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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">GbcNnTzQqvxBzBf7pFSjQSR</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000500311</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00311</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220780</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>A Variabilidade da Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca em Repouso est&#225; Independentemente Associada aos Escores de Classifica&#231;&#227;o de Gordura Visceral em Homens Adultos Sauditas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5944-8406</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Habib</surname>
            <given-names>Syed Shahid</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alkahtani</surname>
            <given-names>Shaea</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5088-7792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Aljawini</surname>
            <given-names>Nouf</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Habib</surname>
            <given-names>Syed Mohammad</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Flatt</surname>
            <given-names>Andrew A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Department of Physiology</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">College of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">King Saud University</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Riyadh</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="SA">Ar&#225;bia Saudita</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh &#8211; Ar&#225;bia Saudita</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Department of Exercise Physiology</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">College of Sport Sciences and Physical Activity</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">King Saud University</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Riyadh</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="SA">Ar&#225;bia Saudita</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Exercise Physiology, College of Sport Sciences and Physical Activity, King Saud University, Riyadh &#8211; Ar&#225;bia Saudita</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Department of Community Health Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">College of Applied Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">King Saud University</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Riyadh</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="SA">Ar&#225;bia Saudita</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Community Health Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh &#8211; Ar&#225;bia Saudita</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">College of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Sulaiman Al Rajhi Colleges</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Al Bukairiyah</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="SA">Ar&#225;bia Saudita</country>
        <institution content-type="original">College of Medicine, Sulaiman Al Rajhi Colleges, Al Bukairiyah &#8211; Ar&#225;bia Saudita</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Department of Health Sciences and Kinesiology</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Biodynamics and Human Performance Center</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Georgia Southern University-Armstrong</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Savannah</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Health Sciences and Kinesiology, Biodynamics and Human Performance Center, Georgia Southern University-Armstrong, Savannah &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label> Syed Shahid Habib &#8226; King Saud University &#8211; Physiology - Riyadh 11461 Riyadh Outside of the US, 11461 &#8211; Ar&#225;bia Saudita, Email: <email>shahidhabib44@yahoo.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p> Nuno Bettencourt</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p> N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>14</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220780</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: A Variabilidade da Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca em Repouso est&#225; Independentemente Associada aos Escores de Classifica&#231;&#227;o de Gordura Visceral em Homens Adultos Sauditas</title>
            </caption>
            <alternatives>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/GbcNnTzQqvxBzBf7pFSjQSR/577b2b69393497c8e6bcdde0adb81a116db79bcb.tif"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/GbcNnTzQqvxBzBf7pFSjQSR/07f6edbd339ff31be810ff997eaa172144e8962a.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/GbcNnTzQqvxBzBf7pFSjQSR/61ec1d55664ec848ff869ddb1fbc01d57907ddf8.jpg" specific-use="scielo-web" content-type="scielo-267x140"/>
            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> O tecido adiposo visceral (TAV) pode ser um contribuinte modific&#225;vel espec&#237;fico para o comprometimento auton&#244;mico relacionado &#224; composi&#231;&#227;o corporal.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Comparar a variabilidade da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (VFC) entre grupos estratificados pela classifica&#231;&#227;o de gordura visceral (CGC) e comparar associa&#231;&#245;es entre VFC e m&#233;tricas de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Um estudo transversal foi realizado em homens saud&#225;veis (n=99, idade=37,8&#177;13,4 anos, &#237;ndice de massa corporal [IMC]=26,9&#177;4,6 kg/m<sup>2</sup>). A VFC foi derivada de registros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos de 5 minutos. A composi&#231;&#227;o corporal (percentual de gordura corporal, CGC e rela&#231;&#227;o entre massa muscular e gordura visceral [RMMCGC]) foi estimada por meio de an&#225;lise de imped&#226;ncia bioel&#233;trica tetrapolar. Os participantes foram categorizados em grupos de acordo com a CGC: G1 (CGC=1-8); G2 (CGC=9-12); e G3 (CGC&gt;12). Compara&#231;&#245;es ajustadas por idade foram feitas entre os grupos. Associa&#231;&#245;es independentes foram quantificadas com regress&#245;es lineares m&#250;ltiplas. P &lt;0,05 foi significativo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Raiz quadrada m&#233;dia de diferen&#231;as sucessivas (RMSSD) e desvio padr&#227;o dos intervalos RR normais (SDNN) foram maiores para G1 vs. G2 e G3 (p&lt;0,05). A pot&#234;ncia de baixa frequ&#234;ncia (BF) foi maior no G1 que no G2 (p&lt;0,05). CGC e RMMCGC foram associados negativamente com SDNN, RMSSD, BF e AF (p&lt;0,05). Depois de ajustar para idade, IMC e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, a CGC foi significativamente preditiva de RMSSD, SDNN e AF (p = 0,002, &#8211;0,027), e a RMMCGC foi significativamente preditiva de RMSSD e SDNN (p = 0,020, &#8211;0,023).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p> Os homens na categoria de CGC mais baixa tiveram a VFC mais alta. A CGC foi mais fortemente associada &#224; VFC do que ao percentual de gordura corporal e &#224; RMMCGC. Os par&#226;metros no dom&#237;nio do tempo foram mais sens&#237;veis ao TAV do que os par&#226;metros no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia. Os par&#226;metros da VFC podem ser os principais par&#226;metros de interesse no rastreamento do estado auton&#244;mico card&#237;aco em resposta a interven&#231;&#245;es que visam a redu&#231;&#227;o do TAV.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Gordura Intra-Abdominal</kwd>
        <kwd>Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Nervoso Aut&#244;nomo</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="35"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) continuam a ser um fardo global para a sa&#250;de, sendo uma das principais causas de morbilidade e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Um crescente conjunto de evid&#234;ncias demonstra uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre aumento da adiposidade e desequil&#237;brio do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> inferido a partir da an&#225;lise da variabilidade da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (VFC). A VFC reflete o controle card&#237;aco mediado centralmente via inerva&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A influ&#234;ncia vagal aumenta a VFC, enquanto o funcionamento vagal atenuado, ou o aumento da estimula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica, reduz a VFC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A hipoatividade card&#237;aco-parassimp&#225;tica est&#225; associada a um risco elevado de doen&#231;a coronariana incidente e mortalidade por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Contudo, a VFC &#233; modific&#225;vel com a mudan&#231;a do estilo de vida e parece ser sens&#237;vel a mudan&#231;as na composi&#231;&#227;o corporal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora a massa corporal elevada e a massa gorda tenham sido associadas &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da VFC em uma variedade de popula&#231;&#245;es jovens,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> saud&#225;veis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> atl&#233;ticas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> e cl&#237;nicas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> a deposi&#231;&#227;o de gordura espec&#237;fica do local n&#227;o &#233; contabilizada nesses marcadores gerais de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal. O tecido adiposo visceral (TAV) que envolve &#243;rg&#227;os vitais no abd&#244;men &#233; mais perigoso para a sa&#250;de humana do que a gordura subcut&#226;nea e &#233; mais preditivo de risco cardiometab&#243;lico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Entre os indiv&#237;duos obesos, aqueles com menos armazenamento de TAV apresentam normalmente um perfil de risco mais favor&#225;vel do que aqueles com TAV mais elevado. Um n&#250;mero limitado de investiga&#231;&#245;es comparou associa&#231;&#245;es entre VFC e marcadores de gordura corporal total e armazenamento central de gordura. Estudos em mulheres, idosos e popula&#231;&#227;o coreana relataram associa&#231;&#245;es mais fortes entre VFC e indicadores de TAV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Assim, a adiposidade central parece estar influenciando a associa&#231;&#227;o entre gordura corporal e fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica card&#237;aca.</p>
