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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">8GYR6JCDfSf6MBL7XkLsDxm</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000800308</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00308</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230707</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Treinamento F&#237;sico Reduz a Inflama&#231;&#227;o e a Fibrose e Preserva a Fun&#231;&#227;o e a Perfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica em um Modelo de Cardiomiopatia Chag&#225;sica Cr&#244;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3442-9193</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Damasceno</surname>
            <given-names>Thayrine R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5035-9172</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tanaka</surname>
            <given-names>Denise M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8615-2889</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Magnani</surname>
            <given-names>Enrico F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9663-905X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael D. B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4400-2326</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Danielle A. G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8635-1642</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira-Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Ildernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1234-9325</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Virginia S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1182-4668</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cabeza</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6174-6939</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fabricio</surname>
            <given-names>Camila G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-6724-6773</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Resende</surname>
            <given-names>Alessandra A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2621-3330</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alves</surname>
            <given-names>Dawit A. P.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-5536-9140</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Zanetti</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5026-335X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo E. Vieira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sim&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus V.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3455-2463</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano F. L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto &#8211; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Uberaba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia: Luciano F. L. Oliveira</label> &#8226; Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro - Rua Vig&#225;rio Carlos, 100. CEP <postal-code>38925-350</postal-code>, Uberaba, MG - Brasil Email: <email>oliveiralfl@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o: Marina Okoshi</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230707</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>A Cardiomiopatia Chag&#225;sica Cr&#244;nica (CCC) &#233; causada por um processo inflamat&#243;rio induzido pelo <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic>, que leva &#224; miocardite com fibrose reativa e reparativa. A CCC progride com altera&#231;&#245;es de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e eventos histopatol&#243;gicos que afetam a Aptid&#227;o Cardiorrespirat&#243;ria (ACR).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p>Avaliamos os efeitos do Treinamento F&#237;sico Aer&#243;bico (TFA) na perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e nos comprometimentos morfol&#243;gicos e funcionais relacionados &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose em hamsters s&#237;rios com CCC. Como objetivo secund&#225;rio, analisamos as &#225;reas de sec&#231;&#227;o transversa do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Hamsters com CCC e seus respectivos controles foram divididos em quatro grupos: CCC sedent&#225;rio, CCC-TFA, controle sedent&#225;rio e controle TFA. Sete meses ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o, os animais foram submetidos &#224; ecocardiografia, &#224; cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e ao teste de esfor&#231;o cardiopulmonar. TFA de intensidade moderada foi realizado durante cinquenta minutos, cinco vezes por semana, por oito semanas. Posteriormente, os animais foram reavaliados. A an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica foi realizada ap&#243;s os procedimentos acima mencionados. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia foi estabelecido em 5% em todas as an&#225;lises (p&lt;0,05).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Animais com CCC sedent&#225;rios apresentaram piores Defeitos de Perfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica (DPM) ao longo do tempo, Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo (FEVE) reduzida, e apresentaram mais inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose quando comparados aos demais grupos (an&#225;lise ANOVA mista). Por outro lado, o TFA foi capaz de mitigar a progress&#227;o do DPM, atenuar a inflama&#231;&#227;o e a fibrose e melhorar a efici&#234;ncia da ACR em animais CCC-TFA.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Nosso estudo demonstrou que o TFA melhorou a disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, DPM e reduziu a inflama&#231;&#227;o e a fibrose em modelos de hamster com CCC. Al&#233;m disso, os animais CCC-SED apresentaram atrofia do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, enquanto os animais CCC-TFA apresentaram a AST do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico preservada. Compreender os efeitos da TFA nas dimens&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas da CCC &#233; crucial para futuras pesquisas e interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Chag&#225;sica</kwd>
        <kwd>Miocardite</kwd>
        <kwd>Aptid&#227;o Cardiorrespirat&#243;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>Exerc&#237;cio Aer&#243;bico</kwd>
        <kwd>Imagem de Perfus&#227;o do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais</funding-source>
          <award-id>001/2022 APQ-01253-22</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>PROEX/CAPES</funding-source>
          <award-id>23038.002321/2020-79</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</funding-source>
          <award-id>2016/25403-9</award-id>
        </award-group>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="10"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="88"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <fig id="f5">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A doen&#231;a de Chagas &#233; uma doen&#231;a tropical negligenciada que gera, anualmente, 627,46 milh&#245;es de d&#243;lares em gastos com sa&#250;de,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> e afeta de seis a oito milh&#245;es de pessoas em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A doen&#231;a &#233; causada pelo protozo&#225;rio <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> (<italic>T. cruzi</italic>), e a maioria dos indiv&#237;duos infectados permanecem assintom&#225;ticos ao longo de suas vidas (forma indeterminada). No entanto, cerca de 40% evoluem para as formas cl&#237;nicas (card&#237;aca ou digestiva) 10 a 30 anos ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o aguda inicial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A Cardiomiopatia Chag&#225;sica Cr&#244;nica (CCC) &#233; a cardiomiopatia n&#227;o-isqu&#234;mica mais grave e progressiva na Am&#233;rica Latina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A CCC manifesta-se com dist&#250;rbios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos, altera&#231;&#245;es na motilidade e perfus&#227;o da parede, eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o que pode levar &#224; morte s&#250;bita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os principais mecanismos patog&#234;nicos da CCC est&#227;o relacionados &#224; persist&#234;ncia do parasita com les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica mediada pelo sistema imune, dist&#250;rbios microvasculares e disautonomia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Na fase cr&#244;nica, a elevada carga de parasitemia observada na fase aguda &#233; reduzida pela resposta imune para uma infec&#231;&#227;o mais leve, mas persistente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Esse processo inflamat&#243;rio de baixa intensidade, leva &#224; miocardite multifocal com infiltrados mononucleares, les&#245;es miocitol&#237;ticas, necrose, desarranjo microvascular, hipertrofia de cardiomi&#243;citos, &#225;reas aumentadas de fibrose intersticial e perivascular e remodelamento card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Miocardite e fibrose reparativa s&#227;o achados caracter&#237;sticos da CCC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio no mioc&#225;rdio &#233; principalmente composto por c&#233;lulas T e macr&#243;fagos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; uma express&#227;o aumentada das citocinas inflamat&#243;rias &#8211; Interferon-gama (INF-&#947;), Fator de Necrose Tumoral-alfa (TNF-&#945;), Interleucina-6 (IL-6),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> e quimiocinas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A persist&#234;ncia do <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, levando &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua de INF-&#947; e TNF-&#945;, estimula o estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo que causa danos &#224;s mitoc&#244;ndrias de cardiomi&#243;citos e disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial, e compromete vias de produ&#231;&#227;o de energia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Al&#233;m dessas altera&#231;&#245;es que est&#227;o associadas a um progn&#243;stico ruim da doen&#231;a, a disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana e os dist&#250;rbios de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica subsequentes podem ser os marcadores iniciais de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Esses dist&#250;rbios tamb&#233;m est&#227;o relacionados &#224; necrose miocitol&#237;tica e ao desenvolvimento de les&#245;es cicatriciais associados a &#225;reas de fibrose transmural regional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m do dano mioc&#225;rdico, a infec&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> tamb&#233;m pode afetar o m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico. As principais altera&#231;&#245;es incluem inflama&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, exsudato mononuclear,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> necrose das c&#233;lulas fibrosas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> desorganiza&#231;&#227;o e atrofia das fibras musculares,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> vasculite e fibrose,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> danos capilares com espessamento e reduplica&#231;&#227;o da membrana basal, diminui&#231;&#227;o da &#193;rea de Sec&#231;&#227;o Transversa (AST) do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> e denerva&#231;&#227;o muscular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Indiv&#237;duos com CCC tamb&#233;m podem apresentar obstru&#231;&#227;o nos capilares e uma atividade mais glicol&#237;tica e menos oxidativa no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Em conjunto, tais altera&#231;&#245;es podem afetar a extra&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio, reduzir a oferta de oxig&#234;nio e causar preju&#237;zo funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um dos principais fatores associados &#224; morbidade e mortalidade na CCC &#233; a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> que afeta a Aptid&#227;o Cardiorrespirat&#243;ria (ACR)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> e a qualidade de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Atualmente, o tratamento da CCC baseia-se principalmente no controle de sintomas da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Contudo, apesar da escassez de ensaios controlados randomizados,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> alguns estudos j&#225; observaram benef&#237;cios do treinamento f&#237;sico nesses indiv&#237;duos, com melhoras importantes na ACR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> A Diretriz mais recente sobre CCC<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> afirma que a atividade f&#237;sica melhora muitos par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos, mas os benef&#237;cios para essa popula&#231;&#227;o ainda n&#227;o foram completamente abordados. Assim, esta abordagem tem recomenda&#231;&#227;o de grau "condicional" e um n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia "B".<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Melhoras no VO<sub>2</sub> pico foram observadas ap&#243;s o treinamento f&#237;sico em indiv&#237;duos com CCC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Outros benef&#237;cios incluem melhora na fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE), for&#231;a muscular respirat&#243;ria,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular cut&#226;nea,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> e qualidade de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Nos estudos experimentais, o treinamento f&#237;sico antes e ap&#243;s infec&#231;&#227;o experimental por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> modulou a rea&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria e melhorou a resist&#234;ncia contra o <italic>T. cruzi</italic>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> induziu redu&#231;&#227;o na atividade s&#233;rica da creatina quinase e da creatina quinase forma MB<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> e reduziu fibrose card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Na CCC, somente um estudo demonstrou que o exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico de baixa intensidade melhora par&#226;metros morfol&#243;gicos e morfom&#233;tricos dos ventr&#237;culos direito e esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nos estudos experimentais sobre CCC, v&#225;rios modelos animais foram utilizados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Entre eles, o modelo murino com hamster s&#237;rio &#233; o modelo que desenvolve CCC que lembra infec&#231;&#227;o humana com a hist&#243;ria natural t&#237;pica, e altera&#231;&#245;es histol&#243;gicas, estruturais e funcionais da doen&#231;a com uma linha do tempo mais adequada para estudos cient&#237;ficos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Apesar dessas evid&#234;ncias, nenhuma dessas investiga&#231;&#245;es focaram nos efeitos do exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico na perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, nas altera&#231;&#245;es histopatol&#243;gicas (inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose) e no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico em hamsters s&#237;rios com CCC. Considerando as adapta&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> acreditamos que o exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico pode levar a melhorias nos principais mecanismos patogen&#233;ticos envolvidos na progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a: Defeitos de Perfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica (DPM) e inflama&#231;&#227;o. Portanto, este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o impacto do Treinamento F&#237;sico Aer&#243;bico (TFA) nas altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas, funcionais e de perfus&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio, correlacionando essas vari&#225;veis com inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose card&#237;acas em hamsters s&#237;rios com CCC usando exames de imagem de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o <italic>in vivo</italic>. Al&#233;m disso, nosso objetivo secund&#225;rio foi analisar as AST do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico deste modelo experimental.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Delineamento do estudo</title>
