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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">JGm4BkRQsQr3hLBzZCc79Wq</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000900304</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00304</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230050</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Rela&#231;&#227;o da Ascens&#227;o Matinal da Press&#227;o Arterial com a Hipertrofia Ventricular Esquerda em Hipertensos Obesos</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3906-3186</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Palmeira</surname>
            <given-names>Natascha Gon&#231;alves Francisco</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6746-8327</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bianco</surname>
            <given-names>Henrique Tria</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9603-6072</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bombig</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Teresa Nogueira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9774-4406</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Povoa</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Focaccia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9911-4598</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco A. H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5738-2623</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Thalenberg</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Luna</surname>
            <given-names>Braulio</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marui</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiane</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fischer</surname>
            <given-names>Simone Matheus</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Povoa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola Paulista de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola Paulista de Medicina da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (EPM/UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Henrique Tria Bianco &#8226; Escola Paulista de Medicina da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (EPM/UNIFESP) &#8211; Rua Loefgren, 1350. CEP 04023-062, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>henriquetria@uol.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>9</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230050</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <title>Figura Central</title>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <caption>
              <title>: Associa&#231;&#227;o entre Ascens&#227;o Matinal da Press&#227;o Arterial e a Hipertrofia Ventricular Esquerda</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>MAPA: monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial.</attrib>
            <alternatives>
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              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/JGm4BkRQsQr3hLBzZCc79Wq/8f4e67652721bebd78002f24ca0761a95528dd58.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/JGm4BkRQsQr3hLBzZCc79Wq/93acae649e18007fd35da98a042b3beef1077a91.jpg" specific-use="scielo-web" content-type="scielo-267x140"/>
            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> O aumento do peso frequentemente desencadeia mecanismos que elevam a press&#227;o arterial. A obesidade causa mudan&#231;as estruturais no mioc&#225;rdio, incluindo aumento da massa ventricular, dilata&#231;&#227;o atrial, bem como disfun&#231;&#245;es diast&#243;licas e sist&#243;licas. Al&#233;m disso, varia&#231;&#245;es press&#243;ricas nos hipertensos obesos, como a ascens&#227;o matinal (AM), podem ter relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica na preven&#231;&#227;o dos eventos cardiovasculares. A AM da press&#227;o arterial &#233; um fen&#244;meno fisiol&#243;gico, que quando elevada pode ser considerada um fator de risco independente para eventos cardiovasculares.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo</title>
          <p> Avaliar valores da eleva&#231;&#227;o da AM e sua associa&#231;&#227;o com a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) e com o Descenso do Sono (DS) em obesos e n&#227;o obesos hipertensos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Estudo transversal que avaliou medidas press&#243;ricas &#224; monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial (MAPA) e a presen&#231;a de HVE, avaliada pela ecocardiografia, em 203 pacientes hipertensos em tratamento ambulatorial, separados em dois grupos: 109 n&#227;o obesos e 94 hipertensos obesos. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia adotado foi de 0,05 em testes bicaudais.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> A AM acima de 20 mmHg &#224; MAPA foi detectada em 59,2% dos pacientes do grupo &#8220;n&#227;o obesos&#8221; e em 40,6% no grupo &#8220;obesos&#8221;. A HVE foi encontrada em 18,1% no grupo dos n&#227;o-obesos e em 39,3% no grupo de obesos, p&lt;0,001. No grupo &#8220;obesos&#8221; foi observado que AM &gt;16 mmHg esteve associada &#224; HVE, com [raz&#227;o de preval&#234;ncia: 2,80; IC95% (1,12&#8211;6,98), p=0,03]. Para o grupo dos &#8220;n&#227;o obesos&#8221;, o ponto de corte da AM para essa associa&#231;&#227;o foi &gt;22 mmHg.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> A AM elevada associou-se positivamente com HVE, com comportamento peculiar na popula&#231;&#227;o de hipertensos e obesos.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Hipertrofia Ventricular Esquerda</kwd>
        <kwd>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o Ambulatorial da Press&#227;o Arterial</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="41"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Obesidade e sobrepeso na idade adulta est&#227;o associados &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o na expectativa de vida e aumento na mortalidade prematura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>V&#225;rios mecanismos interrelacionados desempenham papel importante no desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o arterial na obesidade, muitas vezes contribuindo para danos em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, incluindo doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e doen&#231;as renais cr&#244;nicas. Comorbidades associadas &#224; obesidade s&#227;o facilitadas ou contribuem para uma preval&#234;ncia alta de hipertens&#227;o arterial na popula&#231;&#227;o obesa,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> por mecanismos que incluem a resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, inflama&#231;&#227;o, estresse oxidativo, desbalan&#231;o do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, e atividade do sistema renina-angiotensina aldosterona (SRAA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, a obesidade pode causar modifica&#231;&#245;es estruturais no cora&#231;&#227;o, incluindo aumento volum&#233;trico atrial e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE), associando-se &#224;s disfun&#231;&#245;es sist&#243;licas e diast&#243;licas. O aumento ponderal desencadeia mecanismos que elevam a press&#227;o arterial (PA). Desta forma, varia&#231;&#245;es press&#243;ricas nos hipertensos obesos aumentam o risco de eventos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Varia&#231;&#245;es press&#243;ricas mensur&#225;veis, incluindo o descenso do sono (DS) e a ascens&#227;o matinal (AM), podem fornecer valiosas informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas, sobretudo por suas rela&#231;&#245;es com a atividade do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo e pelo envolvimento no ciclo circadiano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A AM &#233; considerada uma resposta fisiol&#243;gica neural e humoral &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema simp&#225;tico, entretanto, a eleva&#231;&#227;o matinal press&#243;rica precoce tem mostrado implica&#231;&#245;es negativas sobre os desfechos cardiovasculares, estando associado a eventos como o acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e morte s&#250;bita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>H&#225; considera&#231;&#245;es na literatura de que a AM pode ser uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o de uma s&#237;ndrome composta por altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas e aterotromb&#243;ticas, enfrentada pelas diferen&#231;as press&#243;ricas entre o despertar e o per&#237;odo de sono.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Assim, o objetivo de nosso estudo foi identificar o comportamento da AM em hipertensos obesos, correlacionar estes achados com valores do &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (IMVE) e comparar a intensidade da AM e do DS nos pacientes hipertensos obesos com a observada no grupo de hipertensos n&#227;o obesos.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Desenho do estudo</title>
        <p>Estudo do tipo transversal realizado em centro universit&#225;rio. Foram realizadas medidas press&#243;ricas de 203 pacientes hipertensos em tratamento ambulatorial, separados em dois grupos: grupo 1 (109 n&#227;o obesos), e grupo 2 (94 obesos). O estudo foi aprovado pelo comit&#234; de &#233;tica em pesquisa da universidade, e todos os participantes ou seus representantes legais, assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Par&#226;metros avaliados</title>
        <p>Foram analisados dados da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da PA (MAPA) em per&#237;odo de 24 horas e par&#226;metros do ecocardiograma bidimensional com <italic>Doppler</italic> (ECO).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>MAPA</title>
        <p>Os aparelhos de MAPA foram usados para o registro da PA sist&#243;lica (PAS) e diast&#243;lica (PAD) em intervalos de 15-30 minutos na vig&#237;lia durante o dia, e de 30-60 minutes durante o sono no per&#237;odo noturno. Os aparelhos foram instalados no bra&#231;o n&#227;o dominante dos participantes, conforme orienta&#231;&#245;es de diretriz nacional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os participantes tamb&#233;m foram solicitados a anotar em di&#225;rio os hor&#225;rios em que foram dormir e acordaram. Foram analisadas as m&#233;dias da PAS e PAD no per&#237;odo total; na vig&#237;lia; durante o sono; cargas press&#243;ricas sist&#243;licas e diast&#243;licas; DS; e AM da PAS. A AM foi calculada pela diferen&#231;a entre a PAS matinal (m&#233;dia das press&#245;es nas primeiras duas horas ap&#243;s o despertar) e a menor PAS durante o sono (m&#233;dia da press&#227;o mais baixa e das press&#245;es imediatamente antes e ap&#243;s a mais baixa).</p>
