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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">PdwV6KZLXbBVZghJjZC8HTk</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000400303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230236</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Resposta Vascular da Triiodotironina sobre An&#233;is de Aortas Isoladas: Contribui&#231;&#227;o de Mecanismos Redox</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pederiva</surname>
            <given-names>Viviane Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica;</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bell&#243;-Klein</surname>
            <given-names>Adriane</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9482-7388</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Araujo</surname>
            <given-names>Alex Sander da Rosa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5994-5218</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Turck</surname>
            <given-names>Patrick</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Fisiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiologia Cardiovascular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Departamento de Fisiologia, Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiologia Cardiovascular, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Patrick Turck &#8226; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Sarmento Leite, 500. CEP 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil E-mail: <email>p.turck@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o: Marina Okoshi</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>26</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230236</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Resposta Vascular da Triiodotironina sobre An&#233;is de Aortas Isoladas: Contribui&#231;&#227;o de Mecanismos Redox</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>A triiodotironina exerce um relaxamento vascular endotelial dependente e independente e diminui a vasocontra&#231;&#227;o de an&#233;is a&#243;rticos isolados, melhorando a homeostase redox vascular.</attrib>
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          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> A disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular constitui a etiologia de diversas doen&#231;as, incluindo infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e hipertens&#227;o, diante da ruptura da homeostase oxi-redutiva (&#8220;redox&#8221;), desempenhando um papel no desequil&#237;brio do mecanismo de controle vasomotor. Nosso grupo demonstrou anteriormente que os horm&#244;nios tireoidianos melhoram a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da angiog&#234;nese, exercendo efeitos protetores sobre o tecido a&#243;rtico de ratos infartados.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Investigar o papel da triiodotironina (T3) na resposta vascular, explorando seus efeitos em aortas isoladas e a presen&#231;a de mecanismos redox vasculares.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> An&#233;is a&#243;rticos isolados (endot&#233;lio intacto e desnudado) pr&#233;-contra&#237;dos com fenilefrina foram incubados com T3 (10<sup>-8</sup>, 10<sup>-7</sup>, 10<sup>-6</sup>, 10<sup>-5</sup> e 10<sup>-4</sup> M) e a tens&#227;o foi registrada usando um transdutor de deslocamento de for&#231;a acoplado a um sistema de coleta. Para avaliar o envolvimento do estresse oxidativo, os an&#233;is a&#243;rticos foram pr&#233;-incubados com T3 e posteriormente submetidos a um sistema de gera&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS) <italic>in vitro</italic>. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia adotado na an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foi de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> A T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) promoveu o vasorrelaxamento dos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos pr&#233;-contra&#237;dos com fenilefrina em endot&#233;lio intacto e desnudado. Os an&#233;is a&#243;rticos pr&#233;-incubados na presen&#231;a de T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) tamb&#233;m mostraram diminui&#231;&#227;o da vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o provocada pela fenilefrina (1 &#181;M) em prepara&#231;&#245;es de endot&#233;lio intacto. Al&#233;m disso, o efeito vasorrelaxante da T3 (10-4 M) persistiu em an&#233;is a&#243;rticos pr&#233;-incubados com &#233;ster met&#237;lico de N<sup>G</sup>-nitro-L-arginina (L-NAME, 10 &#181;M), um inibidor inespec&#237;fico da NO sintase (NOS). Por fim, a T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) exibiu, <italic>in vitro</italic>, um papel antioxidante ao reduzir a atividade da NADPH oxidase e aumentar a atividade da SOD nos homogenatos a&#243;rticos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> A T3 exerce efeitos dependentes e independentes de endot&#233;lio, o que pode estar relacionado ao seu papel na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase redox.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Tri-Iodotironina</kwd>
        <kwd>Horm&#244;nios Tire&#243;ideos</kwd>
        <kwd>Aorta</kwd>
        <kwd>Homeostase</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="10"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="31"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em doen&#231;as card&#237;acas e cerebrais, altera&#231;&#245;es significativas s&#227;o observadas nos mecanismos de relaxamento vascular, resultando na diminui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo, a qual &#233; frequentemente associada a eventos isqu&#234;micos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Condi&#231;&#245;es como hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, hipertens&#227;o pulmonar e acidente vascular cerebral s&#227;o alguns dos exemplos de les&#245;es vasculares vinculadas &#224; vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e comprometimento do sistema circulat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A resposta exacerbada &#224;s catecolaminas, mediadores inflamat&#243;rios e esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS) desempenham um papel crucial na disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, o estresse oxidativo assume uma import&#226;ncia significativa, visto que as ROS induzem vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e efeitos adversos no remodelamento vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Adicionalmente, o aumento do t&#244;nus vascular gera maior resist&#234;ncia ao fluxo sangu&#237;neo, resultando em tens&#227;o de cisalhamento. Esta condi&#231;&#227;o exerce efeitos cr&#237;ticos sobre a homeostase endotelial, causando produ&#231;&#227;o elevada de ROS. Diversas fontes celulares podem promover a forma&#231;&#227;o de ROS, como mitoc&#244;ndrias, ret&#237;culo endoplasm&#225;tico e peroxissomos. Al&#233;m disso, enzimas como a xantina oxidase e a nicotinamida adenina dinucleot&#237;deo fosfato oxidase (NADPH oxidase/Nox) tamb&#233;m t&#234;m a capacidade de sintetizar essas esp&#233;cies qu&#237;micas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A NADPH oxidase &#233; a principal enzima sintetizadora do radical &#226;nion super&#243;xido (O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;&#8722;</sup>) nos vasos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A mol&#233;cula de O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;&#8722;</sup> pode ser convertida em per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) em uma rea&#231;&#227;o catalisada pela super&#243;xido dismutase (SOD). A partir dessa perspectiva, o H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> desempenha um papel duplo, sendo capaz de n&#227;o somente produzir vasodilata&#231;&#227;o nas art&#233;rias cerebrais, coron&#225;rias e pulmonares,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> como tamb&#233;m de atuar como vasoconstritor relevante nas art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas e na aorta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;&#8722;</sup> combina-se ao &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO), resultando na forma&#231;&#227;o de peroxinitrito (ONOO<sup>&#8722;</sup>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> O ONOO<sup>&#8722;</sup> &#233; um potente agente oxidante de membranas biol&#243;gicas, capaz de induzir a morte celular. Assim, encontrar abordagens terap&#234;uticas que combinem a&#231;&#245;es vasodilatadoras e antioxidantes &#233; importante para o tratamento de doen&#231;as vasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os horm&#244;nios tireoidianos (TH) demonstraram promover efeitos cardioprotetores e vasoprotetores em modelos experimentais de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas. No modelo de infarto, o TH n&#227;o apenas melhorou o remodelamento card&#237;aco adverso p&#243;s-infarto, como tamb&#233;m apresentou a&#231;&#227;o antioxidante sobre o tecido card&#237;aco e vascular<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> al&#233;m de melhorar a express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas de angiog&#234;nese, como o fator 1&#945; induz&#237;vel por hip&#243;xia (HIF-1&#945;) e o fator de crescimento endotelial vascular (VEGF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a T3 induz o