        <p>Neste estudo experimental, hamsters s&#237;rios f&#234;meas (<italic>Mesocricetus auratus</italic>), com idade de 12 semanas, obtidos do Anilab (<italic>Animais de Laborat&#243;rio Cria&#231;&#227;o e Comercio</italic> Ltda, Paul&#237;nia/SP, Brasil) foram mantidos em uma sala com temperatura controlada com livre acesso &#224; &#225;gua e alimenta&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o, e submetidos a um ciclo claro-escuro de 12 horas. Os animais foram mantidos em uma gaiola seguindo-se as recomenda&#231;&#245;es do CONCEA (Conselho Nacional de Controle de Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal), com uma &#225;rea por animal &gt; 122,5 cm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> e enriquecimento ambiental apropriado para a esp&#233;cie. Todos os procedimentos foram conduzidos durante a fase clara do ciclo claro-escuro.</p>
        <p>Os animais foram aleatoriamente alocados usando uma ferramenta de randomiza&#231;&#227;o (www.random.org Random.org, Dublin, Irlanda). Inicialmente, os animais (n=60) foram alocados em grupos infectados e n&#227;o infectados. Ap&#243;s a fase aguda da infec&#231;&#227;o, os animais sobreviventes [infectados (n=37), n&#227;o infectados (n=16)] foram separados em quatro grupos experimentais [TFA e sedent&#225;rios: CCC-TFA (n=22), CCC-SED (n=22); e dois grupos controles tamb&#233;m separados em TFA e sedent&#225;rios: CT-TFA (n=8) e CT-SED (n=8)]. Os procedimentos foram conduzidos por um pesquisador, cego quanto aos grupos e que desconhecia os tratamentos.</p>
        <p>Os animais foram infectados por via intraperitoneal com 3,5x10<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> da forma tripomastigota da cepa Y de <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, enquanto o grupo controle foi inoculado com solu&#231;&#227;o salina (0,4 mL). Sete meses ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>), os animais foram submetidos &#224; ecocardiografia bidimensional (ECO-2D), tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico (SPECT) com <sup>99m</sup>Tc-Sestamibi (RPHKARDIA, Porto Alegre, Brasil) e Teste de Esfor&#231;o Cardiopulmonar (TECP). As avalia&#231;&#245;es das imagens duraram uma semana, com um intervalo de dois a tr&#234;s dias entre os testes. O TECP durou cinco dias a mais para climatiza&#231;&#227;o e realiza&#231;&#227;o dos testes. O treinamento f&#237;sico foi iniciado dois dias depois do TECP. Oito semanas ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de interven&#231;&#227;o (TFA), os animais foram submetidos &#224;s mesmas avalia&#231;&#245;es (TECP, ECO-2D e SPECT), em seguida &#224; eutan&#225;sia [cetamina (Vetbrands, Jacare&#237;, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil) e xilazina (Bayer, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil), 160 mg/Kg e 10 mg/Kg, respectivamente], seguida de coleta de amostras de sangue para confirmar a doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> A infec&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> foi confirmada pela t&#233;cnica de <italic>Western blotting</italic> para detectar anticorpos anti-<italic>T.cruzi</italic> no soro de animais infectados conforme descrito anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Amostras do tecido card&#237;aco e do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico foram coletados para an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica.</p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Linha do tempo do estudo. Ap&#243;s infec&#231;&#227;o experimental com cepa Y de T. cruzi e sete meses de acompanhamento para o desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a, os animais sobreviventes e o grupo controle foram submetidos &#224; ecocardiografia bidimensional (ECO-2D), tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico (SPECT) com <sup>99m</sup>Tc-Sestamibi e Teste de Esfor&#231;o Cardiopulmonar (TECP). Em seguida, os animais foram alocados em quatro grupos [CT-SED (n=6), CCC-SED (n=16), CT-TFA (n=8), CCC-TFA (n=12)]. Subsequentemente, os grupos TFA foram submetidos a oito semanas de Treinamento F&#237;sico Aer&#243;bico (TFA) e reavaliados. Por fim, os animais foram eutanasiados, e o cora&#231;&#227;o e o m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico foram coletados para an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica. A figura foi criada por meio do BioRender.com</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>O estudo foi realizado seguindo-se as recomenda&#231;&#245;es do CONCEA ap&#243;s aprova&#231;&#227;o do Comit&#234; de &#201;tica no Uso de Animais &#8211; CEUA (N&#176;229/2019) de nossa institui&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ecocardiografia bidimensional</title>
        <p>O ecocardiograma com Doppler foi realizado usando um sistema de ecocardiografia bidimensional de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o (ECO-2D) para pequenos animais Vevo&#174; 2100 (<italic>Visual Sonics Inc</italic>., Toronto, Canada) com um transdutor linear com frequ&#234;ncia de 30 MHz. Ap&#243;s seda&#231;&#227;o com cetamina e xilazina (80 mg/Kg e 5 mg/Kg, respectivamente), os pelos dos animais foram raspados e os animais colocados em dec&#250;bito lateral. Foram obtidas imagens da janela paraesternal (eixo curto e longo) do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo (VE). Imagens bidimensionais foram usadas para avaliar FEVE, volume diast&#243;lico final do VE e volume sist&#243;lico final do VE no corte paraesternal eixo longo como descrito anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Imagem de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica</title>
        <p>Para avaliar a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em repouso, foram adquiridas imagens por SPECT com <sup>99m</sup>Tc-Sestamibi, usando uma gamma camera (BrightView XCT; Philips Medical Systems Inc., Cleveland, OH) adaptada com um sistema de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagens e um colimador tipo "<italic>pinhole</italic>" de abertura de 1,5mm posicionado paralelamente a um suporte rotacional para o animal, conforme descrito anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em resumo, sob anestesia com isoflurano<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> (Isoforine, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil), os animais receberam 555 MBq de MIBI pela veia sublingual e acordaram. Noventa minutos depois, os hamsters foram anestesiados novamente com uma combina&#231;&#227;o de cetamina (80mg/Kg) e xilazina (5mg/kg), e imagens SPECT foram adquiridas. As imagens, coletadas com os animais em p&#233;, foram reconstru&#237;das usando um algoritmo tridimensional de subconjuntos ordenados e maximiza&#231;&#227;o da expectativa (3D-OSEM, quatro subconjuntos e 10 intera&#231;&#245;es). O ac&#250;mulo de radiotra&#231;ador no mioc&#225;rdio foi analisado de maneira semiquantitativa utilizando mapas polares gerados pelo software MunichHeart&#174; (MunichHeart software, Technical University Munich, Munique, Alemanha). Os DPM foram considerados significativos se superiores a 5% do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Teste de esfor&#231;o cardiopulmonar</title>
        <p>Antes do TECP, os animais foram familiarizados com a esteira por cinco dias consecutivos, com incremento de velocidade e inclina&#231;&#227;o fixa (5&#176;).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da capacidade cardiorrespirat&#243;ria dos animais, o consumo de oxig&#234;nio (VO<sub>2</sub>) e a produ&#231;&#227;o de di&#243;xido de carbono (VCO<sub>2</sub>) foram continuamente medidos por calorimetria indireta de fluxo aberto (Panlab, Harvard Apparatus, Espanha). O VO<sub>2</sub> foi expresso em unidades ajustadas para o tamanho do animal (mL.kg<sup>-0.75</sup>.min<sup>-1</sup>) e o pico de VO<sub>2</sub> foi definido como o valor mais alto de VO<sub>2</sub> medido durante o teste antes da exaust&#227;o. O VO<sub>2</sub> no limiar anaer&#243;bico (VO<sub>2LA</sub>) foi definido como o consumo de oxig&#234;nio no qual uma rela&#231;&#227;o linear entre VCO<sub>2</sub> e VO<sub>2</sub> foi perdida durante exerc&#237;cio progressivo na esteira, associado a um aumento abrupto na raz&#227;o de troca respirat&#243;ria.</p>
        <p>O protocolo de estresse foi descrito anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Em resumo, o protocolo consiste em aumentar a velocidade e a inclina&#231;&#227;o da esteira em cada est&#225;gio. Os primeiros tr&#234;s est&#225;gios tiveram dura&#231;&#227;o de dois minutos com um aumento de cinco graus em cada est&#225;gio. Do est&#225;gio quatro em seguida, a dura&#231;&#227;o foi de um minuto, e a inclina&#231;&#227;o mantida em 15 graus. A velocidade iniciou-se em 15 cm/s e aumentada 5 cm/s at&#233; o est&#225;gio seis. A partir da&#237;, a velocidade aumentou 1,67 cm/s em cada est&#225;gio at&#233; a exaust&#227;o do animal. Os crit&#233;rios para interrup&#231;&#227;o do teste foram o animal permanecer por cinco segundos ou mais sobre a grade de estimula&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica ou permanecer por 10 segundos sobre a extremidade final da esteira.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Treinamento f&#237;sico aer&#243;bico</title>
        <p>Ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o basal (ECO-2D, SPECT e TECP), os animais foram submetidos ao TFA em uma esteira (Gaustec Magnetismo, Nova Lima, Minas Gerais, Brasil), seguindo um protocolo de oito semanas adaptado de um estudo anterior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> O TFA foi realizado cinco vezes por semana durante 50 minutos em intensidade moderada (50% da velocidade pico definida pelo TECP e inclina&#231;&#227;o de 5%) no mesmo per&#237;odo do dia. O tempo, a velocidade e o grau foram aumentados progressivamente nas duas primeiras semanas at&#233; se atingir a intensidade prescrita. Para assegurar uma manipula&#231;&#227;o e uma exposi&#231;&#227;o ao TFA similares aos animais, os animais sedent&#225;rios foram submetidos a dois minutos de corrida na esteira cinco dias por semana, com a mesma velocidade de corrida que os animais submetidos ao TFA. Ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de treinamento, os m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o foram repetidos e os animais submetidos &#224; eutan&#225;sia para coleta de tecidos e an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica</title>
        <p>Para a an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica, sec&#231;&#245;es transversais (5 &#956;m espessura) foram obtidas de tr&#234;s regi&#245;es do cora&#231;&#227;o (basal, m&#233;dio-ventricular e apical), mantendo a orienta&#231;&#227;o para a correla&#231;&#227;o com imagens <italic>in vivo</italic> como descrito anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s progressiva desidrata&#231;&#227;o, o tecido foi fixado em parafina e amostras de cada se&#231;&#227;o ventricular coradas com hematoxilina-eosina e picrosirius vermelho para quantificar inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose, respectivamente. Em seguida, imagens digitais microsc&#243;picas (lentes objetivas 40x) do endoc&#225;rdio, mioc&#225;rdio e epic&#225;rdio de cada segmento de VE foram obtidas usando o microsc&#243;pio BX51 Olympus (Olympus; T&#243;quio, Jap&#227;o), equipado com uma c&#226;mera Q-color 5 (Olympus America, Center Valley, Inc., EUA). Para os cortes corados com picrosirius vermelho, tamb&#233;m foram tiradas fotos por microscopia de luz polarizada para quantificar col&#225;geno tipo I e tipo III, identificando as fibras vermelho-amarelas e verdes, respectivamente. Em seguida, as fotos foram analisadas usando os programas Aperio ImageScope (vers&#227;o 12.4.6, Leica Biosystems Imaging, Inc., EUA) e Image Pro Plus 32 (vers&#227;o 4.5.0.29; Media Cybernetics, Inc., Maryland, EUA).</p>
        <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o foi quantificada contando-se o n&#250;mero de c&#233;lulas mononucleadas por campo (c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>2</sup>). A colora&#231;&#227;o com picrosirius vermelho definiu fibrose intersticial como porcentagem (%) da &#225;rea total com cuidado para excluir fibrose perivascular. Para analisar as altera&#231;&#245;es histopatol&#243;gicas, o VE foi dividido em 16 segmentos: basal (anterior, &#226;nterosseptal, &#237;nferosseptal, inferior, &#237;nfero-lateral, &#226;ntero-lateral), m&#233;dio-ventricular (anterior, &#226;nterosseptal, &#237;nferosseptal, inferior, &#237;nfero-lateral, &#226;ntero-lateral) e apical (anterior, septal, inferior, lateral).</p>
        <p>Cortes transversais do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico (5 &#956;m) da por&#231;&#227;o medial foram fixadas em parafina e, em seguida, coradas com hematoxilina-eosina para quantificar a AST. Imagens histol&#243;gicas da por&#231;&#227;o medial do m&#250;sculo (escala=100&#956;m, 20x) foram analisadas usando os programas Aperio ImageScope (vers&#227;o 12.4.6, Leica Biosystems Imaging, Inc., EUA) e ImageJ Fiji (vers&#227;o JAVA 1.8.0_322., National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, EUA). Para a an&#225;lise da AST, cerca de 200 fibras musculares foram medidas por amostra. Al&#233;m disso, usamos somente um n&#250;mero representativo de animais [CT-SED (n=4), (C) CCC-SED (n=6), (D) CT-TFA (n=4) e (E) CCC-TFA (n=5)] de cada grupo experimental.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>C&#225;lculo do tamanho amostral</title>
        <p>O tamanho da amostra foi calculado usando o programa <italic>online</italic> OpenEpi (Open Source Epidemiologic Statistics for Public Health, version 3.1, Atlanta, GA, EUA), e os crit&#233;rios usados para definir o tamanho amostral foram baseados em estudos pr&#233;vios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Assumiu-se uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 10% no defeito de perfus&#227;o entre os grupos infectados ao final do tratamento, com um alfa bicaudal de 0,05, 1-&#946;= 0.8. O tamanho amostral estimado para este estudo foi 13 animais em cada grupo infectado e oito animais nos grupos controles. No entanto, considerou-se uma perda de 40% dada a agressividade da parasitemia nos grupos de animais infectados. Tamb&#233;m consideramos que somente 30-50% dos animais infectados cronicamente desenvolvem cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Assim, o n&#250;mero total de animais usados neste estudo foi 16 animais controles (CT-SED = 8 animais; CT-TFA = 8 animais) e 44 animais infectados (CCC sedent&#225;rios = 22 animais; CCC-TFA = 22 animais), totalizando 60 animais.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram descritas como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o, e as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas em frequ&#234;ncia absoluta (n) e relativa (%). O teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov foi usado para verificar distribui&#231;&#227;o gaussiana das vari&#225;veis. An&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia <italic>one-way</italic> foi usada para compara&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea dos quatro grupos experimentais no basal e para an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica da inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose. A an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia mista (<italic>mixed</italic> ANOVA ou ANOVA fatorial <italic>split-plot</italic>) para medidas repetidas foi usada para verificar a intera&#231;&#227;o (efeito principal) entre os grupos experimentais (efeito entre indiv&#237;duos) e o tempo (efeito intraindiv&#237;duo) para o efeito do TFA sobre as vari&#225;veis da ECO-2D, do SPECT e do TECP. Em caso de intera&#231;&#245;es estatisticamente significativas, m&#250;ltiplas compara&#231;&#245;es post hoc de Bonferroni foram realizadas.</p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e os gr&#225;ficos foram elaborados usando o programa GraphPad Prism (vers&#227;o 9.0.0; GraphPad Software, San Diego, Calif&#243;rnia, EUA). O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia foi de 5% em todas as an&#225;lises (p&lt;0.05).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Na fase aguda da infec&#231;&#227;o (at&#233; 35 dias ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o), observou-se uma taxa de mortalidade de 16% (n=7). Trinta e sete animais infectados e 16 controles foram submetidos a avalia&#231;&#245;es basais (sete meses ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o). Durante as avalia&#231;&#245;es basais, tr&#234;s animais infectados morreram devido a anestesia. Seis animais infectados (CCC-SED, n= 4 e CCC-TFA, n= 2) e dois controles morreram durante o per&#237;odo de interven&#231;&#227;o. Nenhum animal morreu durante o TFA.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>TFA reduz remodelamento, e disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e de perfus&#227;o do VE</title>