        <p>Todos os par&#226;metros foram comparados com estratos de normalidade, incluindo a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia do DS, que foi segmentado: a) presente (queda da PA durante o sono entre 10 a 20% em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; vig&#237;lia); b) atenuado (queda da PA 0-10% durante o sono); c) invertido (PA no sono mais elevada que na vig&#237;lia). Foi utilizado o monitor <italic>Spacelabs</italic><sup>&#174;</sup> 90207, validado pela <italic>Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation</italic> (organiza&#231;&#227;o fundada em 1965, destinada a promover o desenvolvimento, uso seguro e eficaz de tecnologia m&#233;dica) e instalado no mesmo bra&#231;o onde foi aferida a press&#227;o de consult&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ecocardiografia bidimensional com mapeamento de fluxo colorido</title>
        <p>Este exame foi realizado por investigador cardiologista devidamente habilitado, e que desconhecia as caracter&#237;sticas basais dos participantes. Os estudos ultrassonogr&#225;ficos obedeceram aos preceitos da <italic>American Society of Echocardiography</italic> e da <italic>European Association of Echocardiography.</italic> Foram obtidos os seguintes par&#226;metros: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DSVE), di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DDVE), espessura do septo interventricular (SIV), e espessura da parede posterior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (PPVE). Tamb&#233;m foram obtidos os volumes diast&#243;licos e sist&#243;licos finais, porcentual de encurtamento diast&#243;lico, e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o, aferida pelo m&#233;todo do cubo. Para o c&#225;lculo da massa ventricular esquerda, a presen&#231;a de HVE foi detectada pelo IMVE de acordo com a f&#243;rmula de Devereux e ajustada pela superf&#237;cie corporal: <inline-formula><mml:math><mml:mtext> massa do VE </mml:mtext><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>0</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>8</mml:mn><mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo><mml:mo fence="false">{</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>04</mml:mn><mml:mo>[</mml:mo><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi>S</mml:mi><mml:mi>I</mml:mi><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>D</mml:mi><mml:mi>V</mml:mi><mml:mi>E</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mtext> PPVED </mml:mtext><mml:mrow><mml:mo/><mml:msup><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:msup><mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mtext> DDVE </mml:mtext><mml:msup><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:msup><mml:mo>}</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mn>0</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>6</mml:mn><mml:mi>g</mml:mi></mml:math></inline-formula>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup>A massa do VE foi associada &#224; superf&#237;cie corp&#243;rea e indexada (elevada &#224; 2,7), para ajustes das dimens&#245;es do cora&#231;&#227;o &#224;s varia&#231;&#245;es antropom&#233;tricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup>O equipamento utilizado foi o <italic>Image Point Hx</italic>- HP<sup>&#174;</sup>, com o transdutor linear n&#250;mero 04 Hertz.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>O c&#225;lculo do tamanho amostral foi realizado <italic>a priori</italic> para um poder de 0,95 (1- &#946;); erro &#945; em 5%, estimando um tamanho de efeito de 0,3. Desta forma, encontramos o valor total da amostra em 134 participantes. O teste de qualidade do ajuste foi utilizado para determinar se os dados da amostra eram consistentes com uma distribui&#231;&#227;o hipot&#233;tica. Os pacientes eram provenientes de um ambulat&#243;rio de especialidade, em centro universit&#225;rio. Para an&#225;lise do pressuposto de normalidade utilizamos o teste de Kolmogorov&#8211;Smirnov. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram representadas pelas m&#233;dias e desvio-padr&#227;o e as que n&#227;o apresentavam distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram expressas pelas medianas e intervalos interquartis (IIQ). As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram expressas em n&#250;meros absolutos e porcentagens. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas com distribui&#231;&#227;o Gaussiana foram comparadas pelo teste t-Student para amostras independentes, e dados n&#227;o param&#233;tricos pelo teste Mann-Whitney. O teste qui-quadrado (&#967;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>) foi utilizado para estudar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre as vari&#225;veis qualitativas. A corre&#231;&#227;o de Yates de continuidade foi utilizada para adequar os valores de p do qui-quadrado.</p>
        <p>As correla&#231;&#245;es entre as vari&#225;veis de interesse n&#227;o param&#233;tricas foram avaliadas pelo m&#233;todo de Spearman para a obten&#231;&#227;o do &#237;ndice de correla&#231;&#227;o (Rho). A vari&#225;vel AM foi dicotomizada para os dois grupos, com an&#225;lise concomitante dos res&#237;duos. O pressuposto de homocedasticidade foi analisado graficamente (<italic>scatterplot),</italic> e a an&#225;lise de multicolinearidade foi realizada assumindo fatores de infla&#231;&#227;o de vari&#226;ncia (VIF) inferiores a cinco e o &#237;ndice de toler&#226;ncia (IT) inferior a 0,20. O tamanho de efeito (<italic>d-Cohen</italic>) foi calculado pela diferen&#231;a entre as m&#233;dias da AM entre os grupos, considerando os desvios-padr&#245;es.</p>
        <p>An&#225;lises de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla para a presen&#231;a de HVE (como vari&#225;vel dependente) foram realizadas usando as seguintes covari&#225;veis: idade, sexo, PAS, PAD, AM e tamanho de &#225;trio esquerdo, para determinar o grau de independ&#234;ncia da associa&#231;&#227;o. Por se tratar de estudo transversal, obtivemos as raz&#245;es de preval&#234;ncia (RP) pelo teste de Wald. O valor de p bilateral &lt;0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo. Todas as an&#225;lises foram realizadas utilizando-se o <italic>software</italic> SPSS, vers&#227;o 26.0 (SPSS Inc.Chicago, IL, EUA) <sup>&#174;</sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>As principais caracter&#237;sticas dos participantes est&#227;o descritas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>. A preval&#234;ncia de HVE foi de 38,4% no total de participantes, e 74,3% no grupo dos pacientes com obesidade. Houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos obesos <italic>vs</italic> n&#227;o obesos quanto ao tamanho atrial esquerdo, SIV, PPVE e o IMVE. Pela MAPA, foi observada diferen&#231;a na AM entre os grupos, sendo a preval&#234;ncia da AM acima de 20 mmHg, associada &#224; HVE, significativamente maior no grupo de obesos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>). O tamanho de efeito, calculado a partir da diferen&#231;a entre as m&#233;dias da AM entre grupos foi de 0,40, com poder amostral real de 0,95. Observamos correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre o IMVE e a AM, com Rho: [0,54; IC-95% (0,42-0,63), p&lt;0,001], vista tamb&#233;m em (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>). As m&#233;dias do IMVE com seus respectivos IC95% dos grupos com e sem AM elevada est&#227;o apresentadas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>. Nos hipertensos obesos, a m&#233;dia do IMVE foi de 52,87 &#177; 13,37 <italic>versus</italic> 40,58 &#177; 12,29 para os hipertensos n&#227;o obesos, p&lt;0,001.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o estudada</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th>Popula&#231;&#227;o geral</th>
                <th>Grupo n&#227;o obesos</th>
                <th>Grupo obesos</th>
                <th>p-valor</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th style="font-weight:normal">n (%)</th>
                <th>203</th>
                <th>109 (53,7)</th>
                <th>94 (46,3)</th>
                <th> </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="5">
                  <bold>Epidemiol&#243;gicos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade, md (IIQ)</td>
                <td align="center">59 (50-67)</td>
                <td align="center">62 (18-87)</td>
                <td align="center">58 (18-79)</td>
                <td align="center">0,28</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sexo masculino, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">57 (28,1)</td>
                <td align="center">35 (32,1)</td>
                <td align="center">22 (23,4)</td>
                <td align="center">0,17</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sexo feminino, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">146 (71,9)</td>
                <td align="center">74 (67,8)</td>
                <td align="center">72 (76,5)</td>
                <td align="center">0,19</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC, md (IIQ)</td>
                <td align="center">27,48 (17,31-50,43)</td>
                <td align="center">23,83 (17,31-29,48)</td>
                <td align="center">38,33 (30,12-50,43)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Diabetes, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">63 (31,1%)</td>
                <td align="center">19 (17,4%)</td>
                <td align="center">44 (46,8%)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="5">
                  <bold>Ecocardiografia</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;trio esquerdo, (cm); m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">3,66 &#177; 0,55</td>
                <td align="center">3,52 &#177; 0,61</td>
                <td align="center">3,82 &#177; 0,44</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Septo Interventricular, (cm); m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">0,97&#177; 0,17</td>
                <td align="center">0,92 &#177; 0,16</td>
                <td align="center">1,02 &#177; 0,16</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Parede Posterior, (cm); m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">0,92 &#177; 0,13</td>
                <td align="center">0,88 &#177; 0,14</td>
                <td align="center">0,96 &#177; 0,10</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>DDVE, (cm); m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">4,95 &#177; 0,53</td>
                <td align="center">4,81 &#177; 0,49</td>
                <td align="center">5,11 &#177; 0,53</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMVE<sup>2,7</sup>, m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">46,27 &#177; 14,17</td>
                <td align="center">40,58 &#177; 12,29</td>
                <td align="center">52,87 &#177; 13,37</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="5">
                  <bold>MAPA</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAS 24 h, mmHg; m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">126,51 &#177; 16,11</td>
                <td align="center">126,33 &#177; 18,03</td>
                <td align="center">126,71 &#177; 13,78</td>