vasorrelaxamento por meio de diferentes mecanismos. Em um modelo experimental de dieta com sobrecarga de sal, os vasos incubados com T3 aumentaram sua vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e diminu&#237;ram a produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de NO e a ativa&#231;&#227;o das vias da prote&#237;na quinase G (PKG)/fosfoprote&#237;na estimulada por vasodilatador (VASP) e fosfoinosit&#237;deo-3-quinase (PI3K)/ prote&#237;na quinase B (AKT) parecem ser o principal processo pelo qual o TH promove o vasorrelaxamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> No entanto, a T3 tamb&#233;m exerce sua fun&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora de maneira independente do endot&#233;lio, sugerindo uma a&#231;&#227;o direta do TH sobre as c&#233;lulas musculares lisas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Apesar de estudos demonstrarem a&#231;&#227;o protetora do TH no cora&#231;&#227;o e nos vasos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> ainda se faz necess&#225;rio elucidar o papel da T3 sobre o t&#244;nus vascular e sobre o estresse oxidativo nos vasos. Assim, &#233; necess&#225;rio explorar ainda mais o mecanismo vasodilatador da T3 e o impacto das ROS neste processo. Para tanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o impacto da T3 sobre a resposta vascular em vasos isolados quanto &#224; influ&#234;ncia do endot&#233;lio e o envolvimento dos par&#226;metros de estresse oxidativo neste contexto.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Animais</title>
        <p>Foram utilizados ratos Wistar machos com 45 dias de idade (pesando 202 &#177; 25 g) (N = 60), provenientes do Centro de Reprodu&#231;&#227;o e Experimenta&#231;&#227;o de Animais de Laborat&#243;rio. Os animais foram alocados em condi&#231;&#245;es padr&#227;o de biot&#233;rio: ambiente com temperatura controlada (21 &#177; 2 &#176;C), ciclo claro-escuro de 12 horas e umidade relativa de 70%; ofereceu-se &#225;gua e ra&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o para roedores &#8220;ad libitum&#8221;. Os animais tamb&#233;m foram aclimatados durante sete dias antes do in&#237;cio do protocolo experimental. Todos os procedimentos deste estudo estavam de acordo com as diretrizes para Pesquisa Biom&#233;dica Envolvendo Animais do Conselho de Organiza&#231;&#245;es Internacionais de Ci&#234;ncia M&#233;dica (CIOMS) e foram aprovados pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica no Uso de Animais (n&#250;mero do protocolo: 38964).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>C&#225;lculo do tamanho da amostra</title>
        <p>O c&#225;lculo do tamanho da amostra foi realizado utilizando o software G*Power 3.1.9.2 (Schleswig-Holstein, Alemanha). Foram consideradas probabilidade de erro &#945; = 0,05, poder de teste estat&#237;stico = 0,80 e tamanho do efeito = 0,4.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Prepara&#231;&#227;o dos vasos para a reatividade vascular</title>
        <p>Os ratos foram anestesiados com cetamina (90 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) e xilazina (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) simultaneamente e sacrificados por decapita&#231;&#227;o. Ap&#243;s a eutan&#225;sia, as aortas foram rapidamente isoladas e mantidas em solu&#231;&#227;o tamp&#227;o Krebs-Henseleit (NaCl 115 mM, CaCl<sub>2</sub> 2,5 mM, KCl 4,6 mM, KH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> 1,2 mM, MgSO<sub>4</sub>. 7 H<sub>2</sub>O 1,2 mM, NaHCO<sub>3</sub> 25 mM, dextrose 11,1 mM, Na<sub>2</sub>EDTA 3 mM), a 37 &#176;C e pH 7,4, sob 95% O<sub>2</sub>&#8211;5% CO<sub>2</sub>. Os tecidos adiposo e conjuntivo foram cuidadosamente removidos e as aortas foram cortadas em segmentos cil&#237;ndricos de 4 mm de comprimento. Em alguns experimentos, o endot&#233;lio foi removido mecanicamente, esfregando-se suavemente a superf&#237;cie interna dos segmentos da aorta com um fio de a&#231;o inoxid&#225;vel. Dois ganchos de fio de a&#231;o inoxid&#225;vel dobrados em um formato de L modificado foram utilizados para montar cada anel em c&#226;maras de banho de &#243;rg&#227;os (AVS Projetos, S&#227;o Carlos, SP, Brasil). A por&#231;&#227;o curta e reta de cada gancho foi passada atrav&#233;s do l&#250;men do anel. O gancho inferior foi preso &#224; base da c&#226;mara de &#243;rg&#227;o preenchida com 10 mL de solu&#231;&#227;o tamp&#227;o Krebs-Henseleit e o gancho superior a um extens&#244;metro. A tens&#227;o isom&#233;trica foi registrada por meio de um transdutor de deslocamento de for&#231;a (TIM-100; AVS Projetos, S&#227;o Carlos, SP, Brasil) conectado a um sistema de coleta (AQCAD 2.0.5; AVS Projetos, S&#227;o Carlos, SP, Brasil). Os segmentos foram submetidos a uma tens&#227;o basal de 1,0 gf, ajustada a cada 15 minutos durante um per&#237;odo inicial de equil&#237;brio de 45 minutos.</p>
        <p>A integridade do endot&#233;lio foi verificada pela incuba&#231;&#227;o com acetilcolina (10 &#181;M). Um relaxamento igual ou superior a 90% da contra&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima induzida pela fenilefrina (1 &#181;M) foi considerado demonstrativo da integridade funcional do endot&#233;lio. Cada anel foi lavado sequencialmente com solu&#231;&#227;o tamp&#227;o de Krebs-Henseleit, reequilibrado por 45 minutos, e as tens&#245;es basais foram registradas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estudos da reatividade vascular</title>
        <p>O protocolo de incuba&#231;&#227;o experimental &#233; representado da seguinte forma: a) verifica&#231;&#227;o de uma curva dose-resposta de T3 (10<sup>-8</sup>a 10<sup>-4</sup> M) em segmentos a&#243;rticos com endot&#233;lio intacto e desnudado, pr&#233;-contra&#237;dos com fenilefrina 1&#181;M; b) pr&#233;-exposi&#231;&#227;o de vasos com endot&#233;lio intacto e desnudado a T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M), para mostrar a menor resposta contr&#225;til induzida pela fenilefrina; c) verifica&#231;&#227;o da T3 (10<sup>-4M</sup>) em segmentos a&#243;rticos com endot&#233;lio intacto pr&#233;-contra&#237;dos com fenilefrina 1&#181;M e expostos a um inibidor inespec&#237;fico da NO sintase (NOS), &#233;ster met&#237;lico de NG-nitro-L-arginina (L-NAME; 10 &#181;M) por 20 minutos. A T3 foi dilu&#237;da em tamp&#227;o de Krebs-Henseleit e as solu&#231;&#245;es foram preparadas diariamente, ao abrigo da luz. O grupo controle consistiu na adi&#231;&#227;o dos mesmos volumes de solu&#231;&#227;o tamp&#227;o de Krebs-Henseleit, sem T3.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Prepara&#231;&#227;o da aorta para ensaios in vitro</title>
        <p>As aortas foram homogeneizadas por 40 segundos (OMNI Tissue Homogeneizer, OMNI International, Kennesaw, GA, EUA) na presen&#231;a de tamp&#227;o de RIPA a 1:10 (5 ml/g de tecido) com fluoreto fenil-metil-sulfonil (PMSF) (100 mM) a 1 % (v/v). O homogenato foi centrifugado por 10 min a 8.000 x<italic>g</italic> em centr&#237;fuga refrigerada (4 &#176;C) (Sorvall RC 5B &#8211; Rotor SM 24, Sorvall, Waltham, MA, EUA) e o sobrenadante foi coletado para an&#225;lise subsequente.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sistema de gera&#231;&#227;o de radical hidroxila</title>
        <p>Para verificar o papel da T3 no equil&#237;brio redox, os sobrenadantes homogeneizados da aorta foram incubados com T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) por 15 min a 37 &#176;C. O grupo que n&#227;o recebeu T3 foi incubado com &#225;gua destilada no mesmo volume. Em seguida, as amostras foram incubadas por 30 min a 37 &#176;C com FeCl<sub>2</sub> (20 &#181;M), H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (50 mM) e &#225;cido asc&#243;rbico (1 mM) para induzir estresse oxidativo (sistema de gera&#231;&#227;o de radical hidroxila).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Essas amostras foram utilizadas para avalia&#231;&#227;o bioqu&#237;mica</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lises bioqu&#237;micas</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Dosagem de prote&#237;nas</title>
          <p>As prote&#237;nas foram quantificadas pelo m&#233;todo descrito por Lowry et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> e medidas em espectrofot&#244;metro (Anthos Zenyth 200 rt, Biochrom, Cambridge, Reino Unido) a 625 nm. Os resultados foram expressos em mg/mL.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Determina&#231;&#227;o do total de ROS</title>
          <p>Os n&#237;veis totais de ROS nos homogenatos de vasos foram detectados usando diacetato de 2&#8217;,7&#8217;-dicloro-dihidro-fluoresce&#237;na (DCFH-DA), conforme descrito anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> O DCFH-DA foi oxidado em 2,7-diclorofluoresce&#237;na fluorescente (DCF) na presen&#231;a de ROS. As amostras foram excitadas a 488 nm e as emiss&#245;es foram coletadas com um filtro de 525 nm (Espectr&#244;metro de Fluoresc&#234;ncia LS 55, Perkin Elmer, Waltham, MA, EUA). Os resultados foram expressos em nmol DCF/mg de prote&#237;na.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica</title>
          <p>A peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica foi avaliada por meio da produ&#231;&#227;o de quimiluminesc&#234;ncia iniciada pela adi&#231;&#227;o de hidr&#243;xido de terc-butila (TBOOH).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A quimiluminesc&#234;ncia foi medida em um espectr&#244;metro de cintila&#231;&#227;o (LKB Wallac Rack Beta Liquid Scintilla Spectrometer 1215, Austr&#225;lia) operando como lumin&#244;metro e com fototubo sensor de emiss&#227;o na faixa de 380&#8211;620 nm. Os resultados foram expressos como contagens por segundo cps/mg de prote&#237;na.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Atividade da NADPH Oxidase</title>