      <p>O TAV pode ser estimado com an&#225;lise de imped&#226;ncia bioel&#233;trica tetrapolar (BIA), que serve como uma alternativa conveniente &#224;s medidas laboratoriais de crit&#233;rio ou &#224; antropometria b&#225;sica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> At&#233; onde sabemos, apenas uma investiga&#231;&#227;o anterior quantificou associa&#231;&#245;es entre TAV derivado de BIA e VFC em adultos saud&#225;veis. Os resultados mostraram menor VFC mediada por vagal em estudantes da &#225;rea da sa&#250;de com excesso de peso em compara&#231;&#227;o com um grupo de controle de mesma idade. No entanto, os grupos foram categorizados pela massa corporal e n&#227;o pelo TAV, e as associa&#231;&#245;es com a VFC n&#227;o foram comparadas entre os v&#225;rios marcadores de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal.</p>
      <p>O m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico apoia a sa&#250;de metab&#243;lica e o funcionamento f&#237;sico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> A massa muscular expressa em rela&#231;&#227;o ao TAV, indexada pela raz&#227;o entre a classifica&#231;&#227;o de massa muscular e gordura visceral (RMMCGC), parece ser um indicador relevante da fun&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica. Por exemplo, a RMMCGC derivado da BIA tem sido associada &#224; doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica gordurosa n&#227;o alco&#243;lica e &#224; fibrose hep&#225;tica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> e auxilia na detec&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica em adultos jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Assim, a RMMCGC parece ser um marcador de sa&#250;de relevante, mas a nossa compreens&#227;o da sua associa&#231;&#227;o com o funcionamento auton&#243;mico card&#237;aco em adultos saud&#225;veis &#233; limitada.</p>
      <p>O esclarecimento de como as caracter&#237;sticas da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal derivadas da BIA influenciam a VFC pode ser de relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica para avaliar o risco e orientar o tratamento. Portanto, o objetivo desta investiga&#231;&#227;o foi testar a hip&#243;tese de que a VFC difere entre os participantes em fun&#231;&#227;o da categoriza&#231;&#227;o do TAV e que os &#237;ndices de TAV estar&#227;o mais fortemente associados &#224; VFC do que a massa gorda relativa em homens adultos saud&#225;veis.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Configura&#231;&#245;es de estudo</title>
        <p>Este estudo transversal foi realizado nos laborat&#243;rios do Departamento de Fisiologia e Fisiologia do Exerc&#237;cio, da Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias do Esporte e Atividade F&#237;sica da Universidade King Saud (KSU). Noventa e nove indiv&#237;duos sauditas adultos saud&#225;veis do sexo masculino com idades entre 20 e 60 anos foram eleg&#237;veis para participa&#231;&#227;o. A amostragem de conveni&#234;ncia foi utilizada para recrutar volunt&#225;rios que foram abordados atrav&#233;s de quadros de avisos, cartazes e an&#250;ncios nas redes sociais e aqueles que manifestaram interesse em participar foram informados de todos os procedimentos do estudo. Os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o foram: homens saud&#225;veis, n&#227;o fumantes; aqueles livres de dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos, ortop&#233;dicos e neurol&#243;gicos; sem hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de angina ou infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e IMC &lt; 40 kg/m<sup>2</sup>. Atletas profissionais foram exclu&#237;dos, mas indiv&#237;duos altamente ativos recreativamente foram inclu&#237;dos. Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Conselho de Revis&#227;o Institucional da KSU, Riad, Ar&#225;bia Saudita (IRB No. E-18-3381). Todos os sujeitos forneceram consentimento informado por escrito e todos os procedimentos foram realizados de acordo com as diretrizes e protocolos relevantes. Os principais dados do artigo est&#227;o resumidos na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Procedimentos de estudo</title>
        <p>Os participantes foram instru&#237;dos a evitar a ingest&#227;o de bebidas com cafe&#237;na e exerc&#237;cios vigorosos no dia anterior &#224; visita ao laborat&#243;rio para avalia&#231;&#227;o matinal em jejum noturno. As bebidas matinais, incluindo &#225;gua, foram restritas para controle de sua influ&#234;ncia confusa na VFC<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>e par&#226;metros BIA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Todas as medi&#231;&#245;es foram realizadas com procedimentos padr&#227;o que inclu&#237;am press&#227;o arterial, dados demogr&#225;ficos, composi&#231;&#227;o corporal e avalia&#231;&#227;o de eletrocardiograma (ECG).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Press&#227;o arterial e medidas antropom&#233;tricas</title>
        <p>A altura foi medida com um estadi&#244;metro (Seca 213, Seca GmbH &amp; Co., Hamburgo, Alemanha) e o peso corporal foi medido com uma balan&#231;a digital (PD100 ProDoc, Detecto Scale, Cardinal, Webb City, MO, EUA). A circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura (CC) foi medida em cm na altura do umbigo. Todos os valores foram ajustados para o 0,1 cm mais pr&#243;ximo. O &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) foi calculado dividindo-se o peso pela altura em metros quadrados. A frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de repouso e as press&#245;es arteriais sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica foram estimadas por um esfigmoman&#244;metro digital automatizado (HEM-7121, Omron, Shimogyo-ku, Kyoto, Jap&#227;o).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estimativa de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal</title>
        <p>Uma m&#225;quina segmentar multifrequencial (MC-980MA, Tanita Corporation, T&#243;quio, Jap&#227;o) que fornece correntes de 50-1000 kHz foi usada para estimar os par&#226;metros de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal. Os participantes permaneceram descal&#231;os na balan&#231;a enquanto seguravam os eletrodos com leve abdu&#231;&#227;o glenoumeral. A altura de cada sujeito foi medida e registrada. Posteriormente, os participantes foram pesados e os valores de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal foram estimados indiretamente por meio do aparelho. Foram coletadas as seguintes medidas de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal: percentual de gordura corporal (GC%), percentual de &#225;gua corporal, massa muscular, massa &#243;ssea e classifica&#231;&#227;o de gordura visceral (CGC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A CGC &#233; fornecida como uma classifica&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica (0-59 pontos). Avalia&#231;&#245;es de 1 a 12 pontos indicam que o sujeito possui n&#237;vel de gordura visceral saud&#225;vel, enquanto classifica&#231;&#245;es de 13 a 59 indicam que o sujeito possui n&#237;vel de gordura visceral em excesso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A CGC tem sido amplamente aplicada em pesquisas cl&#237;nicas como um &#237;ndice indireto de gordura visceral. A RMMCGC foi posteriormente calculada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
        <p>Todos os participantes foram submetidos a testes de ECG padr&#227;o de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es na posi&#231;&#227;o supina ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal. Utilizamos um dispositivo computadorizado de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de dados de ECG (PL3516 Power Lab 16/35, AD Instruments Pty Ltd. New South Wales, Austr&#225;lia) com 16 canais de entrada anal&#243;gica. Um registro de ECG de 10 minutos foi realizado enquanto a qualidade do sinal era monitorada por um pesquisador. Um software customizado (LabChart v. 8.1.13 Windows, AD Instruments Pty Ltd. New South Wales, Austr&#225;lia) foi utilizado para calcular as vari&#225;veis de VFC. Artefatos e batimentos ect&#243;picos foram processados usando um filtro padronizado pela ferramenta &#8220;Beat Classification&#8221; automatizada por software, que categoriza os batimentos de acordo com atividade e ru&#237;do isoel&#233;trico e remove artefatos gerados por movimento, interfer&#234;ncia el&#233;trica e batimentos ect&#243;picos. Os par&#226;metros da VFC foram derivados de um segmento crit&#233;rio de 5 minutos (ou seja, 5-10 minutos) e os primeiros 5 minutos foram descartados para estabiliza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Os par&#226;metros no dom&#237;nio do tempo registrados para an&#225;lise foram o tempo m&#233;dio entre os intervalos RR (RR m&#233;dio), o desvio padr&#227;o dos intervalos RR normais (SDNN) e a raiz quadrada da m&#233;dia das diferen&#231;as sucessivas das diferen&#231;as normais dos intervalos RR (RMSSD). A an&#225;lise no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia da VFC pelo m&#233;todo da transformada r&#225;pida de Fourier incluiu avalia&#231;&#227;o de baixa frequ&#234;ncia (BF), alta frequ&#234;ncia (AF) e baixa rela&#231;&#227;o BF/AF. O RR m&#233;dio reflete a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em repouso, o RMSSD e o AF refletem a modula&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica, o SDNN e o BF refletem a variabilidade global com influ&#234;ncia simp&#225;tica e parassimp&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>Para entrada de dados e an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foi utilizado o software SPSS (vers&#227;o 20.0 Chicago, IL, EUA). As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram apresentadas como m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o (DP) enquanto as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram expressas como frequ&#234;ncias e/ou porcentagens (%). As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram verificadas quanto &#224; normalidade por meio do teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. Os dados que seguem distribui&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o normais foram transformados em log. Os participantes foram categorizados em 3 grupos (G) de acordo com a CGC: G1 (CGC = 1-8), G2 (CGC = 9-12) e G3 (CGC &gt; 12). As caracter&#237;sticas da VFC e da gordura corporal est&#227;o associadas &#224; idade, o que pode confundir as associa&#231;&#245;es entre a VFC e as caracter&#237;sticas da gordura corporal. Assim, os grupos estratificados por CGC foram comparados quanto &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas e par&#226;metros de VFC por meio de an&#225;lise de covari&#226;ncia unidirecional (ANCOVA) com ajuste para idade e todas as suposi&#231;&#245;es necess&#225;rias para o uso da ANCOVA foram atendidas. O teste do qui-quadrado foi utilizado para comparar as distribui&#231;&#245;es percentuais entre os diferentes grupos. Compara&#231;&#245;es post-hoc foram realizadas utilizando os testes de Bonferroni e Tamhane. Associa&#231;&#245;es bivariadas entre VFC bruta e par&#226;metros de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal foram avaliadas com o &#961; de Spearman. Finalmente, foram realizadas regress&#245;es lineares m&#250;ltiplas separadas com %GC, CGC e RMMCGC como preditores para avaliar o valor preditivo comparativo de cada um com os par&#226;metros da VFC. Os modelos inclu&#237;ram idade, IMC e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica como covari&#225;veis. P&lt;0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Os valores demogr&#225;ficos para todo o grupo (n = 99) e grupos estratificados por CGC s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>. O G1 era significativamente mais jovem que o G2 e o G3. Ap&#243;s controle por idade, o G1 apresentou massa corporal, massa muscular e circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura significativamente menores, al&#233;m de caracter&#237;sticas de gordura corporal mais baixas do que G2 e G3.Al&#233;m disso, o G3 apresentou circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura ajustada por idade e caracter&#237;sticas de gordura corporal significativamente maiores que o G2.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Dados demogr&#225;ficos e an&#225;lise da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal de todos os indiv&#237;duos e subgrupos com base na classifica&#231;&#227;o de gordura visceral</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>Todos</th>
