por mecanismos dependentes do endot&#233;lio e receptores simp&#225;ticos &#945;-1 e &#945;-2 adren&#233;rgicos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> e possivelmente por influ&#234;ncias mediadas por receptores &#946;-2 adren&#233;rgicos, que t&#234;m tamb&#233;m demonstrou desempenhar um papel na fun&#231;&#227;o vasomotora epic&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> A exist&#234;ncia de mecanismos autorreguladores bem regulados no sistema coronariano permite a capacidade intr&#237;nseca do cora&#231;&#227;o de manter o fluxo sangu&#237;neo apesar das altera&#231;&#245;es na press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mecanismos patol&#243;gicos da doen&#231;a microvascular coronariana</title>
        <p>V&#225;rios processos fisiol&#243;gicos que levam ao aumento da constri&#231;&#227;o ou &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da dilata&#231;&#227;o dos microvasos coron&#225;rios podem induzir DMC. Uma fun&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora prejudicada pode ser causada por vias n&#227;o dependentes do endot&#233;lio, bem como por disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Enquanto a &#250;ltimo est&#225; ligada &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ntese c&#237;clica de adenosina monofosfato, que resulta em resist&#234;ncia aos nitratos, a primeira est&#225; ligada ao diabetes, &#224; obesidade, ao tabagismo e a outros fatores de risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Fun&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora prejudicada e/ou vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o grave resultando em espasmo microvascular s&#227;o exemplos de altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais. A disfun&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora pode resultar de causas dependentes ou independentes do endot&#233;lio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Mediadores vasoconstritores e vasodilatadores, incluindo prostaglandinas, &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), fatores hiperpolarizantes derivados do endot&#233;lio (EDHFs) e endotelina-1 (ET-1) s&#227;o produzidos e liberados pelas c&#233;lulas endoteliais, que contribuem para a atividade vasomotora. Enquanto os EDHFs s&#227;o os principais mediadores da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o microcirculat&#243;ria coronariana dependente do endot&#233;lio, o NO derivado do endot&#233;lio causa predominantemente vasodilata&#231;&#227;o nas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> O relaxamento reduzido das c&#233;lulas endoteliais vasculares, o aumento da libera&#231;&#227;o de agonistas vasoconstritores (por exemplo, ET-1), o aumento da sensibilidade das c&#233;lulas endoteliais vasculares aos est&#237;mulos vasoconstritores normais e a atividade auton&#244;mica anormal s&#227;o alguns dos mecanismos dependentes do endot&#233;lio que ainda s&#227;o parcialmente compreendidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Na verdade, a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, caracterizada como um desequil&#237;brio entre os sistemas nervoso simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico, tem sido associada ao desenvolvimento de DMC. Este &#233; particularmente o caso em ambientes cl&#237;nicos onde os mecanismos vasodilatadores j&#225; est&#227;o comprometidos, como em pacientes com diabetes tipo 2, dislipidemia ou enfarte do mioc&#225;rdio, bem como nas consequ&#234;ncias imediatas destes acontecimentos. O remodelamento hipertr&#243;fico para dentro das art&#233;rias de resist&#234;ncia coronariana, a diminui&#231;&#227;o das arter&#237;olas e capilares no l&#250;men, a fibrose perivascular, a diminui&#231;&#227;o da densidade dos microvasos e o adelga&#231;amento capilar s&#227;o exemplos de altera&#231;&#245;es microvasculares estruturais que causam DMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Essas altera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o mais prevalentes em doen&#231;as caracterizadas por hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, como a cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica e a cardiopatia hipertensiva.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mecanismos moleculares da doen&#231;a microvascular coronariana</title>
        <p>Embora os mecanismos moleculares que levam aos dist&#250;rbios da microcircula&#231;&#227;o coronariana n&#227;o sejam totalmente compreendidos, o estresse oxidativo e as respostas inflamat&#243;rias resultantes da produ&#231;&#227;o e ac&#250;mulo excessivo de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio celular (ROS) s&#227;o considerados os principais mecanismos patog&#234;nicos que levam ao desenvolvimento de dist&#250;rbios da microcircula&#231;&#227;o coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> As c&#233;lulas endoteliais desempenham um papel crucial na regula&#231;&#227;o da vasorreatividade atrav&#233;s da libera&#231;&#227;o de subst&#226;ncias vasoativas, como NO, que dilata os vasos sangu&#237;neos, e ET-1, que contrai os vasos sangu&#237;neos. As isozimas da nicotinamida adenina dinucleot&#237;deo fosfato oxidase (Nox) e as mitoc&#244;ndrias s&#227;o os principais sistemas que regulam a gera&#231;&#227;o de ROS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> A ativa&#231;&#227;o de Nox leva &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS e desencadeia a fosforila&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na adaptadora hom&#243;loga de col&#225;geno hom&#243;logo Src (p66Shc) e a transloca&#231;&#227;o dentro das mitoc&#244;ndrias. Em mam&#237;feros, a p66Shc &#233; uma prote&#237;na pr&#243;-apopt&#243;tica que promove ainda mais a produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS, alterando as propriedades biol&#243;gicas mitocondriais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Consequentemente, a ativa&#231;&#227;o de p66Shc estimula a atividade Nox, o que leva a um ciclo vicioso de aumento de ROS. Estudos in vitro e vivo demonstraram que o aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o intracelular de ROS promove a convers&#227;o de NO em radicais peroxinitrito e inativa a NO sintase endotelial, mudando sua atividade de uma enzima produtora de NO para uma enzima produtora de ROS, o que leva &#224; vasodilata&#231;&#227;o mediada por NO prejudicada. e aumenta a atividade vasoconstritora da ET-1 atrav&#233;s da ativa&#231;&#227;o da via RhoA/Rho quinase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, modifica&#231;&#245;es epigen&#233;ticas comuns durante o envelhecimento aumentam a produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS, diminuem a express&#227;o de enzimas antioxidantes e promovem a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, ativando a express&#227;o do fator nuclear &#954;, intensificador da cadeia leve e mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o em c&#233;lulas B ativadas, sustentando ainda mais o estresse oxidativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> RhoA/Rho quinase &#233; outra via que est&#225; intimamente ligada &#224; s&#237;ntese de ROS, que &#233; mediada pela regula&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade ao c&#225;lcio e fosforila&#231;&#227;o de miofilamentos contr&#225;teis, que regula a contratilidade do m&#250;sculo liso e, portanto, est&#225; intimamente associada &#224; hipercontra&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares (CMLV). Assim, acredita-se que a RhoA/Rho quinase seja respons&#225;vel pelo espasmo que ocorre na vasculatura coron&#225;ria<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> e exacerba a inflama&#231;&#227;o ao induzir fatores pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios nas c&#233;lulas do m&#250;sculo liso vascular e nas c&#233;lulas endoteliais.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>T&#233;cnicas de diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>Faltam m&#233;todos de triagem para visualizar a microcircula&#231;&#227;o, o que se reflete principalmente indiretamente na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> resume v&#225;rios m&#233;todos para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Modalidades de avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Microcircula&#231;&#227;o Coron&#225;ria</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">M&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o invasivos</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Defini&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Desvantagens</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">RFC</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Propor&#231;&#227;o entre o pico de fluxo de enchimento e o fluxo de repouso</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Pouco reprodut&#237;vel e afetado por estenose epic&#225;rdica.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="top">IMR</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Produto do tempo m&#233;dio de condu&#231;&#227;o (Tmn) e da press&#227;o intracoron&#225;ria distal (Pd) para inje&#231;&#227;o intracoron&#225;ria de solu&#231;&#227;o salina por proj&#233;til em congest&#227;o m&#225;xima</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Invasivo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <td align="left" valign="top" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <bold>M&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasivos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>Vantagens</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>Desvantagens</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">PET</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">O m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo mais eficaz e preciso</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Caro e demorado.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="top">RMC</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial, sem radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">O p&#243;s-processamento &#233; tecnicamente exigente e demorado</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Ecodopplercardiografia da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria descendente anterior esquerda</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Baixo custo, sem radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">A precis&#227;o &#233; suscet&#237;vel &#224; profici&#234;ncia do operador</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="top">TC de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica din&#226;mica</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Maior resolu&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Alta dose de radia&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <label>1</label>
              <p>RFC: reserva de fluxo coronariano; IMR: &#237;ndice de resist&#234;ncia microcirculat&#243;ria; PET: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; TC: tomografia computadorizada.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>Reserva de fluxo coron&#225;rio</title>
          <p>A RFC &#233; calculada como a raz&#227;o entre o fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano no estado de dilata&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima e o fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano no estado de repouso, e &#233; uma medida da DMC. Uma grande propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes apresenta DMC na presen&#231;a de DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva difusa. A quantifica&#231;&#227;o da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica regional e da RFC regional desempenha um papel importante na avalia&#231;&#227;o da DAC obstrutiva focal. O fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano humano pode aumentar de tr&#234;s a quatro vezes durante a isquemia, e medicamentos como adenosina e opioides podem ser usados para induzir congest&#227;o m&#225;xima na detec&#231;&#227;o de RFC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a vascular epic&#225;rdica, a RFC reflete a fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular, e &#233; geralmente aceito que existe microcircula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria anormal na RFC.</p>
          <p>Em repouso, o fluxo sangu&#237;neo coron&#225;rio depende dos principais fatores que determinam a procura mioc&#225;rdica de oxig&#233;nio, nomeadamente frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, contratilidade e carga ventricular. Entretanto, quando a demanda mioc&#225;rdica de oxig&#234;nio &#233; constante e dentro da faixa de autorregula&#231;&#227;o, o fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano &#233; independente da press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o e varia linearmente com a press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o durante a fase congestiva m&#225;xima de dilata&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima dos vasos de resist&#234;ncia. Portanto, como a RFC &#233; a raz&#227;o entre o pico de fluxo de enchimento e o fluxo de repouso, ela &#233; influenciada por fatores do fluxo sangu&#237;neo coron&#225;rio em repouso que afetam a repetibilidade da rela&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a doen&#231;a vascular epic&#225;rdica pode ter um impacto significativo na propor&#231;&#227;o, tornando-se um m&#233;todo n&#227;o quantific&#225;vel de quantifica&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a microvascular para a maioria dos pacientes card&#237;acos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>&#205;ndice de resist&#234;ncia microcirculat&#243;ria</title>
          <p>O &#237;ndice de resist&#234;ncia microcirculat&#243;ria (IMR) &#233; uma medida de resist&#234;ncia microvascular m&#237;nima e fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular, semelhante &#224; RFC derivado da termodilui&#231;&#227;o, que utiliza o fio guia sensor de temperatura e press&#227;o (TPSG) para medir simultaneamente o tempo m&#233;dio de condu&#231;&#227;o (Tmn) de solu&#231;&#227;o salina injetado nas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias por um proj&#233;til durante a congest&#227;o m&#225;xima e a press&#227;o intracoron&#225;ria distal (Pd), sendo a IMR o produto desses dois par&#226;metros, Tmn e Pd.</p>
          <p>Usando um modelo su&#237;no, Fearon et al. compararam a verdadeira resist&#234;ncia microvascular (RMV) na presen&#231;a e aus&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular, investigando a disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular gerada artificialmente atrav&#233;s do uso de microesferas injetadas nas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, sendo a verdadeira resist&#234;ncia microvascular definida como a press&#227;o distal &#224; LAD dividida pela coron&#225;ria absoluta fluxo sangu&#237;neo derivado usando uma sonda de fluxo ultrass&#244;nica, e os pesquisadores descobriram que uma correla&#231;&#227;o razo&#225;vel entre IMR e RMV estava razoavelmente correlacionada (r = 0,54 p &lt; 0,0001), com valores de IMR aumentando com a deteriora&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular, independente da estenose epic&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Alguns investigadores descobriram que, na presen&#231;a de estenose grave, ignorar o aumento do fluxo colateral pode levar a uma superestima&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia microvascular. Portanto, na presen&#231;a de estenose epic&#225;rdica, a f&#243;rmula IMR &#233; modificada da seguinte forma: Pa*Tmn (Pd - Pw / Pa - Pw), onde Pa &#233; a alta press&#227;o a&#243;rtica, Pd &#233; a alta press&#227;o distal &#224; estenose, e Pw &#233; a press&#227;o de cunha coron&#225;ria (definida como a press&#227;o m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria distal no vaso alvo durante a oclus&#227;o do bal&#227;o).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Como mencionado anteriormente, a corre&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de cunha coron&#225;ria &#233; necess&#225;ria para pacientes com estenose hemodin&#226;mica significativa. Em geral, quanto maior a TMI, pior &#233; a fun&#231;&#227;o microcirculat&#243;ria. Valores inferiores a 20 s&#227;o considerados normais, enquanto valores superiores a 30 s&#227;o geralmente considerados anormais, mas h&#225; uma sobreposi&#231;&#227;o consider&#225;vel entre os dois, e a disfun&#231;&#227;o microcirculat&#243;ria coron&#225;ria &#233; agora considerada principalmente presente com uma IMR &#8805;25.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>caIMR (&#237;ndice de resist&#234;ncia microcirculat&#243;ria derivado da angiografia coron&#225;ria) &#233; um novo m&#233;todo de avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasivo baseado em imagens de angiografia coron&#225;ria, que n&#227;o requer fio-guia de press&#227;o e estado congestivo m&#225;ximo induzido por drogas para c&#225;lculo de IMR, e foi demonstrado que caIMR &#233; semelhante &#224; IMR em isquemia sem doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva(INOCA)pacientes. Uma boa correla&#231;&#227;o entre caIMR e IMR foi demonstrada em pacientes INOCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Outro estudo, o estudo FLASH IMR, relatou novamente boa acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica do caIMR,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> mas o n&#250;mero de casos inclu&#237;dos nele ainda era pequeno. Uma metan&#225;lise recente reuniu todos os m&#233;todos acima de IMR derivados angiograficamente e descobriu que todos eles tinham alta precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e eram preditores independentes de futuros eventos card&#237;acos adversos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> No entanto, os tamanhos das amostras dos ensaios inclu&#237;dos na metan&#225;lise foram todos pequenos, variando de 25 a 262 pacientes e, portanto, s&#227;o aguardados estudos cl&#237;nicos maiores para a precis&#227;o da determina&#231;&#227;o da IMR apenas pela angiografia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons</title>
          <p>A tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons (PET) &#233; o m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo mais eficaz e preciso para avaliar quantitativamente a fun&#231;&#227;o vasomotora coronariana. Com os avan&#231;os da tecnologia, essas medidas foram incorporadas aos testes de carga de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica PET de rotina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Cada estudo &#233; realizado ap&#243;s a inje&#231;&#227;o de um radiotra&#231;ador de fluxo sangu&#237;neo (82Rb e 13N), e o p&#243;s-processamento das imagens de repouso e de carga permite a quantifica&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo mioc&#225;rdico regional e global (em ml/min/g de mioc&#225;rdio) e o c&#225;lculo da RFC (a rela&#231;&#227;o entre carga e fluxo sangu&#237;neo mioc&#225;rdico em repouso). Dados recentes demonstraram que a DMC quantificada como RFC reduzida &#233; comum em pacientes com DAC conhecida ou suspeita,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> aumenta a gravidade da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica induz&#237;vel (al&#233;m dos efeitos da obstru&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria epic&#225;rdica) e da les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica subcl&#237;nica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> e identifica pacientes com alto risco de MACE, incluindo morte card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) pode ser usada para quantificar a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de maneira semelhante &#224; PET, mas a t&#233;cnica de p&#243;s-processamento &#233; tecnicamente exigente e demorada. Tal como acontece com a PET, o protocolo de imagem inclui repouso e carga, sendo as imagens de carga realizadas ap&#243;s a inje&#231;&#227;o de contraste de gadol&#237;nio. Ap&#243;s o p&#243;s-processamento das imagens de repouso e de carga, a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica regional e global pode ser quantificada usando modelos semiquantitativos (&#237;ndice de reserva de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica) ou totalmente quantitativos (RFC). Um m&#233;todo de RMC sem carga de gadol&#237;nio utilizando mapeamento T1 tamb&#233;m foi proposto recentemente para o diagn&#243;stico de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica com ou sem DAC obstrutiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> A RMC tem a vantagem de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial para caracteriza&#231;&#227;o transmural do fluxo sangu&#237;neo mioc&#225;rdico e aus&#234;ncia de radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante, avalia&#231;&#227;o da DMC por uma redu&#231;&#227;o no &#237;ndice de reserva de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, uma avalia&#231;&#227;o abrangente da estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, e tem se mostrado preditiva de progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> No entanto, os dados permanecem limitados.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ecocardiografia Doppler coron&#225;ria da descendente anterior esquerda</title>
