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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">3WrnJhGsh3X3gWFdkwKY6SK</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000800303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230672</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Custo-Efetividade da Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por Membrana Extracorp&#243;rea Venoarterial no Choque Cardiog&#234;nico Refrat&#225;rio: Um Estudo na Perspectiva Brasileira</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6989-3079</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Decker</surname>
            <given-names>S&#233;rgio Renato da Rosa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Wainstein</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo Vugman</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scolari</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Luis</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Raupp da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Schneider</surname>
            <given-names>Daniel</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fogazzi</surname>
            <given-names>Debora Vacaro</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1374-6595</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Trott</surname>
            <given-names>Geraldine</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7577-464X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Wolf</surname>
            <given-names>Jonas</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Teixeira</surname>
            <given-names>Cassiano</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rover</surname>
            <given-names>Marciane Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nasi</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Ant&#244;nio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rohde</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2447-2577</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi Anne</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Regis Goulart</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7290-0348</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bertoldi</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Gehling</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Medicina Interna</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Medicina Interna, Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">PROADI</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">SUS</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escrit&#243;rio de Pesquisa PROADI-SUS, Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia,</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Nove de Julho</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Nove de Julho, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escrit&#243;rio de Gest&#227;o da Pr&#225;tica Cl&#237;nica</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escrit&#243;rio de Gest&#227;o da Pr&#225;tica Cl&#237;nica, Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Pelotas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Pelotas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: S&#233;rgio Renato da Rosa Decker &#8226; Hospital Moinhos de Vento &#8211; Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 630, 10&#186; andar, Sala 1007 CEP 90035-001, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>sergioodecker@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o: Alexandre Colafranceschi</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>26</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230672</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> O choque cardiog&#234;nico (CC) refrat&#225;rio est&#225; associado com altas taxas de mortalidade, e o uso de oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea venoarterial (VA-ECMO, do ingl&#234;s <italic>venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation</italic>) como uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica tem gerado discuss&#245;es. Nesse sentido, sua custo-efetividade, principalmente em pa&#237;ses de baixa e m&#233;dia renda como o Brasil, continua incerto.Objetivos: Conduzir uma an&#225;lise de custo-efetividade na perspectiva do Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (SUS) para avaliar a custo-efetividade de VA-ECMO combinado com o tratamento padr&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento padr&#227;o isolado em pacientes adultos com CC refrat&#225;rio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Acompanhamos uma coorte de pacientes com CC refrat&#225;rio tratados com VA-ECMO em centros de assist&#234;ncia terci&#225;ria do sul brasileiro. Coletamos dados de desfechos e custos hospitalares. Realizamos uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica para complementar nossos dados e usamos o modelo de Markov para estimar a raz&#227;o de custo-efetividade incremental (RCEI) por ano de vida ajustado pela qualidade (QALY) e por ano de vida ganho.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Na an&#225;lise do caso-base, a VA-ECMO gerou uma RCEI de Int$ 37 491 por QALY. An&#225;lises de sensibilidade identificaram o custo de interna&#231;&#227;o, o risco relativo de sobrevida, e a sobrevida do grupo submetido &#224; VA-ECMO como principais vari&#225;veis influenciando os resultados. A an&#225;lise de sensibilidade probabil&#237;stica mostrou um benef&#237;cio do uso de VA-ECMO, com uma probabilidade de 78% de custo-efetividade no limiar recomendado de disposi&#231;&#227;o a pagar.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p> Nosso estudo sugere que, dentro do SUS, VA-ECMO pode ser uma terapia custo-efetiva para o CC refrat&#225;rio. Contudo, a escassez de dados sobre a efic&#225;cia e de ensaios cl&#237;nicos recentes que abordem seus benef&#237;cios em subgrupos espec&#237;ficos de pacientes destaca a necessidade de mais pesquisas. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos rigorosos, incluindo perfis diversos de pacientes, s&#227;o essenciais para confirmar a custo-efetividade com uso de VA-ECMO e assegurar acesso igualit&#225;rio a interven&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas avan&#231;adas dentro dos sistemas de sa&#250;de, especialmente em pa&#237;ses com desigualdades socioecon&#244;micas como o Brasil.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por Membrana Extracorp&#243;rea</kwd>
        <kwd>Choque Cardiog&#234;nico</kwd>
        <kwd>Custos e An&#225;lise de Custo</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="41"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O choque cardiog&#234;nico (CC) refrat&#225;rio est&#225; associado a um progn&#243;stico ruim, com taxas de mortalidade que variam entre 40 e 88%.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> Coortes contempor&#226;neas t&#234;m mostrado melhor sobrevida em centros que atendem grandes volumes de pacientes e integram a Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por Membrana Extracorp&#243;rea Venoarterial (VA-ECMO, do ingl&#234;s <italic>venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation</italic>) para restaurar perfus&#227;o tecidual, reduzir les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;o, e estabilizar pacientes com CC refrat&#225;rio, como uma ponte para a recupera&#231;&#227;o, transplante card&#237;aco, ou outras decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>-<xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> No entanto, ensaios cl&#237;nicos com pacientes com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM) n&#227;o conseguiram demonstrar um benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico claro.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, dada &#224; necessidade de uma Unidade de Terapia Intensiva (UTI)<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> especializada e os custos dos equipamentos,<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>-<xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> o processo de tomada de decis&#227;o para a incorpora&#231;&#227;o da tecnologia VA-ECMO requer uma avalia&#231;&#227;o abrangente que inclui an&#225;lise de custo-utilidade e an&#225;lise do impacto or&#231;ament&#225;rio. Essa avalia&#231;&#227;o &#233; particularmente relevante para os sistemas de sa&#250;de em pa&#237;ses de renda baixa e m&#233;dia.</p>
      <p>Acompanhamos uma coorte de pacientes com CC refrat&#225;rio tratado com VA-ECMO em centros de assist&#234;ncia terci&#225;ria localizados na regi&#227;o sudeste do Brasil, coletando dados sobre desfechos e custos hospitalares. Realizamos uma an&#225;lise de custo utilidade, al&#233;m de uma revis&#227;o da literatura, para comparar a efetividade da VA-ECMO combinada com terapia padr&#227;o <italic>versus</italic> terapia padr&#227;o isolada em pacientes adultos com CC refrat&#225;rio independentemente da etiologia em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; evid&#234;ncia atual. Este estudo foi conduzido pela perspectiva do Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (SUS).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Como parte de um programa de pesquisa nacional focado na avalia&#231;&#227;o da viabilidade de se integrar a VA-ECMO no SUS, conduzimos uma an&#225;lise de custo-utilidade em um estudo prospectivo do tipo coorte de pacientes com CC refrat&#225;rio tratados com VA-ECMO. O estudo foi conduzido em quatro centro de assist&#234;ncia terci&#225;ria do sudeste brasileiro entre abril de 2017 e dezembro de 2020. Os centros foram inclu&#237;dos no programa &#8220;Qualifica&#231;&#227;o do uso de Dispositivos de Assist&#234;ncia Circulat&#243;ria no SUS&#8221;. A descri&#231;&#227;o dos dados foi conduzida de acordo com as diretrizes CHEERS.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Para serem considerados eleg&#237;veis, os centros precisavam apresentar um laborat&#243;rio de cateterismo 24/7, uma equipe especializada em insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca capaz de empregar dispositivos tempor&#225;rios de assist&#234;ncia circulat&#243;ria mec&#226;nica (ACM) e uma equipe de cirurgia card&#237;aca. Ainda, os centros deviam estar localizados na regi&#227;o sudeste do pa&#237;s. Todos os centros participantes passaram por um treinamento, seguindo as diretrizes estabelecidas pela ELSO (<italic>Extracorporeal Life Support Organization</italic>),<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref></sup> incluindo semin&#225;rios e pr&#225;ticas em cen&#225;rios de simula&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, os centros tinham autonomia para implementar estrat&#233;gias de tratamento do CC com base nos recursos locais, incluindo algoritmos, equipes de CC, uso (obrigat&#243;rio ou caso a caso) de cat&#233;teres de art&#233;ria pulmonar, sele&#231;&#227;o de equipamentos e protocolos de desmame.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outros dados n&#227;o dispon&#237;veis dessa coorte foram obtidos por meio de uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura. Buscamos nos bancos de dados PubMed, Cochrane CENTRAL e EMBASE estudos relatando desfechos em pacientes com CC tratados com VA-ECMO, al&#233;m da busca manual de refer&#234;ncias dos artigos encontrados. O m&#233;todo detalhado de nossa revis&#227;o est&#225; apresentado no material suplementar, e os dados extra&#237;dos da literatura e utilizados em nosso modelo est&#227;o descritos nas Tabelas 1 e 2.</p>
      <p>Os resultados s&#227;o apresentados como raz&#227;o custo-efetividade incremental por ano de vida ajustado pela qualidade (QALY, do ingl&#234;s <italic>quality-adjusted life year</italic>) e anos de vida ganhos, e comparados com o limiar da disposi&#231;&#227;o a pagar (DAP) recomendado pela Comiss&#227;o Nacional de Incorpora&#231;&#227;o de Tecnologias (CONITEC) no SUS.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Pacientes</title>