                <th>G 1 (CGC = 1-8)</th>
                <th>G 2 (CGC = 9-12)</th>
                <th>G 3 (CGC &gt; 12)</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
                <th>Valor de p ajustado por idade</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>N</td>
                <td align="center">99</td>
                <td align="center">51</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">18</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CGC</td>
                <td align="center">8,91&#177;5,21</td>
                <td align="center">5,02&#177;2,75</td>
                <td align="center">11,07&#177;1,39</td>
                <td align="center">16,33&#177;4,35</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade (ano)</td>
                <td align="center">37,87&#177;13,46</td>
                <td align="center">32,02&#177;10,67</td>
                <td align="center">42,53&#177;11,53</td>
                <td align="center">46,67&#177;16,13</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Altura (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">171,94&#177;6,46</td>
                <td align="center">171,84&#177;5,99</td>
                <td align="center">173,10&#177;7,44</td>
                <td align="center">170,28&#177;5,95</td>
                <td align="center">0,342</td>
                <td align="center">0,468</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Peso (kg)</td>
                <td align="center">78,98&#177;15,72</td>
                <td align="center">71,36&#177;10,05<sup>a.C.</sup></td>
                <td align="center">87,39&#177;11,67</td>
                <td align="center">86,55&#177;23,13</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">26,82&#177;4,94</td>
                <td align="center">23,87 4,01b<sup>c</sup></td>
                <td align="center">28.02 3.19</td>
                <td align="center">31,69 4,32</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CC (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">100,63&#177;8,54</td>
                <td align="center">80,62&#177;8,03<sup>a.C.</sup></td>
                <td align="center">92,73&#177;7,59</td>
                <td align="center">100,63&#177;8,54 b</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAS (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">121,59&#177;16,14</td>
                <td align="center">110,00&#177;13,80<sup>a.C.</sup></td>
                <td align="center">119,13&#177;18,18</td>
                <td align="center">119,13&#177;18,18</td>
                <td align="center">0,008</td>
                <td align="center">0,447</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAD (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">74,86&#177;10,68</td>
                <td align="center">72,10&#177;10,33</td>
                <td align="center">76,53&#177;12,07</td>
                <td align="center">80,00 &#177; 6,07 a</td>
                <td align="center">0,847</td>
                <td align="center">0,573</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Porcentagem de gordura (%)</td>
                <td align="center">22,86&#177;6,31</td>
                <td align="center">18,17&#177;4,40<sup>a.C.</sup></td>
                <td align="center">26,45&#177;3,27</td>
                <td align="center">30,17 &#177; 2,98 b</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Massa gorda (kg)</td>
                <td align="center">19,15&#177;8,19</td>
                <td align="center">13h30 &#177; 4,66<sup>a.C.</sup></td>
                <td align="center">23,60&#177;5,44</td>
                <td align="center">28,29&#177;6,79b</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>MLG (kg)</td>
                <td align="center">60,82&#177;7,73</td>
                <td align="center">57,89&#177;6,49<sup>a.C.</sup></td>
                <td align="center">64,09&#177;7,48</td>
                <td align="center">63,71&#177;8,48</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Massa muscular (kg)</td>
                <td align="center">57,79&#177;7,41</td>
                <td align="center">55,15&#177;6,27<sup>a.C.</sup></td>
                <td align="center">60,57&#177;7,30</td>
                <td align="center">60,64&#177;8,14</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Raz&#227;o RMMCGC</td>
                <td align="center">9,66&#177;7,27</td>
                <td align="center">14,15&#177;7,77<sup>a.C.</sup></td>
                <td align="center">5,52&#177;0,70</td>
                <td align="center">3,88&#177;0,85</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>SM n(%)</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sim</td>
                <td align="center">27(27,27)</td>
                <td align="center">13(14,94)</td>
                <td align="center">8(8,79)</td>
                <td align="center">8(5,27)</td>
                <td align="center">0,293</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">72(72,72)</td>
                <td align="center">38(36,06)</td>
                <td align="center">22(21,21)</td>
                <td align="center">10(12,73)</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>A: diferente de G1; b: diferente de G2; c: diferente de G3; Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; DP. G: grupo; CGC: classifica&#231;&#227;o de gordura visceral; N: n&#250;mero de participantes; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; CC: circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; MLG: massa livre de gordura; RMMCGC: rela&#231;&#227;o entre massa muscular e gordura visceral; SM: s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica. A an&#225;lise unidirecional de covari&#226;ncia (ANCOVA) foi usada para compara&#231;&#245;es de grupos. As propor&#231;&#245;es foram comparadas pelo Qui-quadrado.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>A compara&#231;&#227;o da VFC no dom&#237;nio do tempo revelou diferen&#231;as significativas entre grupos para RMSSD e SDNN, mas n&#227;o para RR m&#233;dio (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>). An&#225;lises post-hoc demonstraram que RMSSD e SDNN foram significativamente maiores no G1 do que no G2 e G3, independentemente da idade. A compara&#231;&#227;o da VFC no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia revelou diferen&#231;as significativas entre os grupos para BF, mas n&#227;o para AF ou BF/AF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>). An&#225;lises post-hoc determinaram que a BF foi significativamente maior no G1 do que no G2, independentemente da idade.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise no dom&#237;nio do tempo de todos os indiv&#237;duos e subgrupos com base na classifica&#231;&#227;o da gordura visceral</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>Todos</th>
                <th>G 1 (CGC = 1-8)</th>
                <th>G 2 (CGC = 9-12)</th>
                <th>G 3 (CGC &gt; 12)</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
                <th>Valor p ajustado</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>N</td>
                <td align="center">99</td>
                <td align="center">51</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">18</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>FC m&#233;dia (bpm)</td>
                <td align="center">59,86&#177;6,06</td>
                <td align="center">58,89&#177;5,37</td>
                <td align="center">59,96&#177;6,42</td>
                <td align="center">62,47&#177;6,84</td>
                <td align="center">0,098</td>
                <td align="center">0,122</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>RR m&#233;dio (s)</td>
                <td align="center">1,02&#177;0,10</td>
                <td align="center">1,03&#177;0,09</td>
                <td align="center">1,01&#177;0,10</td>
                <td align="center">0,97&#177;0,11</td>
                <td align="center">0,090</td>
                <td align="center">0,117</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>SDNN (ms)</td>
                <td align="center">1.664&#177;0,258</td>
                <td align="center">1.776&#177;0,229<sup>b,c</sup></td>
                <td align="center">1.543&#177;0,258</td>
                <td align="center">1.548&#177;0,193</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,007</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>RMSSD (ms)</td>
                <td align="center">1.666&#177;0,258</td>
                <td align="center">1.779&#177;0,225<sup>b,c</sup></td>
                <td align="center">1.543&#177;0,259</td>
                <td align="center">1.553&#177;0,202</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,006</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; DP; G: grupo; CGC: classifica&#231;&#227;o de gordura visceral; N: n&#250;mero de participantes; RR m&#233;dio: tempo m&#233;dio entre os complexos QRS (ou seja, batimento a batimento); SDNN: desvio padr&#227;o dos intervalos RR normais; RMSSD: raiz quadrada da m&#233;dia das diferen&#231;as sucessivas dos intervalos RR normais. A an&#225;lise unidirecional de covari&#226;ncia (ANCOVA) foi usada para compara&#231;&#245;es de grupos.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise dos dom&#237;nios de frequ&#234;ncia de todos os indiv&#237;duos e subgrupos com base na classifica&#231;&#227;o da gordura visceral</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>Todos</th>
                <th>G 1 (CGC = 1-8)</th>
                <th>G 2 (CGC = 9-12)</th>
                <th>G 3 (CGC &gt; 12)</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
                <th>Valor p ajustado</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>N</td>
                <td align="center">99</td>
