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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">tzwdTw7M87HTnQyh6Yn7L8x</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023001000401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230174</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Desafios e Aplica&#231;&#245;es dos Testes Gen&#233;ticos na Cardiomiopatia Dilatada: Gen&#243;tipo, Fen&#243;tipo e Implica&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8727-0940</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Furquim</surname>
            <given-names>Silas Ramos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Linnenkamp</surname>
            <given-names>Bianca</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1061-8982</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Olivetti</surname>
            <given-names>Nat&#225;lia Quintella Sangiorgi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Giugni</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Rabioglio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lipari</surname>
            <given-names>Layara Fernanda Vicente Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2612-8040</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Andrade</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Silas Ramos Furquim &#8226; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP 05403-900, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>silasfurquim@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o: Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>24</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>10</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230174</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Os testes gen&#233;ticos para cardiomiopatia dilatada (CMD) apresentam uma positividade de at&#233; 40%, mas h&#225; uma grande heterogeneidade gen&#233;tica e outros desafios decorrentes de expressividade vari&#225;vel e penetr&#226;ncia incompleta. O heredograma &#233; fundamental para diferenciar os casos de CMD espor&#225;dica e familiar, por meio da avalia&#231;&#227;o do hist&#243;rico familiar. A CMD familiar apresenta um rendimento maior nos testes gen&#233;ticos, mas a CMD espor&#225;dica n&#227;o exclui a possibilidade de causa gen&#233;tica. Alguns genes t&#234;m fen&#243;tipos espec&#237;ficos, sendo o gene da Lamina ( <italic>LMNA</italic> ) o mais fortemente associado a um fen&#243;tipo de arritmias malignas e quadros de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) avan&#231;ada. A presen&#231;a de uma variante gen&#233;tica causal tamb&#233;m pode ajudar na avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica, identificando quadros mais graves e com menores taxas de remodelamento reverso em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos com gen&#243;tipo negativo. As diretrizes atuais recomendam a avalia&#231;&#227;o e aconselhamento gen&#233;tico em indiv&#237;duos com CMD, al&#233;m do rastreamento em cascata nos familiares de primeiro grau nos casos em que h&#225; uma ou mais variantes identificadas, sendo uma oportunidade para o diagn&#243;stico e tratamento precoces. Familiares com gen&#243;tipo positivo e fen&#243;tipo negativo s&#227;o candidatos &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o seriada, com periodicidade que varia conforme a idade. O gen&#243;tipo tamb&#233;m auxilia na indica&#231;&#227;o individualizada de cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel e em recomenda&#231;&#245;es quanto &#224; atividade f&#237;sica e planejamento familiar. Estudos em curso esclarecem progressivamente os detalhes das rela&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo de um grande n&#250;mero de variantes e fazem com que a gen&#233;tica molecular esteja cada vez mais presente na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Dilatada</kwd>
        <kwd>Gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Testes Gen&#233;ticos</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="12"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="43"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A cardiomiopatia dilatada (CMD) &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o em que h&#225; dilata&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) e redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (FE), na aus&#234;ncia de causas secund&#225;rias, como isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, hipertens&#227;o arterial, valvopatias prim&#225;rias ou cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref> - <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> </sup> A CMD &#233; relativamente comum, com preval&#234;ncia que varia de 1/250 a 1/500 na popula&#231;&#227;o geral,<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref> </sup> sendo a principal causa de transplante card&#237;aco em todo o mundo.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> Quando a etiologia da CMD n&#227;o &#233; bem definida, a investiga&#231;&#227;o de uma causa gen&#233;tica se faz relevante. Em at&#233; 40% dos pacientes com CMD &#233; encontrada uma variante gen&#233;tica patog&#234;nica ou provavelmente patog&#234;nica que poderia explicar o fen&#243;tipo card&#237;aco, o que ressalta a import&#226;ncia da realiza&#231;&#227;o do teste gen&#233;tico nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, a interpreta&#231;&#227;o do resultado do teste gen&#233;tico na CMD pode ser desafiadora, considerando a ampla variedade de genes envolvidos, a incompleta penetr&#226;ncia gen&#233;tica no fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico e a grande heterogeneidade de express&#227;o das variantes na manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref> </sup> A maioria dos genes associados &#224; CMD n&#227;o causa exclusivamente esse fen&#243;tipo, estando relacionados com outras cardiopatias, como cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH), cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica ou canalopatias, podendo causar sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de fen&#243;tipos.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref> , <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> , <xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> </sup> Identificar uma variante patog&#234;nica relacionada &#224; CMD &#233; fundamental para refor&#231;ar o diagn&#243;stico, refinar a avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica e, nos casos de teste positivo em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, abrir a possibilidade do rastreamento cl&#237;nico, diagn&#243;stico e tratamento precoces. A indica&#231;&#227;o do melhor m&#233;todo de teste gen&#233;tico a ser solicitado, a correta interpreta&#231;&#227;o das variantes encontradas e as implica&#231;&#245;es pr&#225;ticas dos resultados s&#227;o desafios atuais da Medicina de Precis&#227;o em Cardiologia. Essa revis&#227;o abordar&#225; esses aspectos, &#224; luz de publica&#231;&#245;es recentes na &#225;rea.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Defini&#231;&#227;o de CMD espor&#225;dica e familiar</title>
        <p>A CMD familiar &#233; definida quando dois ou mais familiares apresentam crit&#233;rios para CMD ou o caso &#237;ndice com CMD tem um familiar de primeiro grau que apresentou morte s&#250;bita em idade menor que 35 anos ou confirma&#231;&#227;o por aut&#243;psia de CMD.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> </sup> Quando a CMD &#233; familiar, a probabilidade de encontrar uma variante patog&#234;nica associada ao fen&#243;tipo &#233; maior e, portanto, o rendimento do teste gen&#233;tico &#233; mais alto. No entanto, mesmo que a CMD seja espor&#225;dica, n&#227;o se exclui causa gen&#233;tica, considerando-se a possibilidade de uma muta&#231;&#227;o <italic>de novo.</italic> <sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> , <xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> </sup> A diretriz da <italic>American Heart Association</italic> (AHA) / <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic> (ACC) de 2022 recomenda que seja feita a avalia&#231;&#227;o de hist&#243;ria familiar de pelo menos tr&#234;s gera&#231;&#245;es, idealmente, em forma de heredograma.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup> Na <xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">tabela 1</xref> e na <xref rid="f02" ref-type="fig">figura 1</xref> encontram-se orienta&#231;&#245;es b&#225;sicas para a constru&#231;&#227;o de um heredograma.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Principais informa&#231;&#245;es e regras necess&#225;rias para constru&#231;&#227;o do heredograma</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal" align="left"> </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Identificar com nome do probando (paciente em atendimento), data de nascimento, idade do probando durante avalia&#231;&#227;o e data do atendimento.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Construir o heredograma com informa&#231;&#245;es de pelo menos tr&#234;s gera&#231;&#245;es a partir do probando e incluir familiares de primeiro grau do probando (pais, irm&#227;os e prole); familiares de segundo grau (av&#243;s, tios e tias, sobrinhos e sobrinhas e netos).</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Indicar local de origem e ascend&#234;ncia da fam&#237;lia do probando, al&#233;m de questionar se h&#225; consanguinidade na fam&#237;lia. Nem sempre a consanguinidade &#233; conhecida, no entanto, deve-se suspeitar desta possibilidade quando os genitores forem de munic&#237;pio com poucos habitantes.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Identificar doen&#231;as conhecidas e outros achados atrav&#233;s de legendas.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Posicionar indiv&#237;duos; mais velhos devem ficar mais &#224; esquerda e os mais novos &#224; direita.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Indicar a idade e a causa <italic>mortis</italic> de indiv&#237;duos falecidos.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Numerar as gera&#231;&#245;es atrav&#233;s de numerais romanos a fim de facilitar a identifica&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos na fam&#237;lia.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sinalizar indiv&#237;duos que tenham realizado teste gen&#233;tico e indicar o resultado.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; S&#237;mbolos universais utilizados na constru&#231;&#227;o do heredograma.Fonte: Kim et al. <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr"><sup>43</sup></xref> </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20230174-30174-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Quando solicitar teste gen&#233;tico</title>