          <p>Ecocardiografia Doppler coron&#225;ria da LAD pode ser usada para quantificar a velocidade do fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano em repouso e durante a carga vasodilatadora. A velocidade do fluxo sangu&#237;neo coron&#225;rio &#233; medida por Doppler de onda pulsada e avaliada como velocidade m&#225;xima do fluxo sangu&#237;neo diast&#243;lico em repouso e enchimento m&#225;ximo. A reserva de velocidade do fluxo coron&#225;rio &#233; calculada como a raz&#227;o entre a velocidade do fluxo coron&#225;rio na congest&#227;o m&#225;xima e a velocidade do fluxo coron&#225;rio em repouso. As vantagens desta t&#233;cnica s&#227;o que ela &#233; de baixo custo, livre de radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante e amplamente dispon&#237;vel, mas a precis&#227;o &#233; suscet&#237;vel &#224; profici&#234;ncia do operador e requer visualiza&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias proximais, o que pode ser um desafio significativo em adultos obesos. H&#225; evid&#234;ncias crescentes de que um &#237;ndice de reserva de velocidade de fluxo coronariano reduzido pode ajudar a identificar e estratificar o risco de DMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tomografia computadorizada de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica din&#226;mica</title>
          <p>A tomografia computadorizada (TC) de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica din&#226;mica pode ser usada para estimar o fluxo sangu&#237;neo mioc&#225;rdico de maneira semelhante &#224; imagem de perfus&#227;o RMC. A TC din&#226;mica &#233; realizada ap&#243;s a inje&#231;&#227;o de um agente de contraste iodado e utiliza aquisi&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica de imagens para obter uma estimativa do fluxo sangu&#237;neo mioc&#225;rdico da mesma forma que a RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> As principais vantagens desta t&#233;cnica s&#227;o a alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial da TC e a capacidade de fornecer avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e funcional precisa do mioc&#225;rdio e das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias em um &#250;nico exame. No entanto, essas vantagens acarretam o custo de uma dose de radia&#231;&#227;o mais elevada para o paciente.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Estatinas</title>
          <p>Em pequenos ensaios, estes tratamentos melhoraram os sintomas de angina, a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial coron&#225;ria e a fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular. As estatinas reduzem n&#250;cleos ricos em lip&#237;dios em placas, inflama&#231;&#227;o, macr&#243;fagos e forma&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas espumosas, promovem espessamento da capa fibrosa e reduzem a reatividade plaquet&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> As estatinas s&#227;o eficazes na redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de LDL, reduzindo assim o risco cardiovascular. Al&#233;m disso, as estatinas podem ter m&#250;ltiplos efeitos, incluindo a redu&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular e a melhoria da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Os tratamentos atuais de CMD focam no controle de fatores de risco e no al&#237;vio de sintomas, e h&#225; uma falta de recomenda&#231;&#245;es baseadas em evid&#234;ncias de alto n&#237;vel. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> resume v&#225;rios tratamentos para CMD.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Tratamento da Microcircula&#231;&#227;o Coron&#225;ria disfun&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Tratamento da Disfun&#231;&#227;o da Microcircula&#231;&#227;o Coronariana</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Medicamentos</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Mecanismo</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Estatinas</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">reduzindo a inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular e melhorando a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">IECAs</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">mediar indiretamente os efeitos na fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, reduzindo a press&#227;o arterial</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Antagonistas dos canais de c&#225;lcio</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">melhorar a capacidade de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o microcirculat&#243;ria coron&#225;ria e reduzir a p&#243;s-carga card&#237;aca</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Inibidor da fosfodiesterase</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias dilatadas e melhora da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">&#946; bloqueadores</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">CFVR regional aumentou significativamente em segmentos esten&#243;ticos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ivabradina</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">melhorar a toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, prolongar o tempo isqu&#234;mico durante o exerc&#237;cio</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>IECAs: inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Em um estudo duplo-cego, randomizado e controlado por placebo realizado por Kayikcioglu et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> 40 pacientes com angina microvascular foram randomizados para tomar pravastatina (40 mg/dia) ou placebo. Ap&#243;s 3 meses de tratamento, a dilata&#231;&#227;o mediada pelo fluxo da art&#233;ria braquial melhorou significativamente no grupo da pravastatina. Da mesma forma, a dura&#231;&#227;o do exerc&#237;cio e a inibi&#231;&#227;o de 1 mm-ST foram significativamente prolongadas ap&#243;s o tratamento com estatinas em compara&#231;&#227;o com o placebo. Em um estudo semelhante, Fabian et al. avaliaram 40 pacientes com angina microvascular que apresentavam hipercolesterolemia leve e foram randomizados para receber placebo (20) ou sinvastatina 20 mg/dia (20).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> No final do estudo, a dilata&#231;&#227;o mediada pelo fluxo da art&#233;ria braquial aumentou significativamente no grupo de tratamento, e o tempo para depress&#227;o do segmento ST&gt; 1 mm no teste de esfor&#231;o foi significativamente prolongado. Mais recentemente, Zhang et al. avaliaram o efeito da terapia combinada com estatinas e bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio versus monoterapia em pacientes com angina microvascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Sessenta e oito pacientes foram randomizados em tr&#234;s grupos: fluvastatina (40 mg/dia, 23), diltiazem (90 mg/dia, 22) e combina&#231;&#227;o fluvastatina (40 mg/dia) e diltiazem (90 mg/dia, 23). A RFC melhorou nos tr&#234;s grupos ap&#243;s 90 dias. Al&#233;m disso, o tempo para depress&#227;o do segmento ST de 1 mm foi significativamente maior em todos os grupos. A melhoria na reserva de fluxo coron&#225;rio e o prolongamento do tempo at&#233; a depress&#227;o do segmento ST de 1 mm foram mais pronunciados no grupo de combina&#231;&#227;o do que nos pacientes que receberam monoterapia. Com base nestes estudos, recomendamos o uso de estatinas na maioria dos pacientes com doen&#231;a microvascular, a menos que existam efeitos secund&#225;rios graves ou contraindica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina</title>
          <p>Em um estudo sobre medicamentos ativos para o SRAA (incluindo IECA), com pacientes com DMC usando medidas Doppler de RFC nas art&#233;rias intracoron&#225;rias, um ensaio randomizado controlado de terapia com IECA para DMC confirmou o benef&#237;cio do enalapril. Em indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos, o IECA melhorou a RFC, e em pacientes hipertensos, o IECA demonstrou melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana pela PET,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> mas nenhum efeito foi encontrado no estudo de Kawata et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Estudos n&#227;o randomizados utilizando diferentes m&#233;todos para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana em pequenas amostras de pacientes confirmaram ainda que os IECA melhoram a fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana; &#233; incerto se os IECA medeiam indiretamente os efeitos na fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coron&#225;ria atrav&#233;s da redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial, mas este pode n&#227;o ser um mecanismo &#250;nico de benef&#237;cio, dado o papel fundamental da angiotensina II na fun&#231;&#227;o vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Outras evid&#234;ncias sugerem que os IECA est&#227;o associados a melhorias nos marcadores da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e em v&#225;rios biomarcadores circulantes. Em outro estudo randomizado, duplo-cego, controlado por placebo em pacientes do sexo feminino com isquemia com DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva (INOCA), a adi&#231;&#227;o de um antagonista seletivo do receptor de aldosterona (eplerenona) a um IECA n&#227;o reduziu os sintomas de angina nem melhorou a RFC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Antagonistas dos canais de c&#225;lcio</title>
          <p>Os antagonistas dos canais de c&#225;lcio s&#227;o amplamente utilizados no tratamento da angina vasosp&#225;stica (AVS). A benidipina, uma dihidropiridina de a&#231;&#227;o prolongada, produziu efeitos progn&#243;sticos ben&#233;ficos em pacientes com AVS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Os antagonistas do c&#225;lcio melhoram a capacidade de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o da microcircula&#231;&#227;o coronariana e reduzem a p&#243;s-carga card&#237;aca e, portanto, s&#227;o frequentemente usados em pacientes com DMC. Al&#233;m disso, a nifedipina de a&#231;&#227;o prolongada pode exercer efeitos cardioprotetores ao inibir a inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular e melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial em pacientes com angina ou isquemia sem doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva (ANOCA/INOCA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Contudo, o uso de amlodipina em pacientes INOCA n&#227;o melhorou significativamente a angina de peito e, em outro estudo, o verapamil n&#227;o conseguiu reduzir as altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento ST no ECG devido &#224; isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Assim, os bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio do tipo L de a&#231;&#227;o prolongada parecem ser mais favor&#225;veis &#224; microcircula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria do que os bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio do tipo L de a&#231;&#227;o curta.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>O inibidor da fosfodiesterase</title>
          <p>O inibidor da fosfodiesterase (PDE) tipo 3, cilostazol, &#233; usado na claudica&#231;&#227;o intermitente e na preven&#231;&#227;o de p&#243;s-AVC, reestenose de stent coron&#225;rio e interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea. O receptor PDE-3 &#233; subdividido em PDE-3A, que &#233; encontrado em plaquetas, c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares e cardiomi&#243;citos, e PDE-3B, que &#233; encontrado em adip&#243;citos, hepat&#243;citos, c&#233;lulas &#946; pancre&#225;ticas e macr&#243;fagos. Este &#250;ltimo &#233; encontrado em adip&#243;citos, hepat&#243;citos, c&#233;lulas &#946; pancre&#225;ticas e macr&#243;fagos. A inibi&#231;&#227;o da PDE aumenta o AMP c&#237;clico intracelular, que tem efeitos antiplaquet&#225;rios, antiinflamat&#243;rios e vasodilatadores. O cilostazol reduz o &#226;nion super&#243;xido e melhora a produ&#231;&#227;o local do fator de crescimento dos hepat&#243;citos, bem como a motilidade e morfog&#234;nese das c&#233;lulas epiteliais e endoteliais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> A adi&#231;&#227;o de cilostazol pareceu ser eficaz em um estudo multic&#234;ntrico prospectivo de pacientes com AVS refrat&#225;ria a nitratos induzidos por antagonistas de c&#225;lcio e espont&#226;neos ou ergonovina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Num ensaio multic&#234;ntrico, randomizado, duplo-cego e controlado por placebo de amlodipina em pacientes com AVS refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento, o cilostazol reduziu a frequ&#234;ncia e a intensidade dos epis&#243;dios anginosos sem efeitos adversos graves.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Num modelo canino, um inibidor do tipo PDE -5 (sildenafil) melhorou a perfus&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio hipoperfundido durante o exerc&#237;cio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Em pacientes com DAC, uma dose &#250;nica de sildenafil (sem compara&#231;&#227;o com placebo) dilatou as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias e melhorou a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>&#946; bloqueadores</title>
          <p>Embora os primeiros estudos utilizando propranolol e vinblastina n&#227;o tenham relatado efeitos ben&#233;ficos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> estudos utilizando atenolol relataram resultados favor&#225;veis em termos de sintomas e par&#226;metros do teste ergom&#233;trico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> O atenolol &#233; frequentemente prescrito em doses de at&#233; 100 mg por dia. Mais recentemente, relat&#243;rios avaliando os efeitos do nebivolol nesses pacientes demonstraram benef&#237;cios semelhantes em doses de at&#233; 5 mg por dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Os betabloqueadores s&#227;o particularmente eficazes em pacientes com frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em repouso elevada ou t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico aumentado<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> e devem ser evitados em pacientes com dist&#250;rbios vasoesp&#225;sticos com&#243;rbidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Assim, dependendo da apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e das comorbidades, os betabloqueadores podem muitas vezes ser um tratamento eficaz de DMC e s&#227;o utilizados como agentes de primeira linha, dependendo da apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e das comorbidades.</p>
          <p>Um estudo encontrou melhora significativa na fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana ap&#243;s tratamento com carvedilol comparado ao tratamento com metoprolol em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Koepfli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> n&#227;o encontraram efeito do carvedilol ou metoprolol em segmentos esten&#243;ticos e remotos de art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias em pacientes com DAC e angina de peito est&#225;vel, mas uma an&#225;lise conjunta mostrou que a RVFC regional aumentou significativamente em segmentos esten&#243;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> No entanto, se este efeito foi devido &#224; regress&#227;o da aterosclerose ou &#224; melhoria da fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coron&#225;ria permanece desconhecido.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ivabradina</title>
          <p>A ivabradina n&#227;o causa vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o ou efeitos inotr&#243;picos negativos em compara&#231;&#227;o com os betabloqueadores. Os efeitos ben&#233;ficos da ivabradina na doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica (DIC) s&#227;o mediados por efeitos indiretos, que melhoram a toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, prolongam o tempo isqu&#234;mico durante o exerc&#237;cio e reduzem a gravidade e melhoram a toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, e prolongam o tempo isqu&#234;mico durante o exerc&#237;cio, frequ&#234;ncia de angina em pacientes com angina est&#225;vel. A ivabradina melhorou os sintomas em pacientes com angina de peito microvascular prim&#225;ria, mas a fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana n&#227;o foi alterada, sugerindo que a melhora dos sintomas pode ser atribu&#237;da a um efeito de redu&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Outros estudos descobriram que a ivabradina estabiliza a RFC em pacientes com DAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Portanto, os bloqueadores de canais podem ter um papel em pacientes com DMC, mas s&#227;o necess&#225;rios mais estudos.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>DMC &#233; uma classe de doen&#231;as causadas por dist&#250;rbios microvasculares coron&#225;rios estruturais e/ou funcionais com patog&#234;nese e procedimentos diagn&#243;sticos espec&#237;ficos. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o microcirculat&#243;ria coronariana deve ser o foco da terapia direcionada em pacientes nos quais foram exclu&#237;dos estenose grave ou espasmo das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas, mas que continuam a apresentar epis&#243;dios de angina. Atualmente, o tratamento da DMC consiste principalmente no controle dos fatores de risco ou no tratamento da doen&#231;a prim&#225;ria, e a farmacoterapia limitada continua a ser confirmada por novos ensaios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Bing Ji pelo Tongji University.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <p>
          <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>O protocolo do estudo foi aprovado pelo conselho de revis&#227;o institucional. Os autores n&#227;o t&#234;m conflitos &#233;ticos a divulgar.</p>
      <p>Todos os autores leram e aprovaram o manuscrito final. Agradecemos a Bing Ji e Xue Bo Liu por sua colabora&#231;&#227;o na revis&#227;o e considera&#231;&#227;o de todas as refer&#234;ncias relacionadas. Tamb&#233;m agradecemos a Xue Bo Liu por sua revis&#227;o e suporte &#224; pesquisa. Bing Ji esteve envolvido na concep&#231;&#227;o e design, an&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o de dados e reda&#231;&#227;o do artigo, e Xue Bo Liu o revisou criticamente para conte&#250;do intelectual.</p>
    </ack>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Sara</surname>