        <p>Os resultados do ECO-2D e do SPECT de perfus&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio no basal e ap&#243;s as avalia&#231;&#245;es ap&#243;s o TFA est&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; FEVE, observou-se uma intera&#231;&#227;o significativa entre o tempo e os grupos experimentais. A FEVE mostrou uma importante redu&#231;&#227;o somente no grupo CCC-SED. O grupo CCC-TFA foi o &#250;nico que apresentou dilata&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE ao longo do tempo. No entanto, o grupo n&#227;o apresentou aumento na massa ou no di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do VE. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos DPM, o grupo CCC-SED apresentou piora dos defeitos ao longo do tempo.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dados de ecocardiografia e de tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico (SPECT) dos grupos experimentais antes e ap&#243;s o treinamento f&#237;sico aer&#243;bico</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="16%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">CT-SED<break/>(n=6)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">CCC-SED<break/>(n=16)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">CT-TFA<break/>(n=8)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">CCC-TFA<break/>(n=12)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Valor p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>FEVE (%)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Antes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">52,93 &#177; 1,49</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">45,49 &#177; 8,84</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">49,86 &#177; 2,93</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">43,74 &#177; 9,92</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Ap&#243;s</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">52,47 &#177; 3,59&#8224;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">39,69 &#177; 7,80*</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">47,28 &#177; 5,67&#8224;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">42,46 &#177; 4,47</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">0,007</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <bold>DDVE (mm)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Antes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7,71 &#177; 0,51</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7,57 &#177; 0,70</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7,73 &#177; 0,34</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7,71 &#177; 0,43</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Ap&#243;s</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7,96 &#177; 0,56</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7,99 &#177; 1,00</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">8,22 &#177; 0,50</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">8,34 &#177; 0,60*</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">0,030</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>DSVE (mm)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Antes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">5,68 &#177; 0,43</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">5,68 &#177; 0,94</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">5,99 &#177; 0,40</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">6,13 &#177; 0,54</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Ap&#243;s</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">6,08 &#177; 0,53</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">6,06 &#177; 1,01</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">6,47 &#177; 0,81</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">6,80 &#177; 0,74</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">0,050</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <bold>Massa do VE (mg)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Antes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">519,19 &#177; 89,55</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">549,85 &#177; 96,73</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">532,02 &#177; 98,15</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">541,89 &#177; 84,71</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Ap&#243;s</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">667,78 &#177; 125,04*</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">686,99 &#177; 152,06*</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">735,47 &#177; 170,16*</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">622,15 &#177; 129,83</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">0,014</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>DPM (%)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Antes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">2,45 &#177; 1,69</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">4,64 &#177; 3,45</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">3,08 &#177; 2,56</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">4,81 &#177; 3,52</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Ap&#243;s</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">3,31 &#177; 2,44&#8224;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">8,29 &#177; 7,06*</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">2,56 &#177; 3,43</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">6,30 &#177; 3,38</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">0,010</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>Dados em m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o; TFA: treinamento f&#237;sico aer&#243;bico, CCC: cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, CT: controle, SED: sedent&#225;rio, FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; DDVE: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, DSVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, DPM: defeito de perfus&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio; ANOVA mista para medidas repetidas;</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Os animais que apresentavam DPM importantes (&gt;5% do VE) foram detectados nos dois grupos de animais no basal, com cinco animais (36%) no grupo sedent&#225;rio e tr&#234;s (25%) no grupo exerc&#237;cio. Ap&#243;s o seguimento, observamos um aumento no tamanho (p&lt;0,05) e no n&#250;mero de animais (n=10, 67%) com DPM no grupo CCC-SED, enquanto no grupo submetido ao TFA observamos um menor aumento no tamanho (p&gt;0,05) e no n&#250;mero de animais com anormalidades de perfus&#227;o (n= 5, 42%).</p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> mostra um exemplo de um animal do grupo CCC-SED que apresentou dilata&#231;&#227;o do Di&#226;metro Sist&#243;lico do VE (DSVE) associada com aumento de DPM ao longo do tempo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figuras 2 A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">B</xref>) em compara&#231;&#227;o a um animal do grupo CCC-TFA com fun&#231;&#227;o e morfologia do VE preservadas e sem aumento nos DPM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figuras 2 C</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">D</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Efeitos do Treinamento F&#237;sico Aer&#243;bico (TFA) na fun&#231;&#227;o e na perfus&#227;o card&#237;aca; (A) e (B) mostram imagens representativas da ecocardiografia bidimensional (ECO-2D), tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico (SPECT) com Defeitos de Perfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica (DPM) de um animal do grupo CCC-SED (n=16), e (C) e (D) de um animal do grupo CCC-TFA (n=12); CCC: cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, SED: sedent&#225;rio</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>TFA aumenta a efici&#234;ncia da aptid&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria na CCC</title>
        <p>As vari&#225;veis do TECP est&#227;o na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>. Al&#233;m de os animais n&#227;o terem apresentado melhoras significativas no consumo de oxig&#234;nio no pico de exerc&#237;cio ou no limiar anaer&#243;bico, o grupo CT-SED foi o &#250;nico que n&#227;o apresentou aumento no tempo at&#233; a exaust&#227;o ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de acompanhamento. No entanto, os grupos que se submeteram ao treinamento f&#237;sico apresentaram melhoras mais evidentes. Embora o CCC-TFA tenha apresentado um aumento no VO<sub>2AT</sub>, e uma diminui&#231;&#227;o tenha sido observada no CCC-SED, essa diferen&#231;a n&#227;o alcan&#231;ou signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica..</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dados de Teste de Esfor&#231;o Cardiopulmonar dos grupos experimentais antes e ap&#243;s o treinamento f&#237;sico aer&#243;bico</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="16%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">CT-SED<break/>(n=6)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">CCC-SED<break/>(n=16)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">CT-TFA<break/>(n=8)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">CCC-TFA<break/>(n=12)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Valor p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>Tempo at&#233; exaust&#227;o (s)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Antes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">464,67 &#177; 32,47</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">445,21 &#177; 72,19</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">494,00 &#177; 71,25</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">481,20 &#177; 76,57</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Ap&#243;s</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">557,50 &#177; 91,24</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">539,64 &#177; 94,04<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">686,78 &#177; 109,59<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#8224;</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">687,20 &#177; 141,67<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#8224;</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">0,043</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <bold>VO</bold>
                  <sub>
                    <bold>2 pico</bold>
                  </sub>
                  <bold>(mL.Kg.min)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Antes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">38,50 &#177; 3,46</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">42,70 &#177; 5,45</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">42,11 &#177; 4,40</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">40,32 &#177; 5,08</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Ap&#243;s</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">43,04 &#177; 4,90</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">43,75 &#177; 4,42</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">43,33 &#177; 3,43</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">45,60 &#177; 5,65<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">0,254</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">
                  <bold>VO</bold>
                  <sub>
                    <bold>2@LA</bold>
                  </sub>
                  <bold>(mL.Kg.min)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Antes</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">31,22 &#177; 6,79</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">33,06 &#177; 5,48</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">30,12 &#177; 4,54</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">30,56 &#177; 3,25</td>
                <td align="left" valign="top"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="top">Ap&#243;s</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">30,90 &#177; 6,25</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">28,95 &#177; 5,86</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">33,44 &#177; 3,96</td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">34,39 &#177; 4,06<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#8224;</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="top">0,759</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>Dados em m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o; TFA: treinamento f&#237;sico aer&#243;bico, CCC: cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, CT: controle, SED: sedent&#225;rio, VO<sub>2</sub>: consumo de oxig&#234;nio; VO<sub>2AT</sub>: consumo de oxig&#234;nio no limiar anaer&#243;bico; ANOVA mista para medidas repetidas;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>p&lt;0,05 vs. basal do mesmo grupo experimental,</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <label>&#8224;</label>
              <p>p&#8804;0,05 vs. CCC-SED ap&#243;s tratamento, teste de Bonferroni para compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>TFA reduz inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose no mioc&#225;rdio e preserva a AST do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico</title>
        <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio foi maior nos animais do grupo CCC-SED em compara&#231;&#227;o aos grupos CT-SED, CT-TFA e CCC-TFA (1,61&#177;0,63 vs. 0,37&#177;0,12 vs. 0,7&#177;0,2 vs. 0,93&#177;0,2 c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>2</sup>, respectivamente, p&lt;0,001). N&#227;o foi observada diferen&#231;a significativa na fibrose total (p&gt;0,05). Contudo, o grupo CCC-SED, mas n&#227;o o grupo CCC-APT, apresentou maior express&#227;o de col&#225;geno tipo I em compara&#231;&#227;o aos grupos controles (p&lt;0,05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Gr&#225;ficos de barra mostrando os resultados de (A) inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, (B) fibrose total, (C) col&#225;geno tipo I, e (D) col&#225;geno tipo III. Amostras histopatol&#243;gicas representativas de tecidos de animais dos grupos (E) CT-SED (n=6), (F) CCC-SED (n=16), (G) CT-TFA (n=8) e (H) CCC-TFA (n=12), marcados com hematoxilina-eosina e vermelho picrosirius; TFA: Treinamento F&#237;sico Aer&#243;bico; CCC: Cardiomiopatia Chag&#225;sica Cr&#244;nica, CT: Controle, SED: Sedent&#225;rio; escala= 50 &#956;m, aumento de 40x.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, a atrofia do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico foi confirmada pela redu&#231;&#227;o na AST. O CCC-SED apresentou atrofia do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico que foi normalizada pelo treinamento f&#237;sico no grupo CCC-APT, como observado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>. Os animais do grupo CCC-SED frequentemente apresentaram inflama&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico que foi menos observado e menos intenso nos animis CCC-TFA.</p>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>(A) Gr&#225;ficos de barra mostrando a an&#225;lise quantitativa da &#225;rea de sec&#231;&#227;o transversa do m&#250;sculo gastrocn&#234;mio de animais do grupo infectado e do grupo controle. Imagens histopatol&#243;gicas representativas do m&#250;sculo gastrocn&#234;mio dos grupos (B) CT-SED (n=4), (C) CCC-SED (n=6), (D) CT-TFA (n=4) e (E) CCC-TFA (n=5). Infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio difuso de c&#233;lulas mononucleares pode ser visto em CCC-SED (C); TFA: Treinamento F&#237;sico Aer&#243;bico; CCC: Cardiomiopatia Chag&#225;sica Cr&#244;nica; CT: Controle; SED: Sedent&#225;rio; escala =100 &#956;m, aumento 20x.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>O presente estudo investigou os efeitos do TFA em um modelo experimental de CCC em hamsters s&#237;rios utilizando t&#233;cnicas de imagens de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o <italic>in vivo</italic> e TECP. Os principais achados deste estudo foram que o TFA atenuou a progress&#227;o dos DPM, remodelamento e deteriora&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE, al&#233;m de melhorar a efici&#234;ncia da ACR. Ademais, o TFA diminuiu a inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose do mioc&#225;rdio e aumentou a AST do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico.</p>