        <p>A recomenda&#231;&#227;o de testagem gen&#233;tica se encontra nas &#250;ltimas diretrizes de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca da AHA/ACC, da <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> (ESC) e da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (SBC), indicando a avalia&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com CMD, acompanhada do aconselhamento gen&#233;tico.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> </sup> Pode ser &#250;til em casos lim&#237;trofes, como para distinguir CMD de cardiomiopatia periparto ou cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica de VE, por exemplo. A testagem gen&#233;tica tamb&#233;m pode encontrar diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais e que apresentam tratamento espec&#237;fico, como a amiloidose card&#237;aca que, em fases mais tardias, pode se apresentar com redu&#231;&#227;o da FE.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m est&#225; indicado para decidir interven&#231;&#245;es, como implante de cardiodesfibrilador (CDI) como profilaxia prim&#225;ria.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> Importante salientar que a testagem gen&#233;tica deve ser realizada no membro da fam&#237;lia mais afetado, com fen&#243;tipo bem definido, para aumentar o rendimento do teste e, posteriormente, desencadear o rastreamento familiar em cascata.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Qual teste gen&#233;tico solicitar</title>
        <p>H&#225; uma diversidade de genes relacionadas &#224; CMD, e, para uma avalia&#231;&#227;o eficiente, &#233; necess&#225;rio um m&#233;todo que analise os principais genes envolvidos de forma simult&#226;nea e r&#225;pida. O surgimento de uma nova tecnologia de sequenciamento, denominada <italic>NGS (next generation sequencing)</italic> permitiu o sequenciamento paralelo em massa de diversos genes, o que tornou estes testes mais acess&#237;veis e sua inclus&#227;o na rotina do especialista.</p>
        <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de pain&#233;is de NGS para an&#225;lise de genes pr&#233;-selecionados relacionados a determinado fen&#243;tipo revolucionou a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica por conciliar maior agilidade e efici&#234;ncia e &#233; o m&#233;todo recomendado pelo consenso de especialistas de teste gen&#233;tico em cardiologia.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> A lista de genes deve ser atualizada com base no conhecimento cient&#237;fico e &#233; imprescind&#237;vel que o painel de NGS escolhido para investiga&#231;&#227;o de CMD contenha pelo menos os genes mais frequentemente associados a esta condi&#231;&#227;o, representados na <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">tabela 2</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> , <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; principais variantes que devem ser pesquisadas na cardiomiopatia dilatada</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Gene</th>
                  <th>Frequ&#234;ncia</th>
                  <th>Gene</th>
                  <th>Frequ&#234;ncia</th>
                  <th>Gene</th>
                  <th>Frequ&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>TTN</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">18-25%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>MYBPC3</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">2%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>DES</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>DSG2</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">4&#8211;15%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>FLNC</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">0&#8211;3%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>TMEM43</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>DSP</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">1-13%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>ACTC1 </italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>TAZ</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Desconhecida</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>PLN</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">0&#8211;12%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>LDB3</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>BAG3</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Desconhecida</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>LMNA</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">6%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>TNNC1</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>RBM20</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Desconhecida</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>MYH6</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">4%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>TNNI3</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>DSC2</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Desconhecida</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>MYH7</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">4%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>TNNT2</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>DMD</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Desconhecida</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>SCN5A</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">0&#8211;2%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>TPM1</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <italic>EMD</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Desconhecida</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Exames mais amplos, como o sequenciamento de exoma e o sequenciamento de genoma, tamb&#233;m se baseiam na tecnologia NGS, e analisam todos os genes conhecidos; no entanto apresentam como desvantagens custo e tempo de processamento elevados.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref> , <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Rendimento do teste gen&#233;tico na CMD</title>
        <p>O rendimento da testagem gen&#233;tica para identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma variante patog&#234;nica ou provavelmente patog&#234;nica relacionada &#224; CMD varia de 15% a 40%,<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup> dependendo de fatores como hist&#243;ria familiar positiva, presen&#231;a de comorbidades e caracter&#237;sticas do eletrocardiograma (ECG).<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> Escobar-Lopez et al. propuseram um escore para estimar a probabilidade de positividade da testagem gen&#233;tica, denominado Escore de Madrid ( <xref rid="t3" ref-type="table">Tabela 3</xref> ). Este escore avalia a presen&#231;a de miopatia esquel&#233;tica, hist&#243;ria familiar de CMD, baixa voltagem no ECG, aus&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o e aus&#234;ncia de bloqueio de ramo esquerdo no ECG. A presen&#231;a de 4 ou mais desses fatores pode levar a uma taxa de positividade do teste gen&#233;tico de 79% ( <xref rid="f03" ref-type="fig">Figura 2</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Escore de Madrid. Preditores de positividade do teste gen&#233;tico na CMD</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2" align="left">Preditores de Teste Gen&#233;tico Positivo</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal" align="left">Miopatia esquel&#233;tica</th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">1 ponto</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hist&#243;ria familiar de CMD</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ponto</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baixa voltagem no ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ponto</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Aus&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o e aus&#234;ncia de BRE</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ponto</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Aus&#234;ncia de BRE</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ponto</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="2">
                    <bold>Pontua&#231;&#227;o do escore: 0 a 5 pontos</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>CMD: cardiomiopatia dilatada; ECG: eletrocardiograma; BRE: bloqueio de ramo esquerdo. Fonte: Adaptado de Escobar-Lopez L. <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr"><sup>17</sup></xref> </attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Rendimento do teste gen&#233;tico de acordo com a categoria do escore de Madrid. Fonte: Adaptado de Escobar-Lopez. <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr"><sup>17</sup></xref> </title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20230174-30174-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A interpreta&#231;&#227;o das variantes encontradas</title>
        <p>&#201; importante ressaltar que a presen&#231;a de uma variante gen&#233;tica deve ser avaliada com muita cautela. Encontrar uma variante gen&#233;tica em gene de cardiomiopatia, por si s&#243;, n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para afirmar causalidade em rela&#231;&#227;o ao fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico. Ao realizar um teste gen&#233;tico, mesmo em popula&#231;&#227;o saud&#225;vel, a presen&#231;a de variantes gen&#233;ticas em genes relacionados a cardiomiopatia &#233; comum. Deve-se levar em considera&#231;&#227;o que as variantes podem ser benignas. Portanto, um ponto crucial &#233; a determina&#231;&#227;o da patogenicidade da variante. Para definir a patogenicidade de uma variante, &#233; necess&#225;rio avaliar a for&#231;a da associa&#231;&#227;o entre o gene e a cardiopatia, podendo-se utilizar como apoio uma ferramenta que faz a curadoria desta rela&#231;&#227;o, o ClinGen (www.clingenome.org) e seguir os crit&#233;rios propostos pelo <italic>American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics</italic> (ACMG).<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> A determina&#231;&#227;o da patogenicidade das variantes &#233; complexa e inclui v&#225;rias informa&#231;&#245;es, como a frequ&#234;ncia da variante em bancos de dados gen&#233;ticos populacionais, como o Genome Aggregation Database (GnomAD) e o <bold>A</bold> rquivo <bold>Bra</bold> sileiro <bold>O</bold> nline de <bold>M</bold> uta&#231;&#245;es (ABraOM), as caracter&#237;sticas bioqu&#237;micas, predi&#231;&#245;es em s&#237;lico, investiga&#231;&#227;o de relatos pr&#233;vios relacionando a variante &#224; doen&#231;a, dados al&#233;licos e dados de segrega&#231;&#227;o familiar. &#201; importante considerar o tipo de muta&#231;&#227;o ( <italic>missense</italic> , inser&#231;&#227;o, dele&#231;&#227;o, <italic>nonsense</italic> ) e o efeito da variante na prote&#237;na (encurtamento, parada precoce, altera&#231;&#227;o em sua fosforila&#231;&#227;o). Deve-se considerar, tamb&#233;m, se o mecanismo de patogenicidade descrito para aquele gene &#233; compat&#237;vel com o efeito da variante na prote&#237;na.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As variantes podem ser classificadas em cinco categorias: classe 5 (patog&#234;nica), classe 4 (provavelmente patog&#234;nica), classe 3 (variante de significado incerto), classe 2 (provavelmente benigna) ou classe 1 (benigna).<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> As variantes patog&#234;nicas s&#227;o consideradas causais, enquanto as provavelmente patog&#234;nicas possuem uma chance de 90% de serem causais. J&#225; as variantes de significado incerto, comumente chamadas de VUS, do ingl&#234;s <italic>variant of uncertain significance,</italic> representam uma &#225;rea de maior incerteza quanto &#224; patogenicidade que pode variar de 10 a 90% de serem causais ( <xref rid="t4" ref-type="table">Tabela 4</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> Algumas estrat&#233;gias para reclassificar uma VUS incluem a realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudos funcionais que testam o efeito da variante na prote&#237;na, a segrega&#231;&#227;o familiar da variante em parentes de primeiro grau e a pesquisa peri&#243;dica na literatura cient&#237;fica.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> &#201; importante ressaltar que a classifica&#231;&#227;o de variantes &#233; um processo din&#226;mico que depende do conhecimento atualizado sobre a variante em quest&#227;o. Por isso, reclassifica&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o constantes e a busca por novas informa&#231;&#245;es &#233; essencial.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Classifica&#231;&#227;o das variantes segundo ACMG</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Classifica&#231;&#227;o da patogenicidade</th>