              <given-names>JD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Widmer</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Matsuzawa</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lennon</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lerman</surname>
              <given-names>LO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lerman</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prevalence of Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction among Patients with Chest Pain and Nonobstructive Coronary Artery Disease</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Interv</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>8</volume>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <fpage>1445</fpage>
          <lpage>1453</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcin.2015.06.017</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>1 Sara JD, Widmer RJ, Matsuzawa Y, Lennon RJ, Lerman LO, Lerman A. Prevalence of Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction among Patients with Chest Pain and Nonobstructive Coronary Artery Disease. JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2015;8(11):1445-53. doi: 10.1016/j.jcin.2015.06.017.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <label>2</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Aribas</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>van Lennep</surname>
              <given-names>JER</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Elias-Smale</surname>
              <given-names>SE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Piek</surname>
              <given-names>JJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Roos</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ahmadizar</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prevalence of Microvascular Angina among Patients with Stable Symptoms in the Absence of Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease: A Systematic Review</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Res</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>118</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>763</fpage>
          <lpage>771</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/cvr/cvab061</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>2 Aribas E, van Lennep JER, Elias-Smale SE, Piek JJ, Roos M, Ahmadizar F, et al. Prevalence of Microvascular Angina among Patients with Stable Symptoms in the Absence of Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease: A Systematic Review. Cardiovasc Res. 2022;118(3):763-71. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvab061.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <label>3</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Jones</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Eteiba</surname>
              <given-names>W</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Merz</surname>
              <given-names>NB</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Cardiac Syndrome X and Microvascular Coronary Dysfunction</article-title>
          <source>Trends Cardiovasc Med</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>22</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>161</fpage>
          <lpage>168</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.tcm.2012.07.014</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>3 Jones E, Eteiba W, Merz NB. Cardiac Syndrome X and Microvascular Coronary Dysfunction. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2012;22(6):161-8. doi: 10.1016/j.tcm.2012.07.014.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <label>4</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Murthy</surname>
              <given-names>VL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Naya</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Taqueti</surname>
              <given-names>VR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Foster</surname>
              <given-names>CR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gaber</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hainer</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effects of Sex on Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction and Cardiac Outcomes</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>129</volume>
          <issue>24</issue>
          <fpage>2518</fpage>
          <lpage>2527</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.008507</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>4 Murthy VL, Naya M, Taqueti VR, Foster CR, Gaber M, Hainer J, et al. Effects of Sex on Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction and Cardiac Outcomes. Circulation. 2014;129(24):2518-27. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.008507.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <label>5</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Camici</surname>
              <given-names>PG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Crea</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction</article-title>
          <source>N Engl J Med</source>
          <year>2007</year>
          <volume>356</volume>
          <issue>8</issue>
          <fpage>830</fpage>
          <lpage>840</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMra061889</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>5 Camici PG, Crea F. Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(8):830-40. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra061889.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <label>6</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="book">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Tomanek</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <chapter-title>Structure&#8211;Function of the Coronary Hierarchy</chapter-title>
          <person-group person-group-type="editor">
            <name>
              <surname>Tomanek</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <source>Coronary Vasculature</source>
          <publisher-loc>Boston</publisher-loc>
          <publisher-name>Springer</publisher-name>
          <year>2013</year>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>6 Tomanek RJ. Structure&#8211;Function of the Coronary Hierarchy. In: Tomanek RJ, editor. Coronary Vasculature. Boston: Springer; 2013.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <label>7</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mathew</surname>
              <given-names>RC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bourque</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Salerno</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kramer</surname>
              <given-names>CM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Cardiovascular Imaging Techniques to Assess Microvascular Dysfunction</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2020</year>
          <volume>13</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <fpage>1577</fpage>
          <lpage>1590</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2019.09.006</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>7 Mathew RC, Bourque JM, Salerno M, Kramer CM. Cardiovascular Imaging Techniques to Assess Microvascular Dysfunction. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2020;13(7):1577-90. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2019.09.006.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B8">
        <label>8</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Duncker</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bache</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow During Exercise</article-title>
          <source>Physiol Rev</source>
          <year>2008</year>
          <volume>88</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>1009</fpage>
          <lpage>1086</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1152/physrev.00045.2006</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>8 Duncker DJ, Bache RJ. Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow During Exercise. Physiol Rev. 2008;88(3):1009-86. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00045.2006.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B9">
        <label>9</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kaul</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jayaweera</surname>
              <given-names>AR</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Determinants of Microvascular Flow</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J</source>
          <year>2006</year>
          <volume>27</volume>
          <issue>19</issue>
          <fpage>2272</fpage>
          <lpage>2274</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehl234</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>9 Kaul S, Jayaweera AR. Determinants of Microvascular Flow. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(19):2272-4. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehl234.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B10">
        <label>10</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Uren</surname>
              <given-names>NG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Crake</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Resistive Vessel Function in Coronary Artery Disease</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <year>1996</year>
          <volume>76</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>299</fpage>
          <lpage>304</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/hrt.76.4.299</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>10 Uren NG, Crake T. Resistive Vessel Function in Coronary Artery Disease. Heart. 1996;76(4):299-304. doi: 10.1136/hrt.76.4.299.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B11">
        <label>11</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Muller</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Davis</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chilian</surname>
              <given-names>WM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Integrated Regulation of Pressure and Flow in the Coronary Microcirculation</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Res</source>
          <year>1996</year>
          <volume>32</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>668</fpage>
          <lpage>678</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/S0008-6363(96)00111-3</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>11 Muller JM, Davis MJ, Chilian WM. Integrated Regulation of Pressure and Flow in the Coronary Microcirculation. Cardiovasc Res. 1996;32(4):668-78. doi: 10.1016/S0008-6363(96)00111-3.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B12">
        <label>12</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Puri</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Liew</surname>
              <given-names>GY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nicholls</surname>
              <given-names>SJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nelson</surname>
              <given-names>AJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Leong</surname>
              <given-names>DP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Carbone</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Coronary &#946;2-adrenoreceptors Mediate Endothelium-dependent Vasoreactivity in Humans: Novel Insights from an In vivo Intravascular Ultrasound Study</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>33</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>495</fpage>
          <lpage>504</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehr359</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>12 Puri R, Liew GY, Nicholls SJ, Nelson AJ, Leong DP, Carbone A, et al. Coronary &#946;2-adrenoreceptors Mediate Endothelium-dependent Vasoreactivity in Humans: Novel Insights from an In vivo Intravascular Ultrasound Study. Eur Heart J. 2012;33(4):495-504. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehr359.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B13">
        <label>13</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Barbato</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Role of Adrenergic Receptors in Human Coronary Vasomotion</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>95</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <fpage>603</fpage>
          <lpage>608</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/hrt.2008.150888</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>13 Barbato E. Role of Adrenergic Receptors in Human Coronary Vasomotion. Heart. 2009;95(7):603-8. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2008.150888.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B14">
        <label>14</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Cornelissen</surname>
              <given-names>AJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dankelman</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>VanBavel</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Spaan</surname>
              <given-names>JA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Balance between Myogenic, Flow-dependent, and Metabolic Flow Control in Coronary Arterial Tree: A Model Study</article-title>
          <source>Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol</source>
          <year>2002</year>
          <volume>282</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>2224</fpage>
          <lpage>2237</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1152/ajpheart.00491.2001</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>14 Cornelissen AJ, Dankelman J, VanBavel E, Spaan JA. Balance between Myogenic, Flow-dependent, and Metabolic Flow Control in Coronary Arterial Tree: A Model Study. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2002;282(6):2224-37. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.00491.2001.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B15">
        <label>15</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Merkus</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>de Beer</surname>
              <given-names>VJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Houweling</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Duncker</surname>
              <given-names>DJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Control of Pulmonary Vascular Tone During Exercise in Health and Pulmonary Hypertension</article-title>
          <source>Pharmacol Ther</source>
          <year>2008</year>
          <volume>119</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>242</fpage>
          <lpage>263</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.pharmthera.2008.04.003</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>15 Merkus D, de Beer VJ, Houweling B, Duncker DJ. Control of Pulmonary Vascular Tone During Exercise in Health and Pulmonary Hypertension. Pharmacol Ther. 2008;119(3):242-63. doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2008.04.003.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B16">
        <label>16</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Camici</surname>
              <given-names>PG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Crea</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction</article-title>
          <source>N Engl J Med</source>
          <year>2007</year>
          <volume>356</volume>
          <issue>8</issue>
          <fpage>830</fpage>
          <lpage>840</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1056/NEJMra061889</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>16 Camici PG, Crea F. Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(8):830-40. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra061889.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B17">
        <label>17</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Crea</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Camici</surname>
              <given-names>PG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Merz</surname>
              <given-names>CNB</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction: An Update</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>35</volume>
          <issue>17</issue>
          <fpage>1101</fpage>
          <lpage>1111</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/eht513</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>17 Crea F, Camici PG, Merz CNB. Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction: An Update. Eur Heart J. 2014;35(17):1101-11. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/eht513.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B18">
        <label>18</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Miura</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bosnjak</surname>
              <given-names>JJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ning</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Saito</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Miura</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gutterman</surname>
              <given-names>DD</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Role for Hydrogen Peroxide in Flow-induced Dilation of Human Coronary Arterioles</article-title>
          <source>Circ Res</source>
          <year>2003</year>
          <volume>92</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>31</fpage>
          <lpage>40</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/01.res.0000054200.44505.ab</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>18 Miura H, Bosnjak JJ, Ning G, Saito T, Miura M, Gutterman DD. Role for Hydrogen Peroxide in Flow-induced Dilation of Human Coronary Arterioles. Circ Res. 2003;92(2):31-40. doi: 10.1161/01.res.0000054200.44505.ab.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B19">
        <label>19</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Montone</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Meucci</surname>
              <given-names>MC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>De Vita</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lanza</surname>
              <given-names>GA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Niccoli</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Coronary Provocative Tests in the Catheterization Laboratory: Pathophysiological Bases, Methodological Considerations and Clinical Implications</article-title>
          <source>Atherosclerosis</source>
          <year>2021</year>
          <volume>318</volume>
          <fpage>14</fpage>
          <lpage>21</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2020.12.008</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>19 Montone RA, Meucci MC, De Vita A, Lanza GA, Niccoli G. Coronary Provocative Tests in the Catheterization Laboratory: Pathophysiological Bases, Methodological Considerations and Clinical Implications. Atherosclerosis. 2021;318:14-21. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2020.12.008.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B20">
        <label>20</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Crea</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Montone</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rinaldi</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Pathophysiology of Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction</article-title>
          <source>Circ J</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>86</volume>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <fpage>1319</fpage>
          <lpage>1328</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1253/circj.CJ-21-0848</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>20 Crea F, Montone RA, Rinaldi R. Pathophysiology of Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction. Circ J. 2022;86(9):1319-28. doi: 10.1253/circj.CJ-21-0848.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B21">