      <p>Em nosso estudo, o grupo CCC-SED apresentou piora nos defeitos de perfus&#227;o ao longo do tempo. A piora progressiva nos DPM como um mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico da doen&#231;a foi observada previamente tanto em cen&#225;rios experimentais<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> como cl&#237;nicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, alguns estudos levantaram a hip&#243;tese de que anormalidades da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica podem preceder a deteriora&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Portanto, terapias visando melhorar a perfus&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio podem prevenir a progress&#227;o no dano card&#237;aco. Em nosso estudo, n&#227;o observamos melhora nos DPM ap&#243;s a interven&#231;&#227;o com exerc&#237;cio; contudo, os defeitos de perfus&#227;o n&#227;o aumentaram significativamente ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio, diferentemente do que foi observado no grupo sedent&#225;rio infectado.</p>
      <p>Com base em nosso conhecimento atual, este &#233; o primeiro estudo a utilizar esta estrat&#233;gia para tratar DPM na CCC. Um recente estudo piloto investigou os efeitos do exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico sobre os DPM em pacientes com angina microvascular, uma doen&#231;a com um mecanismo similar aos dist&#250;rbios de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Os autores observaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa nos DPM associados com melhora no pico de VO<sub>2</sub> e na qualidade de vida. O exerc&#237;cio tamb&#233;m promoveu benef&#237;cios na perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica na doen&#231;a arterial coronariana<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Os mecanismos pelos quais o treinamento com exerc&#237;cio melhora a perfus&#227;o card&#237;aca s&#227;o provavelmente multifatoriais e v&#225;rios foram descritos incluindo melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> adapta&#231;&#245;es vasculares coronarianas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> e melhor colateraliza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a redu&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o e melhorias no equil&#237;brio auton&#244;mico e neuro-hormonal podem contribuir para isso.</p>
      <p>Quanto a outros tratamentos para perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica na CCC, Tanaka et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> utilizaram dipiridamol, um agente vasodilatador da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria, para melhorar DPM em hamsters s&#237;rios f&#234;meas. Os autores observaram uma melhora significativa nos DPM nos grupos tratados em compara&#231;&#227;o aos grupos controles. No entanto, o tratamento n&#227;o interrompeu a disfun&#231;&#227;o progressiva do VE. Segundo os autores, apesar da melhora na perfus&#227;o, a doen&#231;a progrediu porque o tratamento n&#227;o teve benef&#237;cios na inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio, que permaneceu similar entre os dois grupos infectados. Recentemente, Tanaka et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> investigaram o mesmo modelo animal com CCC tratada com pentoxifilina. Os autores relataram que esse tratamento reduziu a inflama&#231;&#227;o e os DPM, mas n&#227;o preveniu a progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE. Os autores sugeriram que talvez o per&#237;odo de interven&#231;&#227;o (seis meses ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o) n&#227;o tenha sido suficiente para melhorar a disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE, mas para reduzir inflama&#231;&#227;o e DPM, uma vez que esses ocorrem nos est&#225;gios iniciais da doen&#231;a e precedem a disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE. Outro estudo, utilizando verapamil (bloqueador de canal de c&#225;lcio) e aspirina (anti-inflamat&#243;rio n&#227;o esteroidal), demonstrou melhora significativa nos DPM e na qualidade de vida de pacientes com CCC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Infelizmente, os autores n&#227;o avaliaram a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica nem inflama&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s a interven&#231;&#227;o. Os efeitos ben&#233;ficos do verapamil na CCC tamb&#233;m foram demonstrados em camundongos infectados com <italic>T. cruzi</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A infec&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica pelo <italic>T. cruzi</italic> em humanos geralmente leva a um dano cardiovascular mais agressivo, com maior quantidade de fibrose e remodelamento ventricular mais grave em homens que em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> Em animais, o pico de parasitemia e a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a parecem mais homog&#234;neos nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> Uma vez que v&#225;rios estudos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> apresentaram, com sucesso, o uso de hamsters s&#237;rios f&#234;meas na investiga&#231;&#227;o da CCC, escolhemos esse modelo murino para estudar a doen&#231;a. Nossos resultados est&#227;o de acordo com pesquisas pr&#233;vias 10,43 em que hamsters s&#237;rios desenvolveram a doen&#231;a semelhante a CCC em humanos. Disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, um marcador de gravidade da doen&#231;a, foi observada na primeira avalia&#231;&#227;o sete meses ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o parasit&#225;ria, quando a FEVE j&#225; estava reduzida. Achados similares foram descritos por Ribeiro et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> em que a FEVE e o di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico final do VE estavam deteriorados aos seis meses do in&#237;cio da doen&#231;a, com progress&#227;o em est&#225;gios mais tardios nesse mesmo modelo animal. No entanto, observamos que o exerc&#237;cio interrompeu a progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE. Poucos ensaios cl&#237;nicos investigaram a fun&#231;&#227;o e a morfologia do VE ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> Nenhum desses estudos documentaram melhoras na fun&#231;&#227;o ou na morfologia card&#237;aca ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio. Entretanto, trataram-se de estudos pequenos, com diferentes perfis de pacientes e, portanto, mais estudos com um maior n&#250;mero de pacientes e per&#237;odos mais longos de acompanhamento s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para investigar se o treinamento f&#237;sico pode melhorar ou interromper a deteriora&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca na CCC.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, na an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica, observamos que os animais infectados sedent&#225;rios mostraram uma maior extens&#227;o de infiltrados inflamat&#243;rios com agrupamentos de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias mononucleares e &#225;reas de fibrose extensa em compara&#231;&#227;o a outros animais. O papel da inflama&#231;&#227;o e da fibrose promovendo anormalidades de perfus&#227;o j&#225; foi relatado por outros pesquisadores. Bilate et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> encontraram uma correla&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa entre miocardite e fibrose intersticial. Os autores sugeriram que, provavelmente, o infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio card&#237;aco tenha sido respons&#225;vel por essa les&#227;o tecidual progressiva, e consequente remodelamento e fibrose extensa. Ademais, Oliveira et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> relataram que esses dist&#250;rbios de perfus&#227;o possam estar localizados em regi&#245;es com mioc&#225;rdio vi&#225;vel e perfus&#227;o diminu&#237;da secund&#225;ria &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o. Assim, demonstramos que o TFA realizado em intensidade moderada, cinco vezes por semana, por oito semanas, foi capaz de reduzir inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose. A inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; a principal caracter&#237;stica histopatol&#243;gica da CCC, e terapias que objetivam melhorar essa condi&#231;&#227;o demonstraram benef&#237;cio promissores na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A fibrose card&#237;aca &#233; considerada um preditor independente de desfecho adverso nesta cardiomiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> A fibrose tamb&#233;m exerce um importante papel no d&#233;ficit do desempenho card&#237;aco e dilata&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> Ramirez et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> relataram dilata&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca (principalmente no apex) e trombo mural em hamsters s&#237;rios com CCC. Em nosso estudo, observamos dilata&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica no grupo CCC-TFA ao longo do tempo. No entanto, nossa hip&#243;tese &#233; a de que esse aumento tenha sido uma adapta&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica ao exerc&#237;cio, uma vez que nenhuma diferen&#231;a foi observada na FEVE ou na fibrose entre esse grupo e animais n&#227;o infectados. O col&#225;geno tipo I foi mais abundante no grupo CCC-SED, mas n&#227;o identificamos nenhuma diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos com doen&#231;a de Chagas que se submeteram ao exerc&#237;cio.</p>
      <p>Os pacientes com CCC tamb&#233;m podem apresentar anormalidades no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Em nosso estudo, n&#243;s analisamos amostras do m&#250;sculo gastrocn&#234;mio. O grupo CCC-SED apresentou atrofia, e no grupo CCC-TFA a atrofia muscular foi normalizada ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio. Embora alguns estudos pr&#233;vios<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> tenham avaliado anormalidades do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, somente alguns deles analisaram a fase cr&#244;nica, e nenhum avaliou AST do m&#250;sculo ap&#243;s o TFA. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos estudos experimentais, Silva et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> observaram miosite com exsudato mononuclear e fibrose nos m&#250;sculos do diafragma, intercostal e psoas de coelhos seis meses ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> Weaver et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> avaliaram o m&#250;sculo quadr&#237;ceps de camundongos no in&#237;cio (2-4 meses) e no final (9-10 meses) da fase cr&#244;nica. Os autores relataram poucos parasitas <italic>T. cruzi</italic> no m&#250;sculo, inflama&#231;&#227;o, vasculite necrotizante, fibrose vascular, fibrose do endom&#237;sio, e anormalidades na marcha (incluindo evitar colocar o peso sobre um dos membros, arrastar o p&#233;, e at&#233; mesmo paresia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Ram&#237;rez et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> avaliaram o m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico (m&#250;sculo n&#227;o especificado) de hamsters s&#237;rios e relataram miosite focal e necrose. Souza et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> identificaram uma express&#227;o aumentada de quimiocinas, e que o n&#250;mero de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias mantiveram-se elevadas no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico (m&#250;sculo n&#227;o especificado) de camundongos em todos os tempos avaliados entre a fase aguda e cr&#244;nica. Estudos sobre CCC com an&#225;lises de bi&#243;psias humanas relataram dano capilar e menor AST do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico (m&#250;sculo vasto lateral);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> inflama&#231;&#227;o, desorganiza&#231;&#227;o e atrofia das fibras musculares (m&#250;sculo b&#237;ceps);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> fibras musculares atr&#243;ficas desnervadas (m&#250;sculo gastrocn&#234;mio);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> oclus&#227;o capilar, maior percentual de fibras musculares com menor capacidade oxidativa e maior percentual de fibras com maior capacidade glicol&#237;tica (m&#250;sculo vasto lateral).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Independentemente dos benef&#237;cios bem estabelecidos do exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico em pacientes cardiopatas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> poucos estudos cl&#237;nicos investigaram o TFA no tratamento de cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Lima et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> observaram melhoras na aptid&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria (aumento no pico de VO<sub>2</sub>, no tempo de exerc&#237;cio e da dist&#226;ncia de caminhada no Teste de Caminhada de Seis Minutos) e nenhum efeito adverso do exerc&#237;cio nos pacientes tratados. Artigos do estudo PEACH<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> abordaram os efeitos do treinamento com exerc&#237;cio em pacientes com cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica. Os estudos observaram maiores benef&#237;cios na ACR em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Adicionalmente, os efeitos ben&#233;ficos cont&#237;nuos do exerc&#237;cio ainda eram notados aos tr&#234;s48 e seis31 meses de acompanhamento. O exerc&#237;cio realizado por seis meses tamb&#233;m melhorou a resposta vascular cut&#226;nea &#224; hiperemia reativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nosso estudo tamb&#233;m detectou efeitos positivos do TFA na CCC, com aumento na capacidade de exerc&#237;cio nos grupos submetidos ao TFA ap&#243;s oito semanas de treinamento (intensidade moderada, cinco dias/semana, 50 minutos). Quanto aos estudos experimentais pr&#233;vios, somente seis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> investigaram os efeitos do TFA em outras fases da doen&#231;a de Chagas, e somente um<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> abordou o papel do exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico na CCC j&#225; estabelecida. Schebeleski-Soares et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> conduziram um treinamento f&#237;sico na esteira durante oito semanas (intensidade moderada, cinco dias/semana, velocidade e dura&#231;&#227;o progressivas) antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> em camundongos. Soares et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> realizaram um treino na esteira por oito semanas (intensidade moderada, cinco dias/semana, aumento progressivo de velocidade e dura&#231;&#227;o) antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> em camundongos. Novaes et a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> aplicaram um protocolo de esteira de nove semanas (intensidade moderada, cinco dias/semana, aumento progressivo de velocidade e dura&#231;&#227;o) em ratos Wistar antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>T. cruzi</italic>. Novaes et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m usaram o mesmo protocolo em outra investiga&#231;&#227;o com ratos Wistar (nove semanas de exerc&#237;cio na esteira, intensidade moderada, cinco dias/semana, aumento progressivo de velocidade e dura&#231;&#227;o) antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>T. cruzi</italic>. Lucchetti et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> conduziram um protocolo na esteira durante nove semanas (intensidade definida pelo m&#225;ximo estado est&#225;vel de lactato, cinco dias/semana, 60 minutos)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> em camundongos. Pedra-Rezende et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> estudaram a forma indeterminada cr&#244;nica da doen&#231;a de Chagas e usaram um protocolo de quatro semanas na esteira 140 dias ap&#243;s infec&#231;&#227;o (intensidade moderada, cinco dias/semana, aumento progressivo de velocidade e 60 minutos de dura&#231;&#227;o). Finalmente, Preto et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> usaram um protocolo de nata&#231;&#227;o por oito semanas (baixa intensidade de exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico, cinco dias por semana, 30 minutos por dia) para tratar camundongos com CCC.</p>