                  <th>classe</th>
                  <th>probabilidade</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Benigna</td>
                  <td align="center">classe 1</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 5%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Provavelmente Benigna</td>
                  <td align="center">classe 2</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 10%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Variante de significado incerto</td>
                  <td align="center">classe 3</td>
                  <td align="center">10 - 90%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Provavelmente patog&#234;nica</td>
                  <td align="center">classe 4</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 90%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Patog&#234;nica</td>
                  <td align="center">classe 5</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 95%</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>ACMG: American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics. Fonte: Richards et al. <xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr"><sup>18</sup></xref> </attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diferentes genes implicados na CMD</title>
        <p>Ao contr&#225;rio da CMH, em que 70% das variantes est&#227;o presentes nos genes <italic>MYH7</italic> e <italic>MYBPC3,</italic> <sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup> a CMD apresenta uma maior heterogeneidade, com mais de 50 genes descritos em associa&#231;&#227;o ao fen&#243;tipo.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> Esses genes codificam prote&#237;nas que atuam em diferentes estruturas do cardiomi&#243;cito ( <xref rid="t5" ref-type="table">Tabela 5</xref> ). Por exemplo, a Lamina A/C ( <italic>LMNA</italic> ) e a RNA-binding motif protein-20 ( <italic>RBM20</italic> ) s&#227;o encontradas no n&#250;cleo celular e est&#227;o presentes em 8% dos pacientes com CMD.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> </sup> No ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico, o fosfolambam ( <italic>PLN</italic> ) &#233; encontrado e, quando n&#227;o fosforilado, inibe o ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico Ca2+-ATPase ( <italic>SERCA</italic> ).<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> , <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref> </sup> No citoesqueleto, as variantes nos genes da Filamina C ( <italic>FLNC</italic> ), desmina ( <italic>DES</italic> ) e distrofina ( <italic>DMD</italic> ) correspondem a aproximadamente 11% dos casos.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> J&#225; no sarc&#244;mero, encontram-se genes como <italic>TTN, MYH7, TNNT2, TPM1</italic> e <italic>MYBPC3</italic> .</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Tabela 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Descri&#231;&#227;o de genes envolvidos na CMD, prote&#237;nas codificadas e regi&#227;o do cardiomi&#243;cito onde se encontram</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Gene</th>
                  <th>Prote&#237;na</th>
                  <th>Regi&#227;o afetada</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>LMNA</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Lamina A/C</td>
                  <td align="center">Envelope nuclear</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>RBM20</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">RNA-binding motif protein-20</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#250;cleo</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>PLN</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Fosfolambam</td>
                  <td align="center">Ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>FLNC</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Filamina C</td>
                  <td align="center">Citoesqueleto</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>DES</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Desmina</td>
                  <td align="center">Citoesqueleto</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>DMD</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Distrofina</td>
                  <td align="center">Citoesqueleto</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>TTN</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Titina</td>
                  <td align="center">Sarc&#244;mero</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>MYH7</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Cadeia pesada da beta miosina</td>
                  <td align="center">Sarc&#244;mero</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>TNNT2</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Troponina T</td>
                  <td align="center">Sarc&#244;mero</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>TPM1</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Tropomiosina</td>
                  <td align="center">Sarc&#244;mero</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>MYBPC3</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Prote&#237;na C 3 ligadora da miosina</td>
                  <td align="center">Sarc&#244;mero</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <italic>SCN5A</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Canal de s&#243;dio voltagem dependente subunidade alfa 5</td>
                  <td align="center">Membrana celular</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O gene <italic>TTN, </italic> que codifica a prote&#237;na titina, &#233; o mais comumente implicado na CMD, sendo que variantes truncadas em <italic>TTN</italic> podem corresponder a 25% das CMD familiares e 18% das espor&#225;dicas.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> As variantes dos genes <italic>MYH7, TNNT2</italic> e <italic>TPM1</italic> t&#234;m uma preval&#234;ncia de 5 a 10%,<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup> e <italic>MYBPC3</italic> , embora seja mais espec&#237;fico para CMH, tamb&#233;m &#233; encontrado na CMD.<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, na membrana celular se encontra o principal canal de s&#243;dio do cora&#231;&#227;o, codificado pelo gene <italic>SCN5A</italic> . Embora as variantes desse gene sejam bem descritas em arritmias, como as s&#237;ndromes do QT longo tipo 3 e a S&#237;ndrome de Brugada, variantes do tipo &#8220; <italic>missense&#8221;</italic> tamb&#233;m s&#227;o descritas em associa&#231;&#227;o ao fen&#243;tipo de CMD.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup> A ampla gama de genes implicados, juntamente com a grande sobreposi&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica, torna desafiadora a avalia&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica da CMD.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas em variantes espec&#237;ficas</title>
        <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas de variantes espec&#237;ficas da CMD s&#227;o bastante heterog&#234;neas, o que significa que um mesmo gene pode ser respons&#225;vel por diferentes fen&#243;tipos. Por exemplo, variantes no gene <italic>TNNT2</italic> podem se manifestar como CMH, dilatada ou restritiva. Essa varia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica pode ser explicada pela epigen&#233;tica que s&#227;o as intera&#231;&#245;es entre a variante espec&#237;fica com a gen&#233;tica, de cada indiv&#237;duo e fatores externos, como hipertens&#227;o, alcoolismo, estilo de vida, exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, taquicardia, quimioterapia ou inflama&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Alguns genes, como <italic>PLN, FLNC</italic> e <italic>LMNA</italic> , est&#227;o mais diretamente relacionados a fen&#243;tipos agressivos, com maior potencial de arritmias ventriculares, morte s&#250;bita e pior progn&#243;stico. O gene <italic>LMNA</italic> &#233; particularmente associado a um fen&#243;tipo espec&#237;fico, que atualmente tem sido chamado de laminopatia, caracterizado por disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda precoce (30 &#8211; 40 anos), dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica em idade precoce (como bloqueio atrioventricular total), fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em jovens, arritmia ventricular complexa e alto risco de morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref> , <xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref> </sup> Como resultado dessa associa&#231;&#227;o, existem recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para restri&#231;&#227;o &#224; atividade esportiva competitiva e indica&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas de profilaxia prim&#225;ria com CDI nesta popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, variantes patog&#234;nicas e provavelmente patog&#234;nicas em genes desmossomais, como da desmoplaquina ( <italic>DSP</italic> ), foram inicialmente relacionadas &#224; cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica de ventr&#237;culo direito, mas novas evid&#234;ncias tamb&#233;m demonstram associa&#231;&#227;o com fen&#243;tipo de CMD.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup> Junto com os genes <italic>FLNC</italic> e <italic>LMNA</italic> , s&#227;o as principais causas de cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica na forma predominante de VE, caracterizada por arritmias amea&#231;adoras &#224; vida que ocorrem de forma mais precoce, desproporcional ao grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O gene <italic>TTN</italic> codifica a prote&#237;na titina, que &#233; importante para a elasticidade passiva do tecido mioc&#225;rdico. Variantes de perda de fun&#231;&#227;o neste gene desempenham um papel bem estabelecido na patog&#234;nese da CMD, enquanto variantes do tipo <italic>missense</italic> s&#227;o frequentes e, na maioria das vezes, consideradas benignas.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Finalmente, o gene <italic>DMD</italic> , relacionado &#224;s distrofias musculares, est&#225; associado a uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica t&#237;pica de fraqueza muscular progressiva. A incid&#234;ncia de cardiomiopatia aumenta com a idade, especialmente em homens, chegando a mais de 90% aos 18 anos. O ECG apresenta um padr&#227;o cl&#225;ssico com ondas R altas e aumento da amplitude R/S em V1, ondas Q nas deriva&#231;&#245;es precordiais esquerdas, eixo desviado para direita ou bloqueio completo do ramo direito.<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Impacto progn&#243;stico do teste gen&#233;tico</title>
