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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">nBJ4xtMrWQMjjwfc8KK55BN</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2024000200304</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00304</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230524</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Diferen&#231;as &#201;tnicas na Sobrevida entre Medalhistas Ol&#237;mpicos Brasileiros da Era Moderna de 1920 a 1992: Um Estudo de Coorte</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7062-1705</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabricio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Medeiros</surname>
            <given-names>Paula de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Neno</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Carolina</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Meira</surname>
            <given-names>Diogo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Emery</surname>
            <given-names>Michael S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Laborat&#243;rio de Performance Humana</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Performance Humana, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Casa de Sa&#250;de S&#227;o Jos&#233;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Casa de Sa&#250;de S&#227;o Jos&#233;, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Vascular and Thoracic Institute</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Cardiovascular Medicine</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Cleveland</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">Ohio</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">EUA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cleveland Clinic &#8211; Sports Cardiology Center &#8211; Department of Cardiovascular Medicine &#8211; Heart, Vascular and Thoracic Institute, Cleveland, Ohio &#8211; EUA</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Fabricio Braga &#8226;</bold> Laborat&#243;rio de Performance Humana &#8211; Exercise and Sport Medicine &#8211; Largo do Ibam, 1. CEP <postal-code>22271-070</postal-code>, Humait&#225;, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>fabriciobraga@uol.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o: Ricardo Stein</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>05</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <year>2024</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>121</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230524</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>31</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>As disparidades nos resultados de sa&#250;de entre grupos raciais merecem investiga&#231;&#227;o, mesmo em atletas de elite. Portanto, compreender o impacto da ra&#231;a na sobrevida p&#243;s-medalha em atletas ol&#237;mpicos brasileiros torna-se essencial.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Comparar a sobrevida p&#243;s-medalha entre medalhistas ol&#237;mpicos brasileiros brancos e n&#227;o brancos de 1920 a 1992.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Utilizamos dados dispon&#237;veis publicamente para um estudo de coorte retrospectivo de todos os medalhistas ol&#237;mpicos brasileiros de 1920 a 1992 (somente homens). Os atletas foram classificados nos grupos brancos e n&#227;o brancos usando determina&#231;&#227;o estruturada de etnia. As an&#225;lises de Kaplan-Meier calcularam o tempo m&#233;dio de sobrevida restrito (TMSR) para cada grupo &#233;tnico. Uma an&#225;lise de riscos proporcionais de Cox avaliou as diferen&#231;as de sobrevida baseadas na etnia, ajustando para a idade da conquista da medalha e ano de nascimento (p&lt;0,05).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Entre 123 atletas (73,9% brancos), a idade m&#233;dia da conquista de medalhas foi de 25,03 &#177; 4,8 anos. Durante o estudo, 18,7% dos atletas brancos e 37,5% dos atletas n&#227;o brancos morreram (p=0,031). Os atletas brancos tiveram m&#233;dia de idade ao &#243;bito de 75,10 &#177; 18,01 anos, enquanto os atletas n&#227;o brancos tiveram idade m&#233;dia de 67,13 &#177; 14,90 anos (p=0,109). O TMSR para atletas brancos foi de 51,59 (IC 95%, 49,79 - 53,39) anos, e para atletas n&#227;o brancos foi de 45,026 (IC 95%, 41,31 - 48,74) anos, resultando em um &#916;TMSR de 6,56 (IC 95%, 2,43 - 10,70; p=0,0018). A an&#225;lise multivariada mostrou que atletas n&#227;o brancos apresentavam maior risco de mortalidade do que atletas brancos (RC 5,58; IC 95%, 2,18 - 14,31).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Ap&#243;s a primeira medalha, os atletas ol&#237;mpicos brasileiros brancos normalmente desfrutam de uma expectativa de vida seis anos mais longa do que seus colegas n&#227;o brancos, ilustrando uma acentuada diferen&#231;a de mortalidade e disparidades de sa&#250;de entre indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis no Brasil.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Medicina esportiva</kwd>
        <kwd>Epidemiologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Demografia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="24"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <fig id="f3">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-02-e20230524-30524-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Ser ativo &#233; crucial para reduzir as chances de diversas doen&#231;as.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No entanto, t&#234;m sido levantadas preocupa&#231;&#245;es em rela&#231;&#227;o aos benef&#237;cios para a sa&#250;de em situa&#231;&#245;es extremas de exerc&#237;cio,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> mais especificamente entre atletas de elite. Apesar dessas preocupa&#231;&#245;es te&#243;ricas, a vantagem de longevidade do atleta de elite sobre a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral em diferentes pa&#237;ses, esportes e etnias, incluindo os medalhistas ol&#237;mpicos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> apresentou um aumento da expectativa de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Apesar de um melhor condicionamento f&#237;sico aumentar a expectativa de vida, infelizmente, as disparidades sociais a reduzem. Por exemplo, existe uma disparidade de longevidade entre pessoas brancas e n&#227;o brancas, independentemente do n&#237;vel de desenvolvimento do pa&#237;s.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Esse fen&#244;meno j&#225; foi observado em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, mesmo entre coortes de atletas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O Brasil &#233; um pa&#237;s latino-americano de renda m&#233;dia, com uma sociedade multirracial e diversas disparidades sociais que afetam a expectativa de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> De acordo com o Instituto de Pesquisa Econ&#244;mica Aplicada<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> (institui&#231;&#227;o p&#250;blica brasileira voltada para pesquisas socioecon&#244;micas), a expectativa de vida ao nascer era de 73,8, 69,5, 68,2 e 63,2 anos para mulheres brancas, mulheres negras, homens brancos e homens negros, respectivamente. No entanto, essas diferen&#231;as s&#227;o ainda mais proeminentes nas regi&#245;es mais pobres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O efeito de um estilo de vida atl&#233;tico sobre essas disparidades de longevidade entre brasileiros brancos e n&#227;o brancos ainda n&#227;o havia sido considerado at&#233; agora. Al&#233;m disso, apesar do grande n&#250;mero de estudos que abordam a vantagem da longevidade dos atletas de elite, nenhum estudo incluiu atletas de pa&#237;ses de renda baixa ou m&#233;dia.</p>
