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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">h9pS55jTLTbz9z7KvSPHqQH</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023001100202</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00202</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230753</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Minieditorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Papel do &#212;mega-3 e do &#212;mega-6 sobre Fatores de Risco Cardiovasculares: Import&#226;ncia da Fonte da Dieta e da Estrutura do Lip&#237;dio</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Soares</surname>
            <given-names>Vict&#243;ria Moralez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Thais Caroline da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1159-5030</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Portugal dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho &#8211; Campus de Botucatu &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu , Botucatu , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspond&#234;ncia: Priscila Portugal dos Santos &#8226; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; UNESP &#8211; Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Distrito de Rubi&#227;o Junior, s/n. CEP 18618-970, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>pripolmed@yahoo.com.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>22</day>
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>11</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230753</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>31</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Dieta do Mediterr&#226;neo</kwd>
        <kwd>Gorduras na Dieta</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
        <kwd>&#193;cidos Graxos Omega-3</kwd>
        <kwd>&#193;cidos Graxos Omega-6</kwd>
        <kwd>Receptores</kwd>
        <kwd>Eicosanoides</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="19"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>&#212;mega-3 (&#225;cido &#945;-linol&#234;nico - ALA, C18:3n-3) e &#244;mega-6 (&#225;cido linoleico - LA, C18:2n-6), s&#227;o &#225;cidos graxos poliinsaturados (AGPI) essenciais, pois n&#227;o podem ser sintetizados por humanos ou outros animais superiores. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Estes AGPI desempenham um papel importante na manuten&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de cardiovascular, sendo extensivamente estudados. A dieta mediterr&#226;nica tem sido repetidamente associada a menor risco cardiovascular, em grande parte devido &#224; abund&#226;ncia de &#243;mega-3. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
    <p>No corpo humano, ALA e LA s&#227;o convertidos em outras formas de AGPI, importantes para a sa&#250;de humana, incluindo &#225;cido eicosapentaenoico (EPA, C20:5n-3), &#225;cido docosapentaenoico (DPA, C22:5n-3), &#225;cido docosaexaenoico (DHA, C22:6n-3) da fam&#237;lia &#244;mega-3, e &#225;cido &#947;-linol&#234;nico (GLA, 18:3n-6), &#225;cido dihomo-&#947;-linol&#234;nico (DGLA, 20:3n-6) e &#225;cido araquid&#244;nico (AA, C20: 4n-6) da fam&#237;lia &#244;mega-6. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Geralmente considera-se que os AGPI desempenham um papel ben&#233;fico para a sa&#250;de. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No entanto, podem ter efeitos opostos, sendo o &#243;mega-3 associado &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular e o &#243;mega-6 associado a fatores de risco cardiovascular, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> como mostra o estudo de Gon&#231;alinho et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Os efeitos dos AGPI no corpo e no sistema cardiovascular s&#227;o devidos &#224; gera&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios sinalizadores bioativos (derivados de DGLA, AA, EPA, DHA) conhecidos como eicosanoides. Entre os eicosanoides produzidos est&#227;o as prostaglandinas (PGs), tromboxanos (TXs) e leucotrienos (LTs). O &#244;mega-3 tamb&#233;m pode ser metabolizado em mediadores lip&#237;dicos especializados de pr&#243;-resolu&#231;&#227;o, como resolvinas da s&#233;rie D, protetinas e maresinas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Os eicosanoides derivados do &#244;mega-6 est&#227;o envolvidos principalmente na ativa&#231;&#227;o da resposta pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria, agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, trombose e t&#244;nus vascular, o que pode levar &#224; doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) aguda. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> No entanto, alguns estudos sobre os efeitos do &#244;mega-6 ainda s&#227;o controversos, como discutido por Gon&#231;alinho et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Alguns eicosanoides derivados de AA t&#234;m efeitos opostos. Por exemplo, o TXA2 promove vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria levando &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos. PGI2 &#233; um potente vasodilatador e inibe a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. Assim, o equil&#237;brio na produ&#231;&#227;o desses eicosanoides estabelece o t&#244;nus vascular e o potencial tromb&#243;tico. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, os eicosanoides derivados de DGLA, como PGE1, possuem principalmente propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias e inibem a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Adicionalmente, os metab&#243;litos derivados de AA tamb&#233;m podem desempenhar um papel na resolu&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o. Por exemplo, a lipoxina A4 &#233; um potente mediador pr&#243;-resolu&#231;&#227;o <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> e a gera&#231;&#227;o de eicosanoides derivados de AA no in&#237;cio da resposta inflamat&#243;ria est&#225; associada &#224; posterior indu&#231;&#227;o da resolu&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Essas considera&#231;&#245;es podem explicar os resultados controversos encontrados em estudos com &#244;mega-6.</p>