        <label>21</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Masi</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rizzoni</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Taddei</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Widmer</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Montezano</surname>
              <given-names>AC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>L&#252;scher</surname>
              <given-names>TF</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Assessment and Pathophysiology of Microvascular Disease: Recent Progress and Clinical Implications</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J</source>
          <year>2021</year>
          <volume>42</volume>
          <issue>26</issue>
          <fpage>2590</fpage>
          <lpage>2604</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa857</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>21 Masi S, Rizzoni D, Taddei S, Widmer RJ, Montezano AC, L&#252;scher TF, et al. Assessment and Pathophysiology of Microvascular Disease: Recent Progress and Clinical Implications. Eur Heart J. 2021;42(26):2590-604. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa857.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B22">
        <label>22</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Li</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pagano</surname>
              <given-names>PJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Microvascular NADPH Oxidase in Health and Disease</article-title>
          <source>Free Radic Biol Med</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>109</volume>
          <fpage>33</fpage>
          <lpage>47</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.02.049</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>22 Li Y, Pagano PJ. Microvascular NADPH Oxidase in Health and Disease. Free Radic Biol Med. 2017;109:33-47. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.02.049.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B23">
        <label>23</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Magenta</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Greco</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Capogrossi</surname>
              <given-names>MC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gaetano</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Martelli</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Nitric Oxide, Oxidative Stress, and p66Shc Interplay in Diabetic Endothelial Dysfunction</article-title>
          <source>Biomed Res Int</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>2014</volume>
          <fpage>193095</fpage>
          <lpage>193095</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1155/2014/193095</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>23 Magenta A, Greco S, Capogrossi MC, Gaetano C, Martelli F. Nitric Oxide, Oxidative Stress, and p66Shc Interplay in Diabetic Endothelial Dysfunction. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:193095. doi: 10.1155/2014/193095.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B24">
        <label>24</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Tsai</surname>
              <given-names>SH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lu</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Xu</surname>
              <given-names>X</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ren</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hein</surname>
              <given-names>TW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kuo</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Enhanced Endothelin-1/Rho-kinase Signalling and Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction in Hypertensive Myocardial Hypertrophy</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Res</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>113</volume>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <fpage>1329</fpage>
          <lpage>1337</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1093/cvr/cvx103</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>24 Tsai SH, Lu G, Xu X, Ren Y, Hein TW, Kuo L. Enhanced Endothelin-1/Rho-kinase Signalling and Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction in Hypertensive Myocardial Hypertrophy. Cardiovasc Res. 2017;113(11):1329-37. doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvx103.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B25">
        <label>25</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Vassalli</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hess</surname>
              <given-names>OM</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Measurement of Coronary Flow Reserve and its Role in Patient Care</article-title>
          <source>Basic Res Cardiol</source>
          <year>1998</year>
          <volume>93</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>339</fpage>
          <lpage>353</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s003950050102</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>25 Vassalli G, Hess OM. Measurement of Coronary Flow Reserve and its Role in Patient Care. Basic Res Cardiol. 1998;93(5):339-53. doi: 10.1007/s003950050102.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B26">
        <label>26</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ng</surname>
              <given-names>MK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yeung</surname>
              <given-names>AC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fearon</surname>
              <given-names>WF</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Invasive Assessment of the Coronary Microcirculation: Superior Reproducibility and Less Hemodynamic Dependence of Index of Microcirculatory Resistance Compared with Coronary Flow Reserve</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>2006</year>
          <volume>113</volume>
          <issue>17</issue>
          <fpage>2054</fpage>
          <lpage>2061</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.603522</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>26 Ng MK, Yeung AC, Fearon WF. Invasive Assessment of the Coronary Microcirculation: Superior Reproducibility and Less Hemodynamic Dependence of Index of Microcirculatory Resistance Compared with Coronary Flow Reserve. Circulation. 2006;113(17):2054-61. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.603522.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B27">
        <label>27</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Fearon</surname>
              <given-names>WF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Balsam</surname>
              <given-names>LB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Farouque</surname>
              <given-names>HM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Caffarelli</surname>
              <given-names>AD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Robbins</surname>
              <given-names>RC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fitzgerald</surname>
              <given-names>PJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Novel Index for Invasively Assessing the Coronary Microcirculation</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>2003</year>
          <volume>107</volume>
          <issue>25</issue>
          <fpage>3129</fpage>
          <lpage>3132</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/01.CIR.0000080700.98607.D1</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>27 Fearon WF, Balsam LB, Farouque HM, Caffarelli AD, Robbins RC, Fitzgerald PJ, et al. Novel Index for Invasively Assessing the Coronary Microcirculation. Circulation. 2003;107(25):3129-32. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000080700.98607.D1.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B28">
        <label>28</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Layland</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>MacIsaac</surname>
              <given-names>AI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Burns</surname>
              <given-names>AT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Somaratne</surname>
              <given-names>JB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Leitl</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Whitbourn</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>When Collateral Supply is Accounted for Epicardial Stenosis Does not Increase Microvascular Resistance</article-title>
          <source>Circ Cardiovasc Interv</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>5</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>97</fpage>
          <lpage>102</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.111.964718</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>28 Layland J, MacIsaac AI, Burns AT, Somaratne JB, Leitl G, Whitbourn RJ, et al. When Collateral Supply is Accounted for Epicardial Stenosis Does not Increase Microvascular Resistance. Circ Cardiovasc Interv. 2012;5(1):97-102. doi: 10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.111.964718.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B29">
        <label>29</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Payne</surname>
              <given-names>AR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Berry</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Doolin</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>McEntegart</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Petrie</surname>
              <given-names>MC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lindsay</surname>
              <given-names>MM</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Microvascular Resistance Predicts Myocardial Salvage and Infarct Characteristics in ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction</article-title>
          <source>J Am Heart Assoc</source>
          <year>2012</year>
          <volume>1</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <elocation-id>e002246</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/JAHA.112.002246</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>29 Payne AR, Berry C, Doolin O, McEntegart M, Petrie MC, Lindsay MM, et al. Microvascular Resistance Predicts Myocardial Salvage and Infarct Characteristics in ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction. J Am Heart Assoc. 2012;1(4):e002246. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.112.002246.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B30">
        <label>30</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ai</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Feng</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gong</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zheng</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jin</surname>
              <given-names>Q</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zhang</surname>
              <given-names>HP</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Coronary Angiography-Derived Index of Microvascular Resistance</article-title>
          <source>Front Physiol</source>
          <year>2020</year>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <fpage>605356</fpage>
          <lpage>605356</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3389/fphys.2020.605356</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>30 Ai H, Feng Y, Gong Y, Zheng B, Jin Q, Zhang HP, et al. Coronary Angiography-Derived Index of Microvascular Resistance. Front Physiol. 2020;11:605356. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.605356.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B31">
        <label>31</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Huang</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gong</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fan</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zheng</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lu</surname>
              <given-names>Z</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Li</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Coronary Angiography-derived Index for Assessing Microcirculatory Resistance in Patients with Non-obstructed Vessels: The FLASH IMR Study</article-title>
          <source>Am Heart J</source>
          <year>2023</year>
          <volume>263</volume>
          <fpage>56</fpage>
          <lpage>63</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ahj.2023.03.016</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>31 Huang D, Gong Y, Fan Y, Zheng B, Lu Z, Li J, et al. Coronary Angiography-derived Index for Assessing Microcirculatory Resistance in Patients with Non-obstructed Vessels: The FLASH IMR Study. Am Heart J. 2023;263:56-63. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2023.03.016.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B32">
        <label>32</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Li</surname>
              <given-names>W</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Takahashi</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rios</surname>
              <given-names>SA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Latib</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lee</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fearon</surname>
              <given-names>WF</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Diagnostic Performance and Prognostic Impact of Coronary Angiography-based Index of Microcirculatory Resistance Assessment: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis</article-title>
          <source>Catheter Cardiovasc Interv</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>99</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>286</fpage>
          <lpage>292</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/ccd.30076</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>32 Li W, Takahashi T, Rios SA, Latib A, Lee JM, Fearon WF, et al. Diagnostic Performance and Prognostic Impact of Coronary Angiography-based Index of Microcirculatory Resistance Assessment: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2022;99(2):286-92. doi: 10.1002/ccd.30076.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B33">
        <label>33</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Feher</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sinusas</surname>
              <given-names>AJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Quantitative Assessment of Coronary Microvascular Function: Dynamic Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography, Positron Emission Tomography, Ultrasound, Computed Tomography, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging</article-title>
          <source>Circ Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>10</volume>
          <issue>8</issue>
          <elocation-id>e006427</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.117.006427</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>33 Feher A, Sinusas AJ. Quantitative Assessment of Coronary Microvascular Function: Dynamic Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography, Positron Emission Tomography, Ultrasound, Computed Tomography, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2017;10(8):e006427. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.117.006427.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B34">
        <label>34</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Murthy</surname>
              <given-names>VL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Naya</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Taqueti</surname>
              <given-names>VR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Foster</surname>
              <given-names>CR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gaber</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hainer</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Response to Letter Regarding Article, "Effects of Sex on Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction and Cardiac Outcomes"</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>131</volume>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <fpage>376</fpage>
          <lpage>376</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.012827</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>34 Murthy VL, Naya M, Taqueti VR, Foster CR, Gaber M, Hainer J, et al. Response to Letter Regarding Article, "Effects of Sex on Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction and Cardiac Outcomes". Circulation. 2015;131(11):376. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.012827.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B35">
        <label>35</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Taqueti</surname>
              <given-names>VR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Everett</surname>
              <given-names>BM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Murthy</surname>
              <given-names>VL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gaber</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Foster</surname>
              <given-names>CR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hainer</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Interaction of Impaired Coronary Flow Reserve and Cardiomyocyte Injury on Adverse Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients without Overt Coronary Artery Disease</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>2015</year>
          <volume>131</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>528</fpage>
          <lpage>535</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.009716</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>35 Taqueti VR, Everett BM, Murthy VL, Gaber M, Foster CR, Hainer J, et al. Interaction of Impaired Coronary Flow Reserve and Cardiomyocyte Injury on Adverse Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients without Overt Coronary Artery Disease. Circulation. 2015;131(6):528-35. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.009716.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B36">
        <label>36</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ziadi</surname>
              <given-names>MC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dekemp</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Williams</surname>
              <given-names>KA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Guo</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chow</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Renaud</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Impaired Myocardial Flow Reserve on Rubidium-82 Positron Emission Tomography Imaging Predicts Adverse Outcomes in Patients Assessed for Myocardial Ischemia</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <year>2011</year>
          <volume>58</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <fpage>740</fpage>
          <lpage>748</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.065</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>36 Ziadi MC, Dekemp RA, Williams KA, Guo A, Chow BJ, Renaud JM, et al. Impaired Myocardial Flow Reserve on Rubidium-82 Positron Emission Tomography Imaging Predicts Adverse Outcomes in Patients Assessed for Myocardial Ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58(7):740-8. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.065.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B37">
        <label>37</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gupta</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Taqueti</surname>
              <given-names>VR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>van de Hoef</surname>
              <given-names>TP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bajaj</surname>