          <p>A atividade da NADPH oxidase foi baseada no monitoramento do consumo de NADPH a 340 nm (Anthos Zenyth 200 rt, Biochrom, Cambridge, Reino Unido). Os resultados foram expressos como nmol NADPH/min/mg de prote&#237;na.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Atividade da super&#243;xido dismutase (SOD)</title>
          <p>A determina&#231;&#227;o da atividade da SOD foi baseada na inibi&#231;&#227;o da rea&#231;&#227;o do &#226;nion radical super&#243;xido com o pirogalol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Os resultados foram expressos como U SOD/mg de prote&#237;na.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Atividade da catalase</title>
          <p>A atividade da catalase foi avaliada por meio da medi&#231;&#227;o espectrofotom&#233;trica da taxa de decomposi&#231;&#227;o do per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio a 240 nm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Os resultados foram expressos em nmol/min/mg de prote&#237;na.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
      <p>Todos os conjuntos de dados foram submetidos ao teste de normalidade de Shapiro-Wilk. Experimentos de diferentes doses de T3 ao longo do tempo, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo Controle, foram analisados por ANOVA fatorial, complementada com teste post-hoc de Bonferroni para compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas. Experimentos comparando o efeito de pr&#233;-incuba&#231;&#227;o de dose fixa de T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) sobre a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o provocada pela fenilefrina e o efeito dA T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) em an&#233;is a&#243;rticos pr&#233;-incubados com L-NAME, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo Controle, foram analisados por testes T n&#227;o pareados. Experimentos do equil&#237;brio redox foram analisados por meio do m&#233;todo ANOVA bidirecional e complementados com o teste post-hoc de Bonferroni para compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas al&#233;m dos n&#237;veis totais de ROS, que, por sua vez, foram analisados por meio do teste de Kruskal-Walli, complementado com o teste post-hoc de Dunn para compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas. Os resultados foram expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o para todos os conjuntos de dados, exceto os n&#237;veis totais de ROS, cujos resultados foram plotados como um gr&#225;fico de pontos de dispers&#227;o, representando a mediana e o intervalo interquartil para cada conjunto de dados. O software GraphPad Prism 8.0.2 para Windows (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, EUA) foi utilizado para an&#225;lise de dados. Os dados foram considerados significativos quando p &lt; 0,05.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>A T3 promove relaxamento dos segmentos a&#243;rticos</title>
        <p>Considerando o vaso intacto, a T3 a 10<sup>-4</sup> M induziu o relaxamento das aortas pr&#233;-contra&#237;das pela fenilefrina em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1A</xref>). A remo&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio n&#227;o anulou o efeito de vasorrelaxamento induzido pela T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1B</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Efeito da T3 sobre o relaxamento vascular dos segmentos a&#243;rticos (A) na presen&#231;a de endot&#233;lio (END+) e (B) na aus&#234;ncia de endot&#233;lio (END-) pr&#233;-contra&#237;do com fenilefrina. Valores representados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP), n = 6-8 an&#233;is a&#243;rticos por grupo. ANOVA fatorial seguida de p&#243;s-teste de Bonferroni. *Diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos Controle e T3 (10-4 M); p &lt; 0,05.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A T3 diminui a resposta de vasocontra&#231;&#227;o induzida pela fenilefrina</title>
        <p>A pr&#233;-exposi&#231;&#227;o dos segmentos a&#243;rticos intactos &#224; T3 (10-4 M) resultou em uma redu&#231;&#227;o da contra&#231;&#227;o induzida pela fenilefrina em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2A</xref>). Por&#233;m, o mesmo resultado n&#227;o foi observado nas prepara&#231;&#245;es sem endot&#233;lio (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2B</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Efeito da pr&#233;-incuba&#231;&#227;o de T3 (10-4 M) sobre a vasocontra&#231;&#227;o dos segmentos a&#243;rticos, provocada pela fenilefrina (A) na presen&#231;a de endot&#233;lio (END+) e (B) na aus&#234;ncia de endot&#233;lio (END-). Valores representados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP), n = 6-10 por grupo. Teste t n&#227;o pareado. *Diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos Controle e T3; p &lt; 0,05. &#8710;T/peso da aorta = raz&#227;o da varia&#231;&#227;o da tens&#227;o pelo peso do vaso.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A T3 exibe um efeito vasorrelaxante independente de NOS</title>
        <p>Vasos com endot&#233;lio intacto foram pr&#233;-incubados com L-NAME, um inibidor inespec&#237;fico de NOS, antes da incuba&#231;&#227;o de T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M). Mesmo na presen&#231;a de L-NAME, a T3 (10-4 M) ainda resultou em relaxamento (~20%) dos segmentos a&#243;rticos pr&#233;-contra&#237;dos induzidos por fenilefrina em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Efeito da T3 (10-4 M) sobre o relaxamento vascular de an&#233;is a&#243;rticos com endot&#233;lio intacto pr&#233;-incubados com L-NAME. Valores representados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP), n = 6 por grupo. Teste t n&#227;o pareado. *Diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos Controle e T3; p &lt; 0,05.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A T3 reduz a atividade da NADPH oxidase e melhora a atividade da SOD <italic>in vitro</italic></title>
        <p>Embora a concentra&#231;&#227;o total de ROS e a oxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica n&#227;o difiram entre os grupos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4A e 4B</xref>), a atividade da NADPH oxidase foi reduzida quando as amostras foram expostas &#224; T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) em compara&#231;&#227;o com os grupos controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4C</xref>). Observou-se um aumento da atividade da SOD em vasos incubados com T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) em compara&#231;&#227;o com os grupos controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4D</xref>). A atividade da catalase estava aumentada apenas nos grupos que receberam a indu&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4E</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Efeito da incuba&#231;&#227;o de T3 (10-4 M) sobre (A) o n&#237;vel de esp&#233;cies reativas totais de oxig&#234;nio (ROS), (B) a oxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica, (C) a atividade da NADPH oxidase, (D) a atividade da super&#243;xido dismutase (SOD) e (E) a atividade da catalase em homogenatos a&#243;rticos. Valores representados como mediana com intervalo interquartil para (A) e m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP) para (B) a (E), n = 4-6 por grupo. Teste de Kruskal-Walli complementado com teste post-hoc de Dunn para (A) e ANOVA de dois fatores foi complementado com teste post-hoc de Bonferroni para (B) a (E). *Diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos Controle e T3 na ANOVA de dois fatores; p &lt; 0,05. #Diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos (OS-) e (OS+); p &lt; 0,05. OS- = grupos sem indu&#231;&#227;o de estresse oxidativo (sistema de gera&#231;&#227;o de radicais hidroxila); OS+ = grupos com indu&#231;&#227;o de estresse oxidativo (sistema de gera&#231;&#227;o de radicais hidroxila).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Os principais resultados do presente estudo incluem a indu&#231;&#227;o da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o de an&#233;is a&#243;rticos com endot&#233;lio intacto e desnudado, pr&#233;-contra&#237;dos com fenilefrina em modelo experimental <italic>ex vivo</italic>, pela T3, cujo protocolo foi desenhado para avalia&#231;&#227;o da reatividade vascular. Al&#233;m disso, a T3 desempenha um papel fundamental na homeostase redox, reduzindo a atividade da NADPH oxidase e aumentando a atividade da SOD dos vasos a&#243;rticos <italic>in vitro</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