        <p>Pacientes com CMD e variantes patog&#234;nicas ou provavelmente patog&#234;nicas apresentam piores desfechos cl&#237;nicos, especialmente quanto ao risco de arritmias malignas e IC avan&#231;ada, em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes com CMD e gen&#243;tipo negativo. O risco &#233; maior principalmente naqueles com FE &#8804; 35%.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup> No entanto, h&#225; varia&#231;&#245;es entre os genes afetados; <italic>PLN, LMNA</italic> e <italic>FLNC</italic> apresentam maior risco de arritmias malignas, mesmo com FE &gt; 35%.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup> Pacientes com laminopatias t&#234;m mortalidade em torno de 12% em 4 anos e maior necessidade de transplante card&#237;aco aos 45 anos.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref> </sup> As variantes em <italic>FLNC</italic> tem associa&#231;&#227;o com uma alta predisposi&#231;&#227;o a arritmias ventriculares malignas e morte s&#250;bita, com taxas de 15-20% de arritmias ventriculares ou morte s&#250;bita em 5 anos de seguimento e 6% de mortalidade.<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup> As variantes em <italic>PLN</italic> est&#227;o associadas a formas mais graves de cardiomiopatia, com arritmias malignas, r&#225;pida progress&#227;o para IC avan&#231;ada e necessidade de transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> Entre os genes mencionados, variantes em <italic>TTN</italic> apresentam melhor progn&#243;stico, com menores taxas de arritmias malignas e maior incid&#234;ncia de remodelamento reverso (RR).<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Remodelamento reverso</title>
        <p>A CMD &#233; uma doen&#231;a din&#226;mica, que pode apresentar melhora na FE em resposta ao tratamento, processo conhecido como RR. Essa melhora ocorre em cerca de 40% dos casos.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup> Estudos t&#234;m investigado a rela&#231;&#227;o entre as bases gen&#233;ticas da CMD e o RR, e demonstram que pacientes com gen&#243;tipo positivo apresentam taxas de RR inferiores, especialmente aqueles portadores de variantes desmossomais ( <italic>PKP2, DSG2, DSC2, JUP, DSP</italic> ), variantes relacionadas ao envelope nuclear (LMNA) e variantes em genes sarcom&#233;ricos ( <italic>MYH7, MYBPC3</italic> ).<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Diante disso, o conhecimento da gen&#233;tica dos pacientes pode trazer informa&#231;&#245;es importantes para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e predi&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica na CMD, desencadeando um acompanhamento mais frequente, otimiza&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica e avalia&#231;&#227;o mais precoce para indica&#231;&#227;o de dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular mec&#226;nica ou transplante card&#237;aco, se ocorrer evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica desfavor&#225;vel da IC.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Rastreio familiar e acompanhamento</title>
        <p>Uma vez identificada uma variante patog&#234;nica ou provavelmente patog&#234;nica no caso &#237;ndice, deve-se seguir o rastreamento em cascata dos familiares, conforme tamb&#233;m recomendado pelas principais diretrizes de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> </sup> Tal avalia&#231;&#227;o tem como objetivo identificar familiares sob o risco de desenvolvimento da condi&#231;&#227;o por serem portadores da variante e permite detectar indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a instalada em fase precoce assintom&#225;tica. Em um estudo que identificou variantes patog&#234;nicas ou provavelmente patog&#234;nicas em pacientes transplantados card&#237;acos por CMD, o rastreamento familiar identificou variantes patog&#234;nicas em 39,6% dos familiares, e destes, a maioria (52,6%) n&#227;o tinha fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico em familiares &#233; &#250;til para iniciar o tratamento precoce, evitando a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a e morte s&#250;bita.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> </sup> Os principais dados est&#227;o resumidos na <xref rid="f01" ref-type="fig">figura central</xref> .</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Desafios e Aplica&#231;&#245;es dos Testes Gen&#233;ticos na Cardiomiopatia Dilatada: Gen&#243;tipo, Fen&#243;tipo e Implica&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>ACTC1:actin alpha cardiac muscle 1; BAG3: BAG cochaperone 3; DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid; DES: Desmin; DMD: Distrofin; DSC2: desmocollin 2; DSG2: desmoglein 2; DSP: desmoplakin; EMD: emerin; FLNC: Filamin C; LMNA: Lamin A/C; MYBPC3:myosin binding protein C3; MYH7: myosin heavy chain 7; PLN: phospholamban; RBM20: RNA-binding motif protein-20; SCN5A: sodium voltage-gated channel; alpha subunit 5; TMEM43:transmembrane protein 43; TNNI3:troponin I3; TNNT2: Troponin T; TPM1: Tropomiosin; TTN: Titin.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20230174-30174-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>O teste gen&#233;tico &#233; recomendado em familiares de primeiro grau a partir dos 10-12 anos de idade quando uma variante espec&#237;fica &#233; identificada no caso &#237;ndice.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref> </sup> No entanto, esta idade pode ser individualizada e a testagem antecipada de acordo com a idade de diagn&#243;stico de outros familiares afetados. Nesse caso, a t&#233;cnica de sequenciamento por Sanger pode ser usada, ao inv&#233;s do NGS, pois pesquisa apenas a variante de interesse, economizando tempo e recursos.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A idade &#233; um fator importante para o desenvolvimento das cardiomiopatias,<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> em uma coorte avaliada com variantes truncadas em <italic>TTN</italic> , por exemplo, a penetr&#226;ncia aos 40 anos de idade foi acima de 95%.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> Portanto, a identifica&#231;&#227;o de um familiar com gen&#243;tipo positivo e fen&#243;tipo negativo requer avalia&#231;&#227;o seriada principalmente enquanto estiver na idade de maior risco de desenvolver as altera&#231;&#245;es fenot&#237;picas.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m do teste gen&#233;tico, os familiares tamb&#233;m necessitam de uma consulta cl&#237;nica, com aconselhamento gen&#233;tico, anamnese e exame f&#237;sico, associados a exames complementares, como ecocardiograma, eletrocardiograma<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup> e, se necess&#225;rio, holter e teste de esfor&#231;o. O resultado do teste gen&#233;tico pode, inclusive, determinar a frequ&#234;ncia da avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica no seguimento e necessidade de repeti&#231;&#227;o desses testes.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> A periodicidade da avalia&#231;&#227;o de familiares com gen&#243;tipo positivo e fen&#243;tipo negativo varia conforme a idade e a cardiopatia de interesse. A <italic>Heart Failure Society of America</italic> sugere uma periodicidade para diferentes faixas et&#225;rias conforme a <xref rid="t6" ref-type="table">tabela 6</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tabela 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Periodicidade da avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica em familiar de primeiro grau de caso &#237;ndice, com variante gen&#233;tica relacionada &#224; CMD identificada</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Faixa et&#225;ria</th>
                  <th>0-5 anos</th>
                  <th>6-12 anos</th>
                  <th>13-19 anos</th>
                  <th>20-50 anos</th>
                  <th>&gt;50 anos</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Periodicidade da avalia&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">Anualmente</td>
                  <td align="center">1-2 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">1-3 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">2-3 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">5 anos</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o existem recomenda&#231;&#245;es para iniciar o tratamento medicamentoso em pacientes portadores de variantes gen&#233;ticas e fen&#243;tipo negativo; uma exce&#231;&#227;o &#233; a presen&#231;a de variante na <italic>LMNA</italic> que indica a coloca&#231;&#227;o de CDI mesmo em fases assintom&#225;ticas, na presen&#231;a de outros crit&#233;rios abordados mais adiante.</p>
        <p>Por outro lado, familiares com gen&#243;tipo negativo tem baixa probabilidade de desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a e n&#227;o tem indica&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o seriada, minimizando o peso de um poss&#237;vel acometimento card&#237;aco futuro.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quando n&#227;o se encontra variante patog&#234;nica ou provavelmente patog&#234;nica no caso &#237;ndice, os familiares de primeiro grau n&#227;o devem realizar o teste gen&#233;tico e tem indica&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica seriada enquanto estiverem em idade de risco de desenvolver o fen&#243;tipo.<sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Permanecem, no entanto, situa&#231;&#245;es desafiadoras, como penetr&#226;ncia incompleta, express&#227;o de fen&#243;tipos diferentes entre membros da mesma fam&#237;lia e a incerteza da fase da vida em que a doen&#231;a se manifestar&#225;.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Terapias direcionadas e recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas</title>
        <p>A presen&#231;a de variantes gen&#233;ticas espec&#237;ficas pode acarretar riscos particulares, havendo, assim, recomenda&#231;&#245;es distintas de tratamento e manejo. Esse &#233; o caso das variantes associadas &#224;s arritmias malignas, que permitem uma avalia&#231;&#227;o individualizada da indica&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria do CDI. Por muitos anos, a indica&#231;&#227;o do CDI como profilaxia prim&#225;ria na CMD levava em considera&#231;&#227;o a FE e classe funcional, sendo recomendado apenas para pacientes com FE&lt;35%, sintomas e expectativa de vida maior que 1 ano. No entanto, estudos demonstram que pacientes com gen&#243;tipos espec&#237;ficos se beneficiariam do CDI prim&#225;rio, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular grave.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> A <italic>Heart Rhythm Society</italic> sugere a indica&#231;&#227;o do CDI para portadores de variantes patog&#234;nicas no gene <italic>LMNA</italic> (muta&#231;&#227;o <italic>non-missense</italic> ), na presen&#231;a de dois ou mais dos seguintes fatores: FE &lt;45% na primeira avalia&#231;&#227;o, taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada (TVNS) e sexo masculino (grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o classe IIa &#8211; benef&#237;cio &#233; maior que o risco; mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios; tratamento &#233; razo&#225;vel).<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o de variantes gen&#233;ticas e sua influ&#234;ncia no n&#237;vel proteico possibilita a compreens&#227;o dos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos espec&#237;ficos e abre oportunidades para o desenvolvimento de terapias direcionadas. Na CMD por <italic>LMNA</italic> , por exemplo, estudos em animais mostraram que h&#225; ativa&#231;&#227;o aumentada da p38 MAP quinase. O uso de um inibidor da p38 MAP quinase (ARRY-371797) inibiu esse efeito e preveniu a dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular.<sup><xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref></sup> Essa droga atualmente est&#225; em avalia&#231;&#227;o em um estudo randomizado de fase 3 (NCT 03439514) para CMD por <italic>LMNA.</italic> <sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, novas t&#233;cnicas de edi&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica, como CRISPR/CAS9 ( <italic>clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats</italic> ), mostram-se alternativas terap&#234;uticas promissoras.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> , <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Em pacientes com variantes patog&#234;nicas em genes desmossomais foi comprovado o papel da atividade f&#237;sica no desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a e na ocorr&#234;ncia arritmias malignas. Portanto, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o atual &#233; a absten&#231;&#227;o de atividade f&#237;sica competitiva ou de alta intensidade nesses pacientes.<sup><xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">36</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A realidade brasileira</title>