              <given-names>NS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bravo</surname>
              <given-names>PE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Murthy</surname>
              <given-names>VL</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Integrated Noninvasive Physiological Assessment of Coronary Circulatory Function and Impact on Cardiovascular Mortality in Patients with Stable Coronary Artery Disease</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>136</volume>
          <issue>24</issue>
          <fpage>2325</fpage>
          <lpage>2336</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.029992</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>37 Gupta A, Taqueti VR, van de Hoef TP, Bajaj NS, Bravo PE, Murthy VL, et al. Integrated Noninvasive Physiological Assessment of Coronary Circulatory Function and Impact on Cardiovascular Mortality in Patients with Stable Coronary Artery Disease. Circulation. 2017;136(24):2325-36. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.029992.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B38">
        <label>38</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Liu</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wijesurendra</surname>
              <given-names>RS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Liu</surname>
              <given-names>JM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Forfar</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Channon</surname>
              <given-names>KM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Jerosch-Herold</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Diagnosis of Microvascular Angina Using Cardiac Magnetic Resonance</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <year>2018</year>
          <volume>71</volume>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <fpage>969</fpage>
          <lpage>979</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2017.12.046</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>38 Liu A, Wijesurendra RS, Liu JM, Forfar JC, Channon KM, Jerosch-Herold M, et al. Diagnosis of Microvascular Angina Using Cardiac Magnetic Resonance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;71(9):969-79. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.12.046.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B39">
        <label>39</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Doyle</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Weinberg</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pohost</surname>
              <given-names>GM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Merz</surname>
              <given-names>CNB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shaw</surname>
              <given-names>LJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sopko</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prognostic Value of Global MR Myocardial Perfusion Imaging in Women with Suspected Myocardial Ischemia and no Obstructive Coronary Disease: Results from the NHLBI-sponsored WISE (Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation) Study</article-title>
          <source>JACC Cardiovasc Imaging</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>3</volume>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <fpage>1030</fpage>
          <lpage>1036</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jcmg.2010.07.008</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>39 Doyle M, Weinberg N, Pohost GM, Merz CNB, Shaw LJ, Sopko G, et al. Prognostic Value of Global MR Myocardial Perfusion Imaging in Women with Suspected Myocardial Ischemia and no Obstructive Coronary Disease: Results from the NHLBI-sponsored WISE (Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation) Study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2010;3(10):1030-6. doi: 10.1016/j.jcmg.2010.07.008.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B40">
        <label>40</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gan</surname>
              <given-names>LM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Svedlund</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wittfeldt</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Eklund</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gao</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Matejka</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Incremental Value of Transthoracic Doppler Echocardiography-Assessed Coronary Flow Reserve in Patients with Suspected Myocardial Ischemia Undergoing Myocardial Perfusion Scintigraphy</article-title>
          <source>J Am Heart Assoc</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>6</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <elocation-id>e004875</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/JAHA.116.004875</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>40 Gan LM, Svedlund S, Wittfeldt A, Eklund C, Gao S, Matejka G, et al. Incremental Value of Transthoracic Doppler Echocardiography-Assessed Coronary Flow Reserve in Patients with Suspected Myocardial Ischemia Undergoing Myocardial Perfusion Scintigraphy. J Am Heart Assoc. 2017;6(4):e004875. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.116.004875.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B41">
        <label>41</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Rigo</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sicari</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gherardi</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Djordjevic-Dikic</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cortigiani</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Picano</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prognostic Value of Coronary Flow Reserve in Medically Treated Patients with Left Anterior Descending Coronary Disease with Stenosis 51% to 75% in Diameter</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <year>2007</year>
          <volume>100</volume>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <fpage>1527</fpage>
          <lpage>1531</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.amjcard.2007.06.060</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>41 Rigo F, Sicari R, Gherardi S, Djordjevic-Dikic A, Cortigiani L, Picano E. Prognostic Value of Coronary Flow Reserve in Medically Treated Patients with Left Anterior Descending Coronary Disease with Stenosis 51% to 75% in Diameter. Am J Cardiol. 2007;100(10):1527-31. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2007.06.060.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B42">
        <label>42</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Chen</surname>
              <given-names>JW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hsu</surname>
              <given-names>NW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wu</surname>
              <given-names>TC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lin</surname>
              <given-names>SJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chang</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Long-term Angiotensin-converting Enzyme Inhibition Reduces Plasma Asymmetric Dimethylarginine and Improves Endothelial Nitric Oxide Bioavailability and Coronary Microvascular Function in Patients with Syndrome X</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <year>2002</year>
          <volume>90</volume>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <fpage>974</fpage>
          <lpage>982</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0002-9149(02)02664-4</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>42 Chen JW, Hsu NW, Wu TC, Lin SJ, Chang MS. Long-term Angiotensin-converting Enzyme Inhibition Reduces Plasma Asymmetric Dimethylarginine and Improves Endothelial Nitric Oxide Bioavailability and Coronary Microvascular Function in Patients with Syndrome X. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90(9):974-82. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9149(02)02664-4.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B43">
        <label>43</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hamasaki</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Higano</surname>
              <given-names>ST</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Suwaidi</surname>
              <given-names>JA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishimura</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Miyauchi</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Holmes</surname>
              <given-names>DR</given-names>
              <suffix>Jr</suffix>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Cholesterol-lowering Treatment is Associated with Improvement in Coronary Vascular Remodeling and Endothelial Function in Patients with Normal or Mildly Diseased Coronary Arteries</article-title>
          <source>Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol</source>
          <year>2000</year>
          <volume>20</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>737</fpage>
          <lpage>743</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/01.atv.20.3.737</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>43 Hamasaki S, Higano ST, Suwaidi JA, Nishimura RA, Miyauchi K, Holmes DR Jr, et al. Cholesterol-lowering Treatment is Associated with Improvement in Coronary Vascular Remodeling and Endothelial Function in Patients with Normal or Mildly Diseased Coronary Arteries. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000;20(3):737-43. doi: 10.1161/01.atv.20.3.737.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B44">
        <label>44</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Vaughan</surname>
              <given-names>CJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gotto</surname>
              <given-names>AM</given-names>
              <suffix>Jr</suffix>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Basson</surname>
              <given-names>CT</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The Evolving Role of Statins in the Management of Atherosclerosis</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <year>2000</year>
          <volume>35</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>10</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0735-1097(99)00525-2</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>44 Vaughan CJ, Gotto AM Jr, Basson CT. The Evolving Role of Statins in the Management of Atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35(1):1-10. doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(99)00525-2.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B45">
        <label>45</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kayikcioglu</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Payzin</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yavuzgil</surname>
              <given-names>O</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kultursay</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Can</surname>
              <given-names>LH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Soydan</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Benefits of Statin Treatment in Cardiac Syndrome-X1</article-title>
          <source>Eur Heart J</source>
          <year>2003</year>
          <volume>24</volume>
          <issue>22</issue>
          <fpage>1999</fpage>
          <lpage>2005</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0195-668x(03)00478-0</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>45 Kayikcioglu M, Payzin S, Yavuzgil O, Kultursay H, Can LH, Soydan I. Benefits of Statin Treatment in Cardiac Syndrome-X1. Eur Heart J. 2003;24(22):1999-2005. doi: 10.1016/s0195-668x(03)00478-0.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B46">
        <label>46</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>F&#225;bi&#225;n</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Varga</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Picano</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vajo</surname>
              <given-names>Z</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>R&#243;nasz&#233;ki</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Csan&#225;dy</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effect of Simvastatin on Endothelial Function in Cardiac Syndrome X Patients</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <year>2004</year>
          <volume>94</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>652</fpage>
          <lpage>655</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.amjcard.2004.05.035</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>46 F&#225;bi&#225;n E, Varga A, Picano E, Vajo Z, R&#243;nasz&#233;ki A, Csan&#225;dy M. Effect of Simvastatin on Endothelial Function in Cardiac Syndrome X Patients. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94(5):652-5. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2004.05.035.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B47">
        <label>47</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Zhang</surname>
              <given-names>X</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Li</surname>
              <given-names>Q</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zhao</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Li</surname>
              <given-names>X</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sun</surname>
              <given-names>X</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yang</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effects of Combination of Statin and Calcium Channel Blocker in Patients with Cardiac Syndrome X</article-title>
          <source>Coron Artery Dis</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>25</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>40</fpage>
          <lpage>44</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1097/MCA.0000000000000054</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>47 Zhang X, Li Q, Zhao J, Li X, Sun X, Yang H, et al. Effects of Combination of Statin and Calcium Channel Blocker in Patients with Cardiac Syndrome X. Coron Artery Dis. 2014;25(1):40-4. doi: 10.1097/MCA.0000000000000054.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B48">
        <label>48</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Pauly</surname>
              <given-names>DF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Johnson</surname>
              <given-names>BD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Anderson</surname>
              <given-names>RD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Handberg</surname>
              <given-names>EM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Smith</surname>
              <given-names>KM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cooper-DeHoff</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>In Women with Symptoms of Cardiac Ischemia, Nonobstructive Coronary Arteries, and Microvascular Dysfunction, Angiotensin-converting Enzyme Inhibition is Associated with Improved Microvascular Function: A Double-blind Randomized Study from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE)</article-title>
          <source>Am Heart J</source>
          <year>2011</year>
          <volume>162</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>678</fpage>
          <lpage>684</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ahj.2011.07.011</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>48 Pauly DF, Johnson BD, Anderson RD, Handberg EM, Smith KM, Cooper-DeHoff RM, et al. In Women with Symptoms of Cardiac Ischemia, Nonobstructive Coronary Arteries, and Microvascular Dysfunction, Angiotensin-converting Enzyme Inhibition is Associated with Improved Microvascular Function: A Double-blind Randomized Study from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE). Am Heart J. 2011;162(4):678-84. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2011.07.011.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B49">
        <label>49</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kawata</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Daimon</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hasegawa</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Teramoto</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Toyoda</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sekine</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effect on Coronary Flow Velocity Reserve in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Comparison between Angiotensin-converting Enzyme Inhibitor and Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor Antagonist</article-title>
          <source>Am Heart J</source>
          <year>2006</year>
          <volume>151</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>798</fpage>
          <lpage>798</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ahj.2005.09.014</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>49 Kawata T, Daimon M, Hasegawa R, Teramoto K, Toyoda T, Sekine T, et al. Effect on Coronary Flow Velocity Reserve in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Comparison between Angiotensin-converting Enzyme Inhibitor and Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor Antagonist. Am Heart J. 2006;151(4):798. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.09.014.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B50">
        <label>50</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Stamatelopoulos</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bramos</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Manios</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Alexaki</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kaladaridou</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Georgiopoulos</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Pleiotropic Effects of the Acute and Chronic Inhibition of the Renin-angiotensin System in Hypertensives</article-title>
          <source>J Hum Hypertens</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>28</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>378</fpage>
          <lpage>383</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/jhh.2013.125</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>50 Stamatelopoulos K, Bramos D, Manios E, Alexaki E, Kaladaridou A, Georgiopoulos G, et al. Pleiotropic Effects of the Acute and Chronic Inhibition of the Renin-angiotensin System in Hypertensives. J Hum Hypertens. 2014;28(6):378-83. doi: 10.1038/jhh.2013.125.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B51">
        <label>51</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Bavry</surname>
              <given-names>AA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Handberg</surname>
              <given-names>EM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Huo</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lerman</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Quyyumi</surname>
              <given-names>AA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shufelt</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Aldosterone Inhibition and Coronary Endothelial Function in Women without Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease: An Ancillary Study of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation</article-title>
          <source>Am Heart J</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>167</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>826</fpage>
          <lpage>832</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ahj.2014.01.017</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>51 Bavry AA, Handberg EM, Huo T, Lerman A, Quyyumi AA, Shufelt C, et al. Aldosterone Inhibition and Coronary Endothelial Function in Women without Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease: An Ancillary Study of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation. Am Heart J. 2014;167(6):826-32. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2014.01.017.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B52">