      <p>Estresse oxidativo, hip&#243;xia, aterosclerose e inflama&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o exemplos de desencadeadores de eventos vasoconstritores, os quais promovem desequil&#237;brio entre vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o, remodelamento muscular vascular adverso e dano endotelial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Juntos, esses fatores promovem o aparecimento de diversas doen&#231;as como acidente vascular cerebral, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Portanto, &#233; importante explorar os mecanismos subjacentes &#224; reatividade dos vasos de modo a propor alternativas terap&#234;uticas que possam contribuir para o manejo das doen&#231;as vasculares. Nosso modelo experimental focou na avalia&#231;&#227;o da resposta vascular de aortas isoladas na presen&#231;a de T3. A incuba&#231;&#227;o com fenilefrina induziu a contra&#231;&#227;o dos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos, que foram posteriormente submetidos a diferentes doses de T3. Nossos resultados mostraram que a T3, na concentra&#231;&#227;o de 10<sup>-4</sup>M, reduziu a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o induzida pela fenilefrina. Corroborando com nossos dados, Carrillo-Sepulveda et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> utilizando aortas de ratos Dahl (f&#234;meas) sens&#237;veis ao sal, submetidos a uma dieta rica em sal, mostraram que a pr&#233;-incuba&#231;&#227;o com T3 reduziu o estado hipercontr&#225;til dos vasos e melhorou a resposta vasodilatadora. No modelo experimental de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, Ortiz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> verificaram que o tratamento com T3 e T4 (2 e 8 &#956;g/100 g/dia, respectivamente, por via oral por 12 dias) aumentou o imunoconte&#250;do de VEGF e HIF-1&#945; (prote&#237;nas envolvidas na angiog&#234;nese em cen&#225;rio hip&#243;xico) na aorta de ratos infartados. Al&#233;m disso, o VEGF tamb&#233;m induz vasodilata&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Avaliando o envolvimento do endot&#233;lio sobre o efeito vasodilatador do TH, nossos resultados mostraram que a administra&#231;&#227;o de T3 resultou em uma redu&#231;&#227;o na constri&#231;&#227;o vascular induzida pela fenilefrina em aortas com e sem endot&#233;lio. Contudo, em aortas pr&#233;-incubadas com 10<sup>-4</sup> M de T3, a aus&#234;ncia de endot&#233;lio afetou significativamente a capacidade de prevenir um aumento da tens&#227;o vascular evocada pela fenilefrina. Diante disso, &#233; poss&#237;vel que, em vasos intactos, a T3 possa promover vasodilata&#231;&#227;o por meio de uma combina&#231;&#227;o de mecanismos dependentes e independentes do endot&#233;lio. Nos vasos sem endot&#233;lio, a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o &#233; mantida por mecanismos independentes, mas a capacidade da T3 de reduzir a tens&#227;o vascular diminui. Estes resultados destacam a relev&#226;ncia do endot&#233;lio sobre o efeito total da T3 nos vasos. Devido a esse resultado, fez-se necess&#225;rio investigar o papel do NO no processo de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o induzido pela T3, uma vez que o endot&#233;lio &#233; uma importante fonte dessa mol&#233;cula vasodilatadora.</p>
      <p>O papel da T3 no endot&#233;lio e nos mecanismos vasodilatadores envolvidos nessa rela&#231;&#227;o tem sido explorado nos &#250;ltimos anos, destacando a relev&#226;ncia das vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o dependentes de NO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o TH &#233; capaz de aumentar a atividade da &#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase nos eritr&#243;citos, favorecendo a produ&#231;&#227;o de NO no sangue e melhorando a sua biodisponibilidade na circula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> No presente estudo, quando os an&#233;is a&#243;rticos foram pr&#233;-incubados com L-NAME, um conhecido inibidor da NOS, a a&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora da T3 persistiu. Esses dados corroboram a hip&#243;tese de que a T3 pode estar induzindo vasodilata&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m por meio de um mecanismo independente do NO e do endot&#233;lio. Estes resultados n&#227;o diminu&#237;ram a import&#226;ncia do endot&#233;lio sobre o efeito deste horm&#244;nio, eles demonstraram a capacidade da T3 em promover dilata&#231;&#227;o no contexto onde o endot&#233;lio &#233; removido/danificado. Samuel et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> sugeriram que esse efeito independente do NO est&#225; associado &#224; modula&#231;&#227;o da via da prote&#237;na quinase G/fosfoprote&#237;na, estimulada por vasodilatador (PKG/VASP) diretamente nas c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares. Al&#233;m disso, o efeito antioxidante de baixas doses de horm&#244;nios tireoidianos tamb&#233;m &#233; capaz de melhorar a disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular e contribuir para um t&#244;nus vascular relaxado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora as ROS sejam importantes no controle do t&#244;nus vascular, quando suas concentra&#231;&#245;es excedem a capacidade antioxidante do tecido, o estresse oxidativo &#233; estabelecido. A interrup&#231;&#227;o da homeostase redox resulta em danos vasculares, oxida lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade e causa aterosclerose. O processo inflamat&#243;rio associado a esses eventos leva ao remodelamento vascular adverso, &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o dos agentes vasodilatadores e ao aumento do n&#237;vel de vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Nossos resultados mostram que a incuba&#231;&#227;o com T3 reduziu a atividade do NADPH na aorta sob condi&#231;&#245;es experimentais de estresse oxidativo estabelecidas <italic>in vitro</italic>. Al&#233;m disso, a NADPH oxidase desempenha um papel importante na forma&#231;&#227;o de ROS nos vasos sangu&#237;neos. Essas esp&#233;cies s&#227;o capazes de promover um ambiente celular oxidado, levando ao desacoplamento da NOS e ao aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o do radical &#226;nion super&#243;xido em vez do NO. Al&#233;m disso, os radicais livres, como o &#226;nion super&#243;xido, muitas vezes atuam como sequestradores de NO, reduzindo sua biodisponibilidade e prejudicando a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Nesse sentido, Ortiz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m observaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o na atividade da NADPH oxidase na aorta de ratos infartados tratados com horm&#244;nios tireoidianos, enquanto De Castro et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> mostraram que a administra&#231;&#227;o de TH &#233; capaz de reduzir ROS no cora&#231;&#227;o de ratos infartados. Por&#233;m, em termos de n&#237;veis totais de ROS, o presente estudo n&#227;o observou diferen&#231;as entre os grupos. Um resultado semelhante foi encontrado para avalia&#231;&#227;o da oxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica. Esses resultados podem ter surgido devido ao uso de aortas provenientes de animais saud&#225;veis. Dentro deste contexto, essas amostras de vasos foram induzidas ao estresse oxidativo por meio da gera&#231;&#227;o de modelo de hidroxila, no qual as amostras foram incubadas com FeCl<sub>2</sub>, H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> e &#225;cido asc&#243;rbico por 30 min a 37&#176;C. Entretanto, em estudo anterior avaliando a aorta de ratos infartados, a administra&#231;&#227;o de TH promoveu diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de ROS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Apesar disso, a capacidade da T3 de diminuir a atividade da NADPH oxidase j&#225; demonstra o efeito vasoprotetor desse horm&#244;nio. Al&#233;m disso, quando avaliamos enzimas antioxidantes, a administra&#231;&#227;o de T3 induziu aumento na atividade da SOD no tecido vascular. A SOD converte o &#226;nion radical super&#243;xido em per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio, reduzindo os n&#237;veis desse radical livre e sustentando um estado de aumento da biodisponibilidade de NO, melhorando assim a capacidade de vasorrelaxamento. Neste sentido, nossos resultados mostram que a T3 promove um cen&#225;rio favor&#225;vel &#224; melhora da biodisponibilidade de NO, contribuindo para o mecanismo de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio. Esses dados corroboram outros estudos que mostram o papel vasoprotetor dos horm&#244;nios tireoidianos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Quando avaliamos a atividade da catalase, apenas as aortas submetidas ao estresse oxidativo apresentaram aumento na atividade dessa enzima. Estes resultados indicam um mecanismo compensat&#243;rio do sistema antioxidante enzim&#225;tico em resposta ao desequil&#237;brio redox; no entanto, a administra&#231;&#227;o de T3 n&#227;o modificou a atividade da catalase. Com rela&#231;&#227;o a esse achado, um estudo investigando os efeitos dos TH em eritr&#243;citos de ratos infartados revelou um aumento na atividade da catalase nas c&#233;lulas sangu&#237;neas dos animais tratados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Com base nisso, &#233; plaus&#237;vel sugerir que, sob a influ&#234;ncia da T3, os eritr&#243;citos possam desempenhar um papel mais significativo na atividade dessa enzima antioxidante do que a pr&#243;pria parede vascular.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#227;o do estudo</title>