      <p>Este estudo tem como objetivo comparar a expectativa de vida dos medalhistas ol&#237;mpicos brasileiros, distinguindo entre atletas brancos e n&#227;o brancos, utilizando um banco de dados dispon&#237;vel publicamente.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Todos os dados foram obtidos pelo acesso a informa&#231;&#245;es p&#250;blicas e n&#227;o necessitaram de revis&#227;o &#233;tica, de acordo com os princ&#237;pios delineados na Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinque de 1975, atualizada em 2013. Seguimos as diretrizes do STROBE para relatar estudos de coorte.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Defini&#231;&#227;o da coorte de atletas</title>
        <p>Todos os medalhistas ol&#237;mpicos da era moderna entre 1920 (primeira participa&#231;&#227;o da sele&#231;&#227;o brasileira) e 1992 foram inclu&#237;dos na coorte de atletas. Esse per&#237;odo foi escolhido para permitir pelo menos 30 anos de acompanhamento. O per&#237;odo de acompanhamento come&#231;ou quando o atleta conquistou a medalha e terminou com a defini&#231;&#227;o do desfecho, vivo ou falecido. No caso de medalhistas que receberam m&#250;ltiplas medalhas, foi considerado a primeira.</p>
        <p>As informa&#231;&#245;es sobre data de nascimento, &#243;bito e conquista de medalhas dos atletas foram obtidas no site www.olympedia.com,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> que cont&#233;m estat&#237;sticas e dados detalhados sobre os atletas ol&#237;mpicos, apoiado pelo OlyMADMen&#174; e j&#225; dispon&#237;vel para uso em pesquisas de sobrevida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A aus&#234;ncia da data do falecimento no site www.olympedia.com n&#227;o indicava necessariamente que o atleta estava vivo. Para confirmar, buscamos no site do Comit&#234; Ol&#237;mpico Brasileiro (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.cob.org.br">www.cob.org.br</ext-link>) e na Confedera&#231;&#227;o Brasileira do esporte pelo qual o atleta conquistou a medalha ol&#237;mpica. Ap&#243;s essa tripla verifica&#231;&#227;o, um atleta foi considerado vivo na aus&#234;ncia de informa&#231;&#227;o de &#243;bito. Os dados sobre o status de vida dos atletas foram recuperados entre 5 e 25 de maio de 2022.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Defini&#231;&#227;o &#233;tnica dos atletas</title>
        <p>A defini&#231;&#227;o &#233;tnica dos atletas foi realizada pela an&#225;lise de retratos digitais por tr&#234;s pesquisadores sem qualquer conhecimento das informa&#231;&#245;es biogr&#225;ficas de todos os atletas. Eles receberam um arquivo compactado contendo diversas pastas numeradas, cada uma com cinco a dez fotos do mesmo atleta obtidas na internet. Imagens coloridas foram escolhidas, quando dispon&#237;veis. Depois de fazer a an&#225;lise visual das fotos, eles classificaram o atleta como branco ou n&#227;o branco (negro, asi&#225;tico, ind&#237;gena ou multirracial). Membros de diferentes grupos &#233;tnicos analisaram as imagens para reduzir as chances de parcialidade pela pr&#243;pria ra&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Cada um dos pesquisadores tamb&#233;m n&#227;o tinha conhecimento das demais an&#225;lises. Para fazer a defini&#231;&#227;o &#233;tnica, era necess&#225;rio obter a maioria relativa.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Envolvimento dos pacientes</title>
        <p>Nenhum paciente ou p&#250;blico esteve envolvido na concep&#231;&#227;o do estudo, nem nos planos de coleta de dados. N&#227;o foi pedido a nenhum atleta qualquer orienta&#231;&#227;o sobre a interpreta&#231;&#227;o ou reda&#231;&#227;o dos resultados. Dada a relev&#226;ncia social deste tema, pretendemos divulgar os seus resultados pela m&#237;dia em geral ap&#243;s a sua publica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>Devido &#224; natureza explorat&#243;ria deste estudo, n&#227;o foi realizado c&#225;lculo de tamanho amostral. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram expressas como contagens (n) ou porcentagens (%) e comparadas pelo teste &#967;2 ou exato de Fisher. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram definidas como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o e intervalo e foram comparadas por meio do teste t de Student n&#227;o pareado. A normalidade foi avaliada pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov.</p>
        <p>A concord&#226;ncia na resposta da classifica&#231;&#227;o &#233;tnica foi medida pelo coeficiente Kappa de Fleiss.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O TMSR com seu intervalo de confian&#231;a (IC) de 95% para cada grupo &#233;tnico foi calculado usando an&#225;lises de Kaplan-Meier considerando o ponto de tempo m&#225;ximo relatado (54,17 anos).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> A an&#225;lise de sobrevida de riscos proporcionais de Cox foi usada para verificar se as diferen&#231;as na sobrevida por etnia eram significativas ap&#243;s o ajuste da idade da medalha e do ano de nascimento.</p>
        <p>O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica foi definido como p-valor de &lt;0,05. Todas as an&#225;lises foram realizadas utilizando o software Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS&#174; Statistics for Windows, vers&#227;o 22.0, IBM Corp., Armonk, NY) e MedCalc&#174; Statistical Software, vers&#227;o 20.110 (MedCalc Software Ltd, Ostend, B&#233;lgica; <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.medcalc.org">https://www.medcalc.org</ext-link>; 2022).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> esquematiza a composi&#231;&#227;o da coorte. Entre 1920 e 1992, 1.338 atletas brasileiros participaram de 16 dos 17 Jogos Ol&#237;mpicos realizados nesse per&#237;odo de 72 anos. Entre eles, 123 (9,2%; todos homens; 25,03 &#177; 4,8 anos, nascidos entre 1869 e 1972) conquistaram 124 medalhas em doze edi&#231;&#245;es de Olimp&#237;adas. Nove esportes contribu&#237;ram para o quadro de medalhas ol&#237;mpicas brasileiras, contendo 20 medalhas de ouro, 55 de prata e 48 de bronze. Essa pontua&#231;&#227;o refere-se ao n&#250;mero de atletas premiados, ou seja, nos esportes coletivos, uma medalha representa um atleta. O acompanhamento m&#233;dio foi de 40,92 &#177; 11,30 anos, variando de 3,78 a 69,81. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> resume a coorte de atletas.</p>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Fluxograma da coorte de atletas ol&#237;mpicos brasileiros.</title>
        </caption>
        <attrib>*Fonte: www.olympedia.com</attrib>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-02-e20230524-30524-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Tabela 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Resumo da coorte</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="19%">
            <col width="1%"/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr style="background-color:#76B3CE">
