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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">NFJWgk3gfRkfJNhkV83StJs</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023001000308</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00308</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220750</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>O Pr&#233;-Condicionamento com Dexmedetomidina Atenua a Les&#227;o de Isquemia/Reperfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica em Ratos, Suprimindo a Mitofagia Via Ativa&#231;&#227;o do Receptor &#913;2-Adren&#233;rgico</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5959-1851</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Chen</surname>
            <given-names>YaHua</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chen</surname>
            <given-names>Hui</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chen</surname>
            <given-names>YuJiao</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yang</surname>
            <given-names>ZaiQun</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zhou</surname>
            <given-names>Tao</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Xu</surname>
            <given-names>Wei</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Guizhou Aerospace Hospital</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Zunyi</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Guizhou</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CN">China</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Guizhou Aerospace Hospital, Zunyi, Guizhou &#8211; China</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Zunyi Medical University</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Zunyi</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Guizhou</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CN">China</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou &#8211; China</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">North Sichuan Medical College</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">NanChong</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Sichuan</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CN">China</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, NanChong, Sichuan &#8211; China</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">People&#8217;s Hospital of Qiandongnan Miao</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Dong Autonomous Prefecture</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Qiandongnan</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Guizhou</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CN">China</country>
        <institution content-type="original">People&#8217;s Hospital of Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Qiandongnan, Guizhou &#8211; China</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Hui Chen &#8226; Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, No.149 Dalian road, Zunyi 563000, Guizhou, China E-mail: <email>chenhui522524@163.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o: Marina Okoshi</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>10</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220750</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>20</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <title>Figura Central</title>
        <p>
          <fig>
            <caption>
              <title>: O Pr&#233;-Condicionamento com Dexmedetomidina Atenua a Les&#227;o de Isquemia/Reperfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica em Ratos, Suprimindo a Mitofagia Via Ativa&#231;&#227;o do Receptor &#913;2-Adren&#233;rgico</title>
            </caption>
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              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/NFJWgk3gfRkfJNhkV83StJs/d6c5e08eb3d53abc6a3e615371e9d9e458d5ad38.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/NFJWgk3gfRkfJNhkV83StJs/25e588b2b63174b5bd2f192d7bd760f6a21c7cd5.jpg" specific-use="scielo-web" content-type="scielo-267x140"/>
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          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> A dexmedetomidina (DEX), um agonista espec&#237;fico do receptor &#945;2-adren&#233;rgico, &#233; protetora contra les&#227;o de isquemia/reperfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (I/R). No entanto, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo pr&#233;-condicionamento DEX e a supress&#227;o da mitofagia permanece pouco clara.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo</title>
          <p> Portanto, nosso objetivo foi investigar se o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX alivia a I/R, suprimindo a mitofagia via ativa&#231;&#227;o do receptor &#945;2-adren&#233;rgico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todo</title>
          <p> Sessenta cora&#231;&#245;es de ratos isolados foram tratados com ou sem DEX antes de induzir isquemia e reperfus&#227;o; um antagonista do receptor &#945;2-adren&#233;rgico, a ioimbina (YOH), tamb&#233;m foi administrado antes da isquemia, isoladamente ou com DEX. A frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), press&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE), press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDFVE), taxa m&#225;xima e m&#237;nima de desenvolvimento da press&#227;o ventricular esquerda (&#177;dp/dtmax) e tamanho do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio foram medidos. A ultraestrutura mitocondrial e as autofagossomas foram avaliadas por microscopia eletr&#244;nica de transmiss&#227;o. O potencial de membrana mitocondrial e os n&#237;veis de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS) foram medidos usando os ensaios JC-1 e diacetato de diclorodi hidrofluoresce&#237;na, respectivamente. Os n&#237;veis de express&#227;o das prote&#237;nas associadas &#224; mitofagia Beclin1, rela&#231;&#227;o LC3II/I, p62, PINK1 e Parkin foram detectados por western blotting.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle, no grupo isquemia/reperfus&#227;o, a FC, PDVE e &#177;dp/dtmax foram notavelmente diminu&#237;das (p&lt;0,05), enquanto os tamanhos da PDFVE e do infarto aumentaram significativamente (p&lt;0,05). O pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX melhorou significativamente a disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, reduziu o tamanho do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, manteve a integridade estrutural mitocondrial, aumentou o potencial de membrana mitocondrial, inibiu a forma&#231;&#227;o de autofagossomas e diminuiu a produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS e a rela&#231;&#227;o Beclin1, rela&#231;&#227;o LC3II/I, express&#227;o PINK1, Parkin e p62(p&lt;0,05). Quando DEX e YOH foram combinados, o YOH cancelou o efeito da DEX, enquanto o uso de YOH sozinha n&#227;o teve efeito.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> Portanto, o pr&#233;-condicionamento DEX foi cardioprotetor contra I/R em ratos, suprimindo a mitofagia por meio da ativa&#231;&#227;o do receptor &#945;2-adren&#233;rgico.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Dexmedetomidina</kwd>
        <kwd>Traumatismo por Reperfus&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Ratos</kwd>
        <kwd>Mitofagia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Science and Technology Planning Project of Zunyi</funding-source>
          <award-id>[2018]94</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>Fontes de financiamento</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="12"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="41"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O infarto do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; um grande problema de sa&#250;de associado a alta morbidade e mortalidade em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>A melhor maneira de restaurar o mioc&#225;rdio isqu&#234;mico &#233; a reperfus&#227;o precoce para restaurar o fluxo sangu&#237;neo e o suprimento de oxig&#234;nio &#224; art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria oclu&#237;da.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>No entanto, al&#233;m de reduzir a les&#227;o isqu&#234;mica e limitar o tamanho do infarto, a reperfus&#227;o tamb&#233;m pode causar independentemente uma les&#227;o adicional chamada &#8220;les&#227;o de reperfus&#227;o&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>Estudos experimentais sugeriram que uma les&#227;o de reperfus&#227;o leva &#224; perda da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e &#224; morte das c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas e contribui para at&#233; 50% do tamanho final do infarto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>Atualmente, nenhuma interven&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica ou farmacol&#243;gica eficaz est&#225; dispon&#237;vel para reduzir a les&#227;o de isquemia/reperfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (I/R). Os mecanismos da I/R envolvem principalmente sobrecarga de c&#225;lcio, resposta inflamat&#243;ria, estresse oxidativo, apoptose, disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial e mitofagia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> entre os quais a mitofagia desempenha um papel vital.</p>