        <p>A impossibilidade de explorar a express&#227;o proteica diretamente nos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos utilizados na reatividade vascular foi uma limita&#231;&#227;o do estudo. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas, como a sintase do &#243;xido n&#237;trico endotelial (eNOS) e a via de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o PIK3/AKT, bem como de prote&#237;nas antioxidantes, como o fator 2 relacionado ao fator nuclear eritr&#243;ide 2 (NRF2), na mesma amostra incubada com T3 e submetida aos protocolos de vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e vasodilata&#231;&#227;o, teria contribu&#237;do para a compreens&#227;o da mec&#226;nica dos resultados observados. No entanto, o tamanho reduzido dos an&#233;is a&#243;rticos e dos fios utilizados no protocolo de reatividade vascular reduzem o grau de confiabilidade para experimentos subsequentes de biologia molecular utilizando a mesma amostra. Outro aspecto limitante deste artigo &#233; a falta de avalia&#231;&#227;o de outros vasos de resist&#234;ncia, como pequenas art&#233;rias e arter&#237;olas, para verificar se o efeito da T3 na aorta poderia ser extrapolado. Na realidade, o estado contr&#225;til das pequenas art&#233;rias e arter&#237;olas &#233; respons&#225;vel pela defini&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular, sendo um determinante chave da press&#227;o arterial. Estruturalmente, as art&#233;rias de resist&#234;ncia possuem uma ou duas camadas de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares (CMLV), enquanto as art&#233;rias condutoras, como a aorta, possuem cerca de 15 camadas de CMLV. Nesse contexto, as c&#233;lulas endoteliais das art&#233;rias de resist&#234;ncia projetam a membrana plasm&#225;tica para a camada CMLV por meio da l&#226;mina el&#225;stica interna (proje&#231;&#245;es mioendoteliais). As proje&#231;&#245;es mioendoteliais conectam-se &#224;s CMLV por meio de jun&#231;&#245;es comunicantes que facilitam a comunica&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica entre as duas camadas celulares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, a hiperpolariza&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas endoteliais &#233; transmitida &#224;s CMLV, relaxando os vasos; portanto, este &#233; o principal mecanismo para a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio das art&#233;rias de resist&#234;ncia. Por outro lado, tal mecanismo difere para a aorta, por exemplo, uma vez que as proje&#231;&#245;es mioendoteliais muitas vezes est&#227;o ausentes nos vasos condutores. Assim, a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o mediada por NO &#233; o mecanismo prim&#225;rio neste cen&#225;rio.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Com base nos dados obtidos, &#233; poss&#237;vel concluir que a T3 exerce um importante papel vasodilatador, que se mant&#233;m mesmo na aus&#234;ncia do endot&#233;lio. Al&#233;m disso, &#233; capaz de diminuir a atividade da enzima pr&#243;-oxidante NADPH e aumentar a atividade da enzima antioxidante SOD. Estes resultados apontam para um efeito ben&#233;fico deste horm&#244;nio sobre o equil&#237;brio redox vascular e a resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica. Esse cen&#225;rio favorece maior biodisponibilidade de NO, contribuindo tamb&#233;m para o mecanismo de vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio. Dentro deste contexto, esses dados endossam outros estudos que demonstram efeitos ben&#233;ficos dos horm&#244;nios tireoidianos sobre o sistema circulat&#243;rio.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de mestrado de Viviane Pederiva pela Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS).</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 38964. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo foi financiado pela CNPq/FAPERGS.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230236i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Vascular Response of Triiodothyronine on Isolated Aortic Rings: Contribution of Redox Mechanisms</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pederiva</surname>
            <given-names>Viviane Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bell&#243;-Klein</surname>
            <given-names>Adriane</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9482-7388</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Araujo</surname>
            <given-names>Alex Sander da Rosa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5994-5218</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Turck</surname>
            <given-names>Patrick</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Departamento de Fisiologia, Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiologia Cardiovascular, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: Patrick Turck &#8226; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Sarmento Leite, 500. Postal Code 90050-170, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil E-mail: p.turck@gmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor responsible for the review: Marina Okoshi</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Vascular Response of Triiodothyronine on Isolated Aortic Rings: Contribution of Redox Mechanisms</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Triiodothyronine exerts dependent- and independent-endothelium vascular relaxation and decreases vasocontraction of isolated aortic rings, improving vascular redox homeostasis.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Vascular dysfunction constitutes the etiology of many diseases, such as myocardial infarction and hypertension, with the disruption of redox homeostasis playing a role in the imbalance of the vasomotor control mechanism. Our group previously has shown that thyroid hormones exert protective effects on the aortic tissue of infarcted rats by improving angiogenesis signaling.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p> Investigate the role of triiodothyronine (T3) on vascular response, exploring its effects on isolated aortas and whether there is an involvement of vascular redox mechanisms.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> Isolated aortic rings (intact- and denuded-endothelium) precontracted with phenylephrine were incubated with T3 (10-8, 10-7, 10-6, 10-5, and 10-4 M), and tension was recorded using a force-displacement transducer coupled with an acquisition system. To assess the involvement of oxidative stress, aortic rings were preincubated with T3 and subsequently submitted to an in vitro reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation system. The level of significance adopted in the statistical analysis was 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> T3 (10-4 M) promoted vasorelaxation of phenylephrine precontracted aortic rings in both intact- and denuded-endothelium conditions. Aortic rings preincubated in the presence of T3 (10-4 M) also showed decreased vasoconstriction elicited by phenylephrine (1 &#181;M) in intact-endothelium preparations. Moreover, T3 (10-4 M) vasorelaxation effect persisted in aortic rings preincubated with NG-nitro-L-arginine methylester (L-NAME, 10 &#181;M), a nonspecific NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor. Finally, T3 (10-4 M) exhibited, in vitro, an antioxidant role by reducing NADPH oxidase activity and increasing SOD activity in the aorta&#8217;s homogenates.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p> T3 exerts dependent- and independent-endothelium vasodilation effects, which may be related to its role in maintaining redox homeostasis.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Triiodothyronine</kwd>
        <kwd>Thyroid Hormones</kwd>
        <kwd>Aorta</kwd>
        <kwd>Homeostasis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>In cardiac and cerebral diseases, important alterations in the vascular relaxation mechanisms occur, promoting a blood flow reduction frequently associated with an ischemic situation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Systemic arterial hypertension, myocardial infarction, pulmonary hypertension, and stroke are examples of vascular injury conditions related to vasocontraction and impairment of circulatory system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The exacerbated response to catecholamines, inflammatory mediators, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) exert a relevant role in the endothelial dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In this context, oxidative stress plays an important role since ROS induce vasoconstriction and adverse vascular remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Besides that, increased vascular tonus produces an augmented resistance to the blood flow, generating shear-stress. This condition has critical effects on endothelial homeostasis, causing elevated ROS production. Several cellular sources, such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and peroxisomes, can promote ROS formation. In addition, enzymes such as xanthine oxidase and Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NADPH oxidase/Nox) also have the ability to synthesize these chemical species.