        <label>52</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Nishigaki</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Inoue</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yamanouchi</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fukumoto</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yasuda</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sueda</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Prognostic Effects of Calcium Channel Blockers in Patients with Vasospastic Angina&#8211;a Meta-analysis</article-title>
          <source>Circ J</source>
          <year>2010</year>
          <volume>74</volume>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <fpage>1943</fpage>
          <lpage>1950</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1253/circj.cj-10-0292</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>52 Nishigaki K, Inoue Y, Yamanouchi Y, Fukumoto Y, Yasuda S, Sueda S, et al. Prognostic Effects of Calcium Channel Blockers in Patients with Vasospastic Angina--a Meta-analysis. Circ J. 2010;74(9):1943-50. doi: 10.1253/circj.cj-10-0292.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B53">
        <label>53</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Cannon</surname>
              <given-names>RO</given-names>
              <suffix>3rd</suffix>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Watson</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rosing</surname>
              <given-names>DR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Epstein</surname>
              <given-names>SE</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Efficacy of Calcium Channel Blocker Therapy for Angina Pectoris Resulting from Small-vessel Coronary Artery Disease and Abnormal Vasodilator Reserve</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <year>1985</year>
          <volume>56</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>242</fpage>
          <lpage>246</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/0002-9149(85)90842-2</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>53 Cannon RO 3rd, Watson RM, Rosing DR, Epstein SE. Efficacy of Calcium Channel Blocker Therapy for Angina Pectoris Resulting from Small-vessel Coronary Artery Disease and Abnormal Vasodilator Reserve. Am J Cardiol. 1985;56(4):242-6. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(85)90842-2.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B54">
        <label>54</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Lanza</surname>
              <given-names>GA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Colonna</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pasceri</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maseri</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Atenolol Versus Amlodipine Versus Isosorbide-5-Mononitrate on Anginal Symptoms in Syndrome X</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <year>1999</year>
          <volume>84</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <fpage>854</fpage>
          <lpage>856</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0002-9149(99)00450-6</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>54 Lanza GA, Colonna G, Pasceri V, Maseri A. Atenolol Versus Amlodipine Versus Isosorbide-5-Mononitrate on Anginal Symptoms in Syndrome X. Am J Cardiol. 1999;84(7):854-6. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9149(99)00450-6.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B55">
        <label>55</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Asal</surname>
              <given-names>NJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wojciak</surname>
              <given-names>KA</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effect of Cilostazol in Treating Diabetes-associated Microvascular Complications</article-title>
          <source>Endocrine</source>
          <year>2017</year>
          <volume>56</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>240</fpage>
          <lpage>244</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s12020-017-1279-4</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>55 Asal NJ, Wojciak KA. Effect of Cilostazol in Treating Diabetes-associated Microvascular Complications. Endocrine. 2017;56(2):240-4. doi: 10.1007/s12020-017-1279-4.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B56">
        <label>56</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Yoo</surname>
              <given-names>SY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Song</surname>
              <given-names>SG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lee</surname>
              <given-names>JH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shin</surname>
              <given-names>ES</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kim</surname>
              <given-names>JS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Park</surname>
              <given-names>YH</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Efficacy of Cilostazol on Uncontrolled Coronary Vasospastic Angina: A Pilot Study</article-title>
          <source>Cardiovasc Ther</source>
          <year>2013</year>
          <volume>31</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>179</fpage>
          <lpage>185</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/j.1755-5922.2012.00312.x</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>56 Yoo SY, Song SG, Lee JH, Shin ES, Kim JS, Park YH, et al. Efficacy of Cilostazol on Uncontrolled Coronary Vasospastic Angina: A Pilot Study. Cardiovasc Ther. 2013;31(3):179-85. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-5922.2012.00312.x.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B57">
        <label>57</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Shin</surname>
              <given-names>ES</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lee</surname>
              <given-names>JH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yoo</surname>
              <given-names>SY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Park</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hong</surname>
              <given-names>YJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kim</surname>
              <given-names>MH</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>A Randomised, Multicentre, Double blind, Placebo Controlled Trial to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of Cilostazol in Patients with Vasospastic Angina</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>100</volume>
          <issue>19</issue>
          <fpage>1531</fpage>
          <lpage>1536</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/heartjnl-2014-305986</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>57 Shin ES, Lee JH, Yoo SY, Park Y, Hong YJ, Kim MH, et al. A Randomised, Multicentre, Double blind, Placebo Controlled Trial to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of Cilostazol in Patients with Vasospastic Angina. Heart. 2014;100(19):1531-6. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2014-305986.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B58">
        <label>58</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Halcox</surname>
              <given-names>JP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nour</surname>
              <given-names>KR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zalos</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mincemoyer</surname>
              <given-names>RA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Waclawiw</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rivera</surname>
              <given-names>CE</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The Effect of Sildenafil on Human Vascular Function, Platelet Activation, and Myocardial Ischemia</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <year>2002</year>
          <volume>40</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <fpage>1232</fpage>
          <lpage>1240</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0735-1097(02)02139-3</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>58 Halcox JP, Nour KR, Zalos G, Mincemoyer RA, Waclawiw M, Rivera CE, et al. The Effect of Sildenafil on Human Vascular Function, Platelet Activation, and Myocardial Ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40(7):1232-40. doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(02)02139-3.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B59">
        <label>59</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Robinson</surname>
              <given-names>SD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ludlam</surname>
              <given-names>CA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Boon</surname>
              <given-names>NA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Newby</surname>
              <given-names>DE</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Phosphodiesterase Type 5 Inhibition Does Not Reverse Endothelial Dysfunction in Patients with Coronary Heart Disease</article-title>
          <source>Heart</source>
          <year>2006</year>
          <volume>92</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>170</fpage>
          <lpage>176</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1136/hrt.2004.059683</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>59 Robinson SD, Ludlam CA, Boon NA, Newby DE. Phosphodiesterase Type 5 Inhibition Does Not Reverse Endothelial Dysfunction in Patients with Coronary Heart Disease. Heart. 2006;92(2):170-6. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2004.059683.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B60">
        <label>60</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Romeo</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gaspardone</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ciavolella</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gioffr&#232;</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Reale</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Verapamil Versus Acebutolol for Syndrome X</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <year>1988</year>
          <volume>62</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>312</fpage>
          <lpage>313</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/0002-9149(88)90232-9</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>60 Romeo F, Gaspardone A, Ciavolella M, Gioffr&#232; P, Reale A. Verapamil Versus Acebutolol for Syndrome X. Am J Cardiol. 1988;62(4):312-3. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(88)90232-9.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B61">
        <label>61</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ferrini</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bugiardini</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Galvani</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gridelli</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tollemeto</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Puddu</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Opposing Effects of Propranolol and Diltiazem on the Angina Threshold During an Exercise Test in Patients with Syndrome X</article-title>
          <source>G Ital Cardiol</source>
          <year>1986</year>
          <volume>16</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>224</fpage>
          <lpage>231</lpage>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>61 Ferrini D, Bugiardini R, Galvani M, Gridelli C, Tollemeto D, Puddu P, et al. Opposing Effects of Propranolol and Diltiazem on the Angina Threshold During an Exercise Test in Patients with Syndrome X. G Ital Cardiol. 1986;16(3):224-31.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B62">
        <label>62</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Leonardo</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fragasso</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rossetti</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dabrowski</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pagnotta</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rosano</surname>
              <given-names>GM</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Comparison of Trimetazidine with Atenolol in Patients with Syndrome X: Effects on Diastolic Function and Exercise Tolerance</article-title>
          <source>Cardiologia</source>
          <year>1999</year>
          <volume>44</volume>
          <issue>12</issue>
          <fpage>1065</fpage>
          <lpage>1069</lpage>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>62 Leonardo F, Fragasso G, Rossetti E, Dabrowski P, Pagnotta P, Rosano GM, et al. Comparison of Trimetazidine with Atenolol in Patients with Syndrome X: Effects on Diastolic Function and Exercise Tolerance. Cardiologia. 1999;44(12):1065-9.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B63">
        <label>63</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Erdamar</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sen</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tavil</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yazici</surname>
              <given-names>HU</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Turfan</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Poyraz</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The Effect of Nebivolol Treatment on Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Status in Patients with Cardiac Syndrome-X</article-title>
          <source>Coron Artery Dis</source>
          <year>2009</year>
          <volume>20</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>238</fpage>
          <lpage>234</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1097/mca.0b013e32830936bb</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>63 Erdamar H, Sen N, Tavil Y, Yazici HU, Turfan M, Poyraz F, et al. The Effect of Nebivolol Treatment on Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Status in Patients with Cardiac Syndrome-X. Coron Artery Dis. 2009;20(3):238-4. doi: 10.1097/mca.0b013e32830936bb.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B64">
        <label>64</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Leonardo</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fragasso</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rosano</surname>
              <given-names>GM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pagnotta</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chierchia</surname>
              <given-names>SL</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effect of Atenolol on QT Interval and Dispersion in Patients with Syndrome X</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <year>1997</year>
          <volume>80</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>789</fpage>
          <lpage>790</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/s0002-9149(97)00519-5</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>64 Leonardo F, Fragasso G, Rosano GM, Pagnotta P, Chierchia SL. Effect of Atenolol on QT Interval and Dispersion in Patients with Syndrome X. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80(6):789-90. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9149(97)00519-5.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B65">
        <label>65</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Robertson</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wood</surname>
              <given-names>AJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vaughn</surname>
              <given-names>WK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Robertson</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Exacerbation of Vasotonic Angina Pectoris by Propranolol</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>1982</year>
          <volume>65</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>281</fpage>
          <lpage>285</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/01.cir.65.2.281</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>65 Robertson RM, Wood AJ, Vaughn WK, Robertson D. Exacerbation of Vasotonic Angina Pectoris by Propranolol. Circulation. 1982;65(2):281-5. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.65.2.281.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B66">
        <label>66</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Koepfli</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wyss</surname>
              <given-names>CA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Namdar</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Klainguti</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>von Schulthess</surname>
              <given-names>GK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>L&#252;scher</surname>
              <given-names>TF</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Beta-adrenergic Blockade and Myocardial Perfusion in Coronary Artery Disease: Differential Effects in Stenotic Versus Remote Myocardial Segments</article-title>
          <source>J Nucl Med</source>
          <year>2004</year>
          <volume>45</volume>
          <issue>10</issue>
          <fpage>1626</fpage>
          <lpage>1631</lpage>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>66 Koepfli P, Wyss CA, Namdar M, Klainguti M, von Schulthess GK, L&#252;scher TF, et al. Beta-adrenergic Blockade and Myocardial Perfusion in Coronary Artery Disease: Differential Effects in Stenotic Versus Remote Myocardial Segments. J Nucl Med. 2004;45(10):1626-31.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B67">
        <label>67</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Hung</surname>
              <given-names>OY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Molony</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Corban</surname>
              <given-names>MT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rasoul-Arzrumly</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maynard</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Eshtehardi</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Comprehensive Assessment of Coronary Plaque Progression with Advanced Intravascular Imaging, Physiological Measures, and Wall Shear Stress: A Pilot Double-Blinded Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial of Nebivolol Versus Atenolol in Nonobstructive Coronary Artery Disease</article-title>
          <source>J Am Heart Assoc</source>
          <year>2016</year>
          <volume>5</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <elocation-id>e002764</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/JAHA.115.002764</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>67 Hung OY, Molony D, Corban MT, Rasoul-Arzrumly E, Maynard C, Eshtehardi P, et al. Comprehensive Assessment of Coronary Plaque Progression with Advanced Intravascular Imaging, Physiological Measures, and Wall Shear Stress: A Pilot Double-Blinded Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial of Nebivolol Versus Atenolol in Nonobstructive Coronary Artery Disease. J Am Heart Assoc. 2016;5(1):e002764. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.115.002764.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B68">
        <label>68</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Camici</surname>
              <given-names>PG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gloekler</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Levy</surname>
              <given-names>BI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Skalidis</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tagliamonte</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vardas</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Ivabradine in Chronic Stable Angina: Effects by and Beyond Heart Rate Reduction</article-title>