        <p>Atualmente no Brasil, os testes n&#227;o s&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para todos, com maiores dificuldades de uso no Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de. As principais dificuldades enfrentadas para incorpora&#231;&#227;o de tais recursos na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica s&#227;o a escassez de profissionais capacitados, falta de forma&#231;&#227;o na &#225;rea dentro dos programas de resid&#234;ncia m&#233;dica em cardiologia e a dificuldade de financiamento.<sup><xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref></sup> Por&#233;m, cabe lembrar que a aplica&#231;&#227;o da abordagem de testagem gen&#233;tica e rastreamento familiar mostrou-se custo-efetiva e tem o potencial de tornar o sistema p&#250;blico de sa&#250;de muito mais proativo e n&#227;o apenas reativo.<sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref></sup> Ressaltamos a experi&#234;ncia nacional com iniciativas patrocinadas pelo Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de brasileiro, no &#226;mbito do SUS, que buscam uma maior compreens&#227;o das cardiopatias heredit&#225;rias, como a Rede Nacional de Gen&#244;mica Cardiovascular (RENOMICA) e o Centro de Medicina de Precis&#227;o em Cardiologia (Cardiogen), financiados pelos projetos Genomas Brasil e Mapa Genoma Brasil.<sup><xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref> - <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica na CMD &#233; fundamental por proporcionar informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas ao probando e oportunidades de diagn&#243;stico e tratamento precoces em familiares, al&#233;m de guiar a indica&#231;&#227;o de interven&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas. O adequado conhecimento da indica&#231;&#227;o e interpreta&#231;&#227;o pelos m&#233;dicos cardiologistas &#233; fundamental para o uso efetivo desta t&#233;cnica. A redu&#231;&#227;o de custos e o consequente aumento da disponibilidade dos testes, proporcionou que a gen&#233;tica cardiovascular se fa&#231;a cada vez mais presente na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Perspectivas futuras incluem estudos que refinem a avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica na CMD, bem como o desenvolvimento de terapias-alvo.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Challenges and Applications of Genetic Testing in Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Genotype, Phenotype and Clinical Implications</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8727-0940</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Furquim</surname>
            <given-names>Silas Ramos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Linnenkamp</surname>
            <given-names>Bianca</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1061-8982</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Olivetti</surname>
            <given-names>Nat&#225;lia Quintella Sangiorgi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Giugni</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Rabioglio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lipari</surname>
            <given-names>Layara Fernanda Vicente Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2612-8040</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Andrade</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Silas Ramos Furquim &#8226; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. Postal Code 05403-900, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: silasfurquim@hotmail.com</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor responsible for the review: Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Genetic tests for dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) have a diagnostic yield of up to 40%, but there is significant genetic heterogeneity and other challenges, such as variable expressivity and incomplete penetrance. Pedigree analysis is essential for distinguishing between sporadic and familial DCM cases by assessing family history. Familial DCM yields higher results in genetic testing, but sporadic DCM does not rule out the possibility of a genetic cause. Some genes have specific phenotypes, with the Lamin gene ( <italic>LMNA</italic> ) being associated with a phenotype of malignant arrhythmias and advanced heart failure (HF). The presence of a causal genetic variant can also aid in prognostic evaluation, identifying more severe cases with lower rates of reverse remodeling (RR) compared to individuals with a negative genotype. Current guidelines recommend genetic evaluation and counseling for individuals with DCM, along with cascade screening in first-degree relatives in cases where one or more variants are identified, offering an opportunity for early diagnosis and treatment. Relatives with a positive genotype and negative phenotype are candidates for serial evaluation, with frequency varying by age. Genotype also assists in individualized recommendations for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) placement and advice regarding physical activity and family planning. Ongoing studies are progressively elucidating the details of genotype/phenotype relationships for a large number of variants, making molecular genetics increasingly integrated into clinical practice.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiomyopathy, Dilated</kwd>
        <kwd>Genetics</kwd>
        <kwd>Genetic Testing</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01001">
          <label>Central Illustration</label>
          <caption>
            <title>: Challenges and Applications of Genetic Testing in Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Genotype, Phenotype and Clinical Implications</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>ACTC1:actin alpha cardiac muscle 1; BAG3: BAG cochaperone 3; DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid; DES: Desmin; DMD: Distrofin; DSC2: desmocollin 2; DSG2: desmoglein 2; DSP: desmoplakin; EMD: emerin; FLNC: Filamin C; LMNA: Lamin A/C; MYBPC3:myosin binding protein C3; MYH7: myosin heavy chain 7; PLN: phospholamban; RBM20: RNA-binding motif protein-20; SCN5A: sodium voltage-gated channel; alpha subunit 5; TMEM43:transmembrane protein 43; TNNI3:troponin I3; TNNT2: Troponin T; TPM1: Tropomiosin; TTN: Titin.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20230174-30174-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a condition characterized by the enlargement of the left ventricle (LV) and reduced ejection fraction (EF) in the absence of secondary causes, such as myocardial ischemia, arterial hypertension, primary valve disease, or congenital heart diseases.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref> - <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> </sup>DCM is relatively common, with a prevalence ranging from 1/250 to 1/500 in the general population,<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref> </sup>and it is the leading cause of heart transplantation worldwide.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup>When the etiology of DCM is not well established, investigating a genetic cause becomes relevant. In up to 40% of DCM patients, a pathogenic or likely pathogenic genetic variant that could explain the cardiac phenotype is found. This highlights the importance of genetic testing in this population. However, interpreting genetic test results in DCM can be challenging, considering the wide variety of involved genes, incomplete genetic penetrance in the clinical phenotype, and significant heterogeneity in variant expression within the clinical presentation.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref> </sup>Most genes associated with DCM do not exclusively cause this phenotype and are related to other cardiac diseases, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, or channelopathies, leading to overlapping phenotypes.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref> , <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> , <xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> </sup>Identifying a pathogenic variant related to DCM is crucial for supporting the diagnosis, refining prognostic assessment, and, in cases of positive tests in asymptomatic patients, enabling clinical screening, early diagnosis, and treatment. Determining the most appropriate genetic testing method to request, accurately interpreting the identified variants, and understanding the practical implications of the results are current challenges in Precision Medicine in Cardiology. This review will address these aspects in light of recent publications in the field.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Definition of sporadic and familial DCM</title>
          <p>Familial DCM is defined when two or more family members meet the criteria for DCM or when the index case with DCM has a first-degree relative who experienced sudden death younger than 35 years old or has confirmed DCM through autopsy.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> </sup>When DCM is familial, the probability of finding a pathogenic genetic variant associated with the phenotype is higher, and therefore, the genetic testing yield is greater. However, even in cases of apparently sporadic DCM (without an evident family history), the possibility of a genetic cause is not ruled out, considering the potential for <italic>de novo</italic> mutations.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> , <xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> </sup>The 2022 guidelines from the American Heart Association (AHA) / American College of Cardiology (ACC) recommend evaluating the family history of at least three generations, ideally as a human pedigree.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup>Basic steps for constructing a pedigree can be found in <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref> and <xref rid="f02001" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref> .</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Main information and rules required to construct the pedigree</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Identify the name of the proband (patient under evaluation), date of birth, age of the proband during assessment, and date of evaluation.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Build the pedigree with information from at least three generations from the proband and include the proband's first-degree relatives (parents, siblings, and offspring) and second-degree relatives (grandparents, uncles and aunts, nephews and nieces and grandchildren).</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Indicate the proband's place of origin and family ancestry, in addition to asking whether there is known consanguinity in the family. Consanguinity is not always known; however, this possibility should be suspected when the parents are from a city with few inhabitants.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Identify known diseases and other findings through captions.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Position older individuals to the left and younger individuals to the right.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Indicate the age and cause of death of deceased individuals.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Number generations using Roman numerals to facilitate the identification of individuals in the family.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Signal individuals who have undergone genetic testing and indicate the result.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Universal symbols utilized to build a pedigree. Adapted from Kim et al. <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr"><sup>43</sup></xref> </title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20230174-30174-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>When to perform genetic testing</title>