        <p>Os pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo apresentavam CC e tinham idade superior a 18 anos de idade. O CC foi definido como press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) &lt; 90mmHg por mais de 30 minutos ou necessidade de agentes inotr&#243;picos ou vasopressores para manuten&#231;&#227;o da PAS &gt; 90mHg, ou &#237;ndice card&#237;aco &lt; 2,2 L/min/m<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> recebendo inotr&#243;picos/vasopressores, sinais de fal&#234;ncia de &#243;rg&#227;os (d&#233;bito urin&#225;rio &lt; 0,5mL/kg/h, n&#237;vel de lactato &gt;2mmol/L, pele &#250;mida, tempo de enchimento capilar &gt;3s), sem melhora apesar do manejo inicial com ressuscita&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica e/ou uso de vasopressores e inotr&#243;picos.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>-<xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Trinta e cinco pacientes com CC foram inclu&#237;dos na coorte VA-ECMO. As caracter&#237;sticas basais foram idade mediana de 55 (42-63) anos, 23 (63%) eram do sexo masculino, e as causas de CC foram: IM agudo (n=13, 37%), insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda descompensada (n=8, 23%), p&#243;s-transplante card&#237;aco (n= 7, 20%), p&#243;s-cardiotomia (n=4, 11%), embolismo pulmonar (n=2, 6%), e miocardite (n=1, 3%).<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> No total, 61% dos pacientes foram a &#243;bito, 76% desenvolveram complica&#231;&#245;es, sendo as mais comuns sangramento e infec&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Modelo</title>
        <p>Constru&#237;mos uma &#225;rvore de decis&#227;o comparando o tratamento padr&#227;o de CC na UTI, ao tratamento padr&#227;o combinado com a VA-ECMO. O modelo foi constru&#237;do usando o Treeage Pro 2020, R2.1 (TreeAge Software, Williamstown, MA, EUA). O modelo computa a probabilidade de eventos adversos influenciada pela estrat&#233;gia escolhida; tais probabilidades prov&#234;m da coorte local de pacientes com CC,<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> ou de acordo com os eventos adversos mais relevantes identificados na revis&#227;o da literatura. M&#250;ltiplos eventos adversos podem ocorrer em qualquer combina&#231;&#227;o, com probabilidades independentes, influenciados pela estrat&#233;gia aplicada. O modelo considera as combina&#231;&#245;es de eventos, e fornece a taxa de sobreviv&#234;ncia hospitalar e a propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com incapacidades relacionadas a eventos adversos hospitalares para cada estrat&#233;gia. Ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar, a sobrevida e o ganho em QALY em longo prazo s&#227;o determinados por incapacidades, se presentes na alta, sem influ&#234;ncia do tratamento inicial. O horizonte de tempo para o estudo foi o tempo de vida.</p>
        <p>Como observado em nossa coorte e nos dados da literatura, uma propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes do modelo sobreviver&#225; com uma qualidade de vida equivalente a pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca sintom&#225;tica, doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica, e um terceiro grupo viver&#225; como indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. Detalhes do modelo representado esquematicamente e os dados inseridos s&#227;o apresentados na <xref rid="f02" ref-type="fig">Figura 1</xref> e na <xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Representa&#231;&#227;o esquem&#225;tica do modelo; VA-ECMO: Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por Membrana Extracorp&#243;rea Venoarterial.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230672-30672-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Par&#226;metros inseridos no modelo</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                  <th>Caso-base</th>
                  <th>Ref (s)</th>
                  <th>An&#225;lise de sensibilidade</th>
                  <th>Ref (s)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>Probabilidades</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> AVC &#8211; grupo controle</td>
                  <td align="center">8%</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  <td align="center">4% - 16%</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> AVC &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">5,9%</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">3% - 12%</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> TSR &#8211; grupo controle</td>
                  <td align="center">25%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">
                      <sup>27</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">12,5% - 50%</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> TSR &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">22%</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">11% - 44%</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Necessidade de TSR ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar</td>
                  <td align="center">5%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">
                      <sup>29</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">3% - 10%</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Isquemia de membros &#8211; grupo controle</td>
                  <td align="center">6%</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  <td align="center">3% - 12%</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Isquemia de membros &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">15%</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">7,3% - 29,4%</td>
                  <td align="center">c, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Amputa&#231;&#227;o para isquemia de membros</td>
                  <td align="center">20%</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">10% - 40%</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sangramento &#8211; grupo controle</td>
                  <td align="center">12%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">
                      <sup>26</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">15% - 60%</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sangramento &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">41,2%</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">20,6% - 82,4%</td>
                  <td align="center">c, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Anemia ap&#243;s a alta em caso de sangramento</td>
                  <td align="center">53%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">
                      <sup>30</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">26,5% - 100%</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Embolia pulmonar &#8211; grupo controle</td>
                  <td align="center">9,1%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">
                      <sup>31</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">4,5% - 18%</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Embolia pulmonar &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">14,7%</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">7,35% - 29,4%</td>
                  <td align="center">c, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> HP ap&#243;s embolia pulmonar</td>
                  <td align="center">3,2%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">
                      <sup>32</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                      <sup>33</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">2% - 4,4%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">
                      <sup>32</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                      <sup>33</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sobrevida &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">54,9%</td>
                  <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">41% - 75%</td>
                  <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sobrevida &#8211; grupo controle</td>
                  <td align="center">30,25%</td>
                  <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">23% - 41%</td>
                  <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> RR para morte hospitalar &#8211; VA-ECMO vs. controle</td>
                  <td align="center">0,551</td>
                  <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> </td>
                  <td align="center">0,375 - 0,809</td>
                  <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> IC ap&#243;s a alta</td>
                  <td align="center">45%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">
                      <sup>11</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">
                      <sup>12</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">40% - 50%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">
                      <sup>11</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">
                      <sup>12</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> DAC ap&#243;s a alta</td>
                  <td align="center">48%</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">30% - 60%</td>
                  <td align="center">c, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>Outras vari&#225;veis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sobrevida m&#233;dia &#8211; IC (anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">5,92</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">
                      <sup>34</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">2,52 - 5,95</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                      <sup>35</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">
                      <sup>36</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sobrevida m&#233;dia &#8211; DAC (anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">11,4</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  <td align="center">8 - 16</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sobrevida ajustada &#8211; IC (QALY)</td>
                  <td align="center">4,4</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">
                      <sup>34</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">3,99 - 5,23</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                      <sup>35</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">
                      <sup>36</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sobrevida ajustada &#8211; DAC (QALY)</td>
                  <td align="center">8,46</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">
                      <sup>14</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">6 - 11</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">
                      <sup>14</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sobrevida m&#233;dia saud&#225;vel (anos)</td>
                  <td align="center">26,5</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">
                      <sup>15</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">20 - 30</td>
                  <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Sobrevida ajustada saud&#225;vel (QALY)</td>
                  <td align="center">20,14</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">
                      <sup>37</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">
                      <sup>38</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">8,4 - 30</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">