                <td align="center">0,87</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAD 24 h, mmHg m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">74,66 &#177; 10,71</td>
                <td align="center">76,09 &#177; 11,35</td>
                <td align="center">73,08 &#177; 9,76</td>
                <td align="center">0,04</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAS matinal, mmHg m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">129,31 &#177; 19,97</td>
                <td align="center">131,01 &#177; 20,37</td>
                <td align="center">127,33 &#177; 19,42</td>
                <td align="center">0,19</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAS vig&#237;lia, mmHg m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">126,37 &#177; 17,51</td>
                <td align="center">126,26 &#177; 19,46</td>
                <td align="center">126,48 &#177; 15,16</td>
                <td align="center">0,92</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAD vig&#237;lia, mmHg m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">74,35 &#177; 12,44</td>
                <td align="center">75,76 &#177; 13,04</td>
                <td align="center">72,80 &#177; 11,62</td>
                <td align="center">0,09</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAS sono, mmHg m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">121,22 &#177; 19,84</td>
                <td align="center">120,71 &#177; 21,64</td>
                <td align="center">121,78 &#177; 17,73</td>
                <td align="center">0,38</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAD sono, mmHg m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">70,70 &#177; 12,73</td>
                <td align="center">72,19 &#177; 12,52</td>
                <td align="center">69,05 &#177; 12,83</td>
                <td align="center">0,08</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ascen&#231;&#227;o matinal, mmHg; m&#177;dp</td>
                <td align="center">19,38 &#177; 13,36</td>
                <td align="center">22,16 &#177; 13,30</td>
                <td align="center">16,16 &#177; 12,67</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>Dados cont&#237;nuos s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o (m &#177; dp) ou mediana e intervalo interquartil (md, IIQ), conforme apropriado. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas s&#227;o expressas em n&#250;meros absolutos e porcentagens. Compara&#231;&#245;es entre as m&#233;dias realizadas pelo teste t Student em amostras independentes e para as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas pelo teste de propor&#231;&#245;es do qui quadrado de Pearson. IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea &#8211; Peso/Altura;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> DDVE: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; IMVE:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>&#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica. O valor de p foi expresso nas compara&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos. A massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foi calculada pela f&#243;rmula proposta por Devereaux e indexada &#224; superf&#237;cie corp&#243;rea e elevada ao exponencial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Presen&#231;a da ascens&#227;o matinal (AM) associada &#224; hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) entre os grupos estudados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th rowspan="3">Ascen&#231;&#227;o Matinal</th>
                <th>Aus&#234;ncia de HVE</th>
                <th>Presen&#231;a de HVE</th>
                <th rowspan="3">p-valor</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2" rowspan="1">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>n (%)</th>
                <th>n (%)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">N&#227;o obesos</td>
                <td align="center">AM ausente</td>
                <td align="center">44 (80,0)</td>
                <td align="center">11 (20,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,80</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">AM presente</td>
                <td align="center">45 (83,3)</td>
                <td align="center">9 (16,7)</td>
                <td align="center"> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">Obesos</td>
                <td align="center">AM ausente</td>
                <td align="center">27 (47,4)</td>
                <td align="center">30 (52,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,031</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">AM presente</td>
                <td align="center">9 (24,3)</td>
                <td align="center">28 (75,7)</td>
                <td align="center"> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>Os dados s&#227;o expressos em valor absoluto e frequ&#234;ncia, n (%). As compara&#231;&#245;es entre grupos foram realizadas pelo teste do qui-quadrado de Pearson, com seus respectivos valores de signific&#226;ncia (p-valor). AM: ascens&#227;o matinal; HVE: hipertrofia ventricular esquerda. AM presente: acima de 20 mmHg.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Correla&#231;&#227;o entre a ascens&#227;o matinal e o &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda (IMVE). An&#225;lise de correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman, em dados n&#227;o param&#233;tricos, com &#237;ndice (Rho) no intervalo de confian&#231;a 95%.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20230050-30050-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Box plot das m&#233;dias com seus respectivos intervalos de confian&#231;a (IC) 95% para o &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda (IMVE) nos grupos com e sem ascens&#227;o matinal (AM).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20230050-30050-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Em an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear, um valor de AM &gt;16 mmHg foi o que melhor se associou com a presen&#231;a de HVE para o grupo dos obesos, em contraste com o valor &gt;22 mmHg para o grupo dos pacientes n&#227;o obesos. Na regress&#227;o log&#237;stica bin&#225;ria, onde os valores da AM foram dicotomizados, a RP entre a AM e a HVE foi [RP: 2,80; IC95% (1,12&#8211;6,98)], p=0,03 e com ponto de corte da AM &gt;16 mmHg para o grupo dos pacientes hipertensos obesos, considerando os necess&#225;rios ajustes para os poss&#237;veis elementos de confus&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Quanto ao comportamento do DS, no grupo dos pacientes obesos, 73% daqueles que tiveram AM elevada, apresentavam DS fisiol&#243;gico (queda da PA maior que 10% para este per&#237;odo). Em contrapartida, no grupo dos pacientes n&#227;o obesos, o DS associado ao aumento da AM esteve presente em 66,7%, (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>). Destacamos ainda, e de forma esperada, observamos um maior n&#250;mero de agentes anti-hipertensivos utilizados para os pacientes pertencentes ao grupo dos obesos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Associa&#231;&#227;o entre a presen&#231;a da ascens&#227;o matinal (AM) com o padr&#227;o de descenso do sono nos grupos estudados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th rowspan="3">Padr&#227;o de Descenso do sono</th>
                <th>Ascen&#231;&#227;o Matinal ausente</th>
                <th>Ascen&#231;&#227;o Matinal presente</th>
                <th rowspan="3">p-valor</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2" rowspan="1">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>n (%)</th>
                <th>n (%)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="1" rowspan="3">N&#227;o obesos</td>
                <td align="center">Descenso presente</td>
                <td align="center">24 (43,6)</td>
                <td align="center">36 (66,7)</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="3">0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Descenso atenuado</td>
                <td align="center">22 (40,0)</td>
                <td align="center">15 (27,8)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Descenso invertido</td>
                <td align="center">9 (16,4)</td>
                <td align="center">3 (5,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="1" rowspan="3">Obesos</td>
                <td align="center">Descenso presente</td>
                <td align="center">25 (43,9)</td>
                <td align="center">27 (73,0)</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="3">0,02</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Descenso atenuado</td>
                <td align="center">24 (42,1)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (21,6)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Descenso invertido</td>
                <td align="center">4 (7,0)</td>
                <td align="center">2 (5,4)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>O Descenso do sono foi estratificado em: a) presente (queda da PA durante o sono entre 10 a 20% em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; vig&#237;lia); b) atenuado (queda da PA &gt;0% e inferior a 10% durante o sono); c) invertido (PA no sono mais elevada que na vig&#237;lia).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; N&#250;mero de medica&#231;&#245;es anti-hipertensivas entre os grupos estudados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="8">Grupo e Medicamentos</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="8">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th colspan="5">N&#250;mero de Medicamentos</th>
                <th rowspan="3">Total</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="5">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>0</th>
                <th>1</th>
                <th>2</th>
                <th>3</th>
                <th>4</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">Grupo</td>
                <td>N&#227;o obesos</td>
                <td align="center">31</td>
                <td align="center">21</td>
                <td align="center">36</td>
                <td align="center">13</td>
                <td align="center">8</td>
                <td align="center">109</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Grupo obesos</td>
                <td align="center">12</td>
                <td align="center">7</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">31</td>
                <td align="center">14</td>
                <td align="center">94</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>Total</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">43</td>
                <td align="center">28</td>
                <td align="center">66</td>
                <td align="center">44</td>
                <td align="center">22</td>