      <p>A autofagia &#233; um processo de degrada&#231;&#227;o relacionado ao lisossoma altamente conservado, ativado por hipoxemia, estresse oxidativo e organelas ou prote&#237;nas danificadas. &#201; uma fun&#231;&#227;o de manuten&#231;&#227;o celular que remove organelas danificadas, incluindo as mitoc&#244;ndrias, e mant&#233;m a sobreviv&#234;ncia celular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup>A mitofagia, um tipo de autofagia seletiva, degrada mitoc&#244;ndrias disfuncionais para manter uma rede mitocondrial normal e funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup>As mitoc&#244;ndrias s&#227;o vulner&#225;veis &#224; les&#227;o de isquemia/reperfus&#227;o (I/R), e as mitoc&#244;ndrias danificadas s&#227;o um elemento fisiopatol&#243;gico do I/R.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup>Al&#233;m disso, os cardiomi&#243;citos s&#227;o altamente dependentes da energia produzida pelas mitoc&#244;ndrias e s&#227;o mais sens&#237;veis ao dano mitocondrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup>Assim, mais aten&#231;&#227;o est&#225; sendo dada &#224; mitofagia devido &#224; sua estreita correla&#231;&#227;o com o controle da quantidade e fun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial durante a I/R. No entanto, a mitofagia pode ser excessivamente ativada ap&#243;s a reperfus&#227;o, resultando em diminui&#231;&#227;o da massa mitocondrial e agravamento da les&#227;o card&#237;aca. Portanto, permanece controverso se a ativa&#231;&#227;o da mitofagia &#233; protetora ou prejudicial durante a I/R.</p>
      <p>Dexmedetomidina (DEX), um agonista seletivo do adrenoceptor &#945;2 (AR), &#233; amplamente utilizado em anestesia cir&#250;rgica e unidades de terapia intensiva devido ao seu efeito sedativo e &#224; aus&#234;ncia de depress&#227;o respirat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup>Estudos anteriores sugeriram que o tratamento com DEX melhora os resultados card&#237;acos ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> e reduz as taxas de mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria e complica&#231;&#245;es ap&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca humana. Estudos em animais tamb&#233;m demonstraram que o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX protege contra les&#245;es de I/R, reduzindo a incid&#234;ncia de arritmias ventriculares e a &#225;rea de infarto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>Os atuais mecanismos moleculares da DEX t&#234;m se concentrado na inibi&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo, na redu&#231;&#227;o da apoptose e na resposta inflamat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> No entanto, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre DEX e mitofagia n&#227;o est&#225; totalmente elucidada na I/R. Dada a import&#226;ncia da mitofagia na I/R, levantamos a hip&#243;tese de que o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX poderia suprimir a mitofagia ap&#243;s I/R em ratos, ativando os receptores &#945;2-adren&#233;rgicos.</p>
      <p>Para testar nossa hip&#243;tese, estudamos 1) se o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX &#233; cardioprotetor em um modelo animal de les&#227;o I/R induzida pelo sistema de perfus&#227;o Langendorff e 2) se o efeito protetor &#233; exercido por meio da supress&#227;o da mitofagia via a ativa&#231;&#227;o de receptores &#945;2-adren&#233;rgicos.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Animais</title>
        <p>Nosso estudo aderiu &#224;s regras de pesquisa animal, revisadas e aprovadas por um comit&#234; aprovado institucionalmente. Ratos Sprague-Dawley machos foram aprovados pelo Laboratory Animal Center da Tianjin Biological Company, Changsha, China (n&#250;mero do certificado: SYXK2019-0014). Todos os animais foram mantidos sob um ciclo claro/escuro de 12 horas a 22&#176;C e receberam comida e &#225;gua suficientes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Modelo de I/R mioc&#225;rdica</title>
        <p>Os ratos foram anestesiados com pentobarbital via inje&#231;&#227;o intraperitoneal (45 mg/kg). Posteriormente foi realizada toracotomia. Quando o cora&#231;&#227;o foi exposto e a aorta cortada, o cora&#231;&#227;o foi imediatamente isolado e imerso em solu&#231;&#227;o nutritiva card&#237;aca gelada Krebs-Henseleit (KH) (NaCl, 119 mM; CaCl2, 1,24 mM; KCl, 6,0 mM; KH2PO4, NaHCO3, 20,1 mM; 1,24 mM; MgSO4, 1,24 mM; glicose, 11,2 mM). Foi ent&#227;o fixado no equipamento de perfus&#227;o Langendorff e perfundido com solu&#231;&#227;o de KH mantida a uma press&#227;o constante de 75&#8211;80 mmHg a 37&#176;C. Um bal&#227;o de l&#225;tex cheio de &#225;gua foi colocado no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo atrav&#233;s da v&#225;lvula mitral, e a outra extremidade do bal&#227;o foi conectada a um transdutor de press&#227;o para monitorar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, incluindo frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), press&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDVE), press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PDFVE), e a taxa m&#225;xima e m&#237;nima de desenvolvimento da press&#227;o ventricular esquerda (&#177;dp/dtmax).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Grupos experimentais</title>
        <p>Ap&#243;s um equil&#237;brio de 15 minutos, se o n&#237;vel de PDVE e FC foram &gt;80 mmHg e &gt; 200 batimentos/min, respectivamente, os cora&#231;&#245;es foram alocados aleatoriamente em cinco grupos (n = 12/grupo) por meio de uma randomiza&#231;&#227;o em envelope lacrado: o grupo controle (perfundido com solu&#231;&#227;o de KH por 190 min), o grupo isquemia/reperfus&#227;o (I/R) (perfundido com solu&#231;&#227;o de KH por 30 min seguido de 40 min de isquemia global e posterior reperfus&#227;o com solu&#231;&#227;o de KH por 120 min), o grupo DEX (pr&#233;-condicionado com DEX 10nM por 30 min seguido de I/R), o grupo Ioimbina (YOH) (pr&#233;-condicionado com 1&#956;M YOH por 30 min seguido de I/R), e o Grupo DEX + YOH (pr&#233;-condicionado com 10nM DEX + 1&#956;M YOH por 30min seguido por I/R). Doses de DEX e YOH foram usadas conforme relatado anteriormente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura1A</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Protocolo experimental para o cora&#231;&#227;o de rato perfundido por Langendorff. Ap&#243;s um equil&#237;brio de perfus&#227;o de 15 minutos, os cora&#231;&#245;es foram perfundidos durante 30 minutos adicionais e submetidos a 40 minutos de isquemia seguidos de 120 minutos de reperfus&#227;o. I/R: grupo isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; DEX: grupo Dexmedetomidina; YOH: grupo ioimbina.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Colora&#231;&#227;o com cloreto de 2,3,5-trifeniltetraz&#243;lio (TTC)</title>
        <p>A &#225;rea do infarto foi avaliada pela colora&#231;&#227;o TTC. O cora&#231;&#227;o foi colhido e congelado a -20&#176;C ao final da reperfus&#227;o. Depois disso, todo o cora&#231;&#227;o foi cortado em cinco se&#231;&#245;es iguais de cima para baixo e posteriormente incubado com TTC a 1% (Proteintech Group, Wuhan, China) por 30 min a 37&#176;C no escuro. Finalmente, os cora&#231;&#245;es foram fixados com formalde&#237;do a 10% por 24 horas. As &#225;reas n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas foram coradas de vermelho e as &#225;reas infartadas foram coradas de branco. As &#225;reas infartadas e normais foram fotografadas utilizando Image-Pro Plus 6.0. O tamanho do infarto foi calculado como uma porcentagem da &#225;rea mioc&#225;rdica total.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Microscopia eletr&#244;nica de transmiss&#227;o (MET)</title>
        <p>O ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foi removido, cortado em formato de cubo de 1&#215;1&#215;1mm, rapidamente fixado com glutaralde&#237;do a 2,5% por 24 horas e depois fixado com &#243;smio a 1% em temperatura ambiente por 2 horas. Posteriormente, o tecido foi lavado com solu&#231;&#227;o salina tamponada com fosfato (PBS), desidratado em um gradiente de acetona e incorporado em uma mistura de resina ep&#243;xi. O tecido foi cortado em 50 fatias de nm de espessura usando um micr&#243;tomo manual Leica e depois duplamente corado com ur&#226;nio e chumbo. A ultraestrutura e as autofagossomas no tecido mioc&#225;rdico foram observadas e fotografadas usando um MET.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Potencial de membrana mitocondrial (MMP)</title>
        <p>As mitoc&#244;ndrias foram extra&#237;das do tecido ventricular esquerdo utilizando um Kit de Isolamento de Mitoc&#244;ndrias de Tecido (Solarbio, Pequim, China) de acordo com as instru&#231;&#245;es do fabricante. Posteriormente, as mitoc&#244;ndrias foram marcadas com JC-1 (Solarbio, Pequim, China), uma sonda fluorescente sens&#237;vel. A fluoresc&#234;ncia JC-1 foi detectada por microscopia de fluoresc&#234;ncia. Mitoc&#244;ndrias normais com alto potencial apresentaram fluoresc&#234;ncia vermelha, enquanto mitoc&#244;ndrias com baixo potencial exibiram fluoresc&#234;ncia verde. Mudan&#231;as na despolariza&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial foram refletidas na propor&#231;&#227;o das intensidades de fluoresc&#234;ncia vermelha/verde.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Produ&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio mitocondriais (ROS)</title>