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>NADPH oxidase is the main enzyme in the vessels that synthesizes superoxide anion radical (O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;&#8722;</sup>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;&#8722;</sup> molecule can be converted to hydrogen peroxide (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) in a reaction catalyzed by superoxide dismutase (SOD). From this perspective, H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> plays a dual role since not only can it produce vasodilation in cerebral, coronary, and pulmonary arteries,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> but it can also act as a relevant vasoconstrictor in peripheral arteries and in the aorta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Besides that, O<sub>2</sub><sup>&#8226;&#8722;</sup> can combine with nitric oxide (NO), resulting in peroxynitrite (ONOO<sup>&#8722;</sup>) formation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> ONOO<sup>&#8722;</sup> is a potent oxidant agent of biological membranes and can induce cell death. On this basis, finding therapeutic approaches that combine both vasodilatation and antioxidant actions is important to treat vascular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Thyroid hormones (TH) have been shown to promote cardioprotective and vasoprotective effects in experimental models of heart diseases. In the infarction model, TH not only improved post-infarction adverse cardiac remodeling, but also presented an antioxidant action in cardiac and vascular tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Additionally, TH improved the expression of angiogenesis proteins, such as hypoxia-inducible factor 1&#945; (HIF-1&#945;) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Moreover, T3 induces vasorelaxation through different mechanisms. In an experimental model of a salt overload diet, the vessels incubated with T3 increased their vasodilatation and decreased ROS production.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> NO levels elevation and protein kinase G (PKG)/vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) and phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/ protein kinase B (AKT) pathways activation appear to be the main processes through which TH promotes vasorelaxation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Nevertheless, T3 also exerts its vasodilatory function through an endothelium-independent manner, suggesting a direct action of TH on smooth muscle cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Despite studies demonstrating a protective action of TH in the heart and vessels,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> it is still necessary to better elucidate the role of T3 on vascular tone and oxidative stress in vessels. Accordingly, it is necessary to further explore the T3 vasodilator mechanism and the impact of ROS on this process. For this purpose, the objective of this study was to evaluate T3 impact on vascular response in isolated vessels regarding the influence of endothelium and the involvement of oxidative stress parameters in this context.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Animals</title>
          <p>Forty-five-day-old male Wistar rats (weighing 202 &#177; 25 g) (N = 60) from the Laboratory Animal Reproduction and Experimentation Center were used. The animals were allocated under standard vivarium conditions: controlled temperature environment (21 &#177; 2 &#176;C), 12-hour light-dark cycle and 70% relative humidity; water and standard rodent chow were offered &#8220;ad libitum.&#8221; The animals were also acclimatized for seven days before the start of the experimental protocol. All procedures in this study were in accordance with the guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Animals from the Council for International Organizations of Medical Science (CIOMS) and approved by the Ethics Committee on the Use of Animals (protocol number: 38964).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sample size calculation</title>
          <p>The calculation of the sample size was performed using the G*Power 3.1.9.2 software (Schleswig-Holstein, Germany). Probability of error &#945; = 0.05, statistical test power = 0.80 and effect size = 0.4 were considered.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Vessel preparation for vascular reactivity</title>
          <p>Rats were anesthetized with ketamine (90 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) and xylazine (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) simultaneously and euthanized by decapitation. After euthanasia, the aortas were quickly isolated and kept in Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution (NaCl 115 mM, CaCl<sub>2</sub> 2.5 mM, KCl 4.6 mM, KH<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> 1.2 mM, MgSO<sub>4</sub>. 7 H<sub>2</sub>O 1.2 mM, NaHCO<sub>3</sub> 25mM, dextrose 11.1 mM, Na<sub>2</sub>EDTA 3 mM), at 37 &#176;C and pH 7,4, under 95% O<sub>2</sub>&#8211;5% CO<sub>2</sub>. Adipose and connective tissues were carefully removed, and the aortas were cut into cylindrical segments of 4 mm in length. In some experiments, the endothelium was mechanically removed by gently rubbing the inner surface of the aorta&#8217;s segments using a stainless-steel wire. Two hooks of stainless-steel wire bent in a modified L-shape were used to mount each ring in organ bath chambers (AVS Projetos, S&#227;o Carlos, SP, Brazil). The short, straight portion of each hook passed through the lumen of the ring. The lower hook was attached to the base of the organ chamber filled with 10 mL of Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution, and the upper hook to a strain gauge. Isometric tension was recorded using a force-displacement transducer (TIM-100; AVS Projetos, S&#227;o Carlos, SP, Brazil) connected to an acquisition system (AQCAD 2.0.5; AVS Projetos, S&#227;o Carlos, SP, Brazil). The segments were subjected to a basal tension of 1.0 gf, which was adjusted every 15 minutes during an initial 45-minute equilibration period.</p>
          <p>The integrity of the endothelium was verified through incubation with acetylcholine (10 &#181;M). A relaxation equal to or greater than 90% of maximum contraction induced by phenylephrine (1 &#181;M) was considered demonstrative of the functional integrity of the endothelium. Each ring was sequentially washed with Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution, re-equilibrated for 45 min and basal tensions were recorded.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Vascular reactivity studies</title>
          <p>The experimental incubation protocol is represented as follows: a) verification of a T3 dose-response curve (10<sup>-8</sup> to 10<sup>-4</sup> M) on both intact- and denuded-endothelium aortic segments precontracted with phenylephrine 1&#181;M; b) pre-exposition of both intact- and denuded-endothelium vessels to T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M), to show the lowest phenylephrine induced contractile response; c) verification of T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M) on intact-endothelium aortic segments precontracted with phenylephrine 1&#181;M and exposed to a nonspecific NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor, N<sup>G</sup>-nitro-L-arginine methylester (L-NAME; 10 &#181;M) for 20 min. T3 was diluted in Krebs-Henseleit buffer, and solutions were prepared daily and protected from light. The control group consisted of the addition of the same volumes of Krebs-Henseleit buffer solution without T3.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Preparation of aorta for in vitro assays</title>
          <p>Aortas were homogenized for 40 seconds (OMNI Tissue Homogenizer, OMNI International, Kennesaw, GA, USA) in the presence of RIPA buffer 1:10 (5ml/g of tissue) with fluoride phenyl-methyl-sulfonyl (PMSF) (100 mM) 1% (v/v). The homogenate was centrifuged for 10 min at 8,000x<italic>g</italic> in a refrigerated centrifuge (4 &#176;C) (Sorvall RC 5B &#8211; Rotor SM 24, Sorvall, Waltham, MA, USA), and the supernatant was collected for further analysis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Hydroxyl radical generation system</title>
          <p>To verify the role of T3 on redox balance, the aorta&#8217;s homogenate supernatants were incubated with T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M) for 15 min at 37&#176;C. The group that did not receive T3 was incubated with distilled water in the same volume. After this, samples were incubated for 30 min at 37&#176;C with FeCl<sub>2</sub> (20&#181;M), H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> (50mM), and ascorbic acid (1mM) to induce oxidative stress (hydroxyl radical generation system).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> These samples were used for biochemical evaluation.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biochemical analyses</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Dosage of proteins</title>
            <p>Proteins were quantified using the method described by Lowry et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> and were measured in a spectrophotometer (Anthos Zenyth 200 rt, Biochrom, Cambridge, UK) at 625 nm. The results were expressed in mg/mL.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Total ROS determination</title>
            <p>Total ROS levels in the vessel homogenates were detected using 2&#8242;,7&#8242;-dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), as previously described.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> DCFH-DA is oxidized to fluorescent 2,7-dichlorofluorescein (DCF) in the presence of ROS. Samples were excited at 488 nm, and the emissions were collected with a filter of 525 nm (LS 55 Fluorescence Spectrometer, Perkin Elmer, Waltham, MA, USA). Results were expressed in nmol DCF/mg protein.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Lipid peroxidation</title>