                <td align="center">51</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">18</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>BF (ms<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">2.884&#177;0,599</td>
                <td align="center">3.106&#177;0,459b</td>
                <td align="center">2.620&#177;0,732</td>
                <td align="center">2.766&#177;0,445</td>
                <td align="center">0,007</td>
                <td align="center">0,027</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>AF (ms<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">2.928&#177;0,674</td>
                <td align="center">3.229&#177;0,459</td>
                <td align="center">2.584&#177;0,828</td>
                <td align="center">2.766&#177;0,514</td>
                <td align="center">0,004</td>
                <td align="center">0,284</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>BF/AF</td>
                <td align="center">-0,130&#177;0,330</td>
                <td align="center">-0,190&#177;0,347</td>
                <td align="center">-0,155&#177;0,231</td>
                <td align="center">0,081&#177;0,349b</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
                <td align="center">0,496</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; DP; G: grupo; CGC: classifica&#231;&#227;o de gordura visceral; N: n&#250;mero de participantes; BF: baixa frequ&#234;ncia; AF: alta frequ&#234;ncia. A an&#225;lise unidirecional de covari&#226;ncia (ANCOVA) foi usada para compara&#231;&#245;es de grupos.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Gr&#225;ficos de dispers&#227;o comparando associa&#231;&#245;es entre RMSSD e RR m&#233;dio com CGC s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Gr&#225;ficos de dispers&#227;o das rela&#231;&#245;es CGC com RMSSD e RR m&#233;dio. CGC: classifica&#231;&#227;o de gordura corporal; RMSSD: raiz quadrada m&#233;dia de diferen&#231;as sucessivas.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-05-e20220780-20780-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Ap&#243;s ajuste de covari&#225;veis nas an&#225;lises de regress&#227;o, a CGC foi significativamente preditiva de RMSSD, SDNN e AF, e o RMMCGC foi significativamente preditivo de RMSSD e SDNN. Os coeficientes &#385;eta padronizados s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref>.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla com %GC, CGC e RMMCGC como preditores, ajustando para covari&#225;veis idade, massa corporal e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;vel Dependente em Modelos de Regress&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th>Coeficientes Padronizados Beta</th>
                <th>t</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="3">RR m&#233;dio (S)</td>
                <td align="center">%GC</td>
                <td align="center">-.303</td>
                <td align="center">-1,865</td>
                <td align="center">0,065</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">CGC</td>
                <td align="center">-.083</td>
                <td align="center">-.496</td>
                <td align="center">0,621</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">RMMCGC</td>
                <td align="center">-.007</td>
                <td align="center">-.042</td>
                <td align="center">0,966</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="3">SDNN (ms)</td>
                <td align="center">%GC</td>
                <td align="center">-.197</td>
                <td align="center">-1.307</td>
                <td align="center">.194</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">CGC</td>
                <td align="center">-.421</td>
                <td align="center">-3.206</td>
                <td align="center">0,002</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">RMMCGC</td>
                <td align="center">0,283</td>
                <td align="center">2.372</td>
                <td align="center">0,020</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="3">RMSSD (ms)</td>
                <td align="center">%GC</td>
                <td align="center">-.184</td>
                <td align="center">-1.221</td>
                <td align="center">0,225</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">CGC</td>
                <td align="center">-.410</td>
                <td align="center">-3.117</td>
                <td align="center">0,002</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">RMMCGC</td>
                <td align="center">0,275</td>
                <td align="center">2.305</td>
                <td align="center">0,023</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="3">BF (ms<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">%GC</td>
                <td align="center">-.032</td>
                <td align="center">-.205</td>
                <td align="center">0,838</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">CGC</td>
                <td align="center">-.167</td>
                <td align="center">-1.038</td>
                <td align="center">.302</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">RMMCGC</td>
                <td align="center">-.067</td>
                <td align="center">-.432</td>
                <td align="center">0,667</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="3">AF (ms<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">%GC</td>
                <td align="center">-.089</td>
                <td align="center">-.557</td>
                <td align="center">0,579</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">CGC</td>
                <td align="center">-.317</td>
                <td align="center">-2.248</td>
                <td align="center">0,027</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">RMMCGC</td>
                <td align="center">.219</td>
                <td align="center">1.723</td>
                <td align="center">0,089</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="3">BF/AF</td>
                <td align="center">%GC</td>
                <td align="center">0,044</td>
                <td align="center">0,258</td>
                <td align="center">0,797</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">CGC</td>
                <td align="center">0,083</td>
                <td align="center">0,477</td>
                <td align="center">0,635</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">RMMCGC</td>
                <td align="center">0,120</td>
                <td align="center">0,702</td>
                <td align="center">0,484</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>RR m&#233;dio: tempo m&#233;dio entre os complexos QRS (ou seja, batimento a batimento); SDNN: desvio padr&#227;o dos intervalos RR normais; RMSSD: raiz quadrada da m&#233;dia das diferen&#231;as sucessivas dos intervalos RR normais; B: baixa frequ&#234;ncia; AF: alta frequ&#234;ncia.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Os objetivos desta investiga&#231;&#227;o foram 1) comparar a VFC entre grupos estratificados por CGC derivado da BIA e 2) comparar associa&#231;&#245;es entre a VFC e as m&#233;tricas de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal em homens sauditas saud&#225;veis. As principais descobertas foram que os indiv&#237;duos na categoria de CGC mais baixa apresentaram RMSSD, SDNN e BF ajustados por idade significativamente mais altos do que grupos de categoriza&#231;&#227;o de CGC mais alta. Al&#233;m disso, os par&#226;metros da VFC (RMSSD, SDNN, AF) foram mais fortemente associados ao CGC do que &#224; %GC e &#224; RMMCGC ap&#243;s controle para idade, IMC e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica.</p>
      <p>Em apoio &#224; nossa hip&#243;tese, as m&#233;tricas de influ&#234;ncia vagal da VFC (RMSSD) e a variabilidade global (SDNN, BF) variaram em fun&#231;&#227;o da categoriza&#231;&#227;o da CGC derivada da BIA em uma amostra de homens saud&#225;veis. Uma investiga&#231;&#227;o anterior envolvendo adultos jovens saud&#225;veis comparou par&#226;metros de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal derivados da VFC e da BIA entre grupos categorizados pelo IMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> AF, BF e pot&#234;ncia total normalizados significativamente mais elevados, e menor gordura corporal relativa e TAV, foram observados entre grupos de homens e mulheres categorizados como com sobrepeso (n = 40, IMC = 23,00 &#8211; 27,40) versus controles com peso normal (n = 40, IMC = 18,50 &#8211; 22,90).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, foram relatadas associa&#231;&#245;es bivariadas moderadas significativas entre TAV relativo e AF normalizada (r = -0,32) e BF (0,40).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Nossas descobertas revelaram diferen&#231;as semelhantes entre grupos e magnitudes de correla&#231;&#227;o. Nossa inclus&#227;o de par&#226;metros de VFC no dom&#237;nio do tempo mais comuns e acess&#237;veis e ajuste para fatores de confus&#227;o em an&#225;lises multivariadas acrescentam novos insights &#224; literatura sobre a associa&#231;&#227;o entre TAV e VFC em uma popula&#231;&#227;o saud&#225;vel. Al&#233;m disso, nosso achado de n&#227;o haver diferen&#231;a no RR m&#233;dio entre os grupos CGC indica maior sensibilidade dos par&#226;metros da VFC ao ac&#250;mulo de TAV.</p>