          <source>Int J Cardiol</source>
          <year>2016</year>
          <volume>215</volume>
          <fpage>1</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.04.001</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>68 Camici PG, Gloekler S, Levy BI, Skalidis E, Tagliamonte E, Vardas P, et al. Ivabradine in Chronic Stable Angina: Effects by and Beyond Heart Rate Reduction. Int J Cardiol. 2016;215:1-6. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.04.001.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230767i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Pathogenesis, Assessment, and Treatment of Coronary Microcirculation Dysfunction</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2657-6425</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ji</surname>
            <given-names>Bing</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Liu</surname>
            <given-names>Xue-Bo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Shanghai</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="CN">China</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Tongji University &#8211; Tongji Hospital, Shanghai &#8211; China</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Shanghai</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="CN">China</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Tongji University &#8211; Department of Cardiology, Shanghai &#8211; China</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Bing Ji &#8226;</bold> Tongji University - Tongji Hospital - XinCun Road Shanghai &#8211; <postal-code>404993</postal-code> &#8211; China E-mail: <email>1902663586@qq.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor responsible for the review: Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular disease is the predominant cause of mortality on a global scale. Research indicates that women exhibit a greater likelihood of presenting with non-obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) when experiencing symptoms of myocardial ischemia in comparison to men. Additionally, women tend to experience a higher burden of symptoms relative to men, and despite the presence of ischemic heart disease, they are frequently reassured erroneously due to the absence of obstructive CAD. In cases of ischemic heart disease accompanied by symptoms of myocardial ischemia but lacking obstructive CAD, it is imperative to consider coronary microvascular dysfunction as a potential underlying cause. Coronary microvascular dysfunction, characterized by impaired coronary flow reserve resulting from functional and/or structural abnormalities in the microcirculation, is linked to adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Lifestyle modifications and the use of anti-atherosclerotic and anti-anginal medications may offer potential benefits, although further clinical trials are necessary to inform treatment strategies. This review aims to explore the prevalence, underlying mechanisms, diagnostic approaches, and therapeutic interventions for coronary microvascular dysfunction.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Coronary Circulation</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Fractional Flow Reserve</kwd>
        <kwd>Therapeutics</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <fig id="f2">
        <attrib>CFR: coronary flow reserve; IMR: index of microcirculatory resistance; PET: positron emission tomography; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; CT: computed Tomography; ACEIs: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors.</attrib>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230767-30767-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Recent studies have found that one of the main causes of clinical symptoms is Coronary Microvascular Disease (CMD) and that 39.7% &#8764; 62.4% of patients with angina and ischemia do not have significant epicardial vascular obstruction on coronary angiography (visual stenosis of &lt;50-70%). However, Coronary artery disease has long been thought to be an epicardial conduction vascular disease for which mechanical revascularization is a clinically effective treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> CMD is thought to be a contributing factor to the symptoms and signs of ischemia, as opposed to Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease. CMD is considered a contributing factor to the signs and symptoms of ischemia and is not related to Obstructive Coronary Artery Disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> CMD appears to be more prevalent in women than in men, with women accounting for 70% of CMD patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> However, male patients are often underdiagnosed in CMD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Camici and Crea proposed to classify CMD into four categories: CMD without myocardial disease and obstructive CAD, CMD with myocardial disease, CMD with obstructive CAD, and congenital CMD<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>. This article focuses on CMD without obstructive CAD and myocardial disease, impaired coronary flow reserve (CFR) due to functional and/or structural abnormalities of the microcirculation in the absence of left ventricular hypertrophy, cardiomyopathy, or valvular abnormalities.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Physiological mechanisms of coronary microcirculation</title>
          <p>The microcirculatory system of the heart made up of microveins, microarterioles, and capillaries is known as the coronary microcirculation of the coronary artery system. CMD refers to a group of disorders that impact the composition and operation of the coronary microcirculation, hence impairing coronary blood flow and ultimately leading to myocardial ischemia. The coronary arterial system is a continuous network consisting of vascular segments of varying sizes and functions. The coronary artery system consists of epicardial coronary arteries (&gt; 400 &#956;m), anterior small arteries (100-400 &#956;m), intermural small arteries (&lt; 100 &#956;m), and coronary capillary beds (&lt; 10 &#956;m).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Epicardial arteries have a significant conduction function and, in normal conditions, provide negligible resistance to coronary blood flow, with epicardial artery diameter controlled by shear stress and endothelial function. In contrast, the anterior and intermural small arteries provide the majority of the resistance to coronary blood flow and are in charge of controlling and distributing blood flow to fulfill the dynamic demands of local tissue metabolism via the coronary capillaries. Under normal physiological conditions, myocardial perfusion is strongly related to metabolic demand, and coronary vascular resistance is regulated by changes in vascular tone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In healthy vasculature, coronary blood flow and myocardial perfusion are regulated by coronary artery tone, with the arterial portion of the coronary circulation providing approximately 60% of coronary vascular resistance, and the capillaries and veins providing 25% and 15%, respectively, of the resting vascular resistance, which is controlled by metabolic, muscular (pressure-dependent), endothelial, and neurohormonal controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Small intermural arterioles smaller than 100 &#956;m are regulated by local tissue metabolism to ensure that the extracellular environment is optimal for myocardial contraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Small intermural arterioles are mainly affected by changes in perfusion pressure due to myogenic influences, and some larger arterioles are also affected by perfusion pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> In contrast, small anterior arterioles are not regulated by the local metabolic environment and are therefore affected by other regulatory factors. More proximally, the anterior vasculature is affected by mechanisms similar to those of the epicardial vasculature, mainly by endothelium-dependent mechanisms and sympathetic &#945;-1 and &#945;-2 adrenergic receptors,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> and possibly by &#946;-2 adrenergic receptor-mediated influences, which have also been shown to play a role in epicardial vasomotor function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The existence of well-regulated autoregulatory mechanisms in the coronary system allows the heart's intrinsic ability to maintain blood flow despite changes in perfusion pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pathological mechanisms of CMD</title>
          <p>Several physiological processes that lead to either enhanced constriction or reduced coronary microvessel dilatation can induce CMD. An impaired vasodilatory function may be caused by non-endothelium-dependent pathways as well as endothelial dysfunction. While the latter is linked to decreased cyclic adenosine monophosphate synthesis, which results in nitrate resistance, the former is linked to diabetes, obesity, smoking, and other cardiovascular risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Impaired vasodilatory function and/or severe vasoconstriction resulting in microvascular spasm are examples of functional alterations. Vasodilatory dysfunction may result from endothelium-dependent or -independent causes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Vasoconstrictor and vasodilator mediators, including prostaglandins, nitric oxide (NO), endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factors (EDHFs), and endothelin-1 (ET-1) are produced and released by endothelial cells, which contribute to vasomotor activity. Whereas EDHFs are the primary mediators of endothelium-dependent coronary microcirculatory vasodilation, endothelium-derived NO predominantly causes vasodilation in epicardial coronary arteries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Reduced relaxation of vascular endothelial cells, increased release of vasoconstrictor agonists (e.g., ET-1), increased sensitivity of vascular endothelial cells to normal vasoconstrictor stimuli, and abnormal autonomic activity are some of the endothelium-dependent mechanisms that are still partially understood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In fact, autonomic dysfunction, which is characterized as an imbalance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, has been linked to the development of CMD. This is particularly the case in clinical settings where vasodilatory mechanisms are already impaired, such as in patients with type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, or myocardial infarction, as well as in the immediate aftermath of these events. Hypertrophic inward remodeling of coronary resistance arteries, a decrease in arterioles and capillaries in the lumen, perivascular fibrosis, a decrease in microvessel density, and capillary thinning are examples of the structural microvascular alterations that cause CMD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> These changes are more prevalent in diseases characterized by left ventricular hypertrophy, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and hypertensive heart disease.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Molecular mechanisms of CMD</title>
          <p>Although the molecular mechanisms leading to coronary microcirculatory disorders are not fully understood, oxidative stress and inflammatory responses resulting from excessive production and accumulation of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) are considered to be the key pathogenic mechanisms leading to the development of coronary microcirculatory disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Endothelial cells play a crucial role in regulating vasoreactivity through the release of vasoactive substances such as NO, which dilates blood vessels, and ET-1, which constricts blood vessels. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (Nox) isozymes and mitochondria are the main systems regulating ROS generation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Activation of Nox leads to ROS production and triggers phosphorylation of Src homologous-collagen homolog adaptor protein (p66Shc) and translocation within mitochondria. In mammals, p66Shc is a pro-apoptotic protein that further promotes ROS production by altering mitochondrial biological properties.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Accordingly, activation of p66Shc stimulates Nox activity, which leads to a vicious cycle of increased ROS. In vitro and vivo studies have shown that increased intracellular ROS concentration promotes the conversion of NO in peroxynitrite radicals and inactivates endothelial NO synthase, changing its activity from a NO-producing enzyme to a ROS-producing enzyme, which leads to impaired NO-mediated vasodilatation and enhances the vasoconstrictor activity of ET-1 through activation of the RhoA/Rho kinase pathway.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In addition, common epigenetic modifications during aging increase ROS production, decrease the expression of antioxidant enzymes and promote pro-inflammatory cytokine production by activating the expression of nuclear factor &#954; light chain enhancer and adhesion molecules in activated B-cells, further sustaining oxidative stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> RhoA/Rho kinase is another pathway that is closely linked to ROS synthesis, which is mediated through the regulation of calcium sensitivity and phosphorylation of contractile myofilaments, which regulates smooth muscle contractility and thus is closely associated with vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) hypercontraction. Thus, RhoA/Rho kinase is thought to be responsible for the spasm that occurs in the coronary vasculature<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> and exacerbates inflammation by inducing pro-inflammatory factors in vascular smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagnostic techniques</title>
          <p>There is a lack of screening methods to visualize the microcirculation, which is mainly reflected indirectly by assessing microvascular function. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref> summarizes several methods for assessing coronary microvascular function (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Modalities to assess coronary microvascular function</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Assessment of Coronary Microcirculation</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Invasive assessment methods</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Definition</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Disadvantages</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">CFR</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ratio of peak filling flow to resting flow</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Poorly reproducible and affected by epicardial stenosis.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">IMR</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Product of mean conduction time (Tmn) and distal intracoronary pressure (Pd) for intracoronary projectile saline injection at maximal congestion</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Invasive</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <bold>Non-invasive assessment methods</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <bold>Advantages</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <bold>Disadvantages</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">PET</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">The most effective and accurate non-invasive method</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Expensive and time-consuming.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">CMR</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">High spatial resolution, no ionizing radiation</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Post-processing is technically demanding and time-consuming</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Doppler echocardiography ofthe left anterior descending coronary artery</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Low cost, no ionizing radiation</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Accuracy is susceptible to operator proficiency</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Dynamic Myocardial Perfusion CT</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Higher resolution</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">High radiation dose</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>CFR: coronary flow reserve; IMR: index of microcirculatory resistance; PET: positron emission tomography; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; CT: computed tomography.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>Coronary flow reserve</title>
            <p>Coronary flow reserve (CFR) is calculated as the ratio of coronary blood flow in the maximally dilated state to coronary blood flow in the resting state, and it is a measure of CMD. A large proportion of patients present with CMD in the presence of diffuse nonobstructive CAD. Quantification of regional myocardial ischemia and regional CFR plays an important role in the assessment of focal obstructive CAD. Human coronary blood flow can increase three- to four-fold during ischemia, and drugs such as adenosine and opioids can be used to induce maximal congestion when detecting CFR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> In the absence of epicardial vascular disease, CFR reflects microvascular function, and it is generally accepted that abnormal coronary microcirculation exists with a CFR.</p>
            <p>At rest, coronary blood flow depends on the main factors determining myocardial oxygen demand, namely heart rate, contractility, and ventricular load. However, when myocardial oxygen demand is constant and within the autoregulation range, coronary blood flow is independent of perfusion pressure and varies linearly with perfusion pressure during the maximal congestive phase of maximal dilatation of resistance vessels. Therefore, since CFR is the ratio of peak filling flow to resting flow, it is influenced by factors of resting coronary blood flow that affect the repeatability of the ratio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> In addition, epicardial vascular disease can have a significant impact on the ratio, making it an unquantifiable method of quantifying microvascular disease for most cardiac patients.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Index of microcirculatory resistance</title>