        <p>Para avaliar a produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS, tecidos ventriculares esquerdos frescos e congelados foram incubados com solu&#231;&#227;o de trabalho de diacetato de diclorodi hidrofluoresce&#237;na (DCFH-DA) (Servicebio, Wuhan, China) em PBS no escuro por 30 min a 37&#176;C.</p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s tr&#234;s lavagens com PBS, as se&#231;&#245;es foram continuamente incubadas com uma solu&#231;&#227;o corante 4&#8217;,6-diamido-2-fenilindol (Servicebio, Wuhan, China) e seladas com um comprimido anti-fluoresc&#234;ncia. As se&#231;&#245;es foram ent&#227;o observadas e analisadas usando um microsc&#243;pio de fluoresc&#234;ncia.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Western blotting</title>
        <p>O tecido card&#237;aco foi lisado com tamp&#227;o de lisado proteico e o sobrenadante foi coletado. As concentra&#231;&#245;es de prote&#237;na foram medidas usando o ensaio de prote&#237;na do &#225;cido bicincon&#237;nico (Servicebio, G2026). As amostras foram separadas por eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida com dodecil-sulfato de s&#243;dio a 10% e transferidas para uma membrana de fluoreto de polivinilideno. Depois disso, a membrana foi bloqueada com leite desnatado a 5% por 30 min em temperatura ambiente e posteriormente incubada a 4&#176;C por uma noite com os anticorpos prim&#225;rios, incluindo Beclin-1(Servicebio, GB112053, 1:1000), LC3 (Proteintech Grupo, 14600-1-AP, 1:1000), P62 (Servicebio, GB11239-1, 1:1000), PINK1 (Affinity, DF7742, 1:1000) e Parkin (Servicebio, GB11596, 1:1000) anticorpos policlonais de coelho. No dia seguinte, a membrana foi lavada com solu&#231;&#227;o salina tamponada com Tris com tamp&#227;o Tween e incubada por 30 min com anticorpos secund&#225;rios (GB23303, Servicebio, 1:5000) em temperatura ambiente. O conte&#250;do destas prote&#237;nas foi determinado utilizando o software Alpha (alphaEaseFC, Alpha Innotech).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>O tamanho da amostra deste estudo foi baseado no experimento preliminar. As m&#233;dias da PDFVE no grupo controle, grupo DEX e grupo I/R ap&#243;s reperfus&#227;o por 120 minutos foram 12,52, 16,23 e 22,39, respectivamente, e os desvios padr&#227;o foram 1,45, 2,44 e 145, respectivamente. O teste do n&#237;vel &#945; foi considerado 0,05, Z0,05/2 = 1,96. O n&#237;vel de poder, 1 &#8722; &#946;, foi considerado 0,8. Para os grupos controle e DEX, foi necess&#225;rio um tamanho de amostra de seis para cada grupo. Para os grupos I/R e DEX, foi necess&#225;rio um tamanho de amostra de quatro para cada grupo. Assim, foi determinado um tamanho amostral de seis por grupo.</p>
        <p>Os dados s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP). O software SPSS19.0 (International Business Machines, Corp) foi utilizado para an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica. A compara&#231;&#227;o dos dados de medi&#231;&#227;o entre os grupos foi realizada utilizando ANOVA unidirecional. O teste Shapiro-Wilk foi empregado para verificar a normalidade. O m&#233;todo da Diferen&#231;a Menos Significativa foi utilizado quando a vari&#226;ncia era uniforme; de outra forma, foi utilizado o m&#233;todo T3 de Dunnett. A signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica foi estabelecida em p&lt;0,05.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>O pr&#233;-condicionamento DEX melhorou a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca contra les&#227;o de I/R</title>
        <p>Para investigar o efeito da DEX na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, medimos os &#237;ndices hemodin&#226;micos card&#237;acos em ratos com ou sem DEX. Nossos resultados mostraram que n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as significativas hemodin&#226;micas entre os grupos no in&#237;cio (T1) e no in&#237;cio da isquemia (T2) (p&gt;0,05). Por&#233;m, ao final do per&#237;odo de reperfus&#227;o (T3), FC, PDVE,e &#177;dp/dtmax diminu&#237;ram e a PDFVE aumentou significativamente no grupo I/R comparado como grupo controle (p&lt;0,05). O pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX aumentou significativamente os valores de PDVE e &#177;dp/dtmax e diminuiu a PDFVE em compara&#231;&#227;o como grupo I/R (p&lt;0,05). A adi&#231;&#227;o de YOH reverteu bastante a melhora hemodin&#226;mica alcan&#231;ada pelo tratamento com DEX (p&lt;0,05), enquanto a YOH sozinha n&#227;o mostrou qualquer impacto na hemodin&#226;mica (p&gt;0,05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Efeitos do T3 na les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica mediada por I/R. (A-E): Efeitos cardioprotetores da DEX sobre FC, PDVE, PDFVE, +dp/dt e -dp/dt. Os dados foram apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o. n=12.&#8226;p&lt;0,05, vs. ponto inicial de isquemia, #p&lt;0,05, vs. grupo controle na reperfus&#227;o por 120 minutos.&#8710;p&lt;0,05, vs. grupo I/R na reperfus&#227;o por 120 minutos.<bold>#</bold>p&lt;0,05, vs. grupo DEX na reperfus&#227;o por 120 minutos. I/R: grupo isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; DEX: grupo Dexmedetomidina; YOH: grupo ioimbina. Painel A: FC: Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Painel B: PDVE: press&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Painel C: PDFVE: press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Painel D: +dp/dt: taxa m&#225;xima de desenvolvimento da press&#227;o ventricular esquerda. Painel E: -dp/dt: taxa m&#237;nima de desenvolvimento de press&#227;o ventricular esquerda.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX reduziu o tamanho do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</title>
        <p>Para confirmar ainda que a DEX induz efeitos cardioprotetores contra o I/R, o tamanho do infarto foi determinado pela colora&#231;&#227;o com TTC. Como esperado, a I/R causou infarto do mioc&#225;rdio significativo em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle (p&lt;0,05). No entanto, o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX reduziu significativamente o tamanho do infarto em compara&#231;&#227;o como grupo I/R (p&lt;0,05). A administra&#231;&#227;o de YOH reverteu significativamente a diminui&#231;&#227;o no tamanho do infarto induzida por DEX (p&lt;0,05). Al&#233;m disso, comparado como grupo I/R, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as entre os grupos YOH e DEX + YOH (p&gt;0,05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; DEX reduziu o tamanho do infarto card&#237;aco ap&#243;s les&#227;o de I/R(n=6). Imagens representativas de amostras coradas com TTC mostrando a &#225;rea de infarto (branco), a &#225;rea sem infarto (vermelho) e a porcentagem de &#225;rea infartada do cora&#231;&#227;o no controle e cora&#231;&#227;o isolado induzido por I/R. Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o, n=6. #p&lt;0,05 &#957;s. Grupo de controle; &#8710;P&lt;0,05 &#957;s. grupo I/R; &#9733;p&lt;0,05 &#957;s. Grupo DEX. I/R: grupo isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; DEX: grupo Dexmedetomidina; YOH: Grupo ioimbina. TTC: t&#233;cnica de colora&#231;&#227;o com cloreto de trifeniltetraz&#243;lio.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O pr&#233;-condicionamento DEX reduziu a desordem e disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial</title>
        <p>Para explorar se a DEX melhorou a ultraestrutura mitocondrial, foi utilizado o MET. Os resultados mostraram que a I/R levou a danos mitocondriais acentuados, evidenciados por mitoc&#244;ndrias inchadas e vacuolizadas com mais ruptura de cristas e ruptura de membrana mitocondrial em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle (p&lt;0,05). Contrariamente, o dano mitocondrial foi mitigado e a integridade mitocondrial foi restaurada no grupo DEX em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo I/R (p&lt;0,05). O co-tratamento com DEX e YOH reverteu significativamente o efeito protetor da DEX na ultraestrutura mitocondrial, o que foi equivalente ao do grupo I/R (p&lt;0,05). A YOH sozinha n&#227;o afetou as altera&#231;&#245;es ultraestruturais mitocondriais induzidas por I/R (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4A</xref>, p&gt; 0,05).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; DEX melhorou o dist&#250;rbio mitocondrial e a fun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial. A) Imagens de microscopia eletr&#244;nica de transmiss&#227;o de mitoc&#244;ndrias (amplia&#231;&#227;o 2.000&#215;, 6.000&#215;): Setas vermelhas representam autofagossomas. B) Potencial de membrana mitocondrial detectado pela colora&#231;&#227;o JC-1 e a propor&#231;&#227;o da intensidade de mitoc&#244;ndrias normais (fluoresc&#234;ncia vermelha) /mitoc&#244;ndrias hipopotenciais (fluoresc&#234;ncia verde). Barra de escala: 100mm. C) ROS foi indicado pelo DCFH-DA, e os percentuais de intensidade de ROS (fluoresc&#234;ncia vermelha) foram calculados em diferentes grupos, barra de escala: 50mm. Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o. n=6. #p&lt;0,05 &#957;s. Grupo de controle; &#8710;p&lt;0,05 &#957;s. grupo I/R; &#9733;p&lt;0,05 &#957;s. Grupo DEX. I/R: grupo isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; DEX: grupo dexmedetomidina; YOH: Grupo ioimbina; ROS: Esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio; DCFH-DA: diacetato diclorodi hidrofluoresce&#237;na.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Depois disso, examinamos a altera&#231;&#227;o no potencial de membrana mitocondrial usando o ensaio JC-1 para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial. Nossos resultados mostraram que a I/R induziu uma diminui&#231;&#227;o severa no potencial de membrana, aumentando significativamente a fluoresc&#234;ncia verde em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle (p&lt;0,05). No entanto, a DEX aliviou o decl&#237;nio do potencial de membrana, que apareceu como maior rela&#231;&#227;o de fluoresc&#234;ncia vermelha/verde do que em I/R (p&lt;0,05). Da mesma forma, este efeito pode ser bloqueado por YOH (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4B</xref>, p&lt;0,05).</p>