          <p>The recommendations for genetic testing can be found in the latest guidelines for heart failure from the American Heart Association (AHA), the American College of Cardiology (ACC), the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), and the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (SBC). These guidelines recommend genetic evaluation for patients with DCM, along with genetic counseling.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> </sup>Genetic testing can also be useful in borderline cases, such as discriminating between DCM and peripartum cardiomyopathy or arrhythmogenic left ventricular cardiomyopathy. Genetic testing can also identify differential diagnoses that require specific treatments, such as cardiac amyloidosis, which, in later stages, can present with reduced EF.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup>Additionally, genetic testing is indicated in decisions about interventions, such as placing an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) for primary prevention.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup>It is important to note that genetic testing should be performed on the most affected family member, with a well-defined phenotype, to increase the test yield and subsequently allow cascade family screening.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Which Genetic Test to order</title>
          <p>There is a diversity of genes related to DCM, and a method that simultaneously and rapidly analyzes key involved genes is necessary for efficient evaluation. The emergence of a new sequencing technology called Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) has enabled high-throughput parallel sequencing of multiple genes, making these tests more accessible and allowing their integration into the specialist&#8217;s routine.</p>
          <p>The use of NGS panels for the analysis of pre-selected genes associated with a specific phenotype has revolutionized clinical practice by combining greater speed and efficiency, and it is the recommended method by expert consensus for genetic testing in cardiology.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup>The list of genes should be updated based on scientific knowledge, and it is essential that the chosen NGS panel for investigating DCM includes at least the most frequently associated genes, as presented in <xref rid="t2001" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> , <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Main genes to be sequenced in DCM</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="17%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Gene</th>
                    <th>Frequency</th>
                    <th>Gene</th>
                    <th>Frequency</th>
                    <th>Gene</th>
                    <th>Frequency</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>TTN</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">18-25%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>MYBPC3</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">2%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>DES</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>DSG2</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">4&#8211;15%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>FLNC</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">0&#8211;3%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>TMEM43</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>DSP</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">1-13%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>ACTC1</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>TAZ</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Unknown</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>PLN</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">0&#8211;12%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>LDB3</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>BAG3</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Unknown</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>LMNA</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">6%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>TNNC1</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>RBM20</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Unknown</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>MYH6</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">4%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>TNNI3</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>DSC2</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Unknown</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>MYH7</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">4%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>TNNT2</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>DMD</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Unknown</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <italic>SCN5A</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">0&#8211;2%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>TPM1</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;1%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <italic>EMD</italic>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Unknown</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Broader tests, such as whole-exome sequencing and whole-genome sequencing, also rely on NGS technology and analyze all known genes. However, they come with the disadvantages of higher cost and longer processing time.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref> , <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Genetic Testing Yield in DCM</title>
          <p>The yield of genetic testing for identifying a pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant related to DCM ranges from 15% to 40%,<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup>depending on factors such as a positive family history, the presence of comorbidities, and electrocardiogram (ECG) features.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup>Escobar-Lopez et al. proposed a scoring system to estimate the likelihood of genetic testing positivity, known as the Madrid Score ( <xref rid="t3001" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref> ). This score assesses the presence of skeletal myopathy, family history of DCM, low voltage on the ECG, the absence of hypertension, and the absence of left bundle branch block on the ECG. The presence of four or more of these factors can lead to a genetic testing positivity rate of up to 79% ( <xref rid="f03001" ref-type="fig">Figure 2</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Madrid&#8217;s score. Predictors of positive genetic test in DCM</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" colspan="2" scope="col">Predictors of positive genetic test</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">Skeletal myopathy</td>
                    <td align="center">1 point</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Family history of DCM</td>
                    <td align="center">1 point</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Low voltage ECG</td>
                    <td align="center">1 point</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Absence of hypertension</td>
                    <td align="center">1 point</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Absence of LBBB</td>
                    <td align="center">1 point</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>Score: 0 to 5 points</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <attrib>DCM: dilated cardiomyopathy; ECG: electrocardiogram; LBBB: left bundle branch block. Adapted from Escobar-Lopez L. <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr"><sup>17</sup></xref> </attrib>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Genetic test yield according to the Madrid score category. Adapted from Escobar-Lopez L. <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr"><sup>17</sup></xref> </title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20230174-30174-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Genetic variants interpretation</title>
          <p>It is essential to emphasize that the presence of a genetic variant should be evaluated with great caution. Finding a genetic variant in a cardiomyopathy gene, by itself, is not sufficient to assert causality regarding the clinical phenotype. When conducting a genetic test, even in a healthy population, the presence of genetic variants in genes related to cardiomyopathies is common. It should be considered that these variants may be benign. Therefore, a crucial point is determining the pathogenicity of the variant. To define the pathogenicity of a variant, it is necessary to assess the strength of the association between the gene and cardiomyopathy. This can be supported by a tool that curates this relationship, such as ClinGen (www.clingenome.org), and following the criteria proposed by the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG).<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup>Determining variant pathogenicity is complex and includes various pieces of information, such as the variant&#8217;s frequency in population genetic databases like the Genome Aggregation Database (GnomAD) and the Brazilian Online Archive of Mutations (ABraOM), biochemical characteristics, <italic>in silico</italic> predictions, investigation of previous reports linking the variant to the disease, allelic data, and family segregation data. It is essential to consider the type of mutation (missense, insertion, deletion, nonsense) and the variant&#8217;s effect on the protein (shortening, premature termination, alteration in phosphorylation). Additionally, one should consider whether the described pathogenicity mechanism for that gene aligns with the variant&#8217;s effect on the protein.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Variants can be classified into five categories: class 5 (pathogenic), class 4 (likely pathogenic), class 3 (variants of uncertain significance or VUS), class 2 (likely benign), or class 1 (benign).<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup>Pathogenic variants are considered causal, while likely pathogenic variants have a 90% chance of being causal. Uncertain significance variants (VUS) represent an area of greater uncertainty regarding pathogenicity, which can range from 10% to 90% likelihood of being causal ( <xref rid="t4001" ref-type="table">Table 4</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup>Some strategies for reclassifying a VUS include conducting functional studies that test the variant&#8217;s effect on the protein, assessing family segregation of the variant in first-degree relatives, and conducting periodic literature searches.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup>It is important to note that variant classification is a dynamic process that depends on up-to-date knowledge about the specific variant. Therefore, reclassifications are ongoing, and searching for new information is essential.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t4001">