    <p>Por outro lado, os eicosanoides derivados do &#244;mega-3 possuem a&#231;&#245;es anti-inflamat&#243;rias, vasodilatadoras e de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, reduzindo assim o risco de DCV, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> conforme demonstrado por Gon&#231;alinho et al., <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Quanto aos efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios, o EPA e o DHA diminuem a produ&#231;&#227;o de eicosanoides derivados do AA, al&#233;m de diminuir a ativa&#231;&#227;o de fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios, levando a menor produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas e quimiocinas inflamat&#243;rias, prote&#237;nas de fase aguda e mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o EPA e o DHA possuem efeitos de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria por modificar os perfis dos eicosanoides. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Outras a&#231;&#245;es interessantes do &#244;mega-3 s&#227;o regular o metabolismo lip&#237;dico e dos adip&#243;citos e os n&#237;veis de colesterol, potencializando assim seu efeito na sa&#250;de cardiovascular. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> O EPA e o DHA modificam beneficamente os lip&#237;dios sangu&#237;neos e t&#234;m efeito hipotriglic&#234;mico regulando vias de s&#237;ntese e degrada&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Ele tamb&#233;m atua na supress&#227;o das enzimas da bioss&#237;ntese do colesterol. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o &#244;mega-3 atua no tecido adiposo marrom regulando o gasto energ&#233;tico, por meio de sua fun&#231;&#227;o termog&#234;nica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Finalmente, o &#244;mega-3 pode influenciar o efeito dos &#225;cidos graxos saturados (SFA) e do &#244;mega-6 no perfil lip&#237;dico. O SFA aumentam os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de triacilglicerol (TG) apenas quando a dieta &#233; deficiente em &#244;mega-3. Al&#233;m disso, em indiv&#237;duos com &#237;ndice adequado de &#244;mega-3, a dieta SFA n&#227;o afeta significativamente a concentra&#231;&#227;o de part&#237;culas LDL ou os n&#237;veis de colesterol LDL. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Considerando os efeitos opostos do &#244;mega-3 e &#244;mega-6, a propor&#231;&#227;o desses AGPI desempenham papel significativo na regula&#231;&#227;o da homeostase corporal. A taxa de convers&#227;o de LA e ALA em outros metab&#243;litos depende da propor&#231;&#227;o de &#244;mega-3 e &#244;mega-6 ingeridos, uma vez que eles competem pelas mesmas enzimas neste processo, embora exista uma afinidade preferencial destas enzimas pelo &#244;mega-3. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A propor&#231;&#227;o diet&#233;tica recomendada de &#244;mega-6/&#244;mega-3 para benef&#237;cios &#224; sa&#250;de &#233; de 1:1&#8211;2:1. No entanto, nas dietas ocidentais t&#237;picas, a propor&#231;&#227;o &#233; de 15:1 a 16,7:1. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
    <p>&#201; tamb&#233;m importante prestar aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; qualidade da fonte destes AGPI, uma vez que a estrutura dos l&#237;pidos diet&#233;ticos e as posi&#231;&#245;es de liga&#231;&#227;o dos &#225;cidos graxos (AG) nestes l&#237;pidos podem influenciar a sua digest&#227;o, transporte e consequentemente a sua biodisponibilidade, metabolismo e efeitos sobre o cora&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Em alimentos de origem vegetal e animal a maioria (~98%) do &#244;mega-3 &#233; encontrada na forma de TG, seguido por fosfolip&#237;dios (PLs) e diacilglicer&#243;is, &#233;steres de colesterol e &#233;steres vitam&#237;nicos sol&#250;veis em gordura. Estas diferentes formas de lip&#237;dios apresentam diferentes n&#237;veis de biodisponibilidade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Os PLs s&#227;o mais biodispon&#237;veis devido &#224; sua natureza anfif&#237;lica, com superior dispersibilidade em &#225;gua e maior suscetibilidade &#224;s fosfolipases em compara&#231;&#227;o com a glicer&#243;lise do TG. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Estudos mostraram que uma dose mais baixa de &#243;leo de Krill, (62,8% em compara&#231;&#227;o com o &#243;leo de peixe) que cont&#233;m quase 35% de DHA na forma de PL, foi mais eficiente do que o &#243;leo de peixe em promover absor&#231;&#227;o do EPA e DHA, uma vez que, os AGPI no &#243;leo de peixe s&#227;o encontrados na forma de TG. Al&#233;m disso, &#243;leo de Krill causou menos efeitos adversos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Outro estudo mostrou que beb&#234;s alimentados com f&#243;rmula contendo AGPI na forma de PL de ovo absorveram &#244;mega-3 t&#227;o eficientemente quanto beb&#234;s amamentados, e melhor do que beb&#234;s alimentados com f&#243;rmula contendo AGPI na forma de TG. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao transporte desses lip&#237;dios, no enter&#243;cito, os AG da dieta, fornecidos como TG, s&#227;o predominantemente incorporados aos quilom&#237;crons, enquanto os AG fornecidos como PL, parecem ser predominantemente incorporados em part&#237;culas de densidade muito baixa sintetizadas nos enter&#243;citos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, as posi&#231;&#245;es de liga&#231;&#227;o dos AGPI ao PL ou TG da dieta mostraram efeitos diferenciais na sua absor&#231;&#227;o e metabolismo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Por exemplo, a absor&#231;&#227;o de DHA pode ser aumentada se estiver presente na posi&#231;&#227;o sn-1 do PL da dieta, uma vez que escaparia da hidr&#243;lise pela fosfolipase A2 pancre&#225;tica que libera FA da posi&#231;&#227;o sn-2 do glicerol. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a posi&#231;&#227;o de liga&#231;&#227;o do EPA e do DHA ao TG tamb&#233;m afeta o metabolismo do colesterol e a produ&#231;&#227;o de eicosanoides. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> O EPA ligado &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o sn-1 do TG aumentou a propor&#231;&#227;o de PGI2 para TXA2 em um grau mais elevado do que o EPA ligado &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o sn-2. &#201; importante lembrar que PGI2 a TXA2 s&#227;o eicosanoides derivados de AGPI n-6 e t&#234;m efeitos opostos.</p>