        <p>A solu&#231;&#227;o de trabalho DCFH-DA foi usada para medir os n&#237;veis de ROS. Os resultados mostraram que os n&#237;veis de ROS estavam notavelmente elevados no grupo I/R comparado com o grupo de controle (p&lt;0,05). O pr&#233;-condicionamento DEX reduziu significativamente a gera&#231;&#227;o de ROS no grupo DEX (p&lt;0,05). Da mesma forma, a YOH preveniu a inibi&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS induzida por DEX (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4C</xref>, p &lt;0,05).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O pr&#233;-condicionamento DEX suprimiu a mitofagia excessiva ap&#243;s I/R</title>
        <p>Para estudar ainda mais o mecanismo protetor da DEX na les&#227;o I/R, marcadores bem conhecidos para prote&#237;nas relacionadas &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de autofagossoma (rela&#231;&#227;o Beclin1, LC3II/I) e prote&#237;nas de depura&#231;&#227;o de autofagossoma (p62) foram detectados por western blotting. Comparada com o grupo controle, a I/R aumentou os n&#237;veis da rela&#231;&#227;o Beclin1 e LC3II/I, indicando aumento da forma&#231;&#227;o de autofagossoma (p&lt;0,05). O n&#237;vel de p62 foi acentuadamente aumentado no grupo I/R em grau compar&#225;vel ao do grupo controle (p&lt;0,05). Comparado com o grupo I/R o pr&#233;-tratamento com DEX reduziu a express&#227;o de Beclin1 e a rela&#231;&#227;o LC3II/I (p&lt;0,05), indicando que a DEX inibiu autofagia excessiva. Al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis de prote&#237;na p62 diminu&#237;ram significativamente no grupo DEX comparado com o grupo I/R (p&lt;0,05), indicando depura&#231;&#227;o eficiente do autofagossoma no grupo DEX. Consistentemente, a MET mostrou que a DEX reduziu o n&#250;mero de autofagossomas em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo I/R (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3A</xref>). Contudo a YOH preveniu os efeitos da DEX na express&#227;o Beclin1 LC3II/I e p62 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 5A</xref>, p&lt;0,05), e no n&#250;mero de autofagossomas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3A</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f06">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Cora&#231;&#245;es protegidos por DEX contra mitofagia excessiva induzida por I/R. A,C) N&#237;veis de prote&#237;na de Beclin1, LC3II/I, p62, PINK1 e Parkin em diferentes grupos. B) Micrografia eletr&#244;nica representativa do cora&#231;&#227;o obtida com aumento de 6.000 vezes. A seta vermelha indica autofagossoma engolindo mitoc&#244;ndrias. Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o, n=6. #p&lt;0,05 &#957;s. Grupo de controle; &#8710;p&lt;0,05 &#957;s. grupo I/R; &#9733;p&lt;0,05 &#957;s. Grupo DEX. I/R: grupo isquemia/reperfus&#227;o; DEX: grupo Dexmedetomidina; YOH: grupo Ioimbina; GAPDH: gliceralde&#237;do-3-fosfato desidrogenase. Painel A: LC3: cadeia leve 3 da prote&#237;na 1 associada a microt&#250;bulos, p62: Sequestossoma-1; Painel C: PINK1: suposta quinase 1 induzida por PTEN.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf05.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Curiosamente, as imagens MET revelaram autofagossomas contendo mitoc&#244;ndrias. Para explorar ainda mais o papel da DEX na autofagia, medimos a express&#227;o de PINK1 e Parkin usando western blotting. Os resultados demonstraram que as prote&#237;nas PINK1 e Parkin estavam significativamente aumentadas no grupo I/R quando comparado com o grupo controle (p&lt;0,05), e o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX inibiu a express&#227;o de PINK1 e Parkin no grupo DEX (p&lt;0,05). O tratamento com YOH reverteu o efeito inibit&#243;rio da DEX na express&#227;o de PINK1 e Parkin (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 5C</xref>, p &lt;0,05).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>As descobertas deste estudo ampliam ainda mais nossa compreens&#227;o da DEX como um mecanismo de prote&#231;&#227;o contra a I/R. Primeiro, a DEX melhorou a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, reduziu o tamanho do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e melhorou o comprometimento mitocondrial ap&#243;s I/R em modelo de rato in vitro. Al&#233;m disso, o mecanismo protetor do pr&#233;-condicionamento de DEX pode envolver a supress&#227;o da mitofagia excessiva e a recupera&#231;&#227;o da depura&#231;&#227;o da autofagossoma, o que foi evidenciado pela inibi&#231;&#227;o da forma&#231;&#227;o da autofagossoma, pela diminui&#231;&#227;o de Beclin1, LC3II/I, PINK1 e Parkin, e pela redu&#231;&#227;o de p62. No entanto, estes efeitos poderiam ser anulados pela adi&#231;&#227;o de YOH. No geral, estes dados mostraram o papel protetor fundamental do pr&#233;-condicionamento de DEX na I/R, regulando a mitofagia atrav&#233;s da ativa&#231;&#227;o de &#945;2-AR.</p>
      <p>As mitoc&#244;ndrias, como fonte de energia, desempenham um papel significativo no funcionamento e na sobreviv&#234;ncia dos cardiomi&#243;citos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup>Em nosso estudo, visualizamos mitoc&#244;ndrias com microscopia eletr&#244;nica e mostramos que o pr&#233;-condicionamento DEX preservou a integridade mitocondrial, que foi mais semelhante ao grupo controle do que ao grupo I/R, em que as cristas mitocondriais foram obviamente rompidas. Tamb&#233;m observamos um aumento no potencial de membrana mitocondrial e uma diminui&#231;&#227;o nas ROS mitocondriais no grupo DEX em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles no grupo I/R. As mitoc&#244;ndrias normais s&#227;o o principal local de produ&#231;&#227;o de grandes quantidades de trifosfato de adenosina para as c&#233;lulas e conduzem muitos processos biol&#243;gicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>No entanto, a estrutura e a fun&#231;&#227;o das mitoc&#244;ndrias s&#227;o complexas, vari&#225;veis e sens&#237;veis. Assim, pequenas altera&#231;&#245;es nos fatores intracelulares ou extracelulares podem levar a anormalidades estruturais e disfun&#231;&#245;es mitocondriais. Al&#233;m disso, estudos demonstraram que mitoc&#244;ndrias danificadas e disfuncionais s&#227;o a principal fonte de ROS intracelulares, que causam danos ao mioc&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a gera&#231;&#227;o excessiva de ERO diminui o potencial da membrana mitocondrial, resultando em mitoc&#244;ndrias mais danificadas. Acima de tudo, estas descobertas sugeriram que a remo&#231;&#227;o de mitoc&#244;ndrias danificadas e a preserva&#231;&#227;o da qualidade mitocondrial s&#227;o a chave para proteger contra les&#245;es de I/R e apoiaram ainda mais os pap&#233;is protetores cr&#237;ticos do pr&#233;-condicionamento de DEX nas mitoc&#244;ndrias contra I/R.</p>
      <p>Demonstrou-se que uma diminui&#231;&#227;o no potencial da membrana mitocondrial desencadeia a mitofagia ap&#243;s les&#227;o de I/R.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Portanto, determinamos se o efeito protetor da DEX nas mitoc&#244;ndrias estava relacionado &#224; regula&#231;&#227;o da mitofagia. A forma&#231;&#227;o de autofagossoma &#233; o padr&#227;o ouro para ativa&#231;&#227;o de autofagia na mitofagia. Usando microscopia eletr&#244;nica, descobrimos que as autofagossomas eram mais abundantes no grupo I/R do que nos grupos DEX e de controle, e a imagem MET mostrou autofagossomas contendo mitoc&#244;ndrias. Al&#233;m disso, detectamos as prote&#237;nas conhecidas por desempenharem um papel fundamental na mitofagia, e os resultados mostraram que o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX reduziu Belin1, LC3II/I, PINK1, Parkin e a express&#227;o da prote&#237;na p62 em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo I/R. As prote&#237;nas Beclin1 e LC3II/I facilitam a forma&#231;&#227;o do autofagossoma e interagem com a p62 para mover as mitoc&#244;ndrias danificadas para a autofagossoma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Sabe-se que as prote&#237;nas PINK1 e Parkin induzem mitofagia e limpam mitoc&#244;ndrias excessivas e danificadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o ac&#250;mulo de autofagossomas, LC3II/I e p62 indica depura&#231;&#227;o prejudicada da autofagossoma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Assim, nossos dados sugeriram que a mitofagia foi excessivamente aumentada ap&#243;s I/R, enquanto o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX suprimiu a mitofagia excessiva e resgatou a depura&#231;&#227;o da autofagossoma para remover eficientemente as mitoc&#244;ndrias danificadas. Zhang et al. reportaram que o bloqueio da depura&#231;&#227;o do autofagossoma causa ac&#250;mulo de autofagossoma e contribui &#224; morte de cardiomi&#243;citos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Nossos resultados apoiaram esse ponto de vista. A maioria dos estudos nesta &#225;rea descreveram o papel protetor da mitofagia no infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ou na les&#227;o I/R.