      <p>Embora todos esses estudos tenham usado o exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico para tratar os animais, atualmente, somente Preto et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> observaram os efeitos do TFA na CCC e mostraram que o exerc&#237;cio melhorou par&#226;metros morfol&#243;gicos e morfom&#233;tricos dos ventr&#237;culos esquerdo e direito. J&#225; nos animais n&#227;o tratados, os autores observaram d&#233;ficit na fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til do cardiomi&#243;citos, mais inflama&#231;&#227;o e quantidades maiores de col&#225;geno, hipertrofia do VE, diminui&#231;&#227;o na &#225;rea perif&#233;rica dos cardiomi&#243;citos, altera&#231;&#245;es microvasculares e piora da toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Considerando esse cen&#225;rio, nossos resultados contribuem com novos conhecimentos sobre os efeitos do exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico na perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e altera&#231;&#245;es histopatol&#243;gicas no cora&#231;&#227;o, e mostram que o TFA foi capaz de preservar a AST do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico. N&#243;s destacamos que este foi o primeiro estudo experimental em hamsters s&#237;rios que usou o exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico no tratamento da CCC com o objetivo de mitigar os DPM, a inflama&#231;&#227;o e a fibrose no tecido card&#237;aco. Este tamb&#233;m foi o primeiro estudo a avaliar a integridade da &#225;rea perif&#233;rica do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico de animais com CCC ap&#243;s oito semanas de exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico.</p>
      <p>Como uma limita&#231;&#227;o, n&#243;s estudamos somente defeitos de perfus&#227;o no repouso, e &#233; esperado que defeitos isqu&#234;micos de perfus&#227;o ajudariam na interpreta&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, seria necess&#225;rio usar agentes inotr&#243;picos positivos em animais anestesiados, o que pode interferir nos resultados. Adicionalmente, nosso grupo mostrou anteriormente a correla&#231;&#227;o entre DPM e inflama&#231;&#227;o em mioc&#225;rdio vi&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Apesar dos resultados positivos sobre os efeitos do TFA, talvez um per&#237;odo mais longo de acompanhamento e de treinamento com exerc&#237;cio revelaria resultados mais significativos sobre DPM. Al&#233;m disso, n&#243;s n&#227;o inclu&#237;mos neste artigo dados quantitativos da inflama&#231;&#227;o no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico. Estudos futuros usando treinamento com exerc&#237;cio no manejo de CCC s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para contribuir ao conhecimento dispon&#237;vel.</p>
      <p>Por fim, este estudo corrobora a hip&#243;tese de que tanto DPM como inflama&#231;&#227;o contribuem para a deteriora&#231;&#227;o na fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica na CCC, e o exerc&#237;cio &#233; uma importante estrat&#233;gia para minimiz&#225;-los. O treino com exerc&#237;cio tornou-se uma forte recomenda&#231;&#227;o para a maioria das doen&#231;as card&#237;acas. Contudo, diretrizes atuais n&#227;o recomendam explicitamente reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca para pacientes com CCC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> Nossos resultados fornecem a base para estudos futuros que visem investigar os benef&#237;cios da interven&#231;&#227;o com exerc&#237;cio na CCC.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nosso estudo apresenta evid&#234;ncias de que o TFA minimiza a disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e os DPM em um modelo de hamster s&#237;rio com CCC. Ademais, al&#233;m de melhorar o desempenho na corrida, o APT reduziu a infiltra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias e a fibrose no mioc&#225;rdio, indicando seu potencial como estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica para a CCC. Esses achados destacam a import&#226;ncia do treinamento com exerc&#237;cio em mitigar a progress&#227;o da CCC e melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Al&#233;m dos achados significativos relacionados &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas, vale destacar que nosso estudo tamb&#233;m observou atrofia musculoesquel&#233;tica em hamsters com CCC e melhora na AST do m&#250;sculo ap&#243;s treinamento f&#237;sico. Embora essas altera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o tenham sido o foco de nosso estudo, elas forneceram outros <italic>insights</italic> sobre complica&#231;&#245;es sist&#234;micas associadas a essa doen&#231;a. Portanto, um entendimento mais abrangente dos efeitos do TFA sobre v&#225;rias dimens&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas da CCC continua sendo um aspecto importante para estudos futuros.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4">
        <label>Fontes de financiamento</label>
        <p>O presente estudo foi financiado por Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais &#8211; FAPEMIG (parecer: Demanda Universal 001/2022 APQ-01253-22); PROEX/CAPES (parecer: 23038.002321/2020-79); Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo - FAPESP (parecer: 2016/25403-9).</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</label>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de mestrado de Thayrine R. Damasceno pela Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</label>
        <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 229/2019. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230707i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Exercise Training Reduces Inflammation and Fibrosis and Preserves Myocardial Function and Perfusion in a Model of Chronic Chagas Cardiomyopathy</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3442-9193</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Damasceno</surname>
            <given-names>Thayrine R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5035-9172</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tanaka</surname>
            <given-names>Denise M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8615-2889</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Magnani</surname>
            <given-names>Enrico F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9663-905X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael D. B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4400-2326</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Danielle A. G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8635-1642</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira-Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Ildernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1234-9325</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Virginia S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1182-4668</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cabeza</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6174-6939</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fabricio</surname>
            <given-names>Camila G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-6724-6773</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Resende</surname>
            <given-names>Alessandra A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2621-3330</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alves</surname>
            <given-names>Dawit A. P.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-5536-9140</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Zanetti</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5026-335X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo E. Vieira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sim&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus V.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3455-2463</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano F. L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto &#8211; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Uberaba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro, Uberaba, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Mailing Address: Luciano F. L. Oliveira</label> &#8226; Universidade Federal do Tri&#226;ngulo Mineiro - Rua Vig&#225;rio Carlos, 100. Postal Code <postal-code>38925-350</postal-code>, Uberaba, MG - Brazil Email: <email>oliveiralfl@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor responsible for the review: Marina Okoshi</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy (CCC) is caused by an inflammatory process induced by Trypanosoma cruzi, which leads to myocarditis with reactive and reparative fibrosis. CCC progresses with myocardial perfusion abnormalities and histopathological events that affect cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives:</title>
          <p>We evaluated the effects of aerobic physical training (APT) on myocardial perfusion and on morphological and functional impairments related with inflammation and fibrosis in Syrian hamsters with CCC. As a secondary objective, we analyzed the cross-sectional areas of the skeletal muscle.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Hamsters with CCC and their respective controls were divided into four groups: CCC sedentary, CCC-APT, sedentary control and APT control. Seven months after infection, the animals underwent echocardiography, myocardial perfusion scintigraphy and cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Moderate-intensity APT was performed for fifty minutes, five times a week, for eight weeks. Subsequently, the animals were reassessed. Histopathological analysis was conducted after the above-mentioned procedures. The level of significance was set at 5% in all analyses (p&lt;0.05).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>CCC sedentary animals presented worse myocardial perfusion defects (MPD) over time, reduced left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF) and showed more inflammation and fibrosis when compared to other groups (mixed ANOVA analysis). Conversely, APT was able to mitigate the progression of MPD, ameliorate inflammation and fibrosis and improve CRF efficiency in CCC-APT animals.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions:</title>
          <p>Our study demonstrated that APT ameliorated cardiac dysfunction, MPD, and reduced inflammation and fibrosis in CCC hamster models. Additionally, CCC-SED animals presented skeletal muscle atrophy while CCC-APT animals showed preserved skeletal muscle CSA. Understanding APT's effects on CCC's pathophysiological dimensions is crucial for future research and therapeutic interventions.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Chagas Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocarditis</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiorespiratory Fitness</kwd>
        <kwd>Exercise</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Perfusion Imaging</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais</funding-source>
          <award-id>001/2022 APQ-01253-22</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>PROEX/CAPES</funding-source>
          <award-id>23038.002321/2020-79</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</funding-source>
          <award-id>2016/25403-9</award-id>
        </award-group>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease that generates an annual global burden of US$ 627.46 million in healthcare costs<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> and affects six to eight million people worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The disease is caused by the protozoan <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> (<italic>T. cruzi</italic>) and most of the infected subjects remain asymptomatic throughout their lives (indeterminate form). However, about 40% progress to clinical forms (cardiac or digestive) 10 to 30 years after the initial acute infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy (CCC) is the most severe and progressive nonischemic cardiomyopathy in Latin America.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> CCC manifests with electrocardiography disturbances, wall motion and perfusion abnormalities, thromboembolic events, and heart failure, which may lead to sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The main pathogenetic mechanisms of CCC are related to parasite persistence and immune-mediated myocardial injury, microvascular disorders and cardiac dysautonomia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In the chronic phase, the distinctive high load parasitemia observed in the acute phase is lessened by the immune response into a low-grade but persistent infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> This low-intensity inflammatory process, thus, leads to multifocal myocarditis with mononuclear infiltrates, myocytolytic lesions, necrosis, microvascular derangement, mitochondrial dysfunction, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, increased areas of interstitial and perivascular fibrosis and cardiac remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Myocarditis and reparative fibrosis are hallmarks of CCC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The myocardial inflammatory infiltrate is mainly composed by T cells and macrophages.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Moreover, there is also an increased expression of inflammatory cytokines interferon-gamma (IFN-&#947;), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;), interleukin-6 (IL-6)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> and chemokines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Additionally, persistence of <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, leading to continued production of INF-&#947; and TNF-&#945;, stimulates oxidative and nitrosative stress that damage cardiomyocytes&#8217; mitochondria, cause mitochondrial dysfunction and compromise energy production pathways.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> In addition to the above mentioned alterations that are associated with the poor prognosis of the disease, coronary microvascular dysfunction and the following myocardial perfusion disturbances may be an early mark of disease progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> These disturbances are also related to myocytolytic necrosis and development of cicatricial injuries linked with areas of regional transmural fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f10">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Beside the myocardial damage, chronic <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection can also affect the skeletal muscle. The main alterations include skeletal myositis, with mononuclear exudate,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> necrosis of fiber cells,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> muscle fiber disorganization and atrophy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> vasculitis and fibrosis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> capillary damage with thickening and reduplication of the basement membrane, smaller skeletal muscle cross-sectional area (CSA),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> and muscle denervation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> CCC subjects may also present occluded capillaries and more glycolytic and less oxidative activity in the skeletal muscle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Together, these alterations may affect oxygen extraction, reduce oxygen delivery and lead to functional impairment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>One of the main factors associated with morbidity and mortality in CCC is the disease progression<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> that affects cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> and quality of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Currently, the treatment for CCC is mainly based on controlling the symptoms of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> However, despite the scarcity of prospective randomized trials,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> some studies have already observed the benefits of exercise training in these subjects, with major improvements in CRF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The latest guideline regarding CCC<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> has stated that physical activity improves many clinical parameters, but the benefits for this population have not yet been fully addressed. Hence, this approach has "conditional" grade recommendation and a "B" level of evidence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Improvements in peak VO<sub>2</sub> have been observed after exercise training in subjects with CCC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Other benefits comprise improvements in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), muscle respiratory strength,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> cutaneous microvascular function<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> and in quality of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> In experimental studies, exercise training before or after acute experimental <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection modulated inflammatory reaction and improved resistance against <italic>T.cruzi</italic>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> induced reduction in serum activities of creatine kinase and creatine kinase-myocardial band (CK-MB),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> and reduced cardiac fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> In CCC, only a study demonstrated that low-intensity aerobic exercise improves morphological and morphometric parameters of the right and left ventricles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In CCC experimental investigations, various animal models have been used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Among these, the Syrian hamster murine model is the one that develops CCC resembling the human infection with the typical natural history, and histological, structural and functional changes of the disease with a more adequate timeline for research studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Despite this evidence, none of these investigations have focused on the effects of aerobic exercise on myocardial perfusion, histopathological alterations (inflammation and fibrosis) and skeletal muscle changes in Syrian hamsters with CCC. Considering the several cardiovascular adaptations,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> we believe that aerobic exercise may lead to improvements in the main pathogenetic mechanisms involved in the disease progression: myocardial perfusion defects (MPD) and inflammation. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of aerobic physical training (APT) on myocardial morphological, functional and perfusion changes, correlating these variables with myocardial inflammation and fibrosis in Syrian hamsters with CCC by using high-resolution imaging <italic>in vivo</italic>. In addition, as a secondary objective, we aimed to analyze the cross-sectional areas of the skeletal muscle of this experimental model.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study design</title>