    <p>Portanto, estudos ou recomenda&#231;&#245;es sobre ingest&#227;o alimentar ou suplementa&#231;&#227;o de AGPI &#244;mega-3 e &#244;mega-6 devem considerar n&#227;o apenas ingest&#227;o de propor&#231;&#227;o equilibrada de &#244;mega-6/&#244;mega-3, mas tamb&#233;m a qualidade da fonte alimentar e a biodisponibilidade de AGPI dessas fontes diet&#233;ticas.</p>
  </body>
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          <italic>Minieditorial referente ao artigo: Os &#193;cidos Graxos Poli-insaturados &#212;mega-6 e &#212;mega-3 Presentes nas Hem&#225;cias Exercem uma Influ&#234;ncia Distinta sobre o Tamanho das Part&#237;culas de LDL e suas Altera&#231;&#245;es Estruturais</italic>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Short Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Role of Omega-3 and Omega-6 on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: Importance of Dietary Sources and Lipid Structure</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Soares</surname>
            <given-names>Vict&#243;ria Moralez</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Thais Caroline da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1159-5030</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Portugal dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho &#8211; Campus de Botucatu &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Priscila Portugal dos Santos &#8226; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; UNESP &#8211; Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Distrito de Rubi&#227;o Junior, s/n. Postal Code 18618-970, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: pripolmed@yahoo.com.br</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Die, Mediterranean</kwd>
        <kwd>Dietary Fats</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatty Acids, Omega-3</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatty Acids, Omega-6</kwd>
        <kwd>Receptors, Eicosanoid</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
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      <p>Omega-3 (&#945;-linolenic acid - ALA, C18:3n-3) and omega-6 (linoleic acid - LA, C18:2n-6) are essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) as they cannot be synthesized by humans or other higher animals. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> These PUFAs play an important role in maintaining cardiovascular health, being extensively studied. Mediterranean diet has been repeatedly associated with lower cardiovascular risk, largely due to the abundance of omega-3. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>In the human body, ALA and LA are converted to other forms of PUFAs, important for human health including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, C22:5n-3), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) from the omega-3 family, and &#947;-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3n-6), dihomo-&#947;-linolenic acid (DGLA, 20:3n-6) and arachidonic acid (AA, C20: 4n-6) from the omega-6 family. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>PUFAs are generally considered to play a beneficial health role. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> However, they can have opposing effects, with omega-3 being associated with reduced cardiovascular risk and omega-6 being associated with cardiovascular risk factors, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> as shown in the study by Gon&#231;alinho et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The effects of PUFAs on the body and cardiovascular system are due to the generation of bioactive signaling lipids (derived from DGLA, ARA, EPA, DHA) known as eicosanoids. Among the eicosanoids produced are prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), and leukotrienes (LTs). Omega-3 can also be metabolized to specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators, such as D-series resolvins, protectins, and maresins. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Omega-6-derived eicosanoids are mainly involved in activating pro-inflammatory response, platelet aggregation, thrombosis, and vascular tone, which can lead to acute cardiovascular disease (CVD). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> However, some studies about the effects of omega-6 are still controversial, as discussed by Gon&#231;alinho et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Some AA-derived eicosanoids have opposite effects. For example, TXA2 promotes vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation, leading to thrombus formation. PGI2 is a potent vasodilator and inhibits platelet aggregation. Hence, the balance in producing these eicosanoids establishes vascular tone and thrombotic potential. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Furthermore, DGLA-derived eicosanoids such as PGE1 are reported to have anti-inflammatory properties and inhibit platelet aggregation mainly. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Additionally, AA-derived metabolites may also have roles in the resolution of inflammation. For example, lipoxin A4 is a potent pro-resolving mediator, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> and the generation of AA-derived eicosanoids early in the inflammatory response is linked with the later induction of resolution. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> These considerations may be associated with the controversial results found in studies with omega-6.