            <p>Lipid peroxidation was evaluated by the production of chemiluminescence initiated by the addition of tert-butyl hydroxide (TBOOH).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Chemiluminescence was measured in a scintillation spectrometer (LKB Wallac Rack Beta Liquid Scintillation Spectrometer 1215, Australia) operating as a luminometer and with a phototube emission sensor in the range of 380&#8211;620 nm. Results were expressed as counts per second cps/mg protein.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>NADPH Oxidase Activity</title>
            <p>NADPH oxidase activity was based on monitoring NADPH consumption at 340 nm (Anthos Zenyth 200 rt, Biochrom, Cambridge, UK). The results were expressed as nmol NADPH/min/mg protein.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) activity</title>
            <p>Determination of SOD activity was based on the inhibition of the reaction of the superoxide radical anion with pyrogallol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The results were expressed as U SOD/mg protein.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Catalase activity</title>
            <p>Catalase activity was evaluated by measuring hydrogen peroxide decomposition rate spectrophotometrically at 240 nm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> The results were expressed in nmol/min/mg protein.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>All data sets were submitted to Shapiro-Wilk normality test. Experiments testing different doses of T3 over time compared to Control were analyzed by factorial ANOVA complemented with Bonferroni&#8217;s post-hoc test for multiple comparisons. Experiments comparing fixed dose of T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) pre-incubation effect on vasoconstriction elicited by phenylephrine and T3 (10<sup>-4</sup> M) effect on aortic rings pre-incubated with L-NAME to Control group were analyzed by unpaired T-tests. Redox balance experiments were analyzed by two-way ANOVA complemented with Bonferroni&#8217;s post-hoc test for multiple comparisons apart from total ROS levels, which was analyzed using Kruskal-Walli&#8217;s test complemented with Dunn&#8217;s post-hoc test for multiple comparisons. Results were expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation for all data sets but total ROS levels, whose results were plotted as a scatter dot plot graphic depicting the median and the interquartile range for each data set. GraphPad Prism 8.0.2 for Windows (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA) was used to analyze data. Data were considered significant when p &lt; 0.05.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>T3 promotes relaxation of aortic segments</title>
          <p>Considering the intact vessel, T3 at 10<sup>-4</sup>M induced relaxation of phenylephrine-induced precontracted aortas compared to the control group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1A</xref>). Removal of endothelium did not abrogate the T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M)-induced vasorelaxation effect (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1B</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Effect of T3 on vascular relaxation of aortic segments (A) in the presence of endothelium (END+) and (B) in the absence of endothelium (END-) precontracted with phenylephrine. Values represented as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD), n = 6-8 aortic rings per group. Factorial ANOVA followed by Bonferroni&#8217;s post-test. *Significant difference between Control and T3 (10-4 M) groups; p &lt; 0.05.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>T3 decreases vasocontraction response induced by phenylephrine</title>
          <p>Pre-exposition of intact aortic segments to T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M) resulted in a reduced phenylephrine-induced contraction compared to the control group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2A</xref>). Nevertheless, the same outcome was not observed in preparations without the endothelium (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2B</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Effect of T3 (10-4 M) pre-incubation on vasocontraction of aortic segments elicited by phenylephrine (A) in the presence of endothelium (END+) and (B) in the absence of endothelium (END-). Values represented as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD), n = 6-10 per group. Unpaired t-test. *Significant difference between Control and T3 groups; p &lt; 0.05. &#8710;T/aorta weight = ratio of tension variation by vessel weight.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>T3 exhibits a NOS-independent vasorelaxation effect</title>
          <p>Intact-endothelium vessels were preincubated with L-NAME, an unspecific inhibitor of NOS, prior to T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M) incubation. Even in the presence of L-NAME, T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M) still resulted in relaxation (~20%) of phenylephrine-induced precontracted aortic segments as compared to the control group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Effect of T3 (10-4 M) on vascular relaxation of intact-endothelium aortic rings preincubated with L-NAME. Values represented as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD), n = 6 per group. Unpaired t-test. *Significant difference between Control and T3 groups; p &lt; 0.05.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>T3 reduces NADPH oxidase activity and improves SOD activity <italic>in vitro</italic></title>
          <p>Even though ROS total concentration and lipid oxidation were not different between the groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4A and 4B</xref>), NADPH oxidase activity was reduced when samples were exposed to T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M) compared to control groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4C</xref>). SOD activity was increased in T3 (10<sup>-4</sup>M) incubated vessels compared to control groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4D</xref>). Catalase activity was increased only in the groups that received the oxidative stress induction (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4E</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Effect of T3 (10-4 M) incubation on (A) level of total reactive oxygen species (ROS), (B) lipid oxidation, (C) NADPH oxidase activity, (D) superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and (E) catalase activity in aorta&#8217;s homogenates. Values represented as median with interquartile range for (A) and mean &#177; standard deviation (SD) for (B) to (E), n = 4-6 per group. Kruskal-Walli&#8217;s test was complemented with Dunn&#8217;s post-hoc test for (A), and two-way ANOVA was complemented with Bonferroni&#8217;s post-hoc test for (B) to (E). *Significant difference between Control and T3 groups in two-way ANOVA; p&lt;0.05. #Significant difference between (OS-) and (OS+) groups; p&lt;0.05. OS- = groups without oxidative stress (hydroxyl radical generation system) induction; OS+ = groups with oxidative stress (hydroxyl radical generation system) induction.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-04-e20230236-30236-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The main results of the present study comprise that T3 induced vasodilatation of intact- and denuded-endothelium aortic rings precontracted with phenylephrine in experimental model <italic>ex vivo</italic>, whose protocol was designed for vascular reactivity evaluation. Moreover, T3 plays a pivotal role in redox homeostasis, since this hormone reduces NADPH oxidase activity and increases SOD activity of aortic vessels <italic>in vitro</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
        <p>Oxidative stress, hypoxia, atherosclerosis, and inflammation are examples of triggers of vasoconstrictor events, which promote an imbalance between vasodilation and vasoconstriction, adverse vascular muscle remodeling and endothelial damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Together, these factors support many diseases such as stroke, myocardial infarction, and hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Therefore, it is important to explore the underlying mechanisms of vessel reactivity to propose therapeutic alternatives that may contribute to vascular disease management. Our experimental model focused on the evaluation of the vascular response of isolated aortas in the presence of T3. Incubation with phenylephrine induced contraction of aortic rings, which were subsequently subjected to different doses of T3. Our results showed that T3, at a concentration of 10<sup>-4</sup> M, reduced phenylephrine-induced vasoconstriction. Corroborating with our data, Carrillo-Sepulveda et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> using aortas from female Dahl salt-sensitive rats subjected to a high-salt diet, showed that the pre-incubation with T3 reduced the hypercontractile state of the vessels and improved the vasodilator response. In the experimental model of myocardial infarction, Ortiz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> found that treatment with T3 and T4 (2 and 8 &#956;g/100 g/day, respectively, orally for 12 days) augmented the immunocontent of VEGF and HIF-1&#945; in the aorta of infarcted rats, which are proteins involved with angiogenesis in a hypoxic scenario. Additionally, VEGF also induces vasodilatation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Evaluating endothelium involvement in TH vasodilatation effect, our results showed that T3 administration caused a reduction in vascular constriction induced by phenylephrine in aortas with and without endothelium. However, in the aortas preincubated with 10<sup>-4</sup> M T3, the absence of endothelium significantly affected its capability to prevent an increase of vascular tension evoked by phenylephrine. In view of that, it is possible that, in intact vessels, T3 can promote vasodilatation through a combination of endothelium-dependent and endothelium-independent mechanisms. In vessels without endothelium, vasodilation is maintained on account of independent mechanisms, but the ability of T3 to reduce vascular tension decreases. These results highlight the relevance of endothelium in the total effect of T3 on vessels. Due to this result, it was necessary to investigate the role of NO in the process of vasodilation induced by T3, since endothelium is an important source of this vasodilator molecule.</p>