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Em contraste com estes estudos, nossos resultados indicaram que a mitofagia foi excessivamente ativada e prejudicial ao cora&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s I/R. Em apoio &#224;s nossas descobertas, v&#225;rios estudos anteriores mostraram que a mitofagia excessiva diminui as mitoc&#244;ndrias, o que subsequentemente causa priva&#231;&#227;o de energia e agrava a les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s I/R.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Assim, o papel da mitofagia no I/R pode ser paradoxal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Finalmente, combinados com esses estudos, nossos achados sugeriram que altos n&#237;veis de atividade mitof&#225;gica e comprometimento da depura&#231;&#227;o da autofagossoma podem estar envolvidos no desenvolvimento de I/R em ratos. No entanto, a mitofagia leve induzida por DEX agiu como um mecanismo pr&#243;-sobreviv&#234;ncia para limpar eficientemente as mitoc&#244;ndrias danificadas e prevenir I/R.</p>
      <p>YOH, um bloqueador &#945;2-AR, foi usado para explorar os efeitos da DEX no I/R. No presente estudo, a YOH reverteu os efeitos protetores do pr&#233;-tratamento com DEX no mioc&#225;rdio de ratos, o que resultou em diminui&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e aumento do tamanho do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio; al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis de express&#227;o das prote&#237;nas da via da mitofagia aumentaram. Juntos, esses resultados indicaram que o efeito protetor do pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX no mioc&#225;rdio de ratos pode ser antagonizado pelos bloqueadores &#945;2-AR, o que &#233; consistente com um estudo anterior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Os bloqueadores &#945;2-AR podem dilatar o m&#250;sculo liso vascular, diminuir o t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e aumentar o t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico perif&#233;rico . Uma investiga&#231;&#227;o anterior de Okada et al. mostrou que a administra&#231;&#227;o de DEX antes da isquemia e reperfus&#227;o global diminuiu o fluxo coronariano e o tamanho do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. Os autores propuseram que a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o coronariana induzida por DEX pela estimula&#231;&#227;o de &#945;2-AR diminuiu o fluxo coronariano, induziu isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e desencadeou o pr&#233;-condicionamento card&#237;aco isqu&#234;mico. Assim, a DEX pode desempenhar um papel protetor no mioc&#225;rdio, alterando o fluxo sangu&#237;neo coronariano para induzir o pr&#233;-condicionamento isqu&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Existem algumas limita&#231;&#245;es neste estudo. N&#227;o utilizamos agonistas da mitofagia ou uma tecnologia espec&#237;fica de nocaute gen&#233;tico para compreender completamente a atividade da mitofagia, embora esses m&#233;todos possam ser usados para confirmar definitivamente o mecanismo de prote&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica da DEX na mitofagia. Portanto, mais estudos intensivos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para esclarecer o mecanismo de prote&#231;&#227;o da DEX, que poder&#225; fornecer suporte te&#243;rico para a aplica&#231;&#227;o da DEX no I/R.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Este estudo apoiou a hip&#243;tese de que o pr&#233;-condicionamento com DEX exerceu um efeito protetor contra a I/R, suprimindo a mitofagia excessiva e limpando eficientemente as mitoc&#244;ndrias danificadas ativando &#945;2-AR, restaurando assim a fun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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  </back>
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        <article-title>Dexmedetomidine Preconditioning Attenuates Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rats by Suppressing Mitophagy Via Activating &#913;2-Adrenergic Receptor</article-title>
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            <given-names>Wei</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="CN">China</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Guizhou Aerospace Hospital, Zunyi, Guizhou &#8211; China</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="CN">China</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou &#8211; China</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="CN">China</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, NanChong, Sichuan &#8211; China</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="CN">China</country>
        <institution content-type="original">People&#8217;s Hospital of Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Qiandongnan, Guizhou &#8211; China</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: Hui Chen &#8226; Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, No.149 Dalian road, Zunyi 563000, Guizhou, China E-mail: chenhui522524@163.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor responsible for the review: Marina Okoshi</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <title>Central Illustration</title>
        <p>
          <fig>
            <caption>
              <title>: Dexmedetomidine Preconditioning Attenuates Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rats by Suppressing Mitophagy Via Activating &#913;2-Adrenergic Receptor</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Dexmedetomidine (DEX), a specific &#945;2-adrenergic receptor agonist, is protective against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MIRI). However, the association between DEX preconditioning-induced cardioprotection and mitophagy suppression remains unclear.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p> Hence, we aimed to investigate whether DEX preconditioning alleviates MIRI by suppressing mitophagy via &#945;2-adrenergic receptor activation.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Method</title>
          <p> Sixty isolated rat hearts were treated with or without DEX before inducing ischemia and reperfusion; an &#945;2-adrenergic receptor antagonist, yohimbine (YOH), was also administered before ischemia, alone or with DEX. The heart rate (HR), left ventricular diastolic pressure (LVDP), left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), maximal and minimal rate of left ventricular pressure development (&#177;dp/dtmax), and myocardial infarction size were measured. The mitochondrial ultrastructure and autophagosomes were assessed using transmission electron microscopy. Mitochondrial membrane potential and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were measured using JC-1 and dichloride hydrofluorescein diacetate assays, respectively. The expression levels of the mitophagy-associated proteins Beclin1, LC3II/I ratio, p62, PINK1, and Parkin were detected by western blotting.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> Compared with the control group, in the ischemia/reperfusion group, the HR, LVDP, and &#177;dp/dtmax were remarkably decreased (p&lt; 0.05), whereas LVEDP and infarct sizes were significantly increased (p&lt; 0.05). DEX preconditioning significantly improved cardiac dysfunction reduced myocardial infarction size, maintained mitochondrial structural integrity, increased mitochondrial membrane potential, inhibited autophagosomes formation, and decreased ROS production and Beclin1, LC3II/I ratio, PINK1, Parkin, and p62 expression(p&lt; 0.05). When DEX and YOH were combined, YOH canceled the effect of DEX, whereas the use of YOH alone had no effect.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p> Therefore, DEX preconditioning was cardioprotective against MIRI in rats by suppressing mitophagy via &#945;2-adrenergic receptor activation.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Dexmedetomidine</kwd>
        <kwd>Reperfusion Injury</kwd>
        <kwd>Rats</kwd>