                      <sup>37</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">
                      <sup>38</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; TSR: tratamento de substitui&#231;&#227;o renal; HP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar; RR: risco relativo; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; c: coorte; &#167;: pressuposto.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Par&#226;metros do modelo</title>
        <p>Para fornecer dados ao modelo, conduzimos uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura pelos bancos de dados PubMed, Embase e Cochrane Central em busca de metan&#225;lises, estudos intervencionais ou estudos observacionais de VA-ECMO vs. tratamento padr&#227;o de CC (material suplementar).</p>
        <p>Para a efic&#225;cia, dados da coorte local foram combinados com dados de uma metan&#225;lise previamente publicada,<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> encontrada em nossa revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica. Usamos o programa OpenMeta por metan&#225;lise convencional e metan&#225;lise de bra&#231;o &#250;nico para combinar os resultados. Seguimos dois crit&#233;rios para integrar nossos achados aos da metan&#225;lise.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> Primeiro, a metan&#225;lise incluiu estudos comparando o grupo VA-ECMO com tratamento padr&#227;o. Segundo, a metan&#225;lise incorporou os mesmos estudos observacionais identificados em nossa revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica. Usamos somente estudos inclu&#237;dos na metan&#225;lise<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> que avaliou a VA-ECMO no CC fora do contexto de parada card&#237;aca. Assim, a probabilidade de sobrevida hospitalar com VA-ECMO foi calculada (54,9% com VA-ECMO versus 30,25% no grupo controle), bem como o risco relativo da sobrevida hospitalar sem interven&#231;&#227;o (<xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref>). A probabilidade de eventos adversos no grupo VA-ECMO baseou-se nas taxas observadas na coorte local.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> A probabilidade de eventos adversos no grupo controle foi obtida de nossa revis&#227;o da literatura.</p>
        <p>A propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar baseou-se nos dados da coorte e dados publicados.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> O impacto dessas doen&#231;as sobre sobrevida e qualidade de vida foi obtido de an&#225;lises econ&#244;micas publicadas anteriormente, que usaram coortes de pacientes de um dos hospitais inclu&#237;dos neste estudo.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>,<xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup>Para pacientes sem comorbidades, a sobrevida foi obtida das tabelas de mortalidade do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estat&#237;stica (IBGE).<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Valores alternativos foram obtidos da literatura e usados nas an&#225;lises de sensibilidade. Todas os dados de probabilidade inseridos s&#227;o apresentados na <xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref>. Aplicamos uma taxa de desconto de 5% por ano tanto para a efetividade cl&#237;nica como para os par&#226;metros de custos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Dados de custo</title>
        <p>Para estimar os custos de interna&#231;&#227;o, aplicamos o m&#233;todo de microcusteio para coletar dados de um subgrupo de 11 pacientes de uma coorte local, em tr&#234;s hospitais do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Todos os hospitais inclu&#237;dos na an&#225;lise de custo eram hospitais-escola terci&#225;rios; dois associados ao SUS, e outros ao sistema de sa&#250;de suplementar. Os hospitais estavam localizados pr&#243;ximos ao principal escrit&#243;rio da pesquisa, o que facilitou a coleta e a an&#225;lise dos dados. Todos os custos foram convertidos do Real para D&#243;lar internacional (Int$), usando o &#250;ltimo fator de convers&#227;o de paridade do poder de compra dispon&#237;vel no site do Banco Mundial, que considerou 1 d&#243;lar internacional igual a 2,53 reais (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/PA.NUS.PPP?locations=BR, acessado em 18 de abril de 2023).</p>
        <p>No grupo VA-ECMO, foram considerados os custos relacionados &#224; compra e &#224; implanta&#231;&#227;o, que envolve o custo de aquisi&#231;&#227;o, manuten&#231;&#227;o peri&#243;dica, c&#226;nulas arteriais, membranas e outros, considerando o n&#250;mero anual esperado de implantes por institui&#231;&#227;o e o ciclo de vida do equipamento.</p>
        <p>Considerando que os dados de microcusteio inclu&#237;ram gastos relacionados &#224;s complica&#231;&#245;es, o custo m&#233;dio de interna&#231;&#227;o foi atribu&#237;do &#224; coorte inteira de pacientes submetidos &#224; VA-ECMO, e o custo m&#233;dio de interna&#231;&#227;o para o tratamento padr&#227;o foi atribu&#237;do ao grupo controle. Assumiu-se que os eventos adversos e as comorbidades no modelo tiveram impacto somente sobre a sobrevida e na qualidade de vida no t&#233;rmino do modelo, e n&#227;o nos custos em longo prazo. Os dados de custos inseridos s&#227;o apresentados na <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Custo e utilidades</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                  <th>Caso-base</th>
                  <th>Ref (s)</th>
                  <th>An&#225;lise de sensibilidade</th>
                  <th>Ref (s)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>Custos</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tratamento padr&#227;o (Int$)</td>
                  <td align="center">10.694</td>
                  <td align="center">mc</td>
                  <td align="center">5.347 - 22.971</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>VA-ECMO &#8211; interna&#231;&#227;o (Int$)</td>
                  <td align="center">63.060</td>
                  <td align="center">mc</td>
                  <td align="center">31.530 - 126.119</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>VA-ECMO &#8211; implante (Int$)</td>
                  <td align="center">12.648</td>
                  <td align="center">ac</td>
                  <td align="center">6.324 - 25.297</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>VA-ECMO - capital</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Aquisi&#231;&#227;o (Int$)</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">96.933</td>
                  <td align="center">ac</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Tempo de servi&#231;o</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">10 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  <td align="center">3 &#8211; 10 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Interesse</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">5%</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  <td align="center">3% - 10%</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Custos anuais do servi&#231;o (Int$)</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">2.274</td>
                  <td align="center">ac</td>
                  <td align="center">1.137 - 4.547</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Implantes per hospital</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">5 / ano</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">3 - 10 / ano</td>
                  <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Custo por paciente (Int$)</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">2.547</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                  <td align="center">1.051 - 5.188</td>
                  <td align="center">c</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>VA-ECMO &#8211; total (Int$)</td>
                  <td align="center">78.255</td>
                  <td align="center">calc</td>
                  <td align="center">38.906 - 156.605</td>
                  <td align="center">calc.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>Utilidades (decr&#233;scimo)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> AVC (longo prazo)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,266</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">
                      <sup>39</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                      <sup>40</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">0,228 - 0,295</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">
                      <sup>39</sup>
                    </xref>
                    <sup>,</sup>
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                      <sup>40</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Amputa&#231;&#227;o (longo prazo)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,039</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                      <sup>41</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">0,023 - 0,059</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                      <sup>41</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> HP ap&#243;s embolia pulmonar (longo prazo)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,70</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                      <sup>33</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">0,30 - 0,80</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                      <sup>33</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Anemia (1 ano)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,052</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                      <sup>41</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">0,034 - 0,076</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                      <sup>41</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> TSR (longo prazo)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,571</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                      <sup>41</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">0,398 - 0,725</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                      <sup>41</sup>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>O custo total com VA-ECMO inclui custos com a interna&#231;&#227;o, implante e por paciente. AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; mc: microcusteio; cr: custo real; c: coorte; calc: calculado de outros par&#226;metros; HP: hipertens&#227;o pulmonar; TSR: tratamento de substitui&#231;&#227;o renal; &#167;: pressuposto.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Limiar da disposi&#231;&#227;o a pagar</title>
        <p>N&#243;s adotamos o limiar oficial de DAP para as condi&#231;&#245;es fatais no SUS: tr&#234;s vezes o produto interno bruto per capita, equivalente a Int$ 54,729 por QALY em 2023.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>,<xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise de sensibilidade</title>
        <p>Valores alternativos para todos os dados inseridos foram usados para an&#225;lise de sensibilidade unidirecional. No caso de dados prim&#225;rios obtidos da coorte, os limites para a an&#225;lise de sensibilidade foram estimados com base no intervalo de valores alternativos identificado na revis&#227;o da literatura, ou, no caso de informa&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel, assumindo-se a metade e o dobro dos valores observados na coorte original.</p>