            <p>The index of microcirculatory resistance (IMR) is a measure of minimal microvascular resistance and microvascular function, similar to the CFR derived from thermodilution, which utilizes the temperature and pressure sensing guidewire(TPSG) to simultaneously measure the mean conduction time (Tmn) of saline injected into the coronary arteries by a projectile during maximal congestion and the distal intracoronary pressure (Pd), with the IMR being the product of these two parameters, Tmn and Pd. Using a porcine model, Fearon et al. compared true microvascular resistance (TMR) in the presence and absence of microvascular dysfunction, investigating artificially generated microvascular dysfunction through the use of microspheres injected into the coronary arteries, with true microvascular resistance being defined as the pressure distal to the LAD divided by the absolute coronary blood flow derived using an ultrasonic flow probe, and the researchers found a reasonable correlation between IMR and TMR were reasonably correlated (r = 0.54 p &lt; 0.0001), with values of IMR increasing with deterioration of microvascular function, independent of epicardial stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Some investigators have found that in the presence of severe stenosis, ignoring the increase in collateral flow may lead to an overestimation of microvascular resistance. Therefore, in the presence of epicardial stenosis, the IMR formula is modified as follows: Pa*Tmn (Pd - Pw / Pa - Pw), where Pa is the aortic high pressure, Pd is the high pressure distal to the stenosis, and Pw is the coronary wedge pressure (defined as the mean distal coronary artery pressure in the target vessel during balloon occlusion).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> As mentioned earlier, correction for coronary wedge pressure is necessary for patients with significant hemodynamic stenosis. In general, the higher the IMR, the worse the microcirculatory function. Values less than 20 are considered normal, whereas values greater than 30 are generally considered abnormal, but there is considerable overlap between the two, and coronary microcirculatory dysfunction is now mostly considered to be present with an IMR &#8805;25.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            <p>caIMR (coronary angiography-derived index of microcirculatory resistance) is a novel noninvasive evaluation method based on coronary angiography images, which does not require a pressure guidewire and drug-induced maximal congestive state for calculation of IMR, and it has been demonstrated that caIMR is similar to IMR in ischemia with no obstructive coronary disease (INOCA) patients. A good correlation between caIMR and IMR has been demonstrated in INOCA patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Another study, the FLASH IMR study, again reported good diagnostic accuracy of caIMR,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> but the number of cases included in it was still small. A recent meta-analysis pooled all the above methods of angiographically derived IMR and found that all of them had high diagnostic accuracy and were independent predictors of future adverse cardiac events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> However, the sample sizes of the trials included in the meta-analysis were all small, ranging from 25 &#8764; 262 patients, and thus larger clinical studies are awaited for the accuracy of IMR determination by angiography alone.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Positron emission tomography</title>
            <p>Positron emission tomography (PET) is the most effective and accurate non-invasive method for quantitatively assessing coronary vasomotor function. With advances in technology, these measurements have been incorporated into routine PET myocardial perfusion loading tests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Each study is performed after injection of a blood flow radiotracer (82Rb and 13N), and post-processing of resting and loading images allows quantification of regional and overall myocardial blood flow (in ml/min/g of myocardium) and calculation of CFR (the ratio of load to resting myocardial blood flow). Recent data have demonstrated that CMD quantified as reduced CFR is common in patients with known or suspected CAD,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> increases the severity of inducible myocardial ischemia (beyond the effects of epicardial coronary artery obstruction) and subclinical myocardial injury,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> and identifies patients at high risk of MACE, including cardiac death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance</title>
            <p>Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) can be used to quantify myocardial perfusion in a similar way to positron emission computed tomography (PET) but the post-processing technique is technically demanding and time-consuming. As with positron emission computed tomography, the imaging protocol includes rest and load, with load imaging both performed after injection of gadolinium contrast. After post-processing of resting and loading images, regional and overall myocardial perfusion can be quantified using semi-quantitative (myocardial perfusion reserve index) or fully quantitative (CFR) models. A gadolinium-free loading CMR method using T1 mapping has also recently been proposed for the diagnosis of myocardial ischemia with or without obstructive CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> CMR has the advantage of high spatial resolution for transmural characterization of myocardial blood flow and the absence of ionizing radiation, assessment of CMD by a reduction in the myocardial perfusion reserve index, a comprehensive assessment of cardiovascular structure and function, and has been shown to be predictive of prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> However, data remain limited.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Left anterior descending coronary Doppler echocardiography</title>
            <p>LAD coronary Doppler echocardiography can be used to quantify coronary blood flow velocity at rest and during vasodilator loading. Coronary blood flow velocity is measured by pulsed-wave Doppler and assessed as peak diastolic blood flow velocity at rest and maximal filling. Coronary flow velocity reserve is calculated as the ratio of coronary flow velocity at maximum congestion to coronary flow velocity at rest. The advantages of this technique are that it is low cost, free of ionizing radiation, and widely available, but accuracy is susceptible to operator proficiency and requires echocardiographic visualization of the proximal coronary arteries, which can be a significant challenge in obese adults. There is growing evidence that a reduced coronary flow velocity reserve index can help identify and risk stratify CMD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Dynamic Myocardial Perfusion Computed Tomography</title>
            <p>Dynamic myocardial perfusion CT can be used to estimate myocardial blood flow in a manner similar to CMR perfusion imaging. Dynamic CT scanning is performed after the injection of an iodinated contrast agent and utilizes dynamic image acquisition to derive an estimate of myocardial blood flow in the same way as CMR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> The main advantages of this technique are the high spatial resolution of CT and the ability to provide accurate anatomical and functional assessment of the myocardium and coronary arteries in a single examination. However, these advantages come at the cost of a higher radiation dose to the patient.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Statins</title>
            <p>In small trials, these treatments improved angina symptoms, myocardial perfusion, coronary endothelial function, and microvascular function. Statins reduce lipid-rich cores in plaques, inflammation, macrophage, and foam cell formation, promote fibrous cap thickening, and reduce platelet reactivity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Statins are effective in lowering LDL levels, thereby reducing cardiovascular risk. In addition, statins may have multiple effects, including reducing vascular inflammation and improving endothelial function. Follow as Current CMD treatments focus on controlling risk factors and relieving symptoms, and there is a lack of high-level evidence-based recommendations. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref> summarises several treatment for CMD.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t4">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Treatment of Coronary Microcirculation dysfunction</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Treatment of Coronary Microcirculation Dysfunction</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Drugs</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Mechanism</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Statins</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">reducing vascular inflammation and improving endothelial function.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">ACEIs</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">indirectly mediate the effects on coronary microvascular function by lowering blood pressure</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Calcium channel antagonists</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">improve coronary microcirculatory vasodilatation capacity and reduce cardiac afterload</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">The phosphodiesterase inhibitor</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">dilated coronary arteries and improved endothelium-dependent vasodilation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">&#946; blockers</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">regional CFVR increased significantly in stenotic segments</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Ivabradine</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">improve exercise tolerance, prolong the ischemic time during exercise</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN4">
                  <label>4</label>
                  <p>ACEIs: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; CFVR: coronary flow velocity reserve.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>In a single-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study by Kayikcioglu et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> 40 patients with microvascular angina were randomly assigned to take either pravastatin (40 mg/day) or placebo. After 3 months of treatment, brachial artery flow-mediated dilation was significantly improved in the pravastatin group. Similarly, exercise duration and 1-mm-ST inhibition were significantly prolonged after statin treatment compared with placebo. In a similar study, Fabian et al. evaluated 40 patients with microvascular angina who had mild hypercholesterolemia and were randomly assigned to placebo (20) or simvastatin 20 mg/day (20).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> At the end of the study, brachial artery flow-mediated dilatation was significantly increased in the treatment group, and the time to &gt;1-mm-ST-segment depression on stress testing was significantly prolonged. More recently, Zhang et al. evaluated the effect of combination therapy with statins and calcium channel blockers versus monotherapy in patients with microvascular angina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> 68 Patients were randomized into three groups: fluvastatin (40 mg/day, 23), diltiazem (90 mg/day, 22), and combination fluvastatin (40 mg/day) and diltiazem (90 mg/day, 23). Coronary flow reserve improved in all three groups after 90 days. In addition, the time to ST-segment depression of 1 mm was significantly longer in all groups. Improvement in coronary flow reserve and prolongation of the time to 1-mm ST-segment depression were more pronounced in the combination group than in patients receiving monotherapy. Based on these studies, we recommend the use of statins in most patients with Microvascular disease, unless serious side effects or contraindications exist.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors</title>
            <p>In a study of active medications for RAAS (including ACE inhibitors) with patients with CMD using Doppler measurements of RFC in intracoronary arteries, a randomized controlled trial of ACEI therapy for CMD confirmed the benefit of enalapril. In diabetic subjects, ACEI improved CFR, and in hypertensive patients, ACEI was shown to improve coronary microvascular function by PET,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> but no effect was found in the study by Kawata et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup>. Non-randomized studies using different methods to assess coronary microvascular function in small samples of patients have further confirmed that ACEIs improve coronary microvascular function; whether ACEIs indirectly mediate the effects on coronary microvascular function by lowering blood pressure is uncertain, but this may not be a single mechanism of benefit, given the key role of angiotensin II in vascular function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Other evidence suggests that ACEIs are associated with improvements in markers of endothelial function and several circulating biomarkers. In another randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in female patients with ischemia with non-obstructive coronary artery disease (INOCA), the addition of a selective aldosterone receptor antagonist (eplerenone) to an ACEI did not reduce angina symptoms or improve CFR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Calcium channel antagonists</title>
            <p>Calcium channel antagonists are widely used in the treatment of vasospastic angina (VSA). Benidipine, a long-acting dihydropyridine, has produced beneficial prognostic effects in patients with VSA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Calcium antagonists improve coronary microcirculatory vasodilatation capacity and reduce cardiac afterload and are therefore frequently used in patients with CMD. In addition, long-acting nifedipine may exert cardioprotective effects by inhibiting vascular inflammation and improving endothelial function in patients with Angina or ischemia with no obstructive coronary disease (ANOCA/INOCA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> However, the use of amlodipine in INOCA patients did not significantly improve angina pectoris, and in another study, verapamil failed to reduce ST-segment changes on the ECG due to ischaemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Thus, long-acting L-type calcium channel blockers appear to be more favorable to coronary microcirculation than short-acting L-type calcium channel blockers.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>The phosphodiesterase inhibitor</title>
            <p>The phosphodiesterase (PDE) type 3 inhibitor, cilostazol, is used in intermittent claudication and for the prevention of post-stroke, coronary stent restenosis, and percutaneous coronary intervention. The PDE-3 receptor is subdivided into PDE-3A, which is found in platelets, vascular smooth muscle cells, and cardiomyocytes, and PDE-3B, which is found in adipocytes, hepatocytes, pancreatic &#946;-cells, and macrophages. The latter is found in adipocytes, hepatocytes, pancreatic &#946;-cells and macrophages. Inhibition of PDE increases intracellular cyclic AMP, which has antiplatelet, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilatory effects. Cilostazol reduces superoxide anion and improves local hepatocyte growth factor production as well as epithelial and endothelial cell motility and morphogenesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> The addition of cilostazol appeared to be effective in a prospective multicentre study of patients with nitrate-refractory VSA induced by calcium antagonists and spontaneous or ergonovine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> In a multicentre randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of amlodipine in patients with treatment-refractory VSA, cilostazol reduced the frequency and intensity of anginal episodes without serious adverse effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> In a canine model, a PDE -5 type inhibitor (sildenafil) improved perfusion of hypoperfused myocardium during exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> In patients with CAD, a single dose of sildenafil (no placebo comparison) dilated coronary arteries and improved endothelium-dependent vasodilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>&#946; blockers</title>
            <p>Although early studies using propranolol and vinblastine failed to report beneficial effects,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> studies using atenolol have reported favorable results in terms of symptoms and exercise stress test parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Atenolol is often prescribed in doses up to 100 mg per day. More recently, reports evaluating the effects of nebivolol in such patients have similarly shown benefit at doses of up to 5 mg per day.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Beta-blockers are particularly effective in patients with high resting heart rates or increased sympathetic tone<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> and should be avoided in patients with comorbid vasospastic disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Thus, depending on the clinical presentation and comorbidities, beta-blockers can often be an effective treatment of CMD and are used as first-line agents, depending on the clinical presentation and co-morbidities.</p>
            <p>One study found significant improvement in coronary microvascular function after treatment with carvedilol compared with treatment with metoprolol in patients with hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Koepfli et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> found no effect of carvedilol or metoprolol in stenotic and remote segments of coronary arteries in patients with CAD and stable angina pectoris, but a pooled analysis showed that regional CFVR increased significantly in stenotic segments.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> However, whether this effect was due to regression of atherosclerosis or improved coronary microvascular function remains unknown.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Ivabradine</title>
            <p>Ivabradine does not cause vasoconstriction or negative inotropic effects compared to &#946;-blockers. The beneficial effects of ivabradine on ischaemic heart disease (IHD) are mediated through indirect effects, which improve exercise tolerance, prolong the ischemic time during exercise and reduce the severity and improve exercise tolerance, and prolong the ischaemic time during exercise frequency of angina in patients with stable angina. Ivabradine improved symptoms in patients with primary microvascular angina pectoris, but coronary microvascular function was not altered, suggesting that the improvement in symptoms may be attributable to a heart rate-lowering effect. Other studies have found that ivabradine stabilizes CFR in patients with CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Therefore, channel blockers may have a role in patients with CMD, but further studies are needed.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>CMD is a class of diseases caused by structural and/or functional coronary microvascular disturbances with specific pathogenesis and diagnostic procedures. Assessment of coronary microcirculatory function should be the focus of targeted therapy in patients in whom severe stenosis or spasm of the epicardial coronary arteries has been excluded but who continue to experience episodes of angina. At present, treatment of CMD is mainly risk factor control or treatment of the primary disease, and limited pharmacotherapy remains to be confirmed by further clinical trials.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p>
            <bold>Study association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Bing Ji, from Tongji University.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p>
            <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgments</title>
        <p>The study protocol has been approved by the institutional review board. The authors have no ethical conflicts to disclose.</p>
        <p>All authors read and approved the final manuscript. We gratefully acknowledge Bing Ji and Xue Bo Liu for their collaboration in reviewing and considering all related references. We also thank Xue Bo Liu for his review and research support. Bing Ji was involved in the conception and design, data analysis and interpretation, and writing of the article, and Xue Bo Liu critically revised it for intellectual content.</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