        <kwd>Mitophagy</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Myocardial infarction is a major health concern associated with high morbidity and mortality worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The best way to restore the ischemic myocardium is early reperfusion to restore blood flow and oxygen supply to the occluded coronary artery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> However, aside from reducing ischemic injury and limiting infarct size, reperfusion can also independently cause an additional injury called a &#8220;reperfusion injury&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Experimental studies have suggested that a reperfusion injury leads to cardiac function loss and myocardial cell death and contributes to up to 50% of the final infarct size.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Currently, no effective non-pharmacological or pharmacological interventions are available to reduce myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MIRI). The mechanisms of MIRI mainly involve calcium overload, inflammatory response, oxidative stress, apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and mitophagy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> among which mitophagy plays a vital role.</p>
        <p>Autophagy is a highly conserved lysosomal-related degradation process activated by hypoxemia, oxidative stress, and damaged organelles or proteins. It is a cellular housekeeping function that removes damaged organelles, including the mitochondria and maintains cell survival.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Mitophagy, a type of selective autophagy, degrades dysfunctional mitochondria to maintain a normal and functional mitochondrial network.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Mitochondria are vulnerable to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, and damaged mitochondria are a pathophysiological element of MIRI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Moreover, cardiomyocytes are highly dependent on the energy produced by the mitochondria and are more sensitive to mitochondrial damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Thus, more attention is being paid to mitophagy because of its close correlation with controlling mitochondrial quantity and function during MIRI. However, mitophagy may be excessively activated after reperfusion, resulting in decreased mitochondrial mass and aggravation of cardiac injury. Therefore, it remains controversial whether mitophagy activation is protective or detrimental during MIRI.</p>
        <p>Dexmedetomidine(DEX), a selective &#945;2-adrenoceptor(AR) agonist, is widely used in surgical anesthesia and intensive care units because of its sedative effect and lack of respiratory depression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Previous studies have suggested that DEX treatment improves cardiac outcomes after non-cardiac surgery<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> and reduces postoperative mortality rates and complications after human cardiac surgery. Animal studies have also shown that DEX preconditioning protects against I/R injury by reducing the incidence of ventricular arrhythmias and the infarct area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The current molecular mechanisms of DEX have focused on inhibiting oxidative stress, reducing apoptosis, and the inflammatory response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> However, the association between DEX and mitophagy is not fully elucidated in MIRI. Given the importance of mitophagy in I/R, we hypothesized that DEX preconditioning could suppress mitophagy after MIRI in rats by activating &#945;2-adrenergic receptors.</p>
        <p>To test our hypothesis, we studied 1) if DEX preconditioning is cardioprotective in an animal I/R injury model induced by the Langendorff perfusion system and 2) if the protective effect is exerted through the suppression of mitophagy via the activation of &#945;2-adrenergic receptors.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Animals</title>
          <p>Our study adhered to animal research rules as reviewed and approved by an institutionally approved committee. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were approved by the Laboratory Animal Center of Tianjin Biological Company, Changsha, China (certificate number: SYXK2019-0014). All animals were kept under a 12 h light/dark cycle at 22&#8451; and received sufficient food and water.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Myocardial I/R model</title>
          <p>The rats were anesthetized with pentobarbital via intraperitoneal injection (45 mg/ kg). Subsequently, a thoracotomy was performed. When the heart was exposed and the aorta was cut, the heart was immediately isolated and immersed in ice-cold cardiac nutrient solution Krebs-Henseleit (KH) (NaCl, 119 mM; CaCl2, 1.24 mM; KCl, 6.0 mM; KH2 PO4, NaHCO3, 20.1 mM; 1.24 mM; MgSO4, 1.24 mM; glucose, 11.2 mM). It was then fixed on the Langendorff perfusion setup and perfused with KH solution maintained at a constant pressure of 75&#8211;80 mmHg at 37&#8451;. A latex balloon filled with water was placed in the left ventricle through the mitral valve, and the other end of the balloon was connected to a pressure transducer to monitor cardiac function, including heart rate (HR), left ventricular diastolic pressure (LVDP), left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), and the maximal and minimal rate of left ventricular pressure development (&#177;dp/dtmax).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Experimental groups</title>
          <p>After a 15-minute equilibration, if the levels of LVDP and HR were &gt; 80 mmHg and &gt; 200 beats/min, respectively, the hearts were randomly allocated into five groups (n = 12/group) by a sealed envelope randomization assignment: the control group (perfused with KH solution for 190 min), the ischemia /reperfusion(I/R) group (perfused with KH solution for 30 min followed by 40 min of global ischemia and subsequent reperfusion with KH solution for 120 min), the DEX group (preconditioned with 10nM DEX for 30 min followed by I/R), the Yohimbine (YOH)group (preconditioned with1&#956;M YOH for 30 min followed by I/R), and the DEX + YOH group (preconditioned with 10nM DEX + 1&#956;M YOH for 30 min followed by I/R). Doses of DEX and YOH were used as previously reported (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure1A</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Experimental protocol for the Langendorff perfused rat heart. After a 15-minute equilibration of perfusion, hearts were perfused for 30 additional minutes and subjected to 40 min of ischemia followed by 120 min of reperfusion. I/R: Ischemia/reperfusion group; DEX: Dexmedetomidine group; YOH: Yohimbine group.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining</title>
          <p>The infarction area was assessed using TTC staining. The heart was harvested and frozen at &#8722;20&#8451; at the end of reperfusion. After that, the whole heart was cut into five equal sections from top to bottom and subsequently incubated with 1% TTC (Proteintech Group, Wuhan, China) for 30 min at 37&#176;C in the dark. Finally, the hearts were fixed with 10% formaldehyde for 24 hours. Non-ischemic areas were stained red, and infarcted areas were stained white. The infarcted and normal areas were photographed using Image-Pro Plus 6.0. Infarct size was calculated as a percentage of the total myocardial area.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)</title>
          <p>The left ventricle was removed, cut into a 1&#215;1&#215;1 mm cube, rapidly fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde for 24 h, and then fixed with 1% osmium at room temperature for 2 h. Subsequently, the tissue was washed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), dehydrated in an acetone gradient, and embedded in an epoxy resin mixture. The tissue was cut into 50 nm thick slices using a manual Leica microtome and then double-stained with uranium and lead. The ultrastructure and autophagosomes in the myocardial tissue were observed and photographed using a TEM.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP)</title>
          <p>Mitochondria were extracted from the left ventricular tissue using a Tissue Mitochondria Isolation Kit (Solarbio, Beijing, China) according to the manufacturer&#8217;s instructions. Subsequently, mitochondria were labeled with JC-1 (Solarbio, Beijing, China), a sensitive fluorescent probe. JC-1 fluorescence was detected by fluorescence microscopy. Normal mitochondria with a high potential showed red fluorescence, while mitochondria with a low potential exhibited green fluorescence. Changes in mitochondrial depolarization were reflected in the ratio of red/green fluorescence intensities.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production</title>
          <p>To evaluate the production of ROS, fresh and frozen left ventricular tissues were incubated with dichlorodi hydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) working solution (Servicebio, Wuhan, China) in PBS in the dark for 30 min at 37&#176;C. Following three washes with PBS, the sections were continuously incubated with a 4&#8217;,6-diamido-2-phenylindole (Servicebio, Wuhan, China) dye solution and sealed with an anti-fluorescence-quenched tablet. The sections were then observed and analyzed using a fluorescence microscope.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Western blotting</title>