        <p>Nos par&#226;metros com m&#250;ltiplos valores encontrados na revis&#227;o da literatura, os valores mais altos e os mais baixos foram usados como intervalos para a an&#225;lise de sensibilidade. Para o risco relativo e estimativas de probabilidade, intervalos de confian&#231;a de 95% foram usados como limites na an&#225;lise de sensibilidade. Para os dados de custo, a metade e o dobro das estimativas basais foram usados como os limites inferiores e superiores da an&#225;lise de sensibilidade.</p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s identificar os par&#226;metros aos quais o modelo era mais sens&#237;vel, realizamos an&#225;lises de sensibilidade bidirecionais, para registrar o efeito da varia&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea de duas vari&#225;veis ao mesmo tempo.</p>
        <p>Ainda, realizou-se a an&#225;lise de sensibilidade probabil&#237;stica, com varia&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea de todos os par&#226;metros. A simula&#231;&#227;o usou 100 000 ensaios, com distribui&#231;&#245;es beta para probabilidade e vari&#225;veis de utilidade, e distribui&#231;&#245;es gama para dados de custo e sobrevida.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Caso base</title>
        <p>Na an&#225;lise principal, o custo m&#233;dio por paciente do tratamento padr&#227;o foi de Int$ 10.694, e o tratamento com VA-ECMO teve um custo m&#233;dio de Int$ 78.255. Para o horizonte de vida, a sobreviv&#234;ncia m&#233;dia foi de 3,02 anos com o tratamento padr&#227;o e 5,49 anos com VA-ECMO; a sobreviv&#234;ncia ajustada pela qualidade de vida mostrou 2,18 QALY para o tratamento padr&#227;o e 3,99 QALY para o tratamento com VA-ECMO. Isso resultou em uma raz&#227;o de custo-efetividade incremental (RCEI) de Int$ 37.491 por QALY. Na an&#225;lise secund&#225;ria, o RCEI foi de Int$ 27.432 por ano de vida ganho. A <xref rid="t3" ref-type="table">Tabela 3</xref> resume os resultados do caso base.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Resultados do caso-base</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="4" align="left">Resultados por QALY</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Estrat&#233;gia</th>
                  <th>Custo (Int$)</th>
                  <th>QALY ganho</th>
                  <th>RCEI</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tratamento padr&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">10.694</td>
                  <td align="center">2,18</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>VA-ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">78.255</td>
                  <td align="center">3,99</td>
                  <td align="center">37.491 Int$/ QALY</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="4">
                    <bold>Resultados por ano de vida</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Estrat&#233;gia</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Custo (Int$)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Anos de vida ganhos</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>RCEI</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tratamento padr&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">10.694</td>
                  <td align="center">3,02</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>VA-ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">78.255</td>
                  <td align="center">5,49</td>
                  <td align="center">27.432 Int$/ AVG</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>RCEI: Raz&#227;o de Custo-Efetividade Incremental; AVG: Anos de vida ganhos.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise de sensibilidade</title>
        <p>An&#225;lises de sensibilidade unidirecional e bidirecional mostraram que os resultados foram sens&#237;veis principalmente ao custo de interna&#231;&#227;o no grupo VA-ECMO, probabilidade de risco relativo de sobrevida entre os grupos, e sobrevida no grupo VA-ECMO.</p>
        <p>Na an&#225;lise de sensibilidade probabil&#237;stica com 100 000 ensaios, a estrat&#233;gia VA-ECMO &#233; consistentemente mais efetiva e mais cara que o tratamento convencional, apesar de uma dispers&#227;o relativamente mais ampla dos resultados de custo e utilidade para a VA-ECMO (<xref rid="f03" ref-type="fig">Figura 2</xref>). O gr&#225;fico de dispers&#227;o da custo-efetividade incremental mostra que 100% das itera&#231;&#245;es apresentam custo incremental e efetividade positivas. (<xref rid="f01" ref-type="fig">Figura Central</xref>). A curva de aceitabilidade de custo-efetividade mostra uma probabilidade de 78% da terapia VA-ECMO ser custo-efetiva no limiar de DAP proposto (<xref rid="f04" ref-type="fig">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Dispers&#227;o dos resultados de custo e de utilidade da Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por Membrana Extracorp&#243;rea Venoarterial (VA-ECMO) e do tratamento padr&#227;o para choque cardiog&#234;nico.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230672-30672-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Custo-Efetividade da Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por Membrana Extracorp&#243;rea Venoarterial no Choque Cardiog&#234;nico Refrat&#225;rio: Um Estudo Brasileiro de Perspectiva</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Diagrama de dispers&#227;o de custo-efetividade incremental (custo por QALY), VA-ECMO vs. Cuidado Padr&#227;o. Cada ponto &#233; uma simula&#231;&#227;o probabil&#237;stica do modelo, e o c&#237;rculo verde cont&#233;m 95% das simula&#231;&#245;es. A maioria das simula&#231;&#245;es (78%) situa-se no lado direito da linha do limiar da disposi&#231;&#227;o a pagar, considerada rent&#225;vel. DAP: Limite de disposi&#231;&#227;o a pagar.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230672-30672-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Curva de aceitabilidade da custo-efetividade (custo por QALY); linha pontilhada representa o limiar da disposi&#231;&#227;o a pagar no Brasil.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230672-30672-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>As decis&#245;es quanto &#224; implementa&#231;&#227;o de novas tecnologias em sa&#250;de de alto custo podem ser desafiadoras para os <italic>stakeholders</italic> e sistemas de sa&#250;de, e tentativas de padroniza&#231;&#227;o de limiares adequados da DAP est&#227;o continuamente evoluindo. Considerando o limiar atual da DAP do SUS, a VA-ECMO parece custo efetiva em nossa principal an&#225;lise.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup> Em todo o mundo, a DAP m&#233;dia por QALY &#233; Int$ 34,309;<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> o limiar da DAP pode ser at&#233; tr&#234;s vezes maior para pacientes cr&#237;ticos,<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup> e em alguns pa&#237;ses de alta renda, limiares usuais s&#227;o mais altos,<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> sugerindo que a VA-ECMO pode tamb&#233;m ser custo efetiva para os sistemas de sa&#250;de de outros pa&#237;ses.</p>
      <p>Encontramos poucas evid&#234;ncias econ&#244;micas sobre VA-ECMO para adultos. Uma an&#225;lise dos sistemas de sa&#250;de do Canad&#225; e dos Estados Unidos encontrou um gasto de cerca de 18000 d&#243;lares canadenses<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>,<xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> e 74500 d&#243;lares americanos por paciente, mas n&#227;o foi quantificado a custo-efetividade. Da perspectiva de um centro de transplante na Finl&#226;ndia, o custo por paciente tratado com VA-ECMO variou entre 50 000 e 240 000 euros (mediana 130 000 euros) e RCEI da VA-ECMO para CC foi 12 642 euros por QALY ganho.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nossos dados mostram robustez suficiente, e os principais resultados n&#227;o foram influenciados por vari&#225;veis individuais, exceto aquelas que cont&#234;m os elementos chave de custo efetividade da interven&#231;&#227;o: custo da VA-ECMO, e sobrevida do paciente. No entanto, apesar das vantagens de nosso estudo usando dados de complica&#231;&#227;o e custo obtidos localmente &#8211; com um m&#233;todo detalhado baseado na t&#233;cnica de microcusteio e an&#225;lise de sensibilidade &#8211; limita&#231;&#245;es inerentes ao m&#233;todo e fontes confi&#225;veis insuficientes sobre dados de efic&#225;cia devem ser considerados antes da ampla implementa&#231;&#227;o do VA-ECMO. O modelo de Markov requer presun&#231;&#245;es sobre transi&#231;&#227;o de estados de sa&#250;de, e efeitos colaterais que podem n&#227;o representar exatamente o mundo real.</p>
      <p>Recentemente, ensaios randomizados levantaram preocupa&#231;&#245;es v&#225;lidas sobre o benef&#237;cio da VA-ECMO em pacientes com IM e CC. No maior ensaio, o ECLS-SHOCK, 420 pacientes com CC causado por IM, com indica&#231;&#227;o de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o, foram aleatoriamente alocados para receberem VA-ECMO ou o tratamento padr&#227;o. Os autores exclu&#237;ram pacientes com mais de 12 horas de CC. Mortalidade por todas as causas em 30 dias n&#227;o foi diferente entre os grupos (risco relativo 0,98, intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% 0,8 &#8211; 1,19; p=0,81), e a ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramento e complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares perif&#233;ricas foi maior no grupo VA-ECMO.<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup> No entanto, no ensaio ECLS-SHOCL, 77% dos pacientes foram ressuscitados de parada card&#237;aca antes da randomiza&#231;&#227;o, enquanto nosso foco foi primariamente CC sem parada card&#237;aca.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> Na coorte brasileira, somente 26% dos pacientes sofreram parada card&#237;aca antes da canula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> Ainda, ensaios publicados recentemente testando a VA-ECMO para CC inclu&#237;ram somente pacientes com IM,7 ao passo que na nossa coorte, o IM representou somente 37% dos casos.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> O ensaio ECMO-CS, que incluiu pacientes com diferentes etiologias de CC, testou principalmente o tempo de implementa&#231;&#227;o &#8211; a VA-ECMO imediata ou n&#227;o imediata (conservadora). No grupo conservador, 39% requereu suporte com VA-ECMO, o que pode ter dilu&#237;do o benef&#237;cio da VA-ECMO quando comparado a de outra abordagem conservadora, na aus&#234;ncia de inclus&#227;o a VA-ECMO ao sistema de sa&#250;de.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Portanto, nosso estudo destaca que, se comprovada sua efic&#225;cia em estudos futuros, o uso de VA-ECMO poderia ser uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica custo-efetiva no contexto SUS. Contudo, &#233; fundamental reconhecer que a desigualdade &#233; um marco dos pa&#237;ses de m&#233;dia renda como o Brasil, e a equidade continua uma preocupa&#231;&#227;o premente.<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, manter a resili&#234;ncia nas UTIs geralmente requer um melhor entendimento de quais pacientes realmente se beneficiam de terapias intensivas.<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref></sup> Assim, antes da ampla implementa&#231;&#227;o de uma terapia de alto custo, ensaios cl&#237;nicos rigorosos envolvendo um perfil mais diversificado de pacientes com CC, e uma menor incid&#234;ncia de parada card&#237;aca precedendo o uso do dispositivo s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para elucidar o papel de cada doen&#231;a (al&#233;m do IM) sobre os desfechos, e avaliar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os est&#225;gios do CC e o benef&#237;cio da VA-ECMO.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o ensaio mencionado difere-se de nossa coorte, em que a maioria dos pacientes apresentavam classifica&#231;&#227;o SCAI (<italic>the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions</italic>) D (ao contr&#225;rio de estudos com uma predomin&#226;ncia de SCAI C ou E).<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> Mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios n&#227;o s&#243; para reduzir incertezas a respeito do custo efetividade dessa terapia, como tamb&#233;m orientar m&#233;dicos e assegurar acesso igualit&#225;rio &#224;s interven&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas de ponta dentro do sistema de sa&#250;de.</p>