          <p>In this experimental study, female Syrian hamsters (<italic>Mesocricetus auratus</italic>), aged 12 weeks, obtained from Anilab (<italic>Animais de Laborat&#243;rio Cria&#231;&#227;o e Comercio</italic> Ltda, Paul&#237;nia/SP, Brazil) were kept in a temperature-controlled room with free access to water and standard food and were submitted to a 12-hour light-dark cycle. The animals were kept in a cage following Brazilian National Council for the Control of Animal Experimentation (CONCEA) recommendations, with an area/animal &gt; 122.5 cm&#178; and environmental enrichment appropriate for the species. All the procedures were conducted during the light phase of the light-dark cycle.</p>
          <p>The animals were randomly allocated using a randomization generator (www.random.org Random.org, Dublin, Ireland). Initially, they (n=60) were allocated into infected and non-infected groups. After the acute phase of infection, the surviving animals [infected (n=37), non-infected (n=16)] were allotted into four experimental groups &#8211; APT and sedentary: CCC-APT (n=22), CCC-SED (n=22); and two control groups also divided into APT and sedentary: CT-APT (n=8) and CT-SED (n=8). The procedures were conducted by a researcher, blind to the groups and unaware of the treatment.</p>
          <p>The animals were infected intraperitoneally with 3.5x10<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> trypomastigote forms of the Y strain of <italic>T. cruzi,</italic> while the control group was inoculated with saline solution (0.4 ml). Seven months after infection (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 1</xref>), the animals were submitted to two-dimensional echocardiography (2-D ECHO), single photon emission tomography (SPECT) with <sup>99m</sup>Tc-Sestamibi (RPHKARDIA, Porto Alegre, Brazil) and cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET). The image assessments lasted one week with two to three days between each test. The CPET lasted another five days for climatization and performance of the tests. The exercise training started two days after CPET. Eight weeks after the intervention period (APT), the animals underwent the same assessments (CPET, ECHO-2D and SPECT), followed by euthanasia [ketamine (Vetbrands, Jacare&#237;, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil) and xylazine (Bayer, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil), 160 mg/Kg and 10 mg/Kg, respectively] and collection blood samples collection to confirm chronic Chagas disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> The confirmation of chronic <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection was carried out with a Western blot assay to detect anti-<italic>T. cruzi</italic> antibodies in the sera of the infected animals as previously described.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Cardiac tissue and skeletal muscle samples were collected for histopathology.</p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Study timeline. After the experimental infection with the Y-strain of <italic>T. cruzi</italic> and the follow-up period of seven months for the development of the disease, the surviving animals and the control group underwent two-dimensional echocardiogram (ECHO-2D), SPECT with <sup>99m</sup>Tc-Sestamibi and cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET). Afterwards, they were allocated in four groups [CT-SED (n=6), CCC-SED (n=16), CT-APT (n=8), CCC-APT (n=12)]. Subsequently, the APT groups were submitted to eight weeks of aerobic physical training (APT) and reassessed. Lastly, they were euthanized, and the heart and skeletal muscle were collected for the histopathological analysis. Illustration created with BioRender.com</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>The study was conducted in compliance with the recommendations of CONCEA after due approval from the Ethics Committee on Animal Use &#8211; CEUA (N&#176;229/2019) of our institution.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Two-dimensional echocardiography</title>
          <p>Doppler echocardiography was performed using a dedicated high-resolution two-dimensional echocardiography (ECHO 2-D) system for small animals Vevo&#174; 2100 (<italic>Visual Sonics Inc</italic>., Toronto, Canada) with a 30 MHz frequency linear transducer. After sedation with ketamine and xylazine (80 mg/Kg and 5 mg/Kg, respectively), the animals were shaved and placed in left lateral decubitus. Images from the parasternal long and short axis of the left ventricle were obtained. Two-dimensional images were used to assess LVEF, left ventricular (LV) end-diastolic and LV end-systolic volumes in the parasternal long-axis view as previously described.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Myocardial perfusion imaging</title>
          <p>To assess myocardial perfusion at rest, high-resolution SPECT images were acquired with <sup>99m</sup>Tc-Sestamibi, using a gamma camera (BrightView XCT; Philips Medical Systems Inc., Cleveland, OH) adapted with an image acquisition system with a "pinhole" collimator of 1.5 mm opening positioned parallel to a rotational support for the animal, as previously described elsewhere.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Briefly, under isoflurane anesthesia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> (Isoforine, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil), the animals received 555 MBq of MIBI through the sublingual vein and were allowed to awake. After 90 minutes, the hamsters were re-anesthetized with a combination of ketamine (80mg/kg) and xylazine (5mg/kg) and SPECT images were acquired. Images, collected in upright position, were reconstructed using a three-dimensional ordered-subset expectation maximization algorithm (3D-OSEM, four subsets and 10 interactions). Radiotracer accumulation in the myocardium was analyzed semi-quantitatively using polar maps generated by software MunichHeart&#174; (MunichHeart software, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany). The MPD were considered significant if they were higher than 5% of the left ventricle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiopulmonary exercise testing</title>
          <p>Previously to CPET, the animals were familiarized with the treadmill for five consecutive days with incremental velocities and fixed inclination (5&#176;).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> For the evaluation of the cardiorespiratory fitness of the animals, oxygen consumption (VO<sub>2</sub>) and carbon dioxide production (VCO<sub>2</sub>) were continuously measured by open-flow indirect calorimetry on a treadmill with speed and incremental inclination (Panlab, Harvard Apparatus, Spain). VO<sub>2</sub> was expressed in units adjusted to the animal's size (mL.kg<sup>-0.75</sup>.min<sup>-1</sup>) and peak VO<sub>2</sub> was defined as the highest VO<sub>2</sub> value measured during the test before exhaustion. The VO<sub>2</sub> at anaerobic threshold (VO<sub>2AT</sub>) was determined as the oxygen consumption at which a linear relationship between VCO<sub>2</sub> and VO<sub>2</sub> was lost during progressive treadmill exercise associated with an abrupt increase in respiratory exchange ratio.</p>
          <p>The stress protocol has been described before.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Concisely, the protocol consists in increasing speed and inclination of the treadmill at each stage. The first three stages lasted two minutes with a five-degree increment in each stage. From stage four onwards, the duration was of one minute, and inclination was maintained at 15 degrees. The speed started at 15 cm/s and increased 5 cm/s each stage until stage six. From that, the speed increased 1.67 cm/s each stage until the animal's exhaustion. The criteria for interrupting the test included the animals staying for five seconds or longer on the electrical stimulation grid or staying for 10 seconds on the distal end of the treadmill.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Aerobic physical training</title>
          <p>After basal evaluation (ECHO 2-D, SPECT and CPET), the animals underwent APT on a treadmill (Gaustec Magnetismo, Nova Lima, Minas Gerais, Brazil), following an 8-week protocol adapted from previous work.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> APT was performed 5 times a week for 50 minutes at moderate intensity (50% of the peak velocity defined by the CPET and 5% treadmill grade) in the same period of the day. The time, speed and grade were progressively increased in the first two weeks until the prescribed intensity was reached. To ensure similar handling and exposure to APT animals, the sedentary animals were submitted to two minutes of treadmill running five days per week, with the same running speed as APT animals. After the training period, the evaluation methods were repeated and the animals euthanized for tissue collection for histopathological study.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Histopathological analysis</title>
          <p>For histopathological analysis, transverse tissue slices (5 &#956;m thick) were obtained from three sections of the heart (basal, mid-ventricular and apical), maintaining the orientation for the topographic correlation with <italic>in vivo</italic> images as previously described.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> After progressive dehydration, the tissue was fixed in paraffin and samples from each ventricular section were stained with hematoxylin-eosin and picrosirius-red to quantify inflammation and fibrosis, respectively. After that, digital microscopy images (40&#215; objective lens) of endocardium, myocardium and epicardium from each LV segment were taken using BX51 Olympus microscope (Olympus; Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a Q-color 5 camera (Olympus America, Center Valley, Inc., USA). For picrosirius-red slices, polarized light microscopy photographs were also taken to quantify type I and type III collagen, by identifying bright red-yellow and green fibers, respectively. Subsequently, they were analyzed using the Aperio ImageScope (version 12.4.6, Leica Biosystems Imaging, Inc., USA) and Image Pro Plus 32 (version 4.5.0.29; Media Cybernetics, Inc., Maryland, USA) software.</p>
          <p>Inflammation was quantified by counting the number of mononucleated cells per field (cells/mm<sup>2</sup>). Picrosirius red staining defined the interstitial fibrosis as the percent (%) of total area with caution to exclude perivascular fibrosis. To analyze the histopathological alterations, the left ventricle was divided into 16 segments: basal (anterior, anteroseptal, inferoseptal, inferior, inferolateral, anterolateral), mid-ventricular (anterior, anteroseptal, inferoseptal, inferior, inferolateral, anterolateral) and apical (anterior, septal, inferior, lateral).</p>
          <p>Transverse skeletal muscle sections (5 &#956;m thick) from medial portion were fixed in paraffin and, later, were stained with hematoxylin-eosin to quantify the fiber CSA. Histological images of the muscle middle portion (bar=100 &#956;m, 20x) were analyzed using the softwares Aperio ImageScope (version 12.4.6, Leica Biosystems Imaging, Inc., USA) and ImageJ Fiji software (version JAVA 1.8.0_322., National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA). For the CSA analysis, about 200 muscle fibers were measured per sample. Additionally, we only used a representative number of animals [CT-SED (n=4), (C) CCC-SED (n=6), (D) CT-APT (n=4) and (E) CCC-APT (n=5)] from each experimental group.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sample size calculation</title>
          <p>The sample size was calculated using OpenEpi online software (Open Source Epidemiologic Statistics for Public Health, version 3.1, Atlanta, GA, USA), and the criteria used to define the sample size were based on previous studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> A 10% reduction in the perfusion defect between infected groups at the end of the treatment was assumed, with two-tailed alpha of 0.05, 1-&#946;= 0.8. The estimated sample size for this study was 13 animals in each infected group and eight animals in the control groups. As the study includes four groups (two controls and two infected groups), the total number was 42 animals. However, a loss of 40% was considered due to the aggressiveness of the parasitemia in the groups of infected animals. We also considered that only 30 to 50% of chronically infected animals develop Chagas cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Therefore, the total number of animals used in this study was 16 control animals (CT-SED = 8 animals; CT-APT = 8 animals) plus 44 infected animals (CCC sedentary = 22 animals; CCC APT = 22 animals), totaling 60 animals.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>Continuous variables are reported as mean &#177; standard deviation and categorical variables are expressed as absolute (n) and relative (%) frequency. The Kolmogorov&#8211;Smirnov Test was used to verify Gaussian distribution of the variables. One-way ANOVA analysis of variance was used for simultaneous comparison of the four experimental groups at baseline and for histopathological analysis of inflammation and fibrosis. The mixed ANOVA (mixed ANOVA or split-plot factorial ANOVA) for repeated measures was used to verify the interaction (main effect) between the experimental groups (between-subject effect) and the time (within-subject effect) for the effect of APT on ECO-2D, SPECT and CPET variables. In case of statistically significant interactions, the Bonferroni post hoc multiple comparisons were conducted.</p>
          <p>The statistical analysis and the graphs were made using GraphPad Prism software (version 9.0.0; GraphPad Software, San Diego, California, USA). The level of significance was set at 5% in all analyzes (p&lt;0.05).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>In the acute phase of infection (up to 35 days after infection), a mortality rate of 16% (n=7) was observed. Thirty-seven infected animals and 16 controls underwent baseline evaluations (7 months after infection). During baseline evaluations, three infected animals died due to anesthesia. Another six infected animals (CCC-SED, n= 4 and CCC-APT, n= 2) and 2 controls died during the intervention period. No animal died while performing APT.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>APT ameliorates LV remodeling and LV systolic and perfusion dysfunction</title>