              <label>Table 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Variant classification according to ACMG criteria</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Classification of pathogenicity</th>
                    <th>class</th>
                    <th>probability</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Benign</td>
                    <td align="center">class 1</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 5%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Likely Benign</td>
                    <td align="center">class 2</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 10%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Variant of uncertain significance (VUS)</td>
                    <td align="center">class 3</td>
                    <td align="center">10 - 90%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Likely Pathogenic</td>
                    <td align="center">class 4</td>
                    <td align="center">&gt; 90%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pathogenic</td>
                    <td align="center">class 5</td>
                    <td align="center">&gt; 95%</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <attrib>ACMG: American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics. Source Richards et al. <xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr"><sup>18</sup></xref> </attrib>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Different Genes Involved in DCM</title>
          <p>Unlike HCM, where 70% of variants are found in <italic>MYH7</italic> and <italic>MYBPC3</italic> genes,<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup>DCM exhibits greater heterogeneity, with over 50 genes with described association with the phenotype.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup>These genes encode proteins that function in various structures of cardiomyocytes ( <xref rid="t5001" ref-type="table">Table 5</xref> ). For example, Lamin A/C ( <italic>LMNA</italic> ) and RNA-binding motif protein-20 ( <italic>RBM20</italic> ) are found in the cell nucleus and are present in 8% of DCM patients.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> </sup>In the sarcoplasmic reticulum, phospholamban ( <italic>PLN</italic> ) is found, and when unphosphorylated, it inhibits the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase ( <italic>SERCA</italic> ).<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> , <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref> </sup>In the cytoskeleton, variants in the Filamin C ( <italic>FLNC</italic> ), desmin ( <italic>DES</italic> ), and dystrophin ( <italic>DMD</italic> ) genes account for approximately 11% of cases.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup>In the sarcomere, there are genes such as <italic>TTN, MYH7, TNNT2, TPM1,</italic> and <italic>MYBPC3.</italic> </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t5001">
              <label>Table 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Description of genes related to DCM, encoded proteins, and the region of the cardiomyocyte where they are found</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Gene</th>
                    <th>Protein</th>
                    <th>Region</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>LMNA</td>
                    <td align="center">Lamin A/C</td>
                    <td align="center">Nuclear envelope</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>RBM20</td>
                    <td align="center">RNA-binding motif protein-20</td>
                    <td align="center">Nucleus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>PLN</td>
                    <td align="center">Phospholamban</td>
                    <td align="center">Sarcoplasmic reticulum</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>FLNC</td>
                    <td align="center">Filamin C</td>
                    <td align="center">Cytoskeleton</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>DES</td>
                    <td align="center">Desmin</td>
                    <td align="center">Cytoskeleton</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>DMD</td>
                    <td align="center">Dystrohin</td>
                    <td align="center">Cytoskeleton</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>TTN</td>
                    <td align="center">Titin</td>
                    <td align="center">Sarcomere</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>MYH7</td>
                    <td align="center">Beta-cardiac/slow skeletal myosin heavy chain</td>
                    <td align="center">Sarcomere</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>TNNT2</td>
                    <td align="center">Troponin T2</td>
                    <td align="center">Sarcomere</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>TPM1</td>
                    <td align="center">Tropomyosin 1</td>
                    <td align="center">Sarcomere</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>MYBPC3</td>
                    <td align="center">Myosin-binding protein C 3</td>
                    <td align="center">Sarcomere</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>SCN5A</td>
                    <td align="center">Sodium channel, voltage-gated, type V, alpha subunit</td>
                    <td align="center">Cell membrane</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>The <italic>TTN</italic> gene, which encodes the titin protein, is the most commonly implicated in DCM, with truncating variants accounting for 25% of familial and 18% of sporadic DCM cases.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup>Variants in the <italic>MYH7, TNNT2,</italic> and <italic>TPM1</italic> genes have a prevalence of 5 to 10%,<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup>and although <italic>MYBPC3</italic> is more specific to HCM, it is also found in DCM.<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref></sup>Additionally, the main sodium channel of the heart, encoded by the <italic>SCN5A</italic> gene, is located in the cell membrane. While variants in this gene are well-described in arrhythmias such as long QT syndrome type 3, and Brugada syndrome, missense variants are also associated with DCM phenotype.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup>The wide array of implicated genes, coupled with significant phenotypic overlap, makes the genetic evaluation of DCM challenging.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical manifestations in specific variants</title>
          <p>The clinical manifestations of specific variants in DCM are highly heterogeneous, meaning the same gene can be responsible for different phenotypes. For instance, variants in the <italic>TNNT2</italic> gene can manifest as hypertrophic, dilated, or restrictive cardiomyopathy. This clinical variation can be explained by epigenetics, which involve interactions between the specific variant, an individual&#8217;s genetics, and external factors such as hypertension, alcoholism, lifestyle, physical exercise, tachycardia, chemotherapy, or inflammation.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Some genes, like <italic>PLN, FLNC,</italic> and <italic>LMNA</italic> , are more directly associated with aggressive phenotypes, such as a higher risk for ventricular arrhythmias, sudden death, and a worse prognosis. The <italic>LMNA</italic> gene is particularly linked to a specific phenotype, currently referred to as laminopathy, characterized by early-onset left ventricular dysfunction (around 30 to 40 years of age), early-onset conduction disorders (like complete atrioventricular block), atrial fibrillation in young individuals, complex ventricular arrhythmias, and high risk of sudden cardiac death, even in the absence of left ventricular dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref> , <xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref> </sup>As a result of this association, there are specific recommendations for competitive sports restriction and primary prophylaxis with an ICD in this population.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Additionally, pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants in desmosomal genes, such as desmoplakin ( <italic>DSP</italic> ), were initially linked to arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, but new evidence also demonstrates an association with the DCM phenotype.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup>Along with the <italic>FLNC</italic> and <italic>LMNA</italic> genes, they are the main causes of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy in the predominantly left ventricular form, characterized by life-threatening arrhythmias that occur at an earlier stage, disproportionate to the degree of left ventricular dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The <italic>TTN</italic> gene encodes the titin protein, which is important for the passive elasticity of myocardial tissue. Loss-of-function variants in this gene play a well-established role in DCM pathogenesis, while missense variants are common and mostly considered benign.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Finally, the <italic>DMD</italic> gene, related to muscular dystrophies, is associated with a typical clinical manifestation of progressive muscle weakness. The incidence of cardiomyopathy increases with age, especially in males, being over 90% by the age of 18. The ECG shows a classic pattern with tall R waves and increased R/S amplitude in V1, Q waves in left precordial leads, right-axis deviation, or complete right bundle branch block.<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prognostic impact of genetic testing</title>