                <td align="center">203</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>Distribui&#231;&#227;o entre os grupos (n&#227;o obesos e obesos), quanto ao n&#250;mero de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos utilizados.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nosso estudo foi delineado para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de preval&#234;ncia da AM em pacientes obesos hipertensos, que apresentavam evid&#234;ncias ecocardiogr&#225;ficas de HVE, consistente com recomenda&#231;&#245;es de diretrizes de manejo da hipertens&#227;o e preven&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A AM &#233; uma m&#233;trica press&#243;rica de simples aferi&#231;&#227;o, composta pelas diferen&#231;as de m&#233;dias da PA entre o despertar e o per&#237;odo de sono.</p>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia de obesidade no mundo industrializado vem apresentando aumentos constantes, atingindo n&#237;veis alarmantes nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas. Estima-se que parcela significativa dos casos de hipertens&#227;o guarde alguma rela&#231;&#227;o com a obesidade, e que obesos tenham maior probabilidade de desenvolver hipertens&#227;o. A obesidade, a hipertens&#227;o arterial e a HVE s&#227;o importantes fatores de risco cardiovascular. Desta forma, novos biomarcadores t&#234;m sido investigados, objetivando melhorar os aspectos preditivos para os desfechos cardiovasculares maiores, ou mesmo sobre os desfechos substitutos.</p>
      <p>N&#237;veis press&#243;ricos normalmente seguem um padr&#227;o em que a PA &#233; mais baixa durante o sono quando comparada com os valores da vig&#237;lia. Um aumento na PA durante a transi&#231;&#227;o do sono para o despertar &#233; chamado de AM. Os mecanismos vasculares que levam &#224; AM excessiva e suas implica&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas n&#227;o est&#227;o totalmente elucidados, com a primeira evid&#234;ncia sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o dessa vari&#225;vel press&#243;rica com eventos cardiovasculares relatada em 2003, por Kario et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> que observaram associa&#231;&#227;o independente com infartos cerebrais silentes. No estudo Ohasama, conduzido por Metoki et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> foi apontada associa&#231;&#227;o positiva e significativa da AM com o AVC hemorr&#225;gico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A rela&#231;&#227;o entre AM e desfechos cardiovasculares esteve presente em outro ensaio, que investigou essa associa&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com DS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup>Li et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> ao avaliarem um extenso banco de dados (<italic>International Database on Ambulatory Blood Pressure</italic>), com 5645 participantes provenientes de oito pa&#237;ses, evidenciaram que a AM &#233; preditiva de eventos cardiovasculares, particularmente AVC em asi&#225;ticos e eventos coron&#225;rios em europeus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> O estudo de Pierdomenico et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> demonstrou que AM acentuada &#233; preditora de AVC em idosos em uso de anti-hipertensivos com DS presente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Entretanto, no estudo de Verdecchia et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> com 3012 pacientes inicialmente n&#227;o tratados, os alocados no quartil superior da AM tiveram o menor risco para todos os eventos cardiovasculares de relev&#226;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A discrep&#226;ncia nesses resultados deve-se, provavelmente, a in&#250;meros fatores como heterogeneidade das popula&#231;&#245;es, presen&#231;a de fatores confundidores e pela falta de um ponto de corte espec&#237;fico para definir AM elevada. Idade m&#233;dia, preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o, terapia anti-hipertensiva, dura&#231;&#227;o do seguimento, avalia&#231;&#227;o do impacto do DS, e etnia tenderam a diferir entre os estudos. Uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise reuniu os dados da AM de 14133 indiv&#237;duos de sete estudos longitudinais, com dura&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de acompanhamento em 7,1 anos. Ficou demonstrado que a AM excessivamente elevada estaria associada a maior risco de mortalidade geral. Em pacientes com AM elevada, observou-se uma tend&#234;ncia de aumento do risco para a mortalidade geral, AVC e eventos cardiovasculares totais, por&#233;m sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Metan&#225;lise conduzida por Sheppard et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> demonstrou que, ao considerarmos a AM como uma vari&#225;vel cont&#237;nua, a qual tem maior poder para detectar associa&#231;&#227;o, um aumento de 10 mmHg estava associado ao maior risco de AVC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>Resultados semelhantes foram apresentados por Kario et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> citado previamente, ao avaliarem a AM como vari&#225;vel cont&#237;nua, com demonstra&#231;&#227;o de que aumentos desse biomarcador esteve associado ao maior risco de AVC.</p>
      <p>Um ponto de corte universal para definir AM anormal ainda n&#227;o foi estabelecido. Hoshide et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> no estudo ARTEMIS demonstraram que a AM era maior em japoneses hipertensos que em indiv&#237;duos europeus hipertensos, mesmo ap&#243;s ajustes para idade e n&#237;veis m&#233;dios da PA em 24 horas. Essa diferen&#231;a permaneceu significativa ap&#243;s considerar as diferen&#231;as no DS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup>Marcadores de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca hipertensiva, que incluem aumento do IMVE, HVE e uma rela&#231;&#227;o A/E mais baixa (medida de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica) foram associados a acr&#233;scimos exacerbados da PA matinal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As dificuldades na redu&#231;&#227;o do peso corp&#243;reo e no controle de medica&#231;&#245;es para garantir a ades&#227;o &#224; terap&#234;utica e mitigar as doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas degenerativas s&#227;o os principais desafios da equipe multiprofissional. Encontrar instrumentos ou indicadores de associa&#231;&#227;o pode ser de utilidade para a predi&#231;&#227;o dos eventos, notadamente na popula&#231;&#227;o hipertensa obesa. A obesidade, antes um mero fator de risco entre tantos, deve ser considerada uma doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica e um problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, demandando investimentos em pesquisas e tratamentos nos pr&#243;ximos anos. Considerado agora um fator de risco independente para as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, o excesso de adiposidade corporal &#233; fator predisponente no desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o nestes pacientes. Pelo n&#250;mero crescente de hipertensos no mundo, estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos voltados &#224; compreens&#227;o do comportamento press&#243;rico s&#227;o cada vez mais discutidos, tendo em vista correla&#231;&#245;es significativas entre a variabilidade press&#243;rica (indicadores como os tipos de AM, DS, entre outros) e o desenvolvimento de les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo.</p>
      <p>A maioria dos mecanismos fisiol&#243;gicos segue um padr&#227;o circadiano, determinado por uma complexa intera&#231;&#227;o do nosso &#8220;rel&#243;gio biol&#243;gico&#8221; com fatores ambientais e comportamentais. Muitos desses mecanismos t&#234;m efeito direto sobre o sistema cardiovascular e contribuem para o aumento da PA. Em particular, altera&#231;&#245;es na atividade do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, notadamente as relacionadas ao aumento da atividade simp&#225;tica, parecem ser o principal fator subjacente &#224; AM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup>Wanthong et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> descreveram que valores da PAS ao despertar, apresentavam correla&#231;&#245;es com o IMVE, assim como para o risco residual em eventos cardiovasculares. Al&#233;m disso, apontaram a import&#226;ncia da medida de PA no per&#237;odo do sono como marcador independente de les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o estudada, observamos que no grupo de hipertensos obesos, valores de AM acima de 16 mmHg apresentavam correla&#231;&#227;o linear positiva com a HVE, ponto de corte que definiu um melhor desempenho entre a sensibilidade e especificidade. Provavelmente, e de forma especulativa, a obesidade potencializa os efeitos agressivos da AM ou &#233; um fator adjuvante do risco. A coexist&#234;ncia de obesidade e hipertens&#227;o agrega probabilidade de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, tendo em vista que o aumento do peso amplifica o risco de outras doen&#231;as como diabetes e doen&#231;a renal cronica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup>De fato, observamos que 46,8% da popula&#231;&#227;o obesa era tamb&#233;m diab&#233;tica, <italic>versus</italic> 17,4% no grupo de n&#227;o obesos, p&lt;0,001. Aproximadamente 33% dos pacientes n&#227;o obesos (grupo 1) com HVE e diabetes tiveram a AM presente, enquanto no grupo dos obesos (grupo 2), encontramos a taxa de 80%.</p>
      <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que as medidas press&#243;ricas aferidas pela MAPA s&#227;o as melhores preditoras para os desfechos, incluindo mortalidade geral, tendo aspecto acurado quando comparadas &#224;s medidas de consult&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup>Em nossos dados, a m&#233;dia da AM foi de 16,1&#177;12,6 mmHg nos hipertensos obesos, em contraste com os hipertensos n&#227;o obesos, cuja m&#233;dia foi de 22,1&#177;13,3 mmHg, p&lt;0,001. Destacamos a associa&#231;&#227;o positiva entre a AM&gt;16 mmHg com a presen&#231;a de HVE no grupo dos obesos, especulando, portanto, que um menor valor desse biomarcador possa ser utilizado e estratificado para esta popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>A despeito de poucas evid&#234;ncias referenciadas sobre a AM na popula&#231;&#227;o obesa, Amodeo et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> indicaram para a necessidade de mais estudos populacionais para avaliar o impacto da AM, e a defini&#231;&#227;o de um valor de corte para a AM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Em nossa coorte, a melhor associa&#231;&#227;o com a HVE foi com a AM acima de 16 mmHg para o grupo de indiv&#237;duos obesos. Desta forma, notamos que a obesidade pode ter influ&#234;ncia expressiva nos valores press&#243;ricos e nas altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Nos hipertensos obesos, a m&#233;dia do IMVE foi maior quando comparado aos hipertensos n&#227;o obesos. Em estudo prospectivo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> com 433 participantes, a obesidade e a hipertens&#227;o arterial foram os principais fatores determinantes do remodelamento ventricular esquerdo e do surgimento da HVE. Por meio de intera&#231;&#227;o significativa entre obesidade e hipertens&#227;o arterial, os obesos frequentemente desenvolvem hipertens&#227;o e sobrecarga press&#243;rica, exercendo efeito exponencial na preval&#234;ncia da HVE. Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos de grande porte mostraram que a hipertens&#227;o arterial era fator crucial para o remodelamento conc&#234;ntrico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e da HVE conc&#234;ntrica, e de forma independente da obesidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias que o fator inibidor da migra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos, citocina envolvida em amplo espectro de eventos no sistema imune, estaria associado &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e ao remodelamento ventricular esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Desta forma, destacamos que a AM na popula&#231;&#227;o hipertensa e obesa pode ser um fator associado e ter comportamento peculiar, e mensura&#231;&#245;es press&#243;ricas matinais seriam mais sens&#237;veis para detectar o impacto da variabilidade da PA no risco cardiovascular. Em an&#225;lise de nossas observa&#231;&#245;es, sugerimos a composi&#231;&#227;o de uma estrat&#233;gia otimizada, incluindo o registro de todas as vari&#225;veis press&#243;ricas, e especulamos que a AM, sobretudo em popula&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas, como a dos hipertensos obesos, possa estar associada a les&#245;es estruturais do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nos pacientes hipertensos obesos, a AM elevada esteve positivamente associada &#224; HVE, com limiar de correla&#231;&#227;o abaixo dos observados no grupo de pacientes n&#227;o obesos. Essa an&#225;lise de PA pela MAPA evidencia que valores press&#243;ricos aferidos no in&#237;cio da manh&#227; estiveram associados a danos aos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, notadamente expressando a HVE. Portanto, os resultados de nossa an&#225;lise podem ser &#250;teis para avaliar o risco residual em subgrupos de pacientes, a despeito e al&#233;m do risco avaliado pela medi&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica convencional.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo</title>
        <p>Assim como em estudos populacionais, a dificuldade para o achado de AM em obesos prov&#233;m das mensura&#231;&#245;es ideais, principalmente no per&#237;odo do sono, pela adequa&#231;&#227;o do manguito e complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas a poss&#237;veis dist&#250;rbios nesse per&#237;odo. Por se tratar de estudo observacional, n&#227;o podemos inferir causalidade entre as vari&#225;veis estudadas. Ademais, nossos dados s&#227;o provenientes de centro &#250;nico e poss&#237;veis vieses de sele&#231;&#227;o precisam ser considerados. Os hor&#225;rios de sono e vig&#237;lia foram autorrelatados. Existe a possibilidade de que esses hor&#225;rios tenham sido relatados erroneamente por alguns participantes, resultando em poss&#237;veis erros nas estimativas do aumento matinal da PA. Outra poss&#237;vel limita&#231;&#227;o deve-se ao fato de n&#227;o analisarmos outras vari&#225;veis, como a qualidade do sono, e talvez um n&#250;mero amostral maior, al&#233;m da valida&#231;&#227;o externa de nossos achados.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label/>
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Natascha Gon&#231;alves Francisco Palmeira pela Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label/>
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo CAAE 19813019.0.0000.5505. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Association between Morning Surge and Left Ventricular Hypertrophy in Obese Hypertensive Patients</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3906-3186</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Palmeira</surname>
            <given-names>Natascha Gon&#231;alves Francisco</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6746-8327</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bianco</surname>
            <given-names>Henrique Tria</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9603-6072</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bombig</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Teresa Nogueira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9774-4406</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Povoa</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Focaccia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9911-4598</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco A. H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5738-2623</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Thalenberg</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Luna</surname>
            <given-names>Braulio</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marui</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiane</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fischer</surname>
            <given-names>Simone Matheus</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Dilma do Socorro Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Povoa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola Paulista de Medicina da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (EPM/UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: Henrique Tria Bianco &#8226; Escola Paulista de Medicina da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (EPM/UNIFESP) &#8211; Rua Loefgren, 1350. CEP 04023-062, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: henriquetria@uol.com.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <title>Central Illustration</title>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <caption>
              <title>: Association Between Morning Blood Pressure Surge and Left Ventricular Hypertrophy</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>ABPM: ambulatory blood pressure monitoring.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20230050-30050-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Weight gain can trigger mechanisms that increase blood pressure. Nevertheless, obesity causes structural changes in the myocardium, including increased ventricular mass, atrial dilatation, and diastolic and systolic dysfunction. Additionally, blood pressure variations, like morning surge (MS) in obese hypertensive patients may have clinical relevance in cardiovascular events. Although morning blood pressure surge is a physiological phenomenon, excess MS can be considered an independent risk factor for cardiovascular events.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p> To evaluate MS values and their association with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and nocturnal dipping (ND) in obese and non-obese hypertensive patients.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> A cross-sectional study that evaluated BP measurements by ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) and the presence of LVH by echocardiography in 203 hypertensive outpatients, divided into two groups: 109 non-obese and 94 obese hypertensives patients. The significance level was set at 0.05 in two-tailed tests.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> A MS above 20 mmHg by ABPM was detected in 59.2% of patients in the non-obese group and 40.6% in the obese group. LVH was found in 18.1% and 39.3% of patients in the non-obese and obese groups, respectively, p&lt;0.001. In the &#8220;obese group&#8221;, it was observed that a MS&gt;16 mmHg was associated with LVH, [prevalence ratio: 2.80; 95%CI (1.12&#8211;6.98), p=0.03]. For the non-obese group, the cut-off point of MS for this association was &gt;22 mmHg.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p> High MS was positively associated with LVH, with a particular behavior in the hypertensive obese group.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertrophy, Left Ventricular</kwd>
        <kwd>Blood Pressure Monitoring, Ambulatory</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Adult overweight and obesity are associated with reduced life expectancy and increased premature death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Several interrelated mechanisms play an important role in the development of arterial hypertension in obesity, often contributing to target organ damage, including cardiovascular diseases and chronic kidney disease. Obesity-related comorbidities are facilitated by and contribute to a high prevalence of arterial hypertension in the obese population,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> by mechanisms including insulin resistance, inflammation, oxidative stress, autonomous nervous system, and activity of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In addition, obesity may cause structural changes in the heart, including increased left atrial volume and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), which are associated with systolic and diastolic dysfunction. The increase in body weight triggers mechanisms that increase blood pressure (BP), and BP variations in obese hypertensive subjects increase the risk of cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Measurable BP variations, such as nocturnal dipping (ND) and morning surge (MS), can provide valuable prognostic information, especially due to relationship with the autonomous nervous system activity and the circadian cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The MS is considered a neural and humoral physiological response to activation of the sympathetic system; however, early BP elevation in the morning seem to have negative implications for cardiovascular outcomes, with association with events like cerebrovascular accident, myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The literature has proposed that MS in BP may be a manifestation of a hemodynamic and atherothrombotic syndrome, marked by differences in BP between post-awakening and night-trough.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize morning BP surge in obese hypertensive individuals, to correlate it with left ventricular mass index (LVMI) and to compare the intensity of MS and ND in obese hypertensive patients with that observed in non-obese hypertensive patients.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study design</title>
          <p>This was a cross-sectional study conducted in a university center. BP measurements of 203 hypertensive outpatients were taken, and patients were divided into two groups, group 1 (109 non-obese patients) and group 2 (94 obese patients). The study protocol was approved by the ethics committee of the university and all participants or legal representatives signed the informed consent form.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Outcome measures</title>
          <p>Parameters of 24-hour ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) and two-dimensional echocardiography with Doppler were analyzed.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>ABPM</title>