          <p>The heart tissue was lysed with protein lysate buffer, and the supernatant was collected. Protein concentrations were measured using the bicinchoninic acid protein assay (Servicebio, G2026). The samples were separated using 10% sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and transferred to a polyvinylidene fluoride membrane. After that, the membrane was blocked with 5% skim milk for 30 min at room temperature and subsequently incubated at 4&#176;C for a night with the primary antibodies, including Beclin-1(Servicebio, GB112053, 1:1000), LC3 (Proteintech Group, 14600-1-AP, 1:1000), P62 (Servicebio, GB11239-1, 1:1000), PINK1 (Affinity, DF7742, 1:1000), and Parkin (Servicebio, GB11596, 1:1000) rabbit polyclonal antibodies. The next day, the membrane was washed with Tris-buffered saline with Tween buffer and incubated for 30 min with secondary antibodies (GB23303, Servicebio, 1:5000) at room temperature. The content of these proteins was determined using Alpha (alphaEaseFC, Alpha Innotech) software.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>The sample size of this study was based on the preliminary experiment. Means of LVEDP in the control group, the DEX group, and the I/R group following reperfusion for 120 minutes were 12.52, 16.23, and 22.39, respectively, and standard deviations were 1.45, 2.44, and 145, respectively. The &#945;-level test was considered as 0.05, Z0.05/2 = 1.96. The power level, 1 &#8722; &#946;, was considered as 0.8. For the control and the DEX groups, a sample size of six was required for each group. For the I/R and the DEX groups, a sample size of four was required for each group. Thus, a sample size of six was determined per group.</p>
          <p>Data are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD). SPSS19.0 (International Business Machines, Corp) software was used for statistical analysis. The comparison of measurement data between groups was carried out using one-way ANOVA. The Shapiro-Wilk test was employed to verify normality. The Least Significant Difference method was used when the variance was uniform; otherwise, Dunnett&#8217;s T3 method was used. Statistical significance was set at p&lt; 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>DEX preconditioning improved cardiac function against I/R injury</title>
          <p>To investigate the effect of DEX on cardiac function, we measured the cardiac hemodynamic indices in rats with or without DEX. Our results showed that there were no significant differences in hemodynamics between the groups at baseline (T1) and the beginning of ischemia (T2) (p&gt;0.05). However, at the end of the reperfusion period (T3), HR, LVDP, and &#177;dp/dtmax were decreased, and LVEDP was significantly increased in the I/R group compared with the control group (p&lt;0.05). DEX preconditioning significantly increased the LVDP and &#177;dp/dtmax values and decreased LVEDP compared with the I/R group (p&lt;0.05). The addition of YOH greatly reversed the improvement in hemodynamics achieved by the DEX treatment (p&lt;0.05), while YOH alone did not show any impact on hemodynamics (p&gt;0.05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Effects of T3 on I/R-mediated myocardial injury. A-E) Cardioprotective effects of DEX on the HR, LVDP, LVEDP, +dp/dt, and -dp/ dt. Data were presented as the mean &#177; standard deviation. n=12. &#8226;p&lt;0.05, vs. ischemia beginning point, #p&lt;0.05, vs. control group at reperfusion for 120 minutes. &#8710;p&lt;0.05, vs. I/R group at reperfusion for 120 minutes. #p&lt;0.05, vs. DEX group at reperfusion for 120 minutes. I/R: Ischemia/reperfusion group; DEX: Dexmedetomidine group; YOH: Yohimbine group. Panel A: HR: Heart rate. Panel B: LVDP: left ventricular diastolic pressure. Panel C: LVEDP: left ventricular end-diastolic pressure. Panel D: +dp/dt: maximal left ventricular pressure development rate. Panel E: -dp/dt: minimal left ventricular pressure development rate.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>DEX preconditioning reduced the myocardial infarct size</title>
          <p>To further confirm that DEX induces cardioprotective effects against MIRI, infarction size was determined by TTC staining. As expected, I/R caused significant myocardial infarction compared with the control group (p&lt;0.05). However, DEX preconditioning significantly reduced infarct size compared to the I/R group (p&lt;0.05). YOH administration significantly reversed the decrease in infarct size induced by DEX (p&lt;0.05). Additionally, compared with the I/R group, there were no differences between the YOH and DEX + YOH groups (p&gt;0.05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; DEX reduced cardiac infarct size after I/R injury (n=6). Representative images of TTC stained samples showing the infarct area (white), the non-infarct area (red), and the infarcted area percentage of heart in control and I/R-induced isolated heart. Data are presented as the mean &#177; standard deviation, n=6. #p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. Control group; &#8710;p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. I/R group; &#9733;p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. DEX group. I/R: Ischemia/reperfusion group; DEX: Dexmedetomidine group; YOH: Yohimbine group; TTC: triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining technique.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>DEX preconditioning reduced mitochondrial disorder and dysfunction</title>
          <p>To explore whether DEX improved mitochondrial ultrastructure, TEM was used. The results showed that I/R led to marked mitochondrial damage, evidenced by swollen and vacuolated mitochondria with more cristae disruption and mitochondrial membrane rupture than the control group (p&lt;0.05). Contrarily, mitochondrial damage was mitigated, and mitochondrial integrity was restored in the DEX group compared with the I/R group (p&lt;0.05). Co-treatment with DEX and YOH significantly reversed the protective effect of DEX on the mitochondrial ultrastructure, which was equivalent to that in the I/R group (p&lt;0.05). YOH alone did not affect the mitochondrial ultrastructural changes induced by I/R (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4A</xref>, p&gt;0.05).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; DEX ameliorated mitochondrial disorder and improved mitochondrial function. A) Transmission electron microscopy images of mitochondria (magnification 2 000&#215;, 6 000&#215;): Red arrows represent autophagosomes. B) Mitochondrial membrane potential detected by JC-1 staining and the ratio of the normal mitochondria (red fluorescence)/hypopotential mitochondria (green fluorescence) intensity. Scale bar: 100mm. C) ROS was indicated by DCFH-DA, and the percentages of ROS (red fluorescence) intensity were calculated in different groups, scale bar: 50mm. Data are presented as the mean &#177; standard deviation. n=6. #p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. Control group; &#8710;p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. I/R group; &#9733;p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. DEX group. I/R: Ischemia/reperfusion group; DEX: Dexmedetomidine group; YOH: Yohimbine group. Panel C: ROS: Reactive oxygen species; DCFH-DA: dichlorodi hydrofluorescein diacetate.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>After that, we examined alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential using the JC-1 assay to assess mitochondrial function. Our results showed that I/R induced a severe decrease in membrane potential, significantly increasing green fluorescence compared with the control group (p&lt;0.05). Nevertheless, DEX alleviated the decline in membrane potential, which appeared as a higher ratio of red/green fluorescence than that in I/R (p&lt;0.05). Similarly, this effect can be blocked by YOH (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4B</xref>, p&lt;0.05).</p>
          <p>DCFH-DA working solution was used to measure ROS levels. The results showed that ROS levels were remarkably elevated in the I/R group compared with the control group (p&lt;0.05). DEX preconditioning significantly reduced ROS generation in the DEX group (p&lt;0.05). Similarly, YOH prevented DEX-induced inhibition of ROS production (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4C</xref>, p&lt;0.05).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>DEX preconditioning suppressed the excessive mitophagy following I/R</title>