          <p>Patients with DCM and pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants have worse clinical outcomes, especially regarding the risk of malignant arrhythmias and advanced heart failure, compared to DCM patients with a negative genotype. The risk is particularly higher in those with EF &#8804; 35%.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup>However, there are variations among the affected genes; <italic>PLN, LMNA</italic> , and <italic>FLNC</italic> carry a higher risk of malignant arrhythmias, even with EF &gt; 35%.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup>Patients with laminopathies have a mortality rate of approximately 12% in 4 years and a higher need for heart transplantation by the age of 45.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref> </sup>Variants in <italic>FLNC</italic> are associated with a high risk of malignant ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death, with rates of 15-20% for ventricular arrhythmias or sudden death in 5 years follow-up and 6% mortality rate.<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup> <italic>PLN</italic> variants are linked to more severe forms of cardiomyopathy, with malignant arrhythmias, rapid progression to advanced heart failure, and need for heart transplantation.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup>Among the mentioned genes, variants in <italic>TTN</italic> show better prognosis, with lower rates of malignant arrhythmias and higher incidence of RR.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Reverse remodeling</title>
          <p>DCM is a dynamic disease that can show an improvement in EF in response to treatment, a process known as RR. This improvement occurs in approximately 40% of cases.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup>Studies have investigated the relationship between the genetic basis of DCM and RR, demonstrating that patients with a positive genotype have lower RR rates, especially those carrying desmosomal variants ( <italic>PKP2, DSG2, DSC2, JUP, DSP</italic> ), variants related to the nuclear envelope ( <italic>LMNA</italic> ), and variants in sarcomeric genes ( <italic>MYH7, MYBPC3</italic> ).<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Therefore, knowing patients&#8217; genotypes can provide important information on risk stratification and prognostic prediction in DCM, leading to more frequent monitoring, optimization of therapy, and earlier evaluation for mechanical ventricular assist devices or heart transplantation if there is an unfavorable clinical progression of heart failure.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Family screening and follow-up</title>
          <p>Once a pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant is identified in the index case, cascade screening of family members should be performed, as recommended by the major heart failure guidelines.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> </sup>This assessment aims to identify relatives at risk of developing the condition carrying the variant and allows for detecting individuals with early asymptomatic disease. In a study that identified pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants in heart transplant patients with DCM, family screening described pathogenic variants in 39.6% of the relatives, and most of these (52.6%) did not show clinical signs of the disease.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup>Diagnosing relatives is useful for initiating early treatment and preventing disease progression and sudden death.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> , <xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> </sup>Key data are summarized in the central figure.</p>
          <p>Genetic testing is recommended in first-degree relatives aged 10 to 12 years when a specific variant is identified in the index case.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref> </sup>In this case, Sanger sequencing can be used instead of NGS, targeting only the variant of interest, saving time and resources.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Age is an important factor in the development of cardiomyopathies;<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup>in a cohort evaluated with truncating variants in <italic>TTN</italic> , for example, penetrance at the age of 40 was over 95%.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup>Therefore, identifying a genotype-positive relative with a negative phenotype requires serial evaluation, especially while they are at ages with greatest risk for developing the phenotype.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>In addition to genetic testing, relatives also need a clinical consultation with genetic counseling, medical history, and physical examination, along with complementary tests such as echocardiography, ECG, and, if necessary, Holter monitoring and stress testing.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup>The result of genetic testing can even determine the frequency of clinical follow-up and the need for repeating these tests.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup>The frequency of evaluation of family members with a positive genotype and a negative phenotype varies depending on age and the heart disease of interest. The Heart Failure Society of America suggests different intervals for various age groups, as outlined in <xref rid="t6001" ref-type="table">Table 6</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t6001">
              <label>Table 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Periodicity of clinical evaluation in a first-degree relative of an index case, with a genetic variant related to DCM identified</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="17%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Age</th>
                    <th>0-5 years</th>
                    <th>6-12 years</th>
                    <th>13-19 years</th>
                    <th>20-50 years</th>
                    <th>&gt;50 years</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Periodicity of clinical evaluation</td>
                    <td align="center">Yearly</td>
                    <td align="center">1-2 years</td>
                    <td align="center">1-3 years</td>
                    <td align="center">2-3 years</td>
                    <td align="center">5 years</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>There are no recommendations to start pharmacological treatment in patients with genetic variants and negative phenotype; an exception is the presence of a variant in <italic>LMNA</italic> , which indicates ICD placement even in asymptomatic phases, in the presence of other criteria discussed ahead.</p>
          <p>On the other hand, relatives with a negative genotype have a low probability of developing the disease and do not require serial assessment, minimizing the burden of potential future cardiac involvement.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>When a pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant is not found in the index case, first-degree relatives should not undergo genetic testing and should be referred for serial clinical evaluation while they are at risk of developing the phenotype, according to their age.<sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Challenging situations persist, such as incomplete penetrance, expression of different phenotypes among family members, and uncertainty about when the disease will manifest.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Targeted therapies and specific recommendations</title>
          <p>The presence of specific genetic variants can entail particular risks, leading to distinct treatment and management recommendations. This is the case for variants associated with malignant arrhythmias, which allow for an individualized assessment of primary ICD indication. For many years, the indication for primary ICD in DCM considered the EF and the functional class, being recommended only for patients with EF &lt;35%, symptomatic, and with life expectancy greater than 1 year. However, studies demonstrate that patients with specific genotypes would benefit from primary ICD, even without severe ventricular dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup>The Heart Rhythm Society suggests ICD placement for carriers of pathogenic variants in the <italic>LMNA</italic> gene (non-missense mutation) in the presence of two or more of the following factors: EF &lt;45% on initial evaluation, nonsustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT), and male sex (Class IIa recommendation &#8211; the benefit is greater than risk; more studies are needed; treatment is reasonable).<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Identifying genetic variants and their influence on the protein level allows for understanding specific pathophysiological mechanisms and opens up opportunities for developing targeted therapies. In <italic>LMNA</italic> -related DCM, for example, animal studies have shown increased activation of p38 MAP kinase. Using a p38 MAP kinase inhibitor (ARRY-371797) inhibited this effect and prevented ventricular dilation.<sup><xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref></sup>This drug is currently being evaluated in a phase 3 randomized study (NCT 03439514) for <italic>LMNA</italic> -related DCM.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Furthermore, new gene-editing techniques such as CRISPR/CAS9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) are promising therapeutic alternatives.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> , <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>In patients with pathogenic variants in desmosomal genes, the role of physical activity in the development and progression of the disease and in the occurrence of malignant arrhythmias has been proven. Therefore, the current recommendation is to abstain from competitive or high-intensity physical activity in these patients.<sup><xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">36</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>The brazilian reality</title>
          <p>Currently, genetic tests are not widely available in Brazil, with greater difficulties in accessing them through the public health system (Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de - SUS). The main challenges faced in incorporating such resources into clinical practice are the shortage of qualified professionals, lack of training in the field within cardiology residency programs, and funding difficulties.<sup><xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref></sup>However, it is worth noting that the application of genetic testing and family screening approaches has shown cost-effectiveness and has the potential to make the public health system more proactive rather than reactive.<sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref></sup>We highlight the national experience with initiatives sponsored by the Brazilian Ministry of Health, under the SUS, aimed at a better understanding of hereditary heart diseases, such as the National Cardiovascular Genomics Network (Rede Nacional de Gen&#244;mica Cardiovascular or RENOMICA) and the Center for Precision Medicine in Cardiology (Cardiogen), funded by the <italic>Genomas Brasil</italic> and <italic>Mapa Genoma Brasil</italic> projects.<sup><xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref> - <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Genetic assessment in DCM is crucial for providing prognostic information to the proband and opportunities for early diagnosis and treatment in family members, as well as guiding specific interventions. Adequate knowledge of indications and interpretation by cardiologists is essential for the effective use of this technique. The reduction in costs and the consequent increase in test availability have made cardiovascular genetics increasingly present in clinical practice. Future prospects include studies that refine diagnostic and prognostic evaluation in DCM, as well as the development of targeted therapies.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