          <p>The results of Echo-2D and myocardial perfusion SPECT at baseline and after reassessments post-APT are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>. Regarding LVEF, a significant interaction between the time and experimental groups was observed. LVEF had an important reduction only in CCC-SED group. The CCC-APT was the only group that presented LV diastolic dilation over time. However, this group did not present increase in LV mass or LV systolic diameter. Regarding the MPD, the CCC-SED group presented worsening of perfusion defects over time.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Echocardiography and myocardial perfusion SPECT data from the experimental groups before and after the aerobic physical training</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="16%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Variables</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">CT-SED<break/>(n=6)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">CCC-SED<break/>(n=16)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">CT-APT<break/>(n=8)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">CCC-APT<break/>(n=12)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">p Values</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <bold>LVEF (%)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pre</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">52.93 &#177; 1.49</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">45.49 &#177; 8.84</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">49.86 &#177; 2.93</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">43.74 &#177; 9.92</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Post</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">52.47 &#177; 3.59<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">&#8224;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">39.69 &#177; 7.80<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">47.28 &#177; 5.67<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">&#8224;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">42.46 &#177; 4.47</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">0.007</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <bold>LVDD (mm)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Pre</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7.71 &#177; 0.51</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7.57 &#177; 0.70</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7.73 &#177; 0.34</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7.71 &#177; 0.43</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Post</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7.96 &#177; 0.56</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">7.99 &#177; 1.00</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">8.22 &#177; 0.50</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">8.34 &#177; 0.60<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">0.030</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <bold>LVSD (mm)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pre</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">5.68 &#177; 0.43</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">5.68 &#177; 0.94</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">5.99 &#177; 0.40</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">6.13 &#177; 0.54</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Post</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">6.08 &#177; 0.53</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">6.06 &#177; 1.01</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">6.47 &#177; 0.81</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">6.80 &#177; 0.74</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">0.050</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <bold>LV Mass (mg)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Pre</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">519.19 &#177; 89.55</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">549.85 &#177; 96.73</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">532.02 &#177; 98.15</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">541.89 &#177; 84.71</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Post</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">667.78 &#177; 125.04<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">686.99 &#177; 152.06<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">735.47 &#177; 170.16<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">622.15 &#177; 129.83</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">0.014</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <bold>MPD (%)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pre</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">2.45 &#177; 1.69</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">4.64 &#177; 3.45</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">3.08 &#177; 2.56</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">4.81 &#177; 3.52</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Post</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">3.31 &#177; 2.44<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">&#8224;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">8.29 &#177; 7.06<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">2.56 &#177; 3.43</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">6.30 &#177; 3.38</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">0.010</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN5">
                <p>Data are reported as mean &#177; standard deviation. APT: aerobic physical training, CCC: chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy, CT: control, SED: sedentary, LVEF: left ventricle ejection fraction, LVDD: left ventricle diastolic diameter, LVSD: left ventricle systolic diameter, LV mass: left ventricle mass, MPD: myocardial perfusion defect, SPECT: single-photon emission computerized tomography; mixed ANOVA for repeated measures;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>p&lt;0.05 vs. baseline of the same experimental group,</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN7">
                <label>&#8224;</label>
                <p>p&#8804;0.05 vs. post-treatment CCC-SED, Bonferroni test for multiple comparisons.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Animals presenting significant MPD (&gt; 5% of LV) were detected in both infected groups at baseline, with five animals (36%) in the sedentary and three (25%) in the exercise group. After follow-up, we observed an increase in the size (p&lt; 0.05) and number of animals (n=10, 67%) with MPD in the CCC-SED group while in the APT group we noticed a smaller increase in the size (p&gt;0.05) and number of animals with perfusion abnormalities (n= 5, 42%).</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 2</xref> shows an example of an animal from the CCC-SED group that presented LV systolic diameter (LVSD) dilation associated to MPD increase over time (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figures 2 A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">B</xref>) in comparison with an animal from the CCC-APT with preserved LV function and morphology and no increase in MPD (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figures 2 C</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">D</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f7">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Effects of APT in cardiac function and perfusion. (A) and (B) show representative images of ECHO-2D and SPECT with MPD of an animal from CCC-SED (n=16), and (C) and (D) of an animal from CCC-APT (n=12); APT: aerobic physical training, CCC: chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy, SED: sedentary, MPD: myocardial perfusion defect.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>APT increases the efficiency of cardiorespiratory fitness in CCC</title>
          <p>CPET variables are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>. Besides the animals did not present significant improvements in the oxygen consumption at the peak of exercise or at the anaerobic threshold, CT-SED was the only group that did not present increase in the time until the exhaustion after the follow-up period. However, greater improvements were observed in groups that underwent exercise training. Although CCC-APT presented an increase in VO<sub>2AT</sub>, and a decrease was observed in CCC-SED, this difference did not reach statistical significance.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiopulmonary exercise testing data from the experimental groups before and after the aerobic physical training</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="16%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Variables</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="top">CT-SED<break/>(n=6)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="top">CCC-SED<break/>(n=16)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="top">CT-APT<break/>(n=8)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="top">CCC-APT<break/>(n=12)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="top">p Values</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <bold>Time until exaustion (s)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pre</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">464.67 &#177; 32.47</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">445.21 &#177; 72.19</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">494.00 &#177; 71.25</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">481.20 &#177; 76.57</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Post</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">557.50 &#177; 91.24</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">539.64 &#177; 94.04<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">686.78 &#177; 109.59<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">&#8224;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">687.20 &#177; 141.67<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">&#8224;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">0.043</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                    <bold>VO<sub>2peak</sub> (mL.Kg.min)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Pre</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">38.50 &#177; 3.46</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">42.70 &#177; 5.45</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">42.11 &#177; 4.40</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">40.32 &#177; 5.08</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">Post</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">43.04 &#177; 4.90</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">43.75 &#177; 4.42</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">43.33 &#177; 3.43</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">45.60 &#177; 5.65<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top" style="background-color:#C7DFEC">0.254</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <bold>VO</bold>
                    <sub>2@AT</sub>
                    <bold>(mL.Kg.min)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Pre</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">31.22 &#177; 6.79</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">33.06 &#177; 5.48</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">30.12 &#177; 4.54</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">30.56 &#177; 3.25</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Post</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">30.90 &#177; 6.25</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">28.95 &#177; 5.86</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">33.44 &#177; 3.96</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">34.39 &#177; 4.06<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">&#8224;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="top">0.759</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>Data are reported as mean &#177; standard deviation; APT: aerobic physical training, CCC: chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy, CT: control, SED: sedentary, VO2: oxygen consumption; VO2AT: oxygen consumption at anaerobic threshold. Mixed ANOVA for repeated measures;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN9">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>p&lt;0.05 vs. baseline of the same experimental group,</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN10">
                <label>&#8224;</label>
                <p>p&#8804;0.05 vs. post-treatment CCC-SED, Bonferroni test for multiple comparisons.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>APT ameliorates myocardial inflammation and fibrosis and preserves skeletal muscle CSA</title>
          <p>Myocardial inflammation was higher in animals from CCC-SED when compared to CT-SED, CT-APT and CCC-APT (1.61&#177;0.63 vs 0.37&#177;0.12 vs 0.7&#177;0.2 vs 0.93&#177;0.2 cells/mm<sup>2</sup>, respectively, p&lt; 0.001). No significant difference in total fibrosis (p&gt; 0.05) was observed. However, the CCC-SED group, but not the CCC-APT group, presented higher type I collagen expression when compared to control groups (p&lt;0.05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f8">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Bar graphs showing the results of (A) myocardial inflammation, (B) total fibrosis, (C) type I collagen and (D) type III collagen. Representative histopathological samples of (E) CT-SED (n=6), (F) CCC-SED (n=16), (G) CT-APT (n=8) and (H) CCC-APT (n=12) tissues stained with hematoxylin &amp; eosin and picrosirius red. APT: aerobic physical training, CCC: chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy, CT: control, SED: sedentary. Bar= 50 &#956;m, 40x magnification.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Furthermore, skeletal muscle atrophy was confirmed by the reduction in CSA. CCC-SED presented skeletal muscle atrophy that was normalized by exercise training in CCC-APT group, as observed in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 4</xref>. The CCC-SED animals frequently presented skeletal muscle inflammation that was less observed and less intense in the CCC-APT animals.</p>
          <fig id="f9">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>(A) Bar graphs showing the quantitative analysis of the gastrocnemius muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) of animals from the infected and control groups. Representative gastrocnemius muscle histopathological images taken from (B) CT-SED (n=4), (C) CCC-SED (n=6), (D) CT-APT (n=4) and (E) CCC-APT (n=5) groups. Diffuse mononuclear inflammatory infiltrate can be seen in CCC-SED (C). APT: aerobic physical training, CSA: cross-sectional area, CCC: chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy, CT: control, SED: sedentary. Bar=100 &#956;m, 20x magnification.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230707-30707-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The present study investigated the effects of APT in an experimental model of CCC in Syrian hamsters by using <italic>in vivo</italic> high-resolution imaging techniques and CPET. The main findings of this study were that APT mitigated the progression of MPD, LV remodeling and LV systolic deterioration, in addition to improving the efficiency of CRF. Furthermore, APT ameliorated myocardial inflammation and fibrosis and improved the CSA of skeletal muscle.</p>
        <p>In our study, the CCC-SED group presented worsening of perfusion defects over time. Progressive MPD as a pathophysiological mechanism of the disease has been observed previously both in experimental<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> and clinical<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> scenarios of CCC. Moreover, some works have hypothesized that myocardial perfusion abnormalities may precede LV systolic deterioration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Therefore, therapy aiming at improving myocardial perfusion may prevent the progression in cardiac damage. In our study, we did not observe improvements in MPD after exercise intervention; however, the perfusion defects did not increase significantly after the exercise in contrast to the infected sedentary group.</p>