      <p>Foram recentemente relatadas associa&#231;&#245;es transversais entre par&#226;metros de VFC e indicadores de TAV. Uma investiga&#231;&#227;o envolvendo mulheres adultas jovens (n = 104) descobriu que o TAV derivado da absorciometria de raios X de dupla energia expresso em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; massa corporal explicou ~10-16% da vari&#226;ncia no tempo (SDNN e RMSSD) e no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia (AF e par&#226;metros BF)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> ap&#243;s ajuste de idade. Outra investiga&#231;&#227;o envolvendo homens e mulheres multi&#233;tnicos mais jovens e mais velhos (n = 178) com e sem morbidades descobriu que maior circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura estava associada &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da VFC (RMSSD e SDNN derivado de Holter) em adultos mais jovens, mas n&#227;o em idosos, independentemente de condi&#231;&#245;es de sa&#250;de conhecidas e atividade f&#237;sica autorrelatada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Yi et al. descobriram que uma maior rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril estava associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da VFC (por exemplo, RMSSD e BF) em um subgrupo de adultos coreanos com excesso de peso, independentemente da idade, sexo e fatores de risco cardiovascular. De acordo com os achados atuais, foi relatado que a gordura abdominal foi mais preditiva da VFC do que o percentual de gordura corporal derivado da BIA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A obesidade abdominal est&#225; associada a maior ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica em repouso do que a obesidade perif&#233;rica, apesar do comprometimento barorreflexo semelhante entre grupos obesos, implicando mecanismos de origem metab&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup>Hiperglicemia, hiperinsulinemia e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina est&#227;o associadas tanto &#224; obesidade abdominal quanto &#224; hiperatividade simp&#225;tica, levando &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da VFC e ao aumento do risco cardiometab&#243;lico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Entretanto, anormalidades metab&#243;licas descritas acima est&#227;o ligadas a estados pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> O TAV contribui para a inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica por meio da secre&#231;&#227;o de adipocinas, como fator de necrose tumoral-&#945;, interleucina-6, prote&#237;na C reativa e angiotensinog&#234;nio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Foi demonstrado que a inflama&#231;&#227;o de baixo grau est&#225; associada &#224; VFC atenuada em adultos de meia-idade e idosos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, acredita-se que o estresse oxidativo causado pela desregula&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio relacionada &#224; adipocina tamb&#233;m contribua para o desequil&#237;brio auton&#244;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Assim, o TAV pode promover disfun&#231;&#227;o do SNA atrav&#233;s dos efeitos de suas secre&#231;&#245;es, mas s&#227;o necess&#225;rios mais estudos visando esclarecer os mecanismos.</p>
      <p>As limita&#231;&#245;es do nosso estudo incluem seu desenho transversal, utiliza&#231;&#227;o apenas de registros de VFC em posi&#231;&#227;o supina e falta de covari&#225;veis adicionais importantes, como biomarcadores sangu&#237;neos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup>e atividade f&#237;sica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> A falta de controle respirat&#243;rio durante a avalia&#231;&#227;o do ECG tamb&#233;m pode ser considerada uma limita&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, o tamanho relativamente pequeno da nossa amostra e a inclus&#227;o apenas de homens limitam a generaliza&#231;&#227;o dos nossos resultados para a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral. Finalmente, o TAV foi estimado pela BIA, que &#233; de qualidade inferior em rela&#231;&#227;o a abordagens de crit&#233;rios como a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es e recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <p>Maior gordura visceral, conforme indexado pela CGC derivada da BIA, foi associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da VFC em uma amostra de homens saud&#225;veis. As associa&#231;&#245;es permaneceram estatisticamente significativas ap&#243;s a idade, o IMC e a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica foram mantidos constantes. A CGC foi mais fortemente associada &#224; VFC quando comparada ao percentual de gordura corporal e &#224; RMMCGC. O TAV e a VFC s&#227;o modific&#225;veis com fatores de estilo de vida e podem ser automonitorados com dispositivos dispon&#237;veis comercialmente. Nossas descobertas sugerem que o RMSSD e o SDNN podem ser os par&#226;metros de VFC mais sens&#237;veis &#224;s mudan&#231;as no TAV e, portanto, devem ser os principais par&#226;metros de interesse no rastreamento do estado auton&#244;mico card&#237;aco em resposta a interven&#231;&#245;es que visam a redu&#231;&#227;o do TAV.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>Agradecemos ao Dr. Aurangzeb Taj Halepota pelo recrutamento e avalia&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas dos participantes do estudo.</p>
    </ack>
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      <fn fn-type="other">
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    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220780i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Resting Heart Rate Variability is Independently Associated with Visceral Fat Rating Scores in Saudi Adult Males</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5944-8406</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Habib</surname>
            <given-names>Syed Shahid</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alkahtani</surname>
            <given-names>Shaea</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5088-7792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Aljawini</surname>
            <given-names>Nouf</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Habib</surname>
            <given-names>Syed Mohammad</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Flatt</surname>
            <given-names>Andrew A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="SA">Saudi Arabia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh &#8211; Saudi Arabia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="SA">Saudi Arabia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Exercise Physiology, College of Sport Sciences and Physical Activity, King Saud University, Riyadh &#8211; Saudi Arabia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="SA">Saudi Arabia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Community Health Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh &#8211; Saudi Arabia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="SA">Saudi Arabia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">College of Medicine, Sulaiman Al Rajhi Colleges, Al Bukairiyah &#8211; Saudi Arabia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="US">USA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Health Sciences and Kinesiology, Biodynamics and Human Performance Center, Georgia Southern University-Armstrong, Savannah &#8211; USA</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Syed Shahid Habib &#8226; King Saud University &#8211; Physiology - Riyadh 11461 Riyadh Outside of the US, 11461 - Saudi Arabia; Email: shahidhabib44@yahoo.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Nuno Bettencourt</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Resting Heart Rate Variability is Independently Associated with Visceral Fat Rating Scores in Saudi Adult Males</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-05-e20220780-20780-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) may be a specific modifiable contributor to body composition-related autonomic impairment.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> To compare heart rate variability (HRV) between groups stratified by visceral fat rating (VFR) and compare associations between HRV and body composition metrics.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> A cross-sectional study was conducted on healthy men (n=99,age=37.8&#177;13.4 years, body mass index [BMI]=26.9&#177;4.6 kg/m2). HRV was derived from 5-minute electrocardiographic recordings. Body composition (body fat percentage, VFR, and muscle mass to visceral fat ratio [MMVFR]) was estimated using tetrapolar bioelectrical impedance analysis. Participants were categorized into groups according to VFR: G1 (VFR=1-8); G2(VFR=9-12); and G3(VFR&gt;12). Age-adjusted comparisons were made between groups. Independent associations were quantified with multiple linear regressions. P &lt;0.05 was significant.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> Root-mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) and standard deviation of normal RR intervals (SDNN) were higher for G1 vs. G2 and G3 (p&lt;0.05). Low-frequency power (LF) was higher in G1 than in G2 (p&lt;0.05). VFR and MMVFR were negatively associated with SDNN, RMSSD, LF, and HF (p&lt;0.05). After adjusting for age, BMI, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure, VFR was significantly predictive of RMSSD, SDNN, and HF (p=0.002,&#8211;0.027), and MMVFR was significantly predictive of RMSSD and SDNN (p=0.020,&#8211;0.023).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p> Men in the lowest VFR category had the highest HRV. VFR was more strongly associated with HRV than body fat percentage and MMVR. Time domain parameters were more sensitive to VAT than frequency domain parameters. HRV parameters could be the primary parameters of interest in tracking cardiac-autonomic status in response to interventions targeting VAT reduction.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Intra-Abdominal Fat</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Rate</kwd>
        <kwd>Autonomic Nervous System</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to be a global health burden as a leading cause of morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A growing body of evidence demonstrates an association between increased adiposity and autonomic nervous system (ANS) imbalance,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> inferred from heart rate variability (HRV) analysis. HRV reflects centrally-mediated cardiac control via autonomic innervation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Vagal influence increases HRV whereas attenuated vagal functioning, or increased sympathetic stimulation, reduces HRV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Cardiac-parasympathetic hypoactivity is associated with an elevated risk of incident coronary heart disease and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> However, HRV is modifiable with lifestyle modification and appears to be sensitive to changes in body composition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Though high body and fat mass have been associated with reduced HRV in a variety of young,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> healthy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> athletic,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> and clinical populations,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> site-specific fat deposition is unaccounted for in these general body composition markers. Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) that surrounds vital organs within the abdomen is more hazardous to human health than subcutaneous fat and is more predictive of cardiometabolic risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Among obese individuals, those with less VAT storage typically exhibit a more favorable risk profile than those with higher VAT. A limited number of investigations have compared associations between HRV and markers of total body fat and central fat storage. Studies in women, elderly, and a Korean population have reported stronger associations between HRV and indicators of VAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Thus, central adiposity seems to be influencing the association between body fat and cardiac-autonomic function.</p>