        <p>The role of T3 on the endothelium and the vasodilator mechanisms involved in this relationship have been explored in recent years, highlighting the relevance of NO-dependent signaling pathways.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> In addition, TH is capable of increasing the activity of nitric oxide synthase in erythrocytes, favoring the production of NO in the blood and improving NO bioavailability in the circulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> In the present study, when aortic rings were pre-incubated with L-NAME, a known NOS inhibitor, T3 vasodilatory action persisted. Such data support the hypothesis that T3 may also induce vasodilatation through a NO-independent and endothelium-independent mechanism. These results did not decrease the importance of the endothelium for the effect of this hormone; they demonstrated the capability of T3 to promote dilatation in the context where the endothelium is removed/damaged. Samuel et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> suggested that this NO-independent effect is associated with the modulation of the protein kinase G/vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (PKG/VASP) pathway directly on the vascular smooth muscle cells. Furthermore, the antioxidant effect of low doses of thyroid hormones can also improve vascular dysfunction and contribute to a relaxed vascular tone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although ROS are important in controlling vascular tone, when their concentrations exceed the tissue&#8217;s antioxidant capacity, oxidative stress is established. Disruption of redox homeostasis promotes vessel damage, oxidizes low-density lipoproteins, and causes atherosclerosis. The inflammatory process associated with these events leads to adverse vessel remodeling, decreasing vasodilator agents, and increasing the level of vasoconstriction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Our results show that incubation with T3 reduced NADPH activity in the aorta under experimental oxidative stress conditions established <italic>in vitro</italic>. In fact, NADPH oxidase plays an important role in the formation of ROS in blood vessels. These species can promote an oxidized cellular environment, leading to NOS uncoupling and increased production of superoxide anion radicals instead of NO. Furthermore, free radicals, such as superoxide anion, often act as NO scavengers, reducing their bioavailability and impairing vasodilatation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> In this regard, Ortiz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> also found a reduction in the activity of NADPH oxidase in the aorta of infarcted rats treated with thyroid hormones, while De Castro et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>showed that TH administration is capable of reducing ROS in the heart of infarcted rats. In terms of total ROS levels, however, the present study did not find differences among groups. A similar result was found for lipid oxidation evaluation. These results may have arisen since aortas from healthy animals were used. Within this context, these vessel samples were induced to oxidative stress through the generation of a hydroxyl model, in which samples were incubated with FeCl<sub>2</sub>, H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and ascorbic acid for 30 min at 37&#176;C. In a previous study evaluating the aorta of infarcted rats, however, TH administration promoted a decrease in ROS levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Nonetheless, the ability of T3 to decrease NADPH oxidase activity already demonstrates a vasoprotective effect of this hormone. Furthermore, when we evaluated antioxidant enzymes, T3 administration induced an increase in SOD activity in vascular tissue. SOD converts the radical superoxide anion into hydrogen peroxide, reducing the levels of this free radical, which supports a state of increased NO bioavailability, consequently improving the vessel&#8217;s relaxation capacity. In fact, our results show that T3 promotes a scenario that favors an improvement in NO bioavailability, contributing to the mechanism of endothelium-dependent vasodilation. These data corroborate other studies that show the vasoprotective role of thyroid hormones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> When we evaluated catalase activity, only the aortas submitted to oxidative stress presented an increase in this enzyme activity. These results indicate a compensatory mechanism of the enzymatic antioxidant system in response to redox imbalance; however, T3 administration did not modify catalase activity. Concerning this result, a study evaluating the TH effects of erythrocytes of infarcted rats demonstrated an increase in catalase activity in the blood cells of treated animals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> In view of this, it is possible that, under the effect of T3, erythrocytes will contribute more to the activity of this antioxidant enzyme than the vessel wall itself.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limitation of the study</title>
          <p>The impossibility of exploring protein expression directly in the aortic rings used in vascular reactivity was a limitation of the study. Evaluating the expression of proteins such as endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and signaling PIK3/AKT pathway, as well as antioxidant proteins, such as Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2), in the same sample incubated with T3 and subjected to vasoconstriction and vasodilation protocols, would have contributed to the mechanistic understanding of observed outcomes. However, the small size of the aortic rings and the wires used in the vascular reactivity protocol reduce the degree of reliability for subsequent molecular biology experiments using the same sample. Another limiting aspect of this article is the lack of evaluation of other resistance vessels, such as small arteries and arterioles, to check whether the effect of T3 on the aorta could be extrapolated. Indeed, the contractile state of small arteries and arterioles is responsible for defining vascular resistance, which is a key determinant of blood pressure. Structurally, resistance arteries have one or two layers of the vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC), while conduit arteries, such as the aorta, have about 15 layers of VSMC. In this context, the endothelial cells of resistance arteries project the plasmatic membrane to the VSMC layer through internal elastic lamina (myoendothelial projections). The myoendothelial projections connect to the VSMC through gap junctions that facilitate electrical communication between the two cell layers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> In this context, the hyperpolarization of endothelial cells is transmitted to the VSMC, consequently relaxing the vessels; therefore, this is the main mechanism for endothelium-dependent vasodilation of resistance arteries. On the other hand, such a mechanism differs for the aorta, for example, since myoendothelial projections are often absent in conduit vessels. Thus, NO-mediated vasodilatation is the primary mechanism in this scenario.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Based on the data obtained, it is possible to conclude that T3 has an important vasodilator role, which is maintained even in the absence of the endothelium. In addition, this hormone can decrease the activity of the pro-oxidant enzyme NADPH and increase the activity of the antioxidant enzyme SOD. These results point to a beneficial effect of this hormone on vascular redox balance and peripheral resistance. This scenario favors a greater bioavailability of NO, which also contributes to the endothelium-dependent vasodilation mechanism. Within this context, these data endorse other studies that demonstrate the beneficial effects of thyroid hormones on the circulatory system.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Viviane Pederiva, from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS).</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) under the protocol number 38964. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: This study was partially funded by CNPq/FAPERGS.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