        <p>To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work using this strategy to treat MPD in CCC. A recent pilot study investigated the effects of aerobic exercise over MPD in patients with primary microvascular angina, a disease with a similar mechanism to myocardial perfusion disturbances.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> The authors observed a significant reduction in myocardial perfusion disturbances associated with improvements in VO<sub>2peak</sub> and quality of life. The exercise also promoted benefits in myocardial perfusion in coronary artery disease<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> and heart failure<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> patients. The mechanisms by which exercise training promotes myocardial perfusion are probably multifactorial and several have been described such as improved endothelial function,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> coronary vascular adaptations<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> and enhanced collateralization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Moreover, reduction in inflammation and improvements in autonomic and neurohormonal balance may contribute to it.</p>
        <p>Regarding other treatments for myocardial perfusion in CCC, Tanaka et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> have used dipyridamole, a coronary vasodilator agent, to improve MPD in female Syrian hamsters. The authors observed a significant MPD improvement in the treated groups compared to the control groups. However, the treatment did not interrupt the progressive LV dysfunction. According to the authors, despite improvements in perfusion, the disease progressed because the treatment had no benefits on myocardial inflammation, which remained similar in the two infected groups. Recently, Tanaka et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> investigated the same animal model with CCC treated with pentoxifylline. The authors reported that this treatment reduced the inflammation and MPD but did not prevent the progression of LV systolic dysfunction. They hypothesized that maybe the period of intervention (six months after the infection) was not enough to improve LV systolic dysfunction, but did reduce inflammation and MPD as they occur in the early stages of the disease, and precede the LV systolic dysfunction. Another study, using verapamil (calcium channel blocker) plus aspirin (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug), has demonstrated significant improvements in MPD and quality of life in CCC patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Unfortunately, the authors did not assess the systolic function or inflammation after the intervention. The beneficial effects of verapamil in CCC have also been demonstrated in <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infected mice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Chronic <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection in humans generally leads to a more aggressive cardiovascular damage, with higher amount of fibrosis and more severe ventricular remodeling, in males than in females.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> In animals, peak parasitemia and disease progression seem more homogeneous in females.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> As several reports<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> have successfully used female Syrian hamsters when investigating CCC, we chose this murine model to study the disease. Our results are in accordance with previous research<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> in which Syrian hamsters developed the disease resembling human CCC. LV dysfunction, a marker of disease severity, was observed in the first assessment seven months after the parasitic infection, when the LVEF was already reduced. Similar findings were described by Ribeiro et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> where LVEF and LV end-systolic diameter were deteriorated at six months of disease onset and progressed later in this same animal model. However, we observed that the exercise training interrupted LV dysfunction progression. Only few clinical trials have investigated the LV function and morphology after exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> None of the above-mentioned studies documented improvements in heart function or morphology after the exercise. However, the studies were small, with different profiles of patients and, therefore, more studies with more patients and longer follow-up periods are necessary to investigate whether exercise training may improve or interrupt cardiac deterioration in CCC.</p>
        <p>Furthermore, in the histopathological analysis we noticed that the infected sedentary animals showed a higher extent of inflammatory infiltrates with clusters of mononuclear inflammatory cells and areas with extensive fibrosis when compared to other animals. The role of inflammation and fibrosis triggering perfusion abnormalities was already reported by other researchers. Bilate et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> found a statistically significant correlation between myocarditis and interstitial fibrosis. The authors suggested that the cardiac inflammatory infiltrate was likely responsible for this progressive tissue injury, and consequent remodeling and extensive fibrosis. In addition, Oliveira et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> reported that these perfusion disturbances may be localized in regions with viable myocardium and reduced perfusion secondary to inflammation. Therefore, we demonstrated that APT performed at moderate intensity five times a week for eight weeks were able to ameliorate inflammation and fibrosis. Myocardial inflammation is the main histopathological characteristic of CCC, and therapies targeting it have demonstrated promising benefits on the cardiac function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Cardiac fibrosis is considered an independent predictor of adverse outcome in this cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Fibrosis also plays an important role in the impairment of cardiac performance and heart dilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> Ram&#237;rez et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> reported heart dilation (mainly in the apex) and mural thrombosis in Syrian hamsters with CCC. In our study, we observed diastolic dilation in the CCC-APT group over time. However, we hypothesized that this increase was a physiological adaptation to exercise, since no difference was observed in LVEF or fibrosis between this group and uninfected animals. The amount of type I collagen was higher in the CCC-SED group, but we did not notice statistically significant difference between the groups with Chagas disease that underwent exercise.</p>
        <p>CCC patients may also present skeletal muscle abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> In our study we analyzed samples from gastrocnemius muscle; the CCC-SED group presented atrophy and in the CCC-APT group, muscle atrophy was normalized after exercise training. Although some previous researches<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> have investigated skeletal muscle abnormalities after <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection, just a small number have analyzed the chronic phase and none have evaluated the muscle CSA in the chronic phase after APT. Concerning experimental studies, Silva et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> observed myositis with mononuclear exudate and fibrosis in the diaphragm, intercostal and psoas muscles of rabbits after six months of infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> Weaver et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> evaluated the quadriceps muscle of mice in the early (2 &#8211; 4 months) and late (9 &#8211; 10 months) chronic phase. The authors reported few <italic>T</italic>. cruzi parasites in the muscle, inflammation, necrotizing vasculitis, vascular fibrosis, endomysium fibrosis and gait abnormalities (including avoidance of weight-bearing on any limb, foot dragging, and even paresis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Ram&#237;rez et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> evaluated the skeletal muscle (muscle not specified) of Syrian hamsters and reported focal myositis and necrosis. Souza et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> noticed an upregulated expression of chemokines and that the number of inflammatory cells remained elevated in skeletal muscle (muscle not specified) of mice at all time points evaluated from acute to chronic phases. The reports in human biopsy studies of CCC showed capillary damage and smaller skeletal muscle CSA (vastus lateralis muscle);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> inflammation, muscle fiber disorganization and atrophy (biceps muscle);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> denervated atrophic muscle fibers (gastrocnemius muscle);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> capillary occlusion, higher percentage of muscle fibers with lower oxidative capacity and enhanced percentage of fibers with more glycolytic capacity (vastus lateralis muscle).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Regardless of the well-established benefits of aerobic exercise in cardiac patients,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> only a few clinical studies have investigated APT in the treatment of Chagas cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Lima et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> observed improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness (increases in VO<sub>2peak</sub>, exercise time and six-minute walk test distance) and no adverse effects of exercise in the treated patients. Articles from PEACH study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> addressed the effects of exercise training in patients with Chagas cardiomyopathy. The studies observed major improvements in CRF in patients with LV dysfunction and heart failure. Moreover, the continued beneficial effects of the exercise were still noticed at three<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> and six<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> months of follow-up. The exercise performed for six months also improved cutaneous vascular responsiveness to reactive hyperemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Our study also detected positive effects of APT in CCC, with increase in exercise capacity in APT groups after eight weeks of training (moderate intensity, five days/week, 50 minutes). Regarding previous experimental studies, only six<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> have investigated the effects of APT in other phases of Chagas disease and only one<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> has addressed the role of aerobic exercise on established CCC. Schebeleski-Soares et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> conducted an 8-week treadmill exercise (moderate intensity, five days/week, progressive speed and duration) before <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection in mice. Soares et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> performed an 8-week treadmill training (moderate intensity, five days/week, incremental speed and duration) before <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection in mice. Novaes et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> administered a 9-week treadmill protocol (moderate intensity, five days/week, progressive inclination, speed and duration) to Wistar rats before <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection. Novaes et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> also used the same protocol in a further investigation with Wistar rats (9-week treadmill exercise, moderate intensity, five days/week, progressive inclination, speed and duration) before <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection. Lucchetti et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> performed a 9-week treadmill protocol (workload intensity defined by the maximal lactate steady state, five days/week, 60 minutes)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> before <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection in mice. Pedra-Rezende et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> studied the chronic indeterminate form of Chagas disease and used a 4-week treadmill protocol 140 days postinfection (moderate intensity, five days/week, progressive increase in speed, 60 min). Finally, Preto et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> used an 8-week swimming protocol (low-intensity aerobic exercise, five days/week, 30 minutes/day) to treat mice with CCC.</p>
        <p>Although all these studies have used aerobic exercise as a non-pharmacological option to treat the animals, currently, just Preto et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> observed the effects of APT on CCC and showed that exercise improved morphological and morphometric parameters of the right and left ventricle. In the untrained animals, the authors observed impaired cardiomyocyte contractile function, more inflammation and higher amount of collagen, LV hypertrophy, decrease in the CSA of cardiomyocytes, microvascular changes and worsening of exercise tolerance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Considering this scenario, our results add knowledge about the effects of aerobic exercise on myocardial perfusion and histopathological alterations on the heart, and show that APT was able to preserve the skeletal muscle CSA. We highlight that this was the first experimental study in Syrian hamsters that used aerobic exercise in the treatment of CCC aiming to mitigate MPD, inflammation and fibrosis in the cardiac tissue. This was also the first study to assess the integrity of skeletal muscle CSA of CCC animals after eight weeks of aerobic exercise.</p>
        <p>As a limitation, we studied only resting perfusion defects and it may be expected that ischemic perfusion defects would add value in the interpretation. However, it would be necessary to use inotropic positive drugs in anesthetized animals, which may interfere with the results. Moreover, our group has previously shown the correlation between MPD and inflammation in viable myocardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Despite the positive results regarding the effects of APT, maybe a longer period of follow-up and exercise training would show more significant results regarding MDP. Additionally, we did not include in this paper the quantitative data regarding skeletal muscle inflammation. Future studies using exercise training in the management of CCC are necessary to strengthen the knowledge available.</p>
        <p>Finally, this study supports the hypothesis that both MPD and inflammation contribute to systolic function deterioration in CCC, and exercise is an important strategy to minimize it. Exercise training has become a robust recommendation for most of the cardiac diseases. However, current guidelines do not explicitly recommend cardiac rehabilitation for CCC patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> Our results provide the foundation for further studies aimed at investigating the benefits of exercise intervention in CCC.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Our study provides evidence that APT ameliorates cardiac dysfunction and MPD in a Syrian hamster model of CCC. Moreover, besides improving running performance, APT reduced inflammatory cell infiltration and fibrosis in the myocardium, indicating its potential as a therapeutic strategy for CCC. These findings highlight the importance of exercise training in mitigating the pathological progression of CCC and improving cardiac function. In addition to the significant findings related to cardiac alterations, it is noteworthy that we also observed skeletal muscle atrophy in hamsters with CCC and improvements in the muscle CSA after exercise training. Although these changes were not the focus of our investigation, they provided additional insights into the systemic complications associated with the disease. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the effects of APT on various pathophysiological dimensions of CCC remains an important aspect for future investigations.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
          <label>Sources of funding</label>
          <p>This study was partially funded by Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais &#8211; FAPEMIG (grant: Demanda Universal 001/2022 APQ-01253-22); PROEX/CAPES (grant: 23038.002321/2020-79); Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo - FAPESP (grant: 2016/25403-9).</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
          <label>Study association</label>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Thayrine R. Damasceno, from Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais under the protocol number 229/2019. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