        <p>VAT can be estimated with tetrapolar bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), which serves as a convenient alternative to criterion laboratory measures or basic anthropometry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> To our knowledge, only one previous investigation has quantified associations between BIA-derived VAT and HRV in healthy adults. Results showed lower vagal-mediated HRV in overweight healthcare students versus an age-matched control group. However, groups were categorized by body mass rather than by VAT, and associations with HRV were not compared between the various markers of body composition.</p>
        <p>Skeletal muscle supports metabolic health and physical functioning.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Muscle mass expressed relative to VAT, indexed by the ratio of muscle mass to visceral fat ratio (MMVFR), seems to be a relevant indicator of metabolic function. For example, BIA-derived MMVFR has been associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and liver fibrosis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> and aids in the detection of Metabolic Syndrome in young adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Thus, MMVFR seems to be a relevant health marker, but our understanding of its association with cardiac-autonomic functioning in healthy adults is limited.</p>
        <p>Clarification of how BIA-derived body composition characteristics influence HRV may be of clinical relevance for assessing risk and guiding treatment. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to test the hypothesis that HRV differs between participants as a function of VAT categorization and that indexes of VAT will be more strongly associated with HRV than relative fat mass in healthy adult men.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study settings</title>
          <p>This cross-sectional study was conducted at the Department of Physiology and Exercise Physiology laboratories, within the College of Sport Sciences and Physical Activity of King Saud University (KSU). Ninety-nine healthy adult Saudi male subjects aged 20-60 years were eligible for participation. Convenience sampling was used to recruit volunteers who were approached via bulletin boards, posters, and social media announcements and those who expressed interest in participating were informed of all study procedures. Inclusion criteria included: healthy men non-smokers; those free of metabolic, orthopedic, and neurological disorders; no history of previous angina or myocardial infarction and BMI &lt; 40 kg/m<sup>2</sup>. Professional athletes were excluded, but highly recreationally active individuals were included. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of KSU, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (IRB No. E-18-3381). All subjects provided written informed consent and all procedures were performed as per the relevant guidelines and protocols. The main data of the article is summarized in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Study procedures</title>
          <p>Participants were instructed to avoid intake of caffeinated drinks and vigorous exercise training on the day before the laboratory visit for morning assessment in an overnight fasted state. Morning beverages, including water, were restricted to control for their confounding influence on HRV<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> and BIA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> parameters. All measurements were performed with standard procedures that comprised blood pressure, demographics, body composition, and electrocardiogram (ECG) assessment.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Blood pressure and anthropometric measurements</title>
          <p>Height was measured using a stadiometer (Seca 213, Seca GmbH &amp; Co., Hamburg, Germany), and body weight was measured with a digital scale (PD100 ProDoc, Detecto Scale, Cardinal, Webb City, MO, USA). Waist circumference (WC) was measured in cm at the umbilicus. All values were adjusted to the nearest 0.1 cm. Body mass index (BMI) was computed by dividing weight by height in squared meters. Resting heart rate and systolic and diastolic blood pressures were estimated by an automated digital sphygmomanometer (HEM-7121, Omron, Shimogyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Body composition estimation</title>
          <p>A multi-frequency segmental machine (MC-980MA, Tanita Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) that delivers 50-1000 kHz currents was used to estimate body composition parameters. Participants stood barefooted on the scale whilst holding the electrodes with slight glenohumeral abduction. The height of each subject was measured and recorded. Participants were subsequently weighed and body composition values were indirectly estimated using the device. The following body composition measures were collected: body fat percentage (BF%), body water percentage, muscle mass, bone mass, and visceral fat rating (VFR).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> VFR is provided as a specific rating (0&#8211;59 points). Ratings from 1 to 12 points indicate that the subject has a healthy visceral fat level, while ratings from 13 to 59 indicate that the subject has an excess visceral fat level.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> VFR has been widely applied in clinical research as an indirect index of visceral fat. The MMVR was subsequently computed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Heart rate variability assessment</title>
          <p>All participants underwent 12-lead standard ECG testing in the supine position following the body composition assessment. We used a computerized ECG data acquisition device (PL3516 Power Lab 16/35, AD Instruments Pty Ltd. New South Wales, Australia) with 16 analog input channels. A 10-minute ECG recording was performed while signal quality was monitored by a researcher. A customized software (LabChart v. 8.1.13 Windows, AD Instruments Pty Ltd. New South Wales, Australia) was used for computing HRV variables. Artifacts and ectopic beats were processed using a standardized filter by the software-automated &#8220;Beat Classification&#8221; tool, which categorizes beats according to activity and isoelectric noise, and removes artifacts generated by movement, electrical interference, and ectopic beats. HRV parameters were derived from a 5-min criterion segment (i.e., min 5-10) and the first 5-min were discarded for stabilization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Time-domain parameters recorded for analysis were the average time between RR intervals (Average RR), the standard deviation of normal RR intervals (SDNN), and the root mean square of the successive differences of normal RR interval differences (RMSSD). Frequency domain analysis of HRV by fast Fourier transform method included assessment of low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), and the low LF/HF ratio. Average RR reflects resting heart rate, RMSSD and HF reflect parasympathetic modulation, SDNN, and LF reflect global variability with sympathetic and parasympathetic influence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>For data entry and statistical analysis, SPSS software (version 20.0 Chicago, IL, USA) was used. Continuous variables were presented as mean and standard deviation (SD) while categorical variables were expressed as frequencies and/or percentages (%). Continuous variables were checked for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The data following non-normal distributions were log-transformed. Participants were categorized into 3 groups (G) according to their VFR: G1 (VFR = 1-8), G2 (VFR = 9-12), and G3 (VFR &gt; 12). HRV and body fat characteristics are both associated with age, which may confound associations between HRV and body fat characteristics. Thus, groups stratified by VFR were compared for demographic characteristics and HRV parameters by one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusting for age and all the assumptions necessary for the use of ANCOVA were met. The chi-square test was used to compare percentage distributions between different groups. Post-hoc comparisons were performed using Bonferroni and Tamhane tests. Bivariate associations between raw HRV and body composition parameters were assessed with Spearman&#8217;s &#961;. Finally, separate multiple linear regressions were performed with BF%, VFR, and MMVFR as predictors to assess the comparative predictive value of each with HRV parameters. Models included age, BMI, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure as covariates. P &lt;0.05 was considered statistically significant.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>Demographic values for the entire group (n = 99) and groups stratified by VFR are displayed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>. G1 was significantly younger than G2 and G3. After controlling for age, G1 had significantly lower body mass, muscle mass, and waist circumference, along with lower body fat characteristics than G2 and G3. In addition, G3 had significantly higher age-adjusted waist circumference and body fat characteristics than G2.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Demographic data and body composition analysis of all subjects and subgroups based on visceral fat rating</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>All</th>
                  <th>G 1 (VFR = 1-8)</th>
                  <th>G 2 (VFR = 9-12)</th>
                  <th>G 3 (VFR &gt; 12)</th>
                  <th>p value</th>
                  <th>p value adjusted for age</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>N</td>
                  <td align="center">99</td>
                  <td align="center">51</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                  <td align="center">18</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>VFR</td>
                  <td align="center">8.91 &#177; 5.21</td>
                  <td align="center">5.02 &#177; 2.75</td>
                  <td align="center">11.07 &#177; 1.39</td>
                  <td align="center">16.33 &#177; 4.35</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age (year)</td>
                  <td align="center">37.87 &#177; 13.46</td>
                  <td align="center">32.02 &#177; 10.67</td>
                  <td align="center">42.53 &#177; 11.53</td>
                  <td align="center">46.67 &#177; 16.13</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Height (cm)</td>
                  <td align="center">171.94 &#177; 6.46</td>
                  <td align="center">171.84 &#177; 5.99</td>
                  <td align="center">173.10 &#177; 7.44</td>
                  <td align="center">170.28 &#177; 5.95</td>
                  <td align="center">.342</td>
                  <td align="center">.468</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Weight (kg)</td>
                  <td align="center">78.98 &#177; 15.72</td>