              <th valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2"/>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">Todos (n=123)</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">Atletas brancos (n=91)</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">Atletas n&#227;o brancos (n=32)</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">p valor</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">
                <bold>Idade da conquista da medalha (anos)</bold>
              </td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">25,03 &#177; 4,8</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">24,93 &#177; 4,8</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">25,31 &#177; 4,91</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,703</td>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">
                <bold>Idade da morte</bold>
              </td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">71,80 &#177; 17,0</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">75,10 &#177; 18,01</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">67,13 &#177; 14,90</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,109</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="6">
                <bold>Esporte (n)</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Atletismo</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Basquetebol</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">26</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">22</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">4</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Boxe</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Futebol</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">36</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">21</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">15</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Jud&#244;</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Nata&#231;&#227;o</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">8</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">8</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Tiro</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">5</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">3</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Vela</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Voleibol</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">23</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">20</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">3</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="6"><bold>Jogos ol&#237;mpicos</bold> (<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref>)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Antu&#233;rpia 1920</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">5</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">3</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Londres 1948</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">10</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">9</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Helsinque 1952</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">3</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Roma 1960</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">10</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">T&#243;quio 1964</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">5</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">4</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Cidade do M&#233;xico 1968</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">4</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Munique 1972</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Montreal 1976</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Moscou 1980</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">8</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">8</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Los Angeles 1984</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">36</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">30</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Seul 1988</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">24</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Barcelona 1992</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">13</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">11</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="6">
                <bold>Tipo de medalha</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Ouro</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">20</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">15</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">5</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Prata</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">55</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">38</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">17</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Bronze</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">48</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">38</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">10</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>Considerando apenas jogos ol&#237;mpicos em que o atleta conquistou a primeira medalha.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A t&#233;cnica de defini&#231;&#227;o &#233;tnica adotada identificou 91 (71,9%) atletas brancos e 32 (28,1%) atletas n&#227;o brancos. O kappa de Fleiss entre os respondentes foi de 0,664 (IC 95%, 0,592 - 0,736), representando uma concord&#226;ncia significativa. A idade m&#233;dia em que atletas brancos e n&#227;o brancos conquistaram a primeira medalha n&#227;o diferiu.</p>
      <p>Durante o acompanhamento m&#233;dio de 65,62 &#177; 8,66 anos, 17 (18,7%) atletas brancos e 12 (37,5%) atletas n&#227;o brancos morreram (p=0,031; Raz&#227;o de chance [RC] = 2,61; IC 95% 1,07 a 6,35). A m&#233;dia de idade do &#243;bito foi de 75,10 &#177; 18,01 e 67,13 &#177; 14,90 anos (p=0,109) para atletas brancos e n&#227;o brancos, respectivamente. O TMSR ap&#243;s a conquista da medalha foi de 51,6 (IC 95%, 49,8 a 53,4) e 45,0 (IC 95%, 41,3 a 48,7) anos para atletas brancos e n&#227;o brancos (&#916;TMSR=6,5; IC 95%, 2,4 a 10,7; p=0,0018), respectivamente.</p>
      <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> e a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> apresentam os resultados de nossa an&#225;lise multivariada de sobrevida de riscos proporcionais de Cox. Em compara&#231;&#227;o com atletas brancos, os atletas n&#227;o brancos exibiram um risco significativamente elevado de mortalidade, com uma taxa de risco (HR) de 5,58 (IC 95%, 2,18-14,31). A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura Central</xref> fornece uma vis&#227;o geral esquem&#225;tica do desenho do estudo e de suas conclus&#245;es, oferecendo uma representa&#231;&#227;o visual abrangente e integrada.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t2">
        <label>Tabela 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Modelo de regress&#227;o de Cox</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="20%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr style="background-color:#76B3CE">