          <p>The ABPM devices were programmed to take systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) readings every 15-30 minutes at awakening during the day, and every 30-60 minutes during sleep at night. The ABPM devices were worn on the non-dominant arm following the Brazilian national guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Participants were asked to record the time they went to sleep at night and awoke in the morning. Mean SBP and DBP values from 24-hour monitoring and during sleep, systolic and diastolic BP load, ND, and MS of SBP were analyzed. MS was calculated as the difference between SBP in the morning (mean BP measurements in the first two hours after awakening) and the lowest SBP during sleep (mean of three BP measurements &#8211; the lowest reading, the one immediately before it and the one immediately after it).</p>
          <p>All parameters were compared with normal ranges, including the presence or absence of MS, and categorized as follows: a) present (10-20% drop in BP from awake to sleep periods), b) attenuated (&lt;10% drop in nighttime BP), c) reverse (nighttime BP greater than daytime BP). The <italic>Spacelabs</italic><sup>&#174;</sup> 90207 monitor, validated by the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, which is an organization for promoting the development, and safe and effective use of medical technology founded in 1965) was worn on the same arm the office BP measurements were taken.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Two-dimensional echocardiography with color flow mapping</title>
          <p>Two-dimensional echocardiography with color flow mapping was conducted by a trained cardiologist who was unaware of participants&#8217; baseline characteristics. The ultrasound studies followed the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Echocardiography guidelines. The following parameters were analyzed: left ventricular systolic diameter (LVSD), left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD), interventricular septal thickness (IVST), and left ventricular posterior wall thickness (LVPWT). In addition, end-diastolic and end-systolic volume, diastolic fractional shortening, and ejection fraction by the cube method. For calculation of the left ventricular mass, LVH was defined by the LVMI using the Deveureux&#8217;s formula, and adjusted by body surface: <inline-formula><mml:math><mml:mtext>left ventricular mass </mml:mtext><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>0.80</mml:mn><mml:mrow><mml:mo>{</mml:mo><mml:mn>1.04</mml:mn><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mtext> IVST </mml:mtext><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mtext> LVEDD </mml:mtext><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mtext> LVPWT </mml:mtext><mml:msup><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:msup><mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo><mml:mo/></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mo/><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mtext> LVEDD </mml:mtext><mml:msup><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:msup><mml:mo>}</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mn>0.6</mml:mn><mml:mrow><mml:mtext> </mml:mtext><mml:mi>g</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:math></inline-formula>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup>Left ventricular mass was associated with body surface and indexed (raised to 2.7) for adjustments for cardiac chamber dimensions and anthropometric variation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> The Image Point Hx- HP&#174; machine was used, with a 4Hz linear transducer.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>Sample size was first calculated with a power of 0.95 (1-&#946;); &#945; error of 5%, yielding a size effect of 0.3, and hence a sample size of 134 participants. The adjustment quality was assessed to determine whether the sample data were consistent with a hypothetical distribution. Patients were recruited at a specialty outpatient clinic of a university center. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to verify the normal distribution of the data. Continuous variables with normal distribution were expressed as mean and standard deviation and those without a normal distribution as median and interquartile range (IRQ). Categorical variables were expressed as absolute numbers and percentages. Continuous variables with normal distribution were compared using the t-Student test for independent samples, and non-parametric data with the Mann-Whitney test. The chi-square test (&#967;<sup>2</sup>) was used to assess the association between qualitative variables. The Yates&#8217; correction for continuity was used to adjust the chi-square p-values.</p>
          <p>Correlations between the non-parametric variables were assessed using the Spearman&#8217;s rank correlation coefficient rho (Rho) rank correlation. The MS variable was dichotomized into two groups, with concomitant analysis of residues. The homoscedasticity assumption was analyzed graphically (scatterplot) and the multicollinearity analysis was performed variance inflation factors (VIFs) lower than five and a tolerance index (TI) lower than 0.20. The effect size (d-Cohen) was calculated by the difference between mean MS values between the groups, considering the standard deviations.</p>
          <p>Multiple regression analysis for the presence of LVH (dependent variable) were performed using the covariables age, sex, SBP, DBP, MS and left atrial size, to determine the degree of independence in the association. As this was a cross-sectional study, the prevalence ratio (PR) was calculated using the Wald test. A two-tailed p&lt;0.05 was considered statistically significant. All analyses were performed using the SPSS software version 26.0 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, EUA) <sup>&#174;</sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>The main characteristics of participants are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>. The prevalence of LVH was 38.4% in total sample, and 74.3% in the group of obese patients. There was a significant difference between obese and non-obese patients for the left atrial size, IVS, LVPW and LVMI. According to ABPM, there was a significant difference in MS between the groups, with a prevalence of MS above 20mmHg and LVH significantly higher in the obese group (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>), associated. The size effect, calculated as the difference between mean MS values between the groups was 0.40, with a power of 0.95. There was a positive correlation between LVMI and MS, with a Rho of [0.54; 95%CI (0.42-0.63), p&lt;0.001] (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>). Mean LVMI and respective 95%CI in the groups of subjects with and without an increased MS are shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>. In obese hypertensive individuals, mean LVMI was 52.87 &#177; 13.37 <italic>versus</italic> 40.58 &#177; 12.29 in non-obese hypertensive individuals (p&lt;0.001).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Characteristics of the study population</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>General population</th>
                  <th>Non-obese group</th>
                  <th>Obese group</th>
                  <th>p-value</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">n (%)</th>
                  <th>203</th>
                  <th>109 (53.7)</th>
                  <th>94 (46.3)</th>
                  <th> </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>Epidemiological</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age, median (IQR)</td>
                  <td align="center">59 (50-67)</td>
                  <td align="center">62 (18-87)</td>
                  <td align="center">58 (18-79)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.28</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Male sex, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">57 (28.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">35 (32.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (23.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.17</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Female sex, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">146 (71.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">74 (67.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">72 (76.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.19</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BMI, median (IQR)</td>
                  <td align="center">27.48 (17.31-50.43)</td>
                  <td align="center">23.83 (17.31-29.48)</td>
                  <td align="center">38.33 (30.12-50.43)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diabetes, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">63 (31.1%)</td>
                  <td align="center">19 (17.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center">44 (46.8%)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>Echocardiography</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Left atrium, (cm); mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">3.66 &#177; 0.55</td>
                  <td align="center">3.52 &#177; 0.61</td>
                  <td align="center">3.82 &#177; 0.44</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Interventricular septum, (cm); mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">0.97&#177; 0.17</td>
                  <td align="center">0.92 &#177; 0.16</td>
                  <td align="center">1.02 &#177; 0.16</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Posterior wall, (cm); mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">0.92 &#177; 0.13</td>
                  <td align="center">0.88 &#177; 0.14</td>
                  <td align="center">0.96 &#177; 0.10</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>DDVE, (cm); mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">4.95 &#177; 0.53</td>
                  <td align="center">4.81 &#177; 0.49</td>
                  <td align="center">5.11 &#177; 0.53</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IMVE<sup>2,7</sup>, mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">46.27 &#177; 14.17</td>
                  <td align="center">40.58 &#177; 12.29</td>
                  <td align="center">52.87 &#177; 13.37</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>MAPA</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SBP 24 h, mmHg; mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">126.51 &#177; 16.11</td>
                  <td align="center">126.33 &#177; 18.03</td>
                  <td align="center">126.71 &#177; 13.78</td>
                  <td align="center">0.87</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>DBP 24 h, mmHg mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">74.66 &#177; 10.71</td>