      <p>Dada a crescente efic&#225;cia da VA-ECMO, outros desafios na sua integra&#231;&#227;o no sistema de sa&#250;de brasileiro, da perspectiva dos gestores pol&#237;ticos, incluem o entendimento das implica&#231;&#245;es or&#231;ament&#225;rias da implementa&#231;&#227;o, o estabelecimento de centros adequadamente equipados e treinados para o uso apropriado do equipamento, e o reconhecimento da presen&#231;a de um efeito da curva de aprendizagem.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> Isso destaca a import&#226;ncia de se estabelecer centros especializados em cada regi&#227;o, considerando suas disparidades e expertise, como o caminho ideal de assegurar a implementa&#231;&#227;o efetiva da tecnologia.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em resumo, nossa an&#225;lise de custo utilidade no contexto SUS sugere que a inclus&#227;o do VA-ECMO ao tratamento padr&#227;o pode oferecer uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica custo-efetiva para pacientes adultos com CC refrat&#225;rio, independentemente da sua causa. Contudo, a escassez de dados robustos de efic&#225;cia e ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados recentes que abordaram subgrupos de pacientes destacam a necessidade de mais pesquisas. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos rigorosos, incluindo um perfil de pacientes mais diversificados e incid&#234;ncia mais baixa de parada card&#237;aca imediata, s&#227;o essenciais para confirmar a custo-efetividade do uso de VA-ECMO e assegurar acesso igualit&#225;rio a interven&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas avan&#231;adas dentro do sistema de sa&#250;de, especialmente em pa&#237;ses como o Brasil com diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es de pacientes.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>Agradecemos ao Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de e ao Hospital Moinho de Ventos por nos fornecer dados cruciais para o desenvolvimento deste estudo. Este estudo foi financiado pelo Programa de Desenvolvimento Institucional do Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (PROADI-SUS), um programa do Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de em que institui&#231;&#245;es de sa&#250;de selecionadas executam projetos de interesse p&#250;blico. O Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, Brasil, &#233; respons&#225;vel por financiar e conduzir o projeto de acordo com a Resolu&#231;&#227;o No. 09/2015 da Ag&#234;ncia Nacional de Vigil&#226;ncia Sanit&#225;ria e o guia de Boas Pr&#225;ticas Cl&#237;nicas E6 &#8211; 2&#170; revis&#227;o do ICH (<italic>International Council for Harmonization</italic>).</p>
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            <given-names>Luis Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2447-2577</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi Anne</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Regis Goulart</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7290-0348</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bertoldi</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Gehling</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Medicina Interna, Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escrit&#243;rio de Pesquisa PROADI-SUS, Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia e Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Nove de Julho, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escrit&#243;rio de Gest&#227;o da Pr&#225;tica Cl&#237;nica, Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: S&#233;rgio Renato da Rosa Decker &#8226; Hospital Moinhos de Vento &#8211; Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 630, 10&#186; andar, Sala 1007 CEP 90035-001, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil E-mail: sergioodecker@hotmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor responsible for the review: Alexandre Colafranceschi</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Refractory cardiogenic shock (CS) is associated with high mortality rates, and the use of venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) as a therapeutic option has generated discussions. Therefore, its cost-effectiveness, especially in low- and middle-income countries like Brazil, remains uncertain.Objectives: To conduct a cost-utility analysis from the Brazilian Unified Health System perspective to assess the cost-effectiveness of VA-ECMO combined with standard care compared to standard care alone in adult refractory CS patients.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> We followed a cohort of refractory CS patients treated with VA-ECMO in tertiary care centers located in Southern Brazilian. We collected data on hospital outcomes and costs. We conducted a systematic review to supplement our data and utilized a Markov model to estimate incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) and per life-year gained.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> In the base-case analysis, VA-ECMO yielded an ICER of Int$ 37,491 per QALY. Sensitivity analyses identified hospitalization cost, relative risk of survival, and VA-ECMO group survival as key drivers of results. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis favored VA-ECMO, with a 78% probability of cost-effectiveness at the recommended willingness-to-pay threshold.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p> Our study suggests that, within the Brazilian Health System framework, VA-ECMO may be a cost-effective therapy for refractory CS. However, limited efficacy data and recent trials questioning its benefit in specific patient subsets highlight the need for further research. Rigorous clinical trials, encompassing diverse patient profiles, are essential to confirm cost-effectiveness and ensure equitable access to advanced medical interventions within healthcare systems, particularly in socio-economically diverse countries like Brazil.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiogenic Shock</kwd>
        <kwd>Costs and Cost Analysis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01001">
          <label>Central Illustration</label>
          <caption>
            <title>: Cost-Utility of Venoarterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation in Refractory Cardiogenic Shock: A Brazilian Perspective Study</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Dispersion diagram of incremental cost-effectiveness (cost per QALY), VA-ECMO vs. Standard Care. Each point is a probabilistic simulation of the model, and the green circle contains 95% of the simulations. Most of the simulations (78%) are on the right side of the willingness-to-pay threshold line, considered cost-effective. WTP: Willingness-to-pay threshold.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230672-30672-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Refractory cardiogenic shock (CS) is associated with a poor prognosis with mortality rates ranging from 40% to 88%.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> Contemporary cohorts have exhibited enhanced survival within high-volume centers that integrate venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) to restore tissue perfusion, reduce organ damage, and stabilize patients with refractory CS, as a bridge to recovery, heart transplant, or other treatment decisions.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref>-<xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> However, clinical trials of myocardial infarction (MI) patients have failed to demonstrate a clear clinical benefit.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Moreover, due to the need for a specialized Intensive Care Unit (ICU)<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> and costs of equipments,<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref>-<xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> the decision-making process for incorporation of VA-ECMO technology requires a comprehensive evaluation through cost-utility and budget-impact analyses. This evaluation is particularly relevant for health systems in low- and middle-income countries.</p>
        <p>We followed a cohort of patients treated with VA-ECMO for refractory CS in Southern Brazilian tertiary care centers, collecting data on hospital outcomes and costs. We conducted a cost-utility analysis, supplemented by a literature review, to compare the effectiveness of VA-ECMO combined with standard care versus standard care alone among adult patients with refractory CS regardless of etiology and compare it with current evidence. This study was carried out from the perspective of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>As part of a national research program focused on assessing the viability of integrating VA-ECMO into SUS, we conducted a cost-utility analysis in a prospective cohort study of patients with refractory CS who received VA-ECMO treatment. The study was conducted at four tertiary care centers in Southern Brazil between April 2017 and December 2020. The centers were enrolled in the program &#8220;<italic>Qualification for use of mechanical circulatory support devices in the Brazilian Unified Health System</italic>&#8221;. The reporting was conducted according to CHEERS guidelines.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>To be eligible for enrollment, the centers were required to have a 24/7 catheterization laboratory, a specialized heart failure team capable of employing temporary mechanical circulatory support (MCS) devices and a cardiac surgery team. Also, they should be located at southern Brazil. All participating centers underwent training in MCS utilization following the guidelines established by the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO),<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref></sup> including seminars and hands-on experience with simulated scenarios. However, centers had the autonomy to implement CS treatment strategies based on local resources, including algorithms, dedicated CS teams, mandatory or case-by-case use of pulmonary artery catheters, device selection, and weaning protocols.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Additional input data not available from this cohort were obtained from systematic review of the literature. We searched PubMed, Cochrane CENTRAL and EMBASE for studies reporting outcomes in patients treated with VA-ECMO for CS, with further manual search of references from retrieved manuscripts. The detailed search method of our review is presented in the supplementary appendix, and data extracted from literature and used in our model are described in Tables 1 and 2.</p>
        <p>The results are presented as incremental cost-effectiveness ratio per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) and life-year gained and compared with the willingness-to-pay (WTP) threshold recommended by the National Commission for Incorporation of Technologies in the Brazilian Unified Health System (CONITEC).<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Patients</title>