              <th valign="middle" align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">&#946;</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">SE</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">p valor</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">HR (IC95%)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Ano do nascimento</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">-0,016</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,005</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,329</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,984 (0,954-1,016)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Idade da conquista da medalha (anos)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,031</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,025</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,658</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1,031 (0,900-1,016)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Categoria</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1,72</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center"/>
            </tr>
            <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Atletas brancos (refer&#234;ncia)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="center"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="center"/>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Atletas n&#227;o brancos</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">-1268</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,48</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">5,584 (2,179-14,31)</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <fig id="f2">
        <label>Figura 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Probabilidades de sobrevida de acordo com a etnia.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-02-e20230524-30524-gf03.tif"/></fig>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>At&#233; onde sabemos, este &#233; o primeiro estudo que aborda a expectativa de vida dos atletas ol&#237;mpicos de pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento e como as diferen&#231;as &#233;tnicas a influenciam.</p>
      <p>Depois de conquistarem uma medalha ol&#237;mpica, os atletas n&#227;o brancos viveram 6,56 anos menos que os seus colegas brancos. O risco de eles morrerem durante o per&#237;odo do estudo foi mais de cinco vezes maior.</p>
      <p>Embora n&#227;o tenhamos comparado a longevidade dos atletas com a da popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, essa lacuna n&#227;o diferiu daquela observada em estudos brasileiros de disparidades raciais em coortes de n&#227;o atletas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> De acordo com o &#250;ltimo relat&#243;rio brasileiro sobre desigualdades raciais (2010), a expectativa de vida entre os negros &#233; de 67 anos, contra 73 para os brancos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Lawler et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> identificaram que os jogadores brancos do sexo masculino da NBA tinham uma vida &#250;til de 1,5 anos a mais do que os jogadores negros, mas ambos viviam mais do que o p&#250;blico em geral, apesar da cor da pele. Al&#233;m disso, as diferen&#231;as entre as expectativas de vida de negros e brancos foram mais significativas para os n&#227;o atletas do que para os atletas.</p>
      <p>As raz&#245;es por tr&#225;s das diferen&#231;as na expectativa de vida entre brancos e n&#227;o brancos nas Olimp&#237;adas brasileiras s&#227;o multifatoriais. Contudo, provavelmente n&#227;o diferem daquelas apontadas pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estat&#237;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> As desigualdades no acesso &#224; sa&#250;de e &#224; educa&#231;&#227;o e os n&#237;veis mais elevados de viol&#234;ncia urbana, entre outras disparidades sociais, s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pela maior vulnerabilidade dos negros brasileiros,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> levando &#224; sua menor expectativa de vida mesmo entre os atletas.</p>
      <p>Existem muitos determinantes sociais da sa&#250;de, uma condi&#231;&#227;o ou circunst&#226;ncia em que as pessoas nascem, crescem, vivem, trabalham e envelhecem, que &#233; moldada por motiva&#231;&#245;es pol&#237;ticas, sociais e econ&#244;micas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Assim, um fator regional pode influenciar o impacto da condi&#231;&#227;o social, tornando-a mais ou menos relevante localmente como determinante da sa&#250;de. O racismo estrutural tem sido identificado como um preditor essencial de sa&#250;de na sociedade brasileira. Hone et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> analisando mais de tr&#234;s milh&#245;es de indiv&#237;duos em aten&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria &#224; sa&#250;de, mostraram que a ra&#231;a/etnia negra foi um preditor independente de multimorbidade, definida pelo diagn&#243;stico de duas ou mais entre 53 condi&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas (RC: 1,05; IC 95%: 1,03, 1,06; comparado aos brancos). Al&#233;m disso, a probabilidade de morte em cinco anos tamb&#233;m foi maior entre os negros (1,48% [IC 95%: 1,41, 1,55%] comparado a 1,35% [IC 95%: 1,31, 1,40%] para brancos).</p>
      <p>Algumas limita&#231;&#245;es merecem considera&#231;&#227;o neste estudo. Em primeiro lugar, a nossa categoriza&#231;&#227;o de atletas em brancos e n&#227;o brancos com base na an&#225;lise de fotografias pode introduzir poss&#237;veis erros de classifica&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, dada a aus&#234;ncia de dados oficiais sobre a etnia dos atletas, especialmente para atletas ol&#237;mpicos hist&#243;ricos, consideramos esse m&#233;todo uma alternativa razo&#225;vel. Al&#233;m disso, tomamos precau&#231;&#245;es para aumentar a precis&#227;o desta an&#225;lise; com exce&#231;&#227;o de cinco atletas da d&#233;cada de 1920, a etnia de todos os outros atletas foi determinada pela avalia&#231;&#227;o de fotografias coloridas por um painel diversificado, reduzindo o risco de parcialidade pela pr&#243;pria ra&#231;a. Da mesma forma, a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos esportes entre atletas brancos e n&#227;o brancos (conforme mostrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>) alinha-se com vieses raciais documentados nas equipes ol&#237;mpicas (por exemplo, nenhum medalhista branco de atletismo e nenhum medalhista n&#227;o branco de nata&#231;&#227;o).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Em segundo lugar, embora tenhamos tentado incluir todos os medalhistas ol&#237;mpicos brasileiros sem perda de acompanhamento, o tamanho da nossa amostra permaneceu limitado, uma vez que alcan&#231;ar uma inclus&#227;o abrangente de todos os atletas ol&#237;mpicos brasileiros ainda &#233; um trabalho em andamento. Em terceiro lugar, esta coorte n&#227;o inclui atletas mulheres, pois foi apenas em 1996 que uma brasileira conquistou uma medalha ol&#237;mpica. Em quarto lugar, &#233; importante reconhecer que ser medalhista ol&#237;mpico n&#227;o garante uma sa&#250;de superior em compara&#231;&#227;o com a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, apesar de numerosos estudos sugerirem tal tend&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Este estudo centra-se nas disparidades de expectativa de vida entre os medalhistas ol&#237;mpicos com base na ra&#231;a e, embora apresente informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas sobre esse aspecto espec&#237;fico, n&#227;o trata de forma abrangente o estado geral de sa&#250;de dos atletas ol&#237;mpicos em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o em geral. Em quinto lugar, n&#227;o conduzimos uma compara&#231;&#227;o direta da expectativa de vida dos atletas com a da popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, o que poderia fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas sobre as implica&#231;&#245;es do sucesso ol&#237;mpico para a sa&#250;de. Por &#250;ltimo, &#233; importante reconhecer que n&#227;o conseguimos identificar as causas de morte de todos os atletas da coorte de nosso estudo. Muitos dos atletas do nosso grupo faleceram antes da Segunda Guerra Mundial, e as certid&#245;es de &#243;bito deles n&#227;o est&#227;o prontamente dispon&#237;veis.