                  <td align="center">76.09 &#177; 11.35</td>
                  <td align="center">73.08 &#177; 9.76</td>
                  <td align="center">0.04</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Morning SBP, mmHg mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">129.31 &#177; 19.97</td>
                  <td align="center">131.01 &#177; 20.37</td>
                  <td align="center">127.33 &#177; 19.42</td>
                  <td align="center">0.19</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Waking SBP, mmHg mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">126.37 &#177; 17.51</td>
                  <td align="center">126.26 &#177; 19.46</td>
                  <td align="center">126.48 &#177; 15.16</td>
                  <td align="center">0.92</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Waking DBP, mmHg mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">74.35 &#177; 12.44</td>
                  <td align="center">75.76 &#177; 13.04</td>
                  <td align="center">72.80 &#177; 11.62</td>
                  <td align="center">0.09</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sleep SBP, mmHg mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">121.22 &#177; 19.84</td>
                  <td align="center">120.71 &#177; 21.64</td>
                  <td align="center">121.78 &#177; 17.73</td>
                  <td align="center">0.38</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sleep DBP, mmHg mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">70.70 &#177; 12.73</td>
                  <td align="center">72.19 &#177; 12.52</td>
                  <td align="center">69.05 &#177; 12.83</td>
                  <td align="center">0.08</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Morning surge, mmHg; mean&#177;SD</td>
                  <td align="center">19.38 &#177; 13.36</td>
                  <td align="center">22.16 &#177; 13.30</td>
                  <td align="center">16.16 &#177; 12.67</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>Continuous data are expressed as mean and standard deviation (SD) or median and interquartile range (IQR), as appropriate. Categorical variables were expressed as absolute numbers and percentage. Comparisons between means were performed by the Student&#8217;s t-test for independent samples and Pearson&#8217;s chi-square test for categorical variables; BMI: body mass index (weight/height<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>); LVDD: left ventricular diastolic diameter; LVMI:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> left ventricular mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; P-value was expressed for comparison between the groups. Left ventricular mass was calculated using the Deveureux&#8217;s formula, adjusted by body surface and fitted to the exponential.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Presence of morning rise in blood pressure (morning surge; MS) associated with left ventricular hypertrophy between the studied groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th rowspan="3">Morning surge</th>
                  <th>Absence of LVH</th>
                  <th>Presence of LVH</th>
                  <th rowspan="3">p-value</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2" rowspan="1">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>n (%)</th>
                  <th>n (%)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">Non-obese</td>
                  <td align="center">Absent MS</td>
                  <td align="center">44 (80.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">11 (20.0)</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="2">0.80</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Present MS</td>
                  <td align="center">45 (83.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (16.7)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">Obese</td>
                  <td align="center">Absent MS</td>
                  <td align="center">27 (47.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">30 (52.6)</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="2">0.031</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Present MS</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (24.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">28 (75.7)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>Data expressed as absolute values and frequency, n (%); between-group comparisons were performed by Pearson&#8217;s chi-square test and respective significance values (p-value); MS: morning surge; LVH: left ventricular hypertrophy; Morning surge &gt; 20 mmHg.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Correlation between morning surge and left ventricular mass index; 95% confidence interval for Spearman&#8217;s (Rho)rank correlation coefficient.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20230050-30050-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Boxplot of mean left ventricular mass index (LVMI) and respective 95% confidence intervals in the groups with and without morning blood pressure surge.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20230050-30050-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>In linear regression analysis, a MS value &gt; 16mmHg showed the strongest association with the presence of LVH in the obese group, in contrast with a MS &gt; 22 mmHg in the non-obese group. In binary logistic regression, in which the MS values were dichotomized, the relationship between the PR between MS and LVH was [PR: 2.80; 95%CI (1.12&#8211;6.98)], p=0.03 with a cutoff of &gt;16 mmHg for the obese group, considering the necessary adjustments for possible confounders.</p>
        <p>With respect to ND, in the group of obese patients, 73% of patients with elevated MS showed a physiological ND (drop in BP greater than 10% for this period). In contrast, in the group of non-obese patients, ND associated with the increase in MS was seen in 66.7% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref>). Also, and as expected, the number of anti-hypertensive agents used in the group of obese patients was higher than in the non-obese group (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 4</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Association between the presence of morning surge (MS) and nocturnal dipping pattern in the studied groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th rowspan="3">Nocturnal dipping pattern</th>
                  <th>Absence of morning surge</th>
                  <th>Presence of morning surge</th>
                  <th rowspan="3">p-value</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2" rowspan="1">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>n (%)</th>
                  <th>n (%)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="1" rowspan="3">N&#227;o obesos</td>
                  <td align="center">Present</td>
                  <td align="center">24 (43.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">36 (66.7)</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="3">
                    <bold>0.03</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Attenuated</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (40.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (27.8)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Reverse</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (16.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">3 (5.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="1" rowspan="3">Obesos</td>
                  <td align="center">Present</td>
                  <td align="center">25 (43.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">27 (73.0)</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="1" rowspan="3">
                    <bold>0.02</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Attenuated</td>
                  <td align="center">24 (42.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">8 (21.6)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Reverse</td>
                  <td align="center">4 (7.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (5.4)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>Nocturnal dipping was stratified into a) present (nocturnal blood pressure dipping between 10% and 20% relative to daytime); b) attenuated (nocturnal blood pressure dipping of 0-10%); c) reverse (nighttime blood pressure greater than daytime blood pressure).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4001">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Number of anti-hypertensive drugs between the studied groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="8">Groups and drugs</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="8">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th colspan="5">Number of medications</th>
                  <th rowspan="3">Total</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="5">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>0</th>
                  <th>1</th>
                  <th>2</th>
                  <th>3</th>
                  <th>4</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">Group</td>
                  <td>Non-obese</td>
                  <td align="center">31</td>
                  <td align="center">21</td>
                  <td align="center">36</td>
                  <td align="center">13</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                  <td align="center">109</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Obese</td>
                  <td align="center">12</td>
                  <td align="center">7</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                  <td align="center">31</td>
                  <td align="center">14</td>
                  <td align="center">94</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="2">
                    <bold>Total</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">43</td>
                  <td align="center">28</td>
                  <td align="center">66</td>
                  <td align="center">44</td>
                  <td align="center">22</td>
                  <td align="center">203</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4001">
                <p>Number of anti-hypertensive drugs by group (obese and non-obese).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Our study was designed to determine the prevalence of MS in obese hypertensive patients who had echocardiographic evidence of LVH, in accordance with guidelines on the management of hypertension and prevention of complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Morning BP surge is an easy-to-measure BP-related parameter, consisting of the difference of mean BP between awakening and sleep period.</p>
        <p>The prevalence of obesity in the industrialized world has increased to alarming levels in the last decades. It has been estimated that a significant proportion of hypertension cases are associated with obesity, and that obese individuals are more likely to develop hypertension. Obesity, hypertension and LVH are important cardiovascular risk factors. Thus, new biomarkers have been investigated for the prediction of major cardiovascular outcomes and even surrogate outcomes.</p>