          <p>Patients included had refractory CS and were older than 18 years of age. CS was defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) &lt;90mmHg for more than 30min or the need of inotropes/vasopressors to maintain SBP &gt;90mmHg, or cardiac index &lt;2.2 L/min/m<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> receiving inotropes/vasopressors, signs of end-organ damage (urine output &lt;0.5mL/kg/h, lactate level &gt;2mmol/L, clammy skin, capillary filling time &gt;3s), without improvement despite the initial management with volume resuscitation and/or use of vasopressors/inotropes.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref>-<xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Thirty-five CS patients were included in the VA-ECMO cohort. The baseline characteristics were a median age of 55 (interquartile range, 42-63) years old, 23 (63%) were male, and the causes for CS were: acute MI 13 (37%), acute decompensated heart failure 8 (23%), post-heart transplant 7 (20%), post-cardiotomy 4 (11%), pulmonary embolism 2 (6%), and myocarditis 1 (3%).<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> Overall, 61% of patients died, 76% experienced complications, with the most common being bleeding and infection.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Model</title>
          <p>We built a decision tree comparing standard care of CS in ICU, to standard care with the addition of VA-ECMO. Model was built using Treeage Pro 2020, R2.1. (TreeAge Software, Williamstown, MA, USA). The model computes the probability of adverse events influenced by the strategy chosen; these probabilities come from the local cohort of CS patients,<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> or according to the most relevant adverse events identified in the literature review. Multiple adverse events can happen in any combination, with independent probabilities, influenced by the allocated strategy. The model considers the event combinations, and outputs the hospital survival rate and the proportion of patients with disabilities related to in-hospital adverse events for each strategy. After hospital discharge, long-term survival and QALY gains are determined by disabilities, if present at discharge, without further influence from initial treatment allocation. The time horizon for the study was life-time.</p>
          <p>As observed in our cohort and literature data, a proportion of modeled patients will survive with a quality of life equivalent to patients with symptomatic heart failure, ischemic heart disease, and a third subgroup will live as healthy individuals. Details of schematically represented model and model inputs are shown in <xref rid="f02001" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref>, <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref> and <xref rid="t2001" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Schematic representation of the model. VA-ECMO: venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230672-30672-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Input parameters for the model</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Variable</th>
                    <th>Base-case</th>
                    <th>Ref (s)</th>
                    <th>Sensitivity analysis</th>
                    <th>Ref (s)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="5">
                      <bold>Probabilities</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Stroke &#8211; control group</td>
                    <td align="center">8%</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                    <td align="center">4% - 16%</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Stroke &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">5.9%</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">3% - 12%</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> RRT &#8211; control group</td>
                    <td align="center">25%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">
                        <sup>27</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">12.5% - 50%</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> RRT &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">22%</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">11% - 44%</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Need for RRT after discharge</td>
                    <td align="center">5%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">
                        <sup>29</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">3% - 10%</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Limb ischemia &#8211; control group</td>
                    <td align="center">6%</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                    <td align="center">3% - 12%</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Limb ischemia &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">15%</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">7.3% - 29.4%</td>
                    <td align="center">c, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Amputation if limb ischemia</td>
                    <td align="center">20%</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">10% - 40%</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Bleeding &#8211; control group</td>
                    <td align="center">12%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">
                        <sup>26</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">15% - 60%</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Bleeding &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">41.2%</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">20.6% - 82.4%</td>
                    <td align="center">c, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Post-discharge anemia if bleeding</td>
                    <td align="center">53%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">
                        <sup>30</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">26.5% - 100%</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> PE &#8211; control group</td>
                    <td align="center">9.1%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">
                        <sup>31</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">4.5% - 18%</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> PE &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">14.7%</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">7.35% - 29.4%</td>
                    <td align="center">c, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> PH after PE</td>
                    <td align="center">3.2%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">
                        <sup>32</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                        <sup>33</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">2% - 4.4%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">
                        <sup>32</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                        <sup>33</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Survival &#8211; VA-ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">54.9%</td>
                    <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></td>
                    <td align="center">41% - 75%</td>
                    <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Survival &#8211; control group</td>
                    <td align="center">30.25%</td>
                    <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></td>
                    <td align="center">23% - 41%</td>
                    <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> RR for in-hospital death &#8211; VA-ECMO vs. control</td>
                    <td align="center">0.551</td>
                    <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></td>
                    <td align="center">0.375 - 0.809</td>
                    <td align="center">c, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> HF after discharge</td>
                    <td align="center">45%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">
                        <sup>11</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">
                        <sup>12</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">40% - 50%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">
                        <sup>11</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">
                        <sup>12</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> CHD after discharge</td>
                    <td align="center">48%</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">30% - 60%</td>
                    <td align="center">c, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="5">
                      <bold>Other variables</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Average survival HF (years)</td>
                    <td align="center">5.92</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">
                        <sup>34</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">2.52 - 5.95</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                        <sup>35</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">
                        <sup>36</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Average survival CHD (years)</td>
                    <td align="center">11.4</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                    <td align="center">8 - 16</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Adjusted survival HF (QALY)</td>
                    <td align="center">4.4</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">
                        <sup>34</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">3.99 - 5.23</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">
                        <sup>35</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">
                        <sup>36</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Adjusted survival CHD (QALY)</td>
                    <td align="center">8.46</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">
                        <sup>14</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">6 - 11</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">
                        <sup>14</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Average survival healthy (years)</td>
                    <td align="center">26.5</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">
                        <sup>15</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">20 - 30</td>
                    <td align="center"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref>, &#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Adjusted survival healthy (QALY)</td>
                    <td align="center">20.14</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">
                        <sup>37</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">
                        <sup>38</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">8.4 - 30</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">
                        <sup>37</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">
                        <sup>38</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>RRT: renal replacement therapy; PE: pulmonary embolism; PH: pulmonary hypertension; RR: relative risk; HF: heart failure; CHD: coronary heart disease; c: cohort; &#167;: assumption; QALY: quality-adjusted life year.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Cost and Utilities</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Variable</th>
                    <th>Base-case</th>
                    <th>Ref (s)</th>
                    <th>Sensitivity analysis</th>
                    <th>Ref (s)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="5">
                      <bold>Costs</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Standard care (Int$)</td>
                    <td align="center">10,694</td>