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Esses achados ressaltam uma disparidade significativa na expectativa de vida p&#243;s-Olimp&#237;ada entre medalhistas brancos e medalhistas n&#227;o brancos brasileiros. Os medalhistas brancos tiveram uma vantagem na expectativa de vida de mais de seis anos depois de atingirem o auge do sucesso esportivo. Embora o nosso estudo destaque estas disparidades, &#233; importante reconhecer que os benef&#237;cios para a sa&#250;de associados aos medalhistas ol&#237;mpicos n&#227;o eliminam as disparidades na sa&#250;de resultantes das desigualdades sociais. No entanto, &#233; essencial reconhecer que, embora ser um atleta ol&#237;mpico ofere&#231;a certas vantagens para a sa&#250;de, fatores sociais mais amplos continuam a desempenhar um papel significativo na determina&#231;&#227;o dos desfechos globais de sa&#250;de. Mais pesquisas sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o multifacetada entre ra&#231;a, atletismo e sa&#250;de s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para se chegar a uma compreens&#227;o mais abrangente dessas din&#226;micas.</p>
      <p>N&#8217;<italic>A Il&#237;ada</italic>, Homero apresenta o dilema do semideus mitol&#243;gico Aquiles de escolher entre uma vida curta e gloriosa como guerreiro e uma exist&#234;ncia longa e obscura como cidad&#227;o grego comum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> No estudo de Clarke et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> os autores fizeram a analogia de que antes dos benef&#237;cios de sobrevida dos atletas ol&#237;mpicos, eles poderiam aproveitar ambos os destinos. Infelizmente, n&#227;o podemos garantir esse precioso presente aos her&#243;is ol&#237;mpicos n&#227;o brancos brasileiros.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <p>
          <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Ethnic Differences in Survival among Brazilian Modern-era Olympic Medalists from 1920 to 1992: A Cohort Study</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7062-1705</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabricio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Medeiros</surname>
            <given-names>Paula de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Neno</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Carolina</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Meira</surname>
            <given-names>Diogo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Emery</surname>
            <given-names>Michael S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Performance Humana, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Casa de Sa&#250;de S&#227;o Jos&#233;, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Cleveland</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">Ohio</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">USA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cleveland Clinic &#8211; Sports Cardiology Center &#8211; Department of Cardiovascular Medicine &#8211; Heart, Vascular and Thoracic Institute, Cleveland, Ohio &#8211; USA</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Fabricio Braga &#8226;</bold> Laborat&#243;rio de Performance Humana &#8211; Exercise and Sport Medicine &#8211; Largo do Ibam, 1. Postal Code <postal-code>22271-070</postal-code>, Humait&#225;, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>fabriciobraga@uol.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor responsible for the review: Ricardo Stein</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Disparities in health outcomes among racial groups warrant investigation, even among elite athletes. Therefore, understanding the impact of race upon post-medal survival in Brazilian Olympians becomes essential.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>To compare post-medal survival between white and non-white Brazilian Olympic medalists from 1920 to 1992.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>This study used publicly available data for a retrospective cohort study on all Brazilian Olympic medalists from 1920 to 1992 (males only). Athletes were classified into white and non-white groups using structured ethnicity determination. Kaplan&#8211;Meier analyses computed the restricted mean survival time (RMST) for each ethnic group. A Cox proportional hazards analysis assessed ethnicity-based survival differences, adjusting for medal-winning age and birth year (p&lt;0.05)</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>Among 123 athletes (73.9% white), the mean age of medal achievement was 25.03&#177;4.8 years. During the study, 18.7% of white and 37.5% of non-white athletes died (p=0.031). White athletes had a mean age at death of 75.10&#177;18.01 years, while non-white athletes had an age of 67.13&#177;14.90 years (p=0.109). The RMST for white athletes was 51.59 (95% CI 49.79-53.39) years, while for non-white athletes, it was 45.026 (95% CI 41.31-48.74) years, resulting in a &#916;RMST of 6.56 (95% CI 2.43-10.70; p=0.0018). Multivariate analysis showed that non-white athletes had a higher mortality risk than did white athletes (HR 5.58; 95% CI, 2.18-14.31).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Following their first medal, white Brazilian Olympians typically enjoy a six-year longer lifespan than their non-white counterparts, illustrating a marked mortality gap and health disparities among healthy individuals in Brazil.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Sports Medicine</kwd>
        <kwd>Epidemiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Demography</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <fig id="f6">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-02-e20230524-30524-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Being active is crucial in reducing the odds of several diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> However, concerns have been raised regarding the health benefits in extreme exercise situations,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> more specifically among elite athletes. Despite these theoretical concerns, the elite-level athlete's longevity advantage throughout the general population in different countries, sports, and ethnicities,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> including Olympic medalists, has shown an increased lifespan.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As better fitness improves life expectancy, unfortunately, social disparities reduce it. For example, there is a longevity gap between white and non-white people, regardless of the country's level of development.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> This phenomenon has already been observed in developed countries, even among athletic cohorts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Brazil is a Latin American middle-income country with a multiracial society and several social disparities affecting life expectancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> According to the Institute of Applied Economic Research<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> (a Brazilian public institution addressed socioeconomic research), life expectancy at birth was 73.8, 69.5, 68.2, and 63.2 years for white women, black women, white men, and black men, respectively. However, those differences are even more prominent in the poorest regions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The effect of an athletic lifestyle on these longevity disparities between white and non-white Brazilians has, to date, never been considered. Moreover, despite the large number of studies addressing the lifespan advantage of elite athletes, no single study has included athletes from low- or middle-income countries.</p>