                  <td align="center">71.36 &#177; 10.05 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">87.39 &#177; 11.67</td>
                  <td align="center">86.55 &#177; 23.13</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">26.82 &#177; 4.94</td>
                  <td align="center">23.87 4.01 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">28.02 3.19</td>
                  <td align="center">31.69 4.32</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>WC (cm)</td>
                  <td align="center">100.63 &#177; 8.54</td>
                  <td align="center">80.62 &#177; 8.03 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">92.73 &#177; 7.59</td>
                  <td align="center">100.63 &#177; 8.54 <sup>b</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SBP (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">121.59 &#177; 16.14</td>
                  <td align="center">110.00 &#177; 13.80 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">119.13 &#177; 18.18</td>
                  <td align="center">119.13 &#177; 18.18</td>
                  <td align="center">.008</td>
                  <td align="center">.447</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>DBP (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">74.86 &#177; 10.68</td>
                  <td align="center">72.10 &#177; 10.33</td>
                  <td align="center">76.53 &#177; 12.07</td>
                  <td align="center">80.00 &#177; 6.07 <sup>a</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">.847</td>
                  <td align="center">.573</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fat percentage (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">22.86 &#177; 6.31</td>
                  <td align="center">18.17 &#177; 4.40 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">26.45 &#177; 3.27</td>
                  <td align="center">30.17 &#177; 2.98 <sup>b</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fat mass (kg)</td>
                  <td align="center">19.15 &#177; 8.19</td>
                  <td align="center">13.30 &#177; 4.66 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">23.60 &#177; 5.44</td>
                  <td align="center">28.29 &#177; 6.79 <sup>b</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>FFM (kg)</td>
                  <td align="center">60.82 &#177; 7.73</td>
                  <td align="center">57.89 &#177; 6.49 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">64.09 &#177; 7.48</td>
                  <td align="center">63.71 &#177; 8.48</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Muscle mass (kg)</td>
                  <td align="center">57.79 &#177; 7.41</td>
                  <td align="center">55.15 &#177; 6.27 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">60.57 &#177; 7.30</td>
                  <td align="center">60.64 &#177; 8.14</td>
                  <td align="center">.001</td>
                  <td align="center">.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MMVFR</td>
                  <td align="center">9.66 &#177; 7.27</td>
                  <td align="center">14.15 &#177; 7.77 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">5.52 &#177; 0.70</td>
                  <td align="center">3.88 &#177; 0.85</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                  <td align="center">.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MetS n(%)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">27(27.27)</td>
                  <td align="center">13(14.94)</td>
                  <td align="center">8(8.79)</td>
                  <td align="center">8(5.27)</td>
                  <td align="center">.293</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>No</td>
                  <td align="center">72(72.72)</td>
                  <td align="center">38(36.06)</td>
                  <td align="center">22(21.21)</td>
                  <td align="center">10(12.73)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>A: different from G1; b: different from G2; c: different from G3. Data is presented as mean &#177; SD. G: group; VFR: visceral fat rating; N: number of participants; BMI: body mass index; WC: waist circumference; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; FFM: fat-free mass; MMVFR: muscle mass to visceral fat ratio; MetS: metabolic syndrome. One-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used for group comparisons. Proportions were compared by Chi-square.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>The time-domain HRV comparison revealed significant between-group differences for RMSSD and SDNN, but not Average RR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>). Post-hoc analyses demonstrated that RMSSD and SDNN were significantly higher for G1 than G2 and G3, independent of age. Comparison of frequency domain HRV revealed significant between-group differences for LF, but not HF or LF/HF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref>). Post-hoc analyses determined that LF was significantly higher in G1 than in G2, independent of age.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Time domain analysis of all subjects and subgroups based on visceral fat rating</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>All</th>
                  <th>G 1 (VFR = 1-8)</th>
                  <th>G 2 (VFR = 9-12)</th>
                  <th>G 3 (VFR &gt; 12)</th>
                  <th>p value</th>
                  <th>p value adjusted</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>N</td>
                  <td align="center">99</td>
                  <td align="center">51</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                  <td align="center">18</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Average HR (bpm)</td>
                  <td align="center">59.86 &#177; 6.06</td>
                  <td align="center">58.89 &#177; 5.37</td>
                  <td align="center">59.96 &#177; 6.42</td>
                  <td align="center">62.47 &#177; 6.84</td>
                  <td align="center">0.098</td>
                  <td align="center">0.122</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Average RR (s)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.02 &#177; 0.10</td>
                  <td align="center">1.03 &#177; 0.09</td>
                  <td align="center">1.01 &#177; 0.10</td>
                  <td align="center">0.97 &#177; 0.11</td>
                  <td align="center">0.090</td>
                  <td align="center">0.117</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SDNN (ms)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.664&#177; 0.258</td>
                  <td align="center">1.776&#177; 0.229 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">1.543&#177; 0.258</td>
                  <td align="center">1.548&#177; 0.193</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  <td align="center">0.007</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>RMSSD (ms)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.666 &#177; 0.258</td>
                  <td align="center">1.779 &#177; 0.225 <sup>b c</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">1.543&#177; 0.259</td>
                  <td align="center">1.553&#177; 0.202</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  <td align="center">0.006</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>Data is presented as mean &#177; SD; G: group; VFR: visceral fat rating; N: number of participants; Average RR: the average time between QRS complexes (i.e. beat to beat); SDNN: standard deviation of normal RR intervals; RMSSD: Root mean square of the successive differences of normal RR intervals. One-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used for group comparisons.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Frequency domains analysis of all subjects and subgroups based on visceral fat rating</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>All</th>
                  <th>G 1 (VFR = 1-8)</th>
                  <th>G 2 (VFR = 9-12)</th>
                  <th>G 3 (VFR &gt; 12)</th>
                  <th>p value</th>
                  <th>p value adjusted</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>N</td>
                  <td align="center">99</td>
                  <td align="center">51</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                  <td align="center">18</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LF (ms<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.884&#177; 0.599</td>
                  <td align="center">3.106&#177; 0.459 <sup>b</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">2.620&#177; 0.732</td>
                  <td align="center">2.766&#177; 0.445</td>
                  <td align="center">.007</td>
                  <td align="center">.027</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HF (ms<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.928&#177; 0.674</td>
                  <td align="center">3.229&#177; 0.459</td>
                  <td align="center">2.584&#177; 0.828</td>
                  <td align="center">2.766&#177; 0.514</td>
                  <td align="center">.004</td>
                  <td align="center">.284</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LF/HF</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.130&#177; 0.330</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.190&#177; 0.347</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.155&#177; 0.231</td>
                  <td align="center">0.081&#177; 0.349<sup>b</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">.001</td>
                  <td align="center">.496</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>Data is presented as mean &#177; SD; G: group; VFR: visceral fat rating; N: number of participants; LF: low frequency; HF: high frequency. One-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used for group comparisons.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Scatterplots comparing associations between RMSSD and Average RR with VFR are presented in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Scatter plots of VFR relationships with RMSSD and Average RR. VFR: visceral fat rating; RMSSD: Root-mean square of successive differences.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-05-e20220780-20780-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>After covariate adjustment in regression analyses, VFR was significantly predictive of RMSSD, SDNN, and HF, and MMVFR was significantly predictive of RMSSD and SDNN. Standardized &#385;eta coefficients are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 4</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4001">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Multiple linear regression analysis with BF%, VFR, and MMVFR as predictors, adjusting for covariates of age, body mass, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Dependent Variable in Regression Models</th>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>Standardized Coefficients Beta</th>