                    <td align="center">mc</td>
                    <td align="center">5,347 - 22,971</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>VA-ECMO &#8211; hospitalization (Int$)</td>
                    <td align="center">63,060</td>
                    <td align="center">mc</td>
                    <td align="center">31,530 - 126,119</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>VA-ECMO &#8211; implant (Int$)</td>
                    <td align="center">12,648</td>
                    <td align="center">ac</td>
                    <td align="center">6,324 - 25,297</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="5">VA-ECMO - capital</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>Acquisition (Int$)</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">96,933</td>
                    <td align="center">ac</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>Service time</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">10 years</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                    <td align="center">3 &#8211; 10 years</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>Interest</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">5%</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                    <td align="center">3% - 10%</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>Annual service costs (Int$)</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">2,274</td>
                    <td align="center">ac</td>
                    <td align="center">1,137 - 4,547</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>Implants per hospital</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">5 / year</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">3 - 10 / year</td>
                    <td align="center">&#167;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>Cost per patient (Int$)</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">2,547</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                    <td align="center">1,051 - 5,188</td>
                    <td align="center">c</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>VA-ECMO &#8211; total (Int$)</td>
                    <td align="center">78,255</td>
                    <td align="center">calc</td>
                    <td align="center">38,906 - 156,605</td>
                    <td align="center">calc.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="5">
                      <bold>Utilities (decrement)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Stroke (long term)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.266</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">
                        <sup>39</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                        <sup>40</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">0.228 - 0.295</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">
                        <sup>39</sup>
                      </xref>
                      <sup>,</sup>
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">
                        <sup>40</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Amputation (long term)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.039</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                        <sup>41</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">0.023 - 0.059</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                        <sup>41</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> PH after PE (long term)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.70</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                        <sup>33</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">0.30 - 0.80</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">
                        <sup>33</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Anemia (during 1 year)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.052</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                        <sup>41</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">0.034 - 0.076</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                        <sup>41</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> RRT (long term)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.571</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                        <sup>41</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">0.398 - 0.725</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">
                        <sup>41</sup>
                      </xref>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>Mc: micro-costing; ac: actual cost; c: cohort; calc: calculated from other parameters; PE: pulmonary embolism; PH: pulmonary hypertension; RRT: renal replacement therapy; &#167;: assumption. VA-ECMO total cost includes VA-ECMO hospitalization, implant, and per patient costs.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Model parameters</title>
          <p>To provide supplementary data for inputs, we performed a systematic review of literature, searching PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Central for meta-analyses, interventional studies, or observational studies of VA-ECMO vs. standard treatment of CS (Supplementary Appendix).</p>
          <p>For the efficacy input, local cohort data were combined with data from a previously published meta-analysis,<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> found in our systematic review. We used the OpenMeta software by conventional and single-arm meta-analysis to combine the results. We followed two rationales to integrate our findings with the previously published meta-analysis.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> Firstly, it encompassed studies comparing the VA-ECMO group with standard treatment. Secondly, the meta-analysis incorporated the same observational studies identified in our systematic review. We only used studies included in the published meta-analysis<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> that evaluated VA-ECMO in CS outside cardiac arrest context. Thus, the probability of hospital survival with VA-ECMO was calculated (54.9% with VA-ECMO <italic>versus</italic> 30.25% in control group), as well as the relative risk of hospital survival without intervention (<xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>). Probability of adverse events in the VA-ECMO group was based on observed rates in the local cohort.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> The probability of adverse events in the control group was obtained from our literature review.</p>
          <p>The proportion of patients with heart failure and ischemic heart disease after hospital discharge was based on cohort data and published data.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> The impact of these diseases on survival and quality of life was obtained from previously published economic analyses, which used cohorts of patients from one of the hospitals included in this study.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>,<xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> For patients without comorbidities, survival was obtained from the National Institute of Statistics (IBGE) mortality tables.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Alternative values were obtained from the literature and used in sensitivity analyses. All probability inputs are shown in <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>. We apply a discount rate of 5% per year for both clinical effectiveness and cost parameters.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cost data</title>
          <p>To estimate hospitalization costs, micro-costing methodology was applied to collect data from a subgroup of 11 patients from the local cohort, in three hospitals in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. All hospitals included in cost analysis were tertiary teaching hospitals; two were linked to the Brazilian Unified Health System, and other linked to the supplementary health system; they were located close to the main research office facilitating data collection and analysis. All costs were converted from Brazilian Real to International Dollars (Int$), using the World Bank&#8217;s latest available purchasing power parity conversion factor of 2.53 (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/PA.NUS.PPP?locations=BR, accessed April 18, 2023).</p>
          <p>In the VA-ECMO group, costs related to purchase and implantation were considered, which involves the cost of acquisition, periodic maintenance, arterial cannulas, membranes, and others, considering the expected annual number of implants per institution and the equipment life-cycle.</p>
          <p>Considering that the micro-cost data included expenses related to complications, mean cost of hospitalization was attributed for the entire cohort of patients undergoing VA-ECMO, and mean hospitalization cost for standard treatment was attributed for the control group. It was assumed that adverse events and model comorbidities impacted only on survival and quality of life at model termination, not in long-term costs. Costs inputs are presented in <xref rid="t2001" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Willingness-To-Pay Threshold</title>
          <p>We adopted the official WTP threshold for life-threatening conditions in the Brazilian public health system: three times Brazilian GDP per capita, equivalent to Int$ 54,729 per QALY in 2023.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref>,<xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sensitivity analysis</title>
          <p>Alternative values for all input data were used in the one-way sensitivity analysis. In the case of primary data obtained from the cohort, the limits for the sensitivity analysis were estimated based on the range of alternative values identified in the literature review, or, in the case of unavailable information, assuming half and twice the values observed in the original cohort.</p>
          <p>In parameters with multiple values found in the literature review, the highest and lowest values were used as ranges for the sensitivity analysis. For relative risk and probability estimates, 95% confidence intervals were used as boundaries for the sensitivity analysis. For cost data, half and twice the base estimates were used as the lower and upper limits of the sensitivity analysis.</p>
          <p>After identifying the parameters to which the model was most sensitive, we performed two-way sensitivity analyses, to document the effect of simultaneous variation of two variables at a time.</p>
          <p>In addition, probabilistic sensitivity analysis was performed, with simultaneous variation of all parameters. The simulation used 100,000 trials, with beta distributions for probability and utility variables, and gamma distributions for cost and survival data.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Base-Case</title>
          <p>In the main analysis, the mean cost per patient of the standard treatment was Int$ 10,694, and treatment with VA-ECMO had a mean cost of Int$ 78,255. For the life-time horizon, mean survival was 3.02 years with standard treatment and 5.49 years with VA-ECMO; quality-adjusted survival showed standard a 2.18 QALY for the standard treatment and 3.99 QALY for the VA-ECMO treatment. This resulted in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of Int$ 37,491 per QALY. In the secondary analysis, ICER was Int$ 27,432 per life-year gained. <xref rid="t3001" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref> summarizes base-case results.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Base-case results</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th colspan="4" align="left">Results per QALY</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Strategy</th>