        <p>This study aims to compare the life expectancy of Brazilian Olympic medalists, distinguishing between white and non-white athletes, using a publicly available database.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>All data were obtained by accessing public information and did not require ethical review, in accordance with the principles outlined in the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Our study followed the STROBE guidelines for reporting cohort studies.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Athletic cohort definition</title>
          <p>All modern-age Olympic medalists between 1920 (first Brazilian team participation) and 1992 were included in the athletic cohort. This time frame was chosen to allow at least 30 years of follow-up. The follow-up period started when the athlete gained the medal and finished with the endpoint definition, alive or deceased. In the case of multiple medalists, the first was considered.</p>
          <p>Athletes&#8217; information regarding date of birth, death, and medal achievement was obtained at www.olympedia.com,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> a website containing statistics and detailed data about Olympians, supported by OlyMADMen&#174; and already available for use in survival research.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The absence of a death date at www.olympedia.com did not necessarily indicate that the athlete was alive. As such, we searched the Brazilian Olympic committee website (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.cob.org.br">www.cob.org.br</ext-link>) and the Brazilian sports confederation, for which the athlete won the Olympic medal. After this triple check, an athlete was considered alive in the absence of information about his death. The data on the athletes&#8217; life status were retrieved between May 5<sup>th</sup> and May 25<sup>th</sup>, 2022.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Athlete's ethnic definition</title>
          <p>The athletes&#8217; ethnic definition was performed via digital portrait analysis by three researchers blinded to all athletes&#8217; biographic information. They received a compressed file containing several numbered folders, each with five to ten photos of the same athlete obtained on the internet. Colored images were preferred when available. After visually analyzing the photos, they classified the athlete as white or non-white (black, Asian, indigenous, or multiracial). Members of different ethnic groups analyzed the images to reduce the odds of own-race bias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Each researcher was also blinded to the other's analysis. A relative majority was required for ethnic definition.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Patient involvement</title>
          <p>No patients or the public were involved in designing the study, nor were they involved in data collection plans. No athlete was asked to advise on interpretation or write-up of the results. Given the social relevance of this topic, we intend to disseminate its results by general media results after its publication.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>Because of the exploratory nature of this study, no sample size calculation was performed. Categorical variables were expressed as counts (n) or percentages (%) and compared by &#967;2 or Fisher's exact test. Continuous variables are defined as the mean&#177;standard deviation and range, and were compared using the unpaired Student's t-test. Normality was assessed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.</p>
          <p>The agreement on ethnic classification response was measured using the Fleiss Kappa coefficient.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The restricted mean survival time (RMST) with its 95% confidence interval (CI) for each ethnic group was calculated using Kaplan&#8211;Meier analyses, considering the maximum time point reported (54.17 years).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Cox proportional hazard survival analysis was used to ascertain whether differences in survival by ethnicity were significant after adjusting for medal-winning age and birth year.</p>
          <p>The statistical significance level was defined as a p-value&lt;0.05. All analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software (IBM SPSS&#174; Statistics for Windows, version 22.0, IBM Corp., Armonk, NY) and MedCalc&#174; Statistical Software, version 20.110 (MedCalc Software Ltd, Ostend, Belgium; <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.medcalc.org">https://www.medcalc.org</ext-link>; 2022)</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 1</xref> schematizes the cohort composition. Between 1920 and 1992, 1,338 Brazilian athletes participated in 16 of the 17 Olympic Games held in these 72 years. Among them, 123 (9.2%; all men; 25.03&#177;4.8 years, born between 1869 and 1972) achieved 124 medals in 12 Olympics. Nine sports contributed to the Brazilian Olympic medal table, containing 20 gold, 55 silver, and 48 bronze medals. This score refers to the number of prized athletes, i.e., for team sports, one medal represents one athlete. The mean follow-up was 40.92&#177;11.30 years, ranging from 3.78 to 69.81. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref> summarizes the athletic cohort.</p>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart of the Brazilian Olympians cohort.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>*Source: www.olympedia.com</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-02-e20230524-30524-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Cohort summary</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="19%">
              <col width="1%"/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B3CE">
                <th valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2"/>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">All (n=123)</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">White athletes (n=91)</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">Non-white athletes (n=32)</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">p value</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">
                  <bold>Medal-winning age (years)</bold>