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, eicosanoids derived from omega-3 have anti-inflammatory, vasodilatory, and platelet anti-aggregation actions, thus reducing the risk of CVD, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> as shown by Gon&#231;alinho et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Regarding anti-inflammatory effects, EPA and DHA decrease the production of AA-derived eicosanoids, in addition to decreasing activation of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor to decrease the production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, acute-phase proteins, and adhesion molecules. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Additionally, EPA and DHA have platelet anti-aggregation effects to modify eicosanoid profiles. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Other interesting actions of omega-3 are to regulate lipid and adipocyte metabolism and cholesterol levels, thus enhancing its effect on cardiovascular health. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> EPA and DHA beneficially modify blood lipids and have hypotriglycemic effects through the regulation of pathways of lipid synthesis and degradation <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> . It also acts to suppress cholesterol biosynthesis enzymes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Furthermore, omega-3 acts on brown adipose tissue, which helps energy expenditure through its specialized thermogenic function. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Finally, omega-3 can influence the effect of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and omega-6 on lipid profile. SFA increases plasma levels of triacylglycerol (TG) only when the diet is deficient in omega-3. Furthermore, in subjects with adequate omega-3 index, the SFA diet does not significantly affect LDL particle concentration or LDL cholesterol levels. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Considering these opposing effects of omega-3 and omega-6, the proportion of these PUFAs play a significant role in regulating body homeostasis. The conversion rate of LA and ALA to downstream metabolites in humans depends on the ingested omega-3 and omega-6 ratio since they compete for the same enzymes in this process, although a preferential affinity to omega-3 exists. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The recommended dietary ratio of omega-6/omega-3 for health benefits is 1:1&#8211;2:1. However, in typical Western diets, the ratio is 15:1 to 16.7:1. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>It is also important to pay attention to the quality of the source of these PUFAs, as the structure of dietary lipids and binding positions of fatty acids (FA) in these lipids can influence their digestion, transportation, and consequently, their bioavailability, metabolism, and effects on the heart. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
      <p>In plant and animal-based foods, the majority (&#732;98%) of omega-3 is found in the form of TG, followed by phospholipids (PLs) and diacylglycerols, cholesterol esters, and fat-soluble vitamin esters. These different forms of lipids have different levels of bioavailability. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> PLs are more bioavailable due to their amphiphilic nature with superior water-dispersibility and greater susceptibility to phospholipases compared to glycerolysis of TG. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Studies showed that a lower dose of Krill oil (62.8% compared to fish oil) that contains nearly 35% of DHA in the form of PLs was more efficient than fish oil in promoting absorption of EPA and DHA, since PUFAs in fish oil are found in the form of TG. Furthermore, Krill oil caused fewer adverse effects. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Another study reported that infants fed PUFA-supplemented formula from egg PL absorbed omega-3 as efficiently as breastfed infants and better than infants fed a formula containing PUFA-TG. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Regarding the transport of these lipids, dietary fatty acids provided as TG are predominantly incorporated into chylomicrons in the enterocyte. On the contrary, fatty acids provided as PL seem to be predominantly incorporated into very low-density particles synthesized at the enterocytes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Additionally, binding positions of PUFA to PL or TG from the diet have shown significant differential effects on its absorption and metabolism. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> For example, the absorption of DHA can be further increased if it is present in the sn-1 position of dietary PL since it would escape hydrolysis by pancreatic phospholipase A2, which releases FA from the sn-2 position of glycerol. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Furthermore, the binding position of EPA and DHA to TG also affects cholesterol metabolism and eicosanoid productions. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> EPA bound to the sn-1 position of TG increased the ratio of PGI2 to TXA2 to a higher degree than EPA bound to the sn-2 position. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> It is important to remember that PGI2 to TXA2 are eicosanoids derived from n-6 PUFA and have opposite effects.</p>
      <p>Therefore, studies or recommendations on food intake or supplementation of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA must consider not only a balanced ratio of omega-6/omega-3 but also the quality of the dietary source and the bioavailability of PUFA from these dietary sources.</p>
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          <p>
            <italic>Short Editorial related to the article: Red Blood Cells&#8217; Omega-6 and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Have a Distinct Influence on LDL Particle Size and its Structural Modifications</italic>
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