                    <th>Cost (Int$)</th>
                    <th>QALY gained</th>
                    <th>ICER</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Standard care</td>
                    <td align="center">10,694</td>
                    <td align="center">2.18</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>VA-ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">78,255</td>
                    <td align="center">3.99</td>
                    <td align="center">37,491 Int$/ QALY</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="4">
                      <bold>Results per Life-year Gained</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Strategy</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>Cost (Int$)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>Life-years gained</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>ICER</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Standard care</td>
                    <td align="center">10,694</td>
                    <td align="center">3.02</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>VA-ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">78,255</td>
                    <td align="center">5.49</td>
                    <td align="center">27,432 Int$/ LYG</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN3001">
                  <p>ICER: incremental cost-effectiveness ratio; LYG: life-year gained; QALY: quality-adjusted life year.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sensitivity analysis</title>
          <p>One-way and two-way sensitivity analyses have shown that results were sensitive mainly to cost of hospitalization in the VA-ECMO group, relative risk probability of survival between the groups, and survival in the VA-ECMO group.</p>
          <p>In probabilistic sensitivity analysis with 100,000 trials, the VA-ECMO strategy is consistently more effective and more costly than conventional treatment, despite a relatively wide dispersion of cost and utility outputs for VA-ECMO (<xref rid="f03001" ref-type="fig">Figure 2</xref>). The scatterplot of incremental cost-effectiveness shows that 100% of iterations have positive incremental cost and effectiveness (Central Figure). The cost-effectiveness acceptability curve shows a 78% probability of VA-ECMO therapy being cost-effective at the proposed WTP threshold (<xref rid="f04001" ref-type="fig">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Dispersion of cost and utility outputs of VA-ECMO and standard treatment for cardiogenic shock. VA-ECMO: venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, QALY: quality-adjusted life year.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230672-30672-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Cost-effectiveness acceptability curve (cost per QALY). Dashed line shows Brazilian willingness-to-pay threshold. VA-ECMO: venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-08-e20230672-30672-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Decisions regarding implementation of new high-cost health technologies can be challenging for stakeholders and health systems, and attempts at standardization of adequate WTP thresholds are continually evolving; considering Brazil&#8217;s Unified Health System current WTP threshold, VA-ECMO appears to be cost-effective in our main analysis.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup> Worldwide, mean WTP per QALY is Int$ 34,309;<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> WTP threshold can be up to three times higher for critical care patients,<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup> and in some high-income countries usual thresholds were higher,<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> suggesting VA-ECMO may also be cost-effective for other nations&#8217; health systems.</p>
        <p>We found scarce previous economic evidence on VA-ECMO for adults. An analysis of the Canadian and United States health systems found a cost of about 18,000 Canadian dollars<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref>,<xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> and US$ 74,500 per patient, but cost-effectiveness was not quantified. From the perspective of a transplant center in Finland, the cost per patient treated with VA-ECMO ranged between 50,000 and 240,000 Euros (median 130,000 Euros) and ICER of VA-ECMO for CS was 12,642 Euros per QALY gained.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Our model shows sufficient robustness, and the main results were not influenced by individual variables, except for those that contain the key elements of cost and effectiveness of the intervention: VA-ECMO cost, and patient survival. However, despite advantages of our study, using adverse event probabilities and cost data obtained locally &#8211; with a detailed method based on the micro-costing technique and sensitivity analysis &#8211; limitations inherent to the method and insufficient reliable sources of efficacy data should be considered before wide implementation of VA-ECMO. Markov model requires assumptions about state transitions, efficacy, and collateral effects that could not represent exactly the real world.</p>
        <p>Recently, randomized trials have raised valid concerns regarding the benefit of VA-ECMO in MI patients followed by CS. In the largest trial, ECLS-SHOCK trial, 420 patients with CS due to MI for whom early revascularization was planned, were randomly assigned to receive VA-ECMO or usual treatment. The authors excluded patients with more than 12 hours of CS. Death from any cause at 30 days was not different between the groups (relative risk, 0.98; 95% confidence interval, 0.8 &#8211; 1.19; p=0.81), and bleeding and peripheral vascular complications were higher in the VA-ECMO group.<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup> However, in ECLS-SHOCK, 77% of patients were resuscitated due to cardiac arrest before randomization, whereas our focus was primarily CS without cardiac arrest.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> In the Brazilian cohort only 26% of patients have suffered cardiac arrest before canulation.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> Moreover, recently published trials testing VA-ECMO for CS included only patients with MI,<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> while in our cohort MI represents only 37% of cases.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> The ECMO-CS trial, which included patients with different CS etiologies, tested mainly the time of implementation &#8211; immediate VA-ECMO and the no early (conservative) VA-ECMO. In the conservative group, 39% required downstream VA-ECMO support, which may have diluted the VA-ECMO benefit that would emerge from another irrevocably conservative approach, in the absence of inclusion of VA-ECMO to the health system.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Therefore, our study highlights that, if proven effective in further studies, VA-ECMO could emerge as a cost-effective therapeutic option within the framework of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS). However, it is essential to acknowledge that social inequality is a hallmark of middle-income countries like Brazil, and equity remains a pressing concern.<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup> Additionally, maintaining resilience in ICUs often requires a better understanding of which patients will truly benefit from intensive therapies.<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref></sup> Thus, before widespread implementation of a high-cost therapy, rigorous clinical trials encompassing a more diverse profile of CS patients and a lower incidence of cardiac arrest preceding device cannulation are needed to elucidate the role of each disease, beyond IM, in outcomes, and assess the relationship between the stages of CS and benefit of VA-ECMO.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> In addition, the said trial differs from our cohort, where the majority of patients had SCAI (the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions) D (contrary to studies with a predominance of SCAI C or E).<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref>,<xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> Further studies are needed not only to reduce uncertainties regarding the cost-effectiveness of this therapy but also to guide clinicians, and to ensure equitable access to cutting-edge medical interventions within the healthcare system.</p>
        <p>Given the enhanced efficacy of VA-ECMO, additional challenges in its integration into the Brazilian healthcare system, from the policymakers&#8217; perspective, include understanding the overall budgetary implications of implementation, establishing suitably equipped and trained centers for optimal device utilization, and recognizing the presence of a learning curve effect.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> This underscores the importance of establishing specialized centers in each region, considering regional disparities and expertise, as the optimal pathway for ensuring the effective implementation of the technology.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>In summary, our cost-utility analysis conducted within the Brazilian Unified Health System context suggests that adding VA-ECMO to standard care may offer a cost-effective treatment option for adult patients with refractory CS, irrespective of its cause. However, the scarcity of robust efficacy data and recent randomized trials addressing specific patient subsets highlight the need for further research. Rigorous clinical trials, including a more diverse patient profile and lower incidence of immediate cardiac arrest, are essential to confirm the cost-effectiveness of VA-ECMO and ensure equitable access to advanced medical interventions within the healthcare system, especially in countries like Brazil with diverse patient populations.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgments</title>
        <p>We thank the Brazilian Ministry of Health and Hospital Moinhos de Vento for providing crucial data for the development of this study. The study was funded by the Programa de Desenvolvimento Institucional do Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (PROADI-SUS), a program of the Brazilian Ministry of Health in which selected health institutions of excellence develop projects of public interest. Moinhos de Vento Hospital, Porto Alegre, Brazil, is responsible for funding and conducting the project in agreement with the Resolution No. 09/2015 of the Brazilian National Health Surveillance Agency and the Good Clinical Practice Guidelines, amendment 6 &#8211; 2nd revision of the International Council for Harmonization.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn id="fn2001">
          <label/>
          <p>Study association</p>
        </fn>
        <fn id="fn3001">
          <label/>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by S&#233;rgio Renato da Rosa Decker, from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn id="fn4001">
          <label/>
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
        </fn>
        <fn id="fn5001">
          <label/>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital Moinhos de Vento under the protocol number 63732417.7.1001.5330. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn6001">
          <p>Sources of funding: This study was partially funded by Programa de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Institucional do Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (PROADI-SUS).</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