                </td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">25.03 &#177; 4.8</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">24.93 &#177; 4.8</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">25.31 &#177; 4.91</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.703</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">
                  <bold>Death age</bold>
                </td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">71.80 &#177; 17.0</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">75.10 &#177; 18.01</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">67.13 &#177; 14.90</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.109</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="6">
                  <bold>Sport (n)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Athletics</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Basketball</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">26</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">22</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">4</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Boxing</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Football</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">36</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">21</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">15</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Judo</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Swimming</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">8</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">8</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Shooting</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">5</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">3</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Sailing</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Volleyball</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">23</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">20</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">3</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="6"><bold>Olympic games</bold> (<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref>)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Antwerp 1920</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">5</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">3</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">London 1948</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">10</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">9</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Helsinki 1952</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">3</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Roma 1960</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">10</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Tokyo 1964</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">5</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">4</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Mexico City 1968</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">4</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Munich 1972</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Montreal 1976</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Moscow 1980</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">8</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">8</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Los Angeles 1984</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">36</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">30</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">6</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Seul 1988</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">24</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">12</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Barcelona 1992</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">13</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">11</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">2</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="6">
                  <bold>Medal type</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Gold</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">20</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">15</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">5</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Silver</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">55</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">38</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">17</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Bronze</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">48</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">38</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">10</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Considering only Olympic games where an athlete conquered the first medal</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>The ethnic definition technique adopted in this study identified 91 (71.9%) white and 32 (28.1%) non-white athletes. The Fleiss kappa between responders was 0.664 (95% CI 0.592-0.736), representing substantial agreement. The mean age at which white and non-white athletes won their first medal did not differ.</p>
        <p>During the mean follow-up of 65.62&#177;8.66 years, 17 (18.7%) white and 12 (37.5%) non-white athletes died (p=0.031; Odds Ratio [OR]=2,61; 95% CI 1.07 to 6.35). The mean age of death was 75.10&#177;18.01 and 67.13&#177;14.90 years (p=0.109) for white and non-white athletes, respectively. The RMST after medal win was 51.6 (95% CI 49.8 to 53.4) and 45.0 (95% CI 41.3 to 48.7) years for white and non-white athletes (&#916;RMST=6.5; 95% CI 2.4 to 10.7; p=0.0018), respectively.</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref> present the outcomes of our multivariate Cox proportional hazard survival analysis. In comparison to white athletes, non-white athletes exhibited a significantly elevated risk of mortality, with a hazard ratio (HR) of 5.58 (95% CI, 2.18-14.31). The <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Central Illustration</xref> provides a schematic overview of both the study's design and its findings, offering a comprehensive and integrated visual representation.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Cox regression model</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B3CE">
                <th valign="middle" align="left">Variables</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">&#946;</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">SE</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">p-value</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">HR (95%CI)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Year of birth</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">-0.016</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.005</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.329</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.984 (0.954-1.016)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Medal-winning age (years)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.031</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.025</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.658</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1.031 (0.900-1.016)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Category</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1.72</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C6DFEB">