                  <th>t</th>
                  <th>p value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="3">Average RR (S)</td>
                  <td align="center">BF%</td>
                  <td align="center">-.303</td>
                  <td align="center">-1.865</td>
                  <td align="center">.065</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">VFR</td>
                  <td align="center">-.083</td>
                  <td align="center">-.496</td>
                  <td align="center">.621</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">MMVFR</td>
                  <td align="center">-.007</td>
                  <td align="center">-.042</td>
                  <td align="center">.966</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="3">SDNN (ms)</td>
                  <td align="center">BF%</td>
                  <td align="center">-.197</td>
                  <td align="center">-1.307</td>
                  <td align="center">.194</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">VFR</td>
                  <td align="center">-.421</td>
                  <td align="center">-3.206</td>
                  <td align="center">.002</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">MMVFR</td>
                  <td align="center">.283</td>
                  <td align="center">2.372</td>
                  <td align="center">.020</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="3">RMSSD (ms)</td>
                  <td align="center">BF%</td>
                  <td align="center">-.184</td>
                  <td align="center">-1.221</td>
                  <td align="center">.225</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">VFR</td>
                  <td align="center">-.410</td>
                  <td align="center">-3.117</td>
                  <td align="center">.002</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">MMVFR</td>
                  <td align="center">.275</td>
                  <td align="center">2.305</td>
                  <td align="center">.023</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="3">LF (ms<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">BF%</td>
                  <td align="center">-.032</td>
                  <td align="center">-.205</td>
                  <td align="center">.838</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">VFR</td>
                  <td align="center">-.167</td>
                  <td align="center">-1.038</td>
                  <td align="center">.302</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">MMVFR</td>
                  <td align="center">-.067</td>
                  <td align="center">-.432</td>
                  <td align="center">.667</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="3">HF (ms<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">BF%</td>
                  <td align="center">-.089</td>
                  <td align="center">-.557</td>
                  <td align="center">.579</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">VFR</td>
                  <td align="center">-.317</td>
                  <td align="center">-2.248</td>
                  <td align="center">.027</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">MMVFR</td>
                  <td align="center">.219</td>
                  <td align="center">1.723</td>
                  <td align="center">.089</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="3">LF/HF</td>
                  <td align="center">BF%</td>
                  <td align="center">.044</td>
                  <td align="center">.258</td>
                  <td align="center">.797</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">VFR</td>
                  <td align="center">.083</td>
                  <td align="center">.477</td>
                  <td align="center">.635</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">MMVFR</td>
                  <td align="center">.120</td>
                  <td align="center">.702</td>
                  <td align="center">.484</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4001">
                <p>Average RR: the average time between QRS complexes (i.e. beat to beat); SDNN: standard deviation of normal RR intervals; RMSSD: Root mean square of the successive differences of normal RR intervals; LF: low frequency; HF: high frequency; MMVRF: muscle mass to visceral fat ratio; VFR: visceral fat rating.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The aims of this investigation were 1) to compare HRV between groups stratified by BIA-derived VFR and 2) to compare associations between HRV and body composition metrics in healthy Saudi men. The main findings were that individuals in the lowest VFR category had significantly higher age-adjusted RMSSD, SDNN, and LF than groups of higher VFR categorization. In addition, HRV parameters (RMSSD, SDNN, HF) were more strongly associated with VFR than BF% and MMVFR after controlling for age, BMI, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure.</p>
        <p>In support of our hypothesis, HRV metrics of vagal influence (RMSSD) and global variability (SDNN, LF) varied as a function of BIA-derived VFR categorization in a sample of healthy men. A prior investigation involving healthy young adults compared HRV and BIA-derived body composition parameters among groups categorized by BMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Significantly higher normalized HF, LF, and total power, and lower relative body fat and VAT, were observed among groups of men and women categorized as overweight (n=40, BMI = 23.00 &#8211; 27.40) versus normal weight controls (n=40, BMI = 18.50 &#8211; 22.90).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Additionally, significant moderate bivariate associations were reported between relative VAT and normalized HF (r = -0.32) and LF (0.40).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Our findings revealed similar between-group differences and correlation magnitudes. Our inclusion of more common and accessible time-domain HRV parameters and adjustment for confounders in multivariate analyses add new insight to the literature regarding the association between VAT and HRV in a healthy population. Moreover, our finding of no difference in Average RR between VFR groups indicates greater sensitivity of HRV parameters to VAT accumulation.</p>
        <p>Cross-sectional associations between HRV parameters and indicators of VAT have recently been reported. One investigation involving young adult women (n = 104) found that dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry-derived VAT expressed relative to body mass explained ~10-16% of the variance in time (SDNN and RMSSD) and frequency domain (HF and LF) parameters<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> following age-adjustment. Another investigation involving younger and older multi-ethnic men and women (n = 178) with and without morbidities found that higher waist circumference was associated with decreasing HRV (Holter-derived RMSSD and SDNN) in younger, but not older adults, independent of known health conditions and self-reported physical activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Yi et al. found that a greater waist-to-hip ratio was associated with reduced HRV (e.g., RMSSD and LF) in an overweight sub-group of Korean adults, independent of age, sex, and cardiovascular risk factors. In agreement with the current findings, it was reported that abdominal fat was more predictive of HRV than BIA-derived body fat percentage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Abdominal obesity is associated with greater resting sympathetic activation than peripheral obesity, despite similar baroreflex impairment between obese groups, implying mechanisms of metabolic origin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance are associated with both abdominal obesity and sympathetic hyperactivity, leading to reduced HRV and increased cardiometabolic risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> However, metabolic abnormalities as described above are linked to pro-inflammatory states.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> VAT contributes to systemic inflammation via its secretion of adipokines such as tumor necrosis factor-&#945;, interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and angiotensinogen.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> It&#8217;s been demonstrated that low-grade inflammation is associated with attenuated HRV in middle-aged and older adults.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Moreover, oxidative stress from adipokine-related dysregulation of reactive oxygen species is also thought to contribute to autonomic imbalance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Thus, VAT may promote dysfunction of the ANS via the effects of its secretions, but further study aimed at clarifying mechanisms is required.</p>
        <p>Limitations of our study include its cross-sectional design, utilization of only supine HRV recordings, and lack of additional important covariates such as blood biomarkers<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> and physical activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Lack of respiratory control during ECG assessment may also be considered a limitation. Moreover, our relatively small sample size and inclusion of only men limit the generalizability of our findings to the broader population. Finally, VAT was estimated by BIA, which is of lower quality relative to criterion approaches such as magnetic resonance imaging.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions and recommendations</title>
        <p>Higher visceral fat, as indexed by BIA-derived VFR, was associated with reduced HRV in a sample of healthy men. Associations remained statistically significant after age, BMI and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were held constant. VFR was more strongly associated with HRV when compared to body fat percentage and MMVFR. VAT and HRV are modifiable with lifestyle factors and can be self-monitored with commercially available devices. Our findings suggest that RMSSD and SDNN may be the most sensitive HRV parameters to changes in VAT, and therefore should be the primary parameters of interest in tracking cardiac-autonomic status in response to interventions targeting VAT reduction.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgments</title>
        <p>We are thankful to Dr. Aurangzeb Taj Halepota for the recruitment and clinical assessments of study participants.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association</label>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the IRB of King Saud University under the protocol number E-183381. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding:</label>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