        <p>Normally, there is a decrease in BP during sleep in relation to wakefulness. The sudden increase in BP in the transition from sleep to awake is known as MS. Vascular mechanisms that lead to excessive morning BP surge and its pathophysiological implications have not been fully elucidated, with the first evidence of the relationship between MS and cardiovascular events being reported in 2003 by Kario et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> who observed an independent association with silent cerebrovascular disease. In the Ohasama study, conducted by Metoki et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> a positive significant association between MS and hemorrhagic stroke was reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> In addition, the relationship between MS and cardiovascular outcomes was reported in another trial, which investigated this association in patients with ND.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Li et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> evaluating an extensive database (International Database on Ambulatory Blood Pressure) with 5,645 participants from eight countries, showed that MS is predictive of cardiovascular events, particularly stroke in Asians and coronary events in Europeans.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> The study by Pierdomenico et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> showed that high MS predicts stroke in elderly patient treated for hypertension, who have ND.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In contrast, in the study by Verdecchia et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> with 3012 initially untreated subjects, those allocated in the upper quartile of MS showed the lowest risk for major cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Discrepancy in these results is probably due to numerous factors including the heterogeneity of populations, confounders, and lack of a specific cut-off point for high MS. Mean age, prevalence of hypertension and anti-hypertensive therapy, follow-up duration, evaluation of the impact of ND and ethnics tended to differ between the studies. A systematic review and meta-analysis pooled data on MS from 14133 individuals of seven longitudinal studies, with a mean follow-up of 7,1 years. It was shown that excess MS was associated with increased risk of overall mortality. Patients with high MS showed a tendency for increased risk of overall mortality, stroke and cardiovascular events, but with no statistical difference.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> A meta-analysis conducted by Sheppard et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>showed that, when analyzed as a continuous variable, which has more power to detect an association, a 10mmHg increase in MS was associated with increased risk of stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Similar results were reported by the previously mentioned study by Kario et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> who evaluated MS as a continuous variable, and showed that increases in this biomarker was associated with increased risk of stroke.</p>
        <p>A universal cut-off value for abnormal MS has not been established yet. stroke. Hoshide et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> in the ARTEMIS study, showed that MS was higher in Japanese than in European hypertensive patients, even after adjusting for age and 24-hour mean BP levels. This difference remained significant after accounting for differences in ND.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Markers of hypertensive cardiac disease, which includes increases in LVMI, LVH and a lower A/E ratio (measurement of diastolic dysfunction) were associated with excess morning BP surge.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Difficulties in body weight reduction and drug therapy management to achieve treatment adherence and minimize degenerative chronic diseases are the main challenges of the multidisciplinary team. To identify instruments or indicators of associations may be useful in predicting events, notably in the obese hypertensive population. Obesity should no longer be considered merely as a risk factor, but rather a chronic disease and a public health problem, requiring investments in researches and treatment in the following years. In addition, excess body fat, currently considered an independent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, is a predisposing factor for the development of hypertension in these patients. Due to the increasing number of hypertensive individuals in the world, epidemiological studies on BP have been increasingly discussed, considering significative correlations between BP variability (indicators like the type of MS and NS, among others) and the development of target-organ damage.</p>
        <p>Most physiological mechanisms follow a circadian pattern, determined by a complex interaction of our &#8220;biological clock&#8221; with environmental and behavioral factors. Many of these mechanisms have a direct effect on the cardiovascular system and contribute to the increase in BP. Changes in autonomous nervous system activity, notably those related to an increased sympathetic activity, seem to be the main underlying factor in MS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Wanthong et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> described that BP levels on awakening were correlated with LVMI and with residual risk for cardiovascular events. Besides, the authors showed the importance of the sleep BP as an independent maker of organ damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In our study population, we found that in the obese hypertensive group, MS greater than 16mmHg showed a positive linear correlation with LVH, and this cut-off point was the one that defined the best performance of sensitivity and specificity. Probably, and speculatively, obesity either potentializes the aggressive effects of MS or it acts as an adjuvant to the risk. The coexistence of obesity and hypertension increases the probability of cardiovascular complications, whereby excess body weight increases the risk for other diseases like diabetes and chronic kidney disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> In fact, in our study group, we found that 46.8% of the obese population were also diabetic in contrast with 17.4% in the non-obese group (p&lt;0.01). Nearly 33% of non-obese patients (group 1) with LVH and diabetes had MS, versus 80% in the obese group.</p>
        <p>There is evidence that BP measures determined by ABPM are better predictors of the outcomes, including overall mortality, for their accuracy as compared with office BP measures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> In our study, mean BP was 16.1&#177;12.6 mmHg in obese hypertensive individuals and 22.1&#177;13.3 mmHg (p&lt;0.001) in non-obese hypertensive individuals. We highlight the positive association between MS &gt; 16 mmHg and the presence of LVH in the obese group, and speculate that a lower MS may be used and stratified for this population.</p>
        <p>Despite little available evidence on MS in obesity, Amodeo et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup>indicated the need for more population studies to evaluate the impact of MS, and to define a cut-off point for MS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup>In our cohort, MS values above 16mmHg had the strongest association with LVH in the group of obese individuals. Therefore, we found that obesity may have a marked influence on BP values and left ventricular structural changes. In obese hypertensive individuals, mean LVMI was higher as compared with non-obese hypertensive individuals. In a prospective study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> with 433 participants, obesity and hypertension was the main determinants of left ventricular remodeling, and development of LVH. By a significant interaction between obesity and hypertension, obese individuals usually develop hypertension and pressure overload, with an exponential effect on the prevalence of LVH. Large epidemiological studies showed that hypertension was crucial factor for left ventricular concentric remodeling and concentric left ventricular hypertrophy, independently of obesity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Besides, there is evidence that macrophage migration inhibitory factor, a cytokine involved in a wide range of events in the immune system, would be associated with endothelial dysfunction and left ventricular remodelling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Therefore, in hypertensive obese subjects, we believe that MS may be an associated factor and show a particular behavior, and morning BP measurements could be more sensitive to detect the impact of BP variability on cardiovascular risk. Based on the analysis of our observations, we recommend the development of an optimized strategy that includes the measurement of BP parameters and speculate that MS, especially in specific populations, like obese hypertensive patients, may be associated with myocardial structural changes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>In obese hypertensive patients, high MS was positively associated with LVH, with a correlation threshold lower than that observed in the non-obese patients. This analysis of BP by ABPM revealed that morning BP values measured at early morning were associated with target-organ damage, particularly LVH. Therefore, our findings may be useful in assessing the residual risk in subgroups of patients despite and in addition to the risk assessed by conventional BP measurement.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Study limitation</title>
          <p>Similar to population studies, the difficulty in detecting morning BP surge in obese individuals lies in obtaining ideal measurements, due to inappropriate cuff size, and possible complications in this period. As this was an observational study, causality between the studied variables could not be inferred. Both sleeping and waking times were self-reported and the possibility that these times were erroneously reported by some patients cannot be excluded, resulting in possible errors in estimating morning BP surge. Another possible limitation is that we did not analyze other variables, such as sleep quality and maybe a larger sample, and we did not assess external validity of our findings.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label/>
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Natascha Gon&#231;alves Francisco Palmeira, from Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label/>
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo under the protocol number CAAE 19813019.0.0000.5505. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