                <td valign="middle" align="left">White athletes (reference)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="left"/>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Non-white athletes</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">-1268</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.48</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">5.584 (2.179-14.31)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f5">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Survival probabilities according to the ethnicity.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-121-02-e20230524-30524-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind to address the life expectancy of developing world Olympians and how ethnic differences influence this.</p>
        <p>After conquering an Olympic medal, non-white athletes lived 6.56 years less than their white counterparts. Their hazard of dying throughout the study period was more than five times higher.</p>
        <p>Although we did not compare athletes&#8217; longevity with the general population, this gap did not differ from that observed in Brazilian racial disparities studies in non-athletic cohorts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> According to the last Brazilian report on racial inequalities (2010), the life expectancy among black people was 67 years, as compared to 73 years for whites.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Lawler et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> identified that white male NBA players enjoyed a lifespan of 1.5 years more than black players, but both lived longer than the general public, despite their skin color. Moreover, black and white lifetime differences were more significant for non-athletes than for athletes.</p>
        <p>The reasons behind the differences in life expectancy between white and non-white Brazilian Olympians are multifactorial. However, they probably do not differ from those highlighted by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Health and education access inequalities and higher levels of urban violence, among other social disparities, account for the higher vulnerability of black Brazilians,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> leading to their lower lifespan even among the athletes.</p>
        <p>There are many social determinants of health, a condition or circumstance in which people are born, grow, live, work, and age, which is shaped by political, social, and economic drives.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Thus, a regional factor can influence the impact of the social condition, making it more or less locally relevant as a health determinant. Structural racism has been identified as an essential health predictor in Brazilian society. Hone et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> analyzing more than three million individuals concerning primary health care showed that black race/ethnicity was an independent predictor of multimorbidity, defined by the diagnosis of two or more out of 53 chronic conditions (OR: 1.05; 95% CI: 1.03,1.06; compared to white). Moreover, the five-year probability of death was also higher among black individuals (1.48% [95%CI: 1.41,1.55%] when compared to 1.35% [95%CI: 1.31,1.40%] for whites).</p>
        <p>Some limitations warrant consideration in this study. First, our categorization of athletes into white and non-white based on photograph analysis may introduce potential misclassifications. Nevertheless, given the absence of official data on athletes&#8217; ethnicity, especially for historical Olympians, we deemed this method a reasonable alternative. Furthermore, we took precautions to enhance the accuracy of this analysis; with the exception of five athletes from the 1920s, the ethnicity of all other athletes was determined through the evaluation of colored photographs by a diverse panel, reducing the risk of own-race bias. Moreover, the distribution of sports among white and non-white athletes (as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>) aligns with documented racial biases within Olympic teams (e.g., no white track and field medalists and no non-white swim medalists).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Second, although we endeavored to include all Brazilian Olympic medalists without loss of follow-up, our sample size remained limited, as achieving a comprehensive inclusion of all Brazilian Olympians remains a work in progress. Third, this cohort does not include female athletes, as it was only in 1996 that a Brazilian woman secured an Olympic medal. Fourth, it is important to acknowledge that being an Olympic medalist does not guarantee superior health when compared to the general population, despite numerous studies suggesting such a trend.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Our study focuses on life expectancy disparities among Olympic medalists based on race, and while it provides valuable insights into this specific aspect, it does not comprehensively address the overall health status of Olympic athletes in relation to the broader population. Fifth, we did not conduct a direct comparison of athletes&#8217; lifespans with those of the general population, which could provide valuable insights into the health implications of Olympic success. Finally, it's important to acknowledge that we were unable to identify the causes of death for all athletes in our study cohort. Many of the athletes in our cohort passed away before the Second World War, and death their certificates are not readily available.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>These findings underscore a significant disparity in post-Olympic life expectancy between Brazilian white medalists and non-white medalists. White medalists enjoyed a life expectancy advantage of more than six years after reaching the pinnacle of sporting success. While our study highlights these disparities, it is important to acknowledge that the health benefits associated with Olympic medalists do not eliminate the health disparities resulting from social inequities. However, it's crucial to recognize that while being an Olympian offers certain health advantages, broader social factors continue to play a significant role in determining overall health outcomes. Further research into the multifaceted relationship between race, athleticism, and health is warranted in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics.</p>
        <p>In <italic>The Iliad</italic>, Homer introduces the dilemma of the mythological demigod Achilles to choose between a short and glorious life as a warrior and a long and obscure existence as a regular Greek citizen.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In the study by Clark et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> the authors made the analogy that before the Olympians&#8217; survival benefits, they could profit from both destinies. Unfortunately, we cannot guarantee this precious gift for the Brazilian non-white Olympic heroes.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p>
            <bold>Study association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p>
            <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