          <p>To further study the protective mechanism of DEX in I/R injury, well-known markers for autophagosome formation-related proteins (Beclin1, LC3II/I ratio) and autophagosome clearance proteins (p62) were detected by western blotting. Compared with the control group, I/R increased the Beclin1 and LC3II/I ratio levels, indicating increased autophagosome formation (p&lt;0.05). The level of p62 was markedly increased in the I/R group to a degree comparable to that in the control group (p&lt;0.05). Compared with the I/R group, DEX pre-treatment reduced the expression of Beclin1 and the LC3II/I ratio (p&lt;0.05), indicating that DEX inhibited excessive autophagy. Additionally, p62 protein levels were significantly decreased in the DEX group compared with the I/R group (p&lt;0.05), indicating efficient autophagosome clearance in the DEX group. Consistently, TEM showed that DEX reduced the number of autophagosomes compared with that in the I/R group (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3A</xref>). However, YOH prevented the effects of DEX on Beclin1, LC3II/I and p62 expression (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figure 5A</xref>, p&lt;0.05), and the number of autophagosomes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3A</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f06001">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; DEX protected hearts against I/R-induced excessive mitophagy. A, C) Protein levels of Beclin1, LC3II/I, p62, PINK1, and Parkin in different groups. B) Representative electron micrograph of the heart obtained at a magnification of 6000 times. The red arrow indicates autophagosome engulfing mitochondria. Data are presented as the mean &#177; standard deviation, n=6. #p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. Control group; &#8710;p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. I/R group; &#9733;p&lt;0.05 &#957;s. DEX group. I/R: Ischemia/reperfusion group; DEX: Dexmedetomidine group; YOH: Yohimbine group; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Panel A: LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3, p62: Sequestosome-1; Panel C: PINK1: PTEN-induced putative kinase 1.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-10-e20220750-20750-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Interestingly, TEM images revealed autophagosomes containing mitochondria. To further explore the role of DEX in autophagy, we measured the expression of PINK1 and Parkin using western blotting. The results demonstrated that PINK1 and Parkin proteins were significantly increased in the I/R group when compared with the control group (p&lt;0.05), and DEX preconditioning inhibited the expression of PINK1 and Parkin in the DEX group (p&lt;0.05). Treatment with YOH reversed the inhibitory effect of DEX on PINK1 and Parkin expression (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5C</xref>, p&lt;0.05).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The findings of this study further extend our understanding of DEX as a protective mechanism against MIRI. First, DEX improved cardiac function, reduced myocardial infarction size, and ameliorated mitochondrial impairment following MIRI in a vitro rat model. In addition, the protective mechanism of DEX preconditioning may involve suppressing excessive mitophagy and rescoring autophagosome clearance, which was evidenced by the inhibition of autophagosome formation, the decrease of Beclin1, LC3II/I, PINK1, and Parkin, and by reducing p62. However, these effects could be canceled by the addition of YOH. Overall, these data showed the pivotal protective role of DEX preconditioning in MIRI by regulating mitophagy through activating &#945;2- AR.</p>
        <p>Mitochondria, as a source of energy, play a significant role in the functioning and survival of cardiomyocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> In our study, we imaged mitochondria with electron microscopy and showed that DEX preconditioning preserved mitochondrial integrity, which was more similar to the control group than the I/R group, wherein mitochondrial cristae were obviously disrupted. We also observed an increase in mitochondrial membrane potential and a decrease in mitochondrial ROS in the DEX group compared with those in the I/R group. Normal mitochondria are the main site for producing large quantities of adenosine triphosphate for cells and drive many biological processes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> However, the structure and function of mitochondria are complex, variable, and sensitive. Thus, slight changes in intracellular or extracellular factors can lead to structural abnormalities and mitochondrial malfunctions. In addition, studies have demonstrated that damaged and dysfunctional mitochondria are the major source of intracellular ROS, which causes myocardial damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Moreover, excessive ROS generation decreases mitochondrial membrane potential, resulting in more damaged mitochondria. Above all, these findings suggested that removing damaged mitochondria and preserving mitochondrial quality is the key to protecting against I/R injury and further supported the critical protective roles of DEX preconditioning on mitochondria against MIRI.</p>
        <p>A decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential has been shown to trigger mitophagy after I/R injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Therefore, we determined whether the protective effect of DEX on mitochondria was related to the regulation of mitophagy. Autophagosome formation is the gold standard for autophagy activation in mitophagy. Using electron microscopy, we found that autophagosomes were more abundant in the I/R group than in the DEX and control groups, and the TEM image showed autophagosomes containing mitochondria. Furthermore, we detected the proteins known to play a key role in mitophagy, and the results showed that DEX preconditioning reduced Belin1, LC3II/I, PINK1, Parkin, and p62 protein expression compared with the I/R group. Beclin1 and LC3II/I proteins facilitate autophagosome formation and interact with p62 to move damaged mitochondria to the autophagosome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> PINK1 and Parkin proteins are known to induce mitophagy and clear excessive and damaged mitochondria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> In addition, the accumulation of autophagosomes, LC3II/I, and p62 indicates impaired autophagosome clearance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Thus, our data suggested that mitophagy was excessively enhanced after I/R, whereas DEX preconditioning suppressed excessive mitophagy and rescored autophagosome clearance to remove damaged mitochondria efficiently. Zhang et al. reported that the blockade of autophagosome clearance causes autophagosome accumulation and contributes to cardiomyocyte death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Our results supported this standpoint. Most studies in this area have described the protective role of mitophagy on myocardial infarction or I/R injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> In contrast to these studies, our results indicated that mitophagy was excessively activated and detrimental to the heart after I/R. In support of our findings, several previous studies have shown that excessive mitophagy decreases mitochondria, which subsequently causes energy deprivation and aggravates myocardial injury following I/R.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Thus, the role of mitophagy in MIRI may be paradoxical.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Finally, combined with these studies, our findings suggested that high levels of mitophagy activity and impaired autophagosome clearance may be involved in developing MIRI in rats. However, DEX-induced mild mitophagy acted as a pro-survival mechanism to efficiently clear damaged mitochondria and prevent MIRI.</p>
        <p>YOH, an &#945;2-AR blocker, was used to explore the effects of DEX on MIRI. In the present study, YOH reversed the protective effects of DEX pre-treatment in the myocardium of rats, which resulted in decreased cardiac function and increased myocardial infarct size; in addition, the expression levels of the mitophagy pathway proteins were increased. Together, these results indicated that the protective effect of DEX preconditioning in rat myocardium may be antagonized by &#945;2- AR blockers, which is consistent with a previous study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> &#945;2-AR blockers can dilate vascular smooth muscle, decrease sympathetic tone, and increase peripheral parasympathetic tone. A previous investigation by Okada et al. showed that DEX administration prior to global ischemia and reperfusion decreased coronary flow and myocardial infarct size. The authors proposed DEX-induced coronary vasoconstriction by &#945;2-AR stimulation decreased coronary flow, induced myocardial ischemia, and triggered ischemic heart preconditioning. Thus, DEX may play a protective role in the myocardium by altering coronary blood flow to induce ischemic preconditioning.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        <p>There are some limitations in this study. We did not use mitophagy agonists or a specific gene knockout technology to fully understand mitophagy activity, though these methods could be used to confirm the myocardial protective mechanism of DEX in mitophagy definitively. Therefore, further intensive studies are required to clarify the protective mechanisms of DEX, which may provide theoretical support for the application of DEX in MIRI.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>This study supported the hypothesis that DEX preconditioning exerted a protective effect against MIRI by suppressing excessive mitophagy and efficiently clearing damaged mitochondria by activating &#945;2-AR, thereby restoring mitochondrial function.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee Experimental Animal Care and Use committee of Zunyi Medical University under the protocol number 1492, 2001. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>Sources of funding</p>
          <p>This study was partially funded by Science and Technology Planning Project of Zunyi (grant no. [2018]94).</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
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