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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">9pDG9qV5fxGJYtw7gp8gRMp</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000900310</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00310</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220914</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Associa&#231;&#245;es entre Obesidade Eutr&#243;fica e Altera&#231;&#245;es no Perfil Lip&#237;dico de Adultos Jovens</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passos</surname>
            <given-names>Anna Flavia Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Acsa de Castro</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2518-7575</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Coelho</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Siqueira Guedes</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9972-4743</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cominetti</surname>
            <given-names>Cristiane</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Grupo de Pesquisa em Gen&#244;mica Nutricional</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Grupo de Pesquisa em Gen&#244;mica Nutricional , Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o , Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s , Goi&#226;nia , GO &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label> 2 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Agronomia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Faculdade de Agronomia , Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s , Goi&#226;nia , GO &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspond&#234;ncia: Cristiane Cominetti &#8226; Grupo de Pesquisa em Gen&#244;mica Nutricional, Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o, Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s - Rua 227, s/n, Quadra 68, Leste Universit&#225;rio. CEP 74605-080, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brasil E-mail: <email>ccominetti@ufg.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>9</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>9</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220914</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <title>Figura Central</title>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <caption>
              <title>: Associa&#231;&#245;es entre Obesidade Eutr&#243;fica e Altera&#231;&#245;es no Perfil Lip&#237;dico de Adultos Jovens</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; OE: obesidade eutr&#243;fica.</attrib>
            <alternatives>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/9pDG9qV5fxGJYtw7gp8gRMp/05f1df481b9e95dd92644e13b8a1e10840aab4c4.tif"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/9pDG9qV5fxGJYtw7gp8gRMp/c90597c5f6e35ab32d9221d0d89a5bb9ac9aa3f6.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/9pDG9qV5fxGJYtw7gp8gRMp/c80faa1415131dccfc70cafb8c629c1d397b2d81.jpg" specific-use="scielo-web" content-type="scielo-267x140"/>
            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p>A obesidade eutr&#243;fica (OE) &#233; caracterizada por &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) normal, mas com alto percentual de gordura corporal (%GC), o que aumenta os riscos de comorbidades cardiometab&#243;licas. A avalia&#231;&#227;o e interpreta&#231;&#227;o precisas dos dados de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para reduzir esses riscos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p>Comparar o perfil cardiometab&#243;lico de indiv&#237;duos com OE e %GC normal e avaliar os fatores de risco associados.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p>Foi realizado estudo transversal com 222 adultos brasileiros de uma comunidade universit&#225;ria, dos quais 157 tinham OE e 65 tinham IMC e %GC normais (grupo sem OE). Todos os participantes relataram ser assintom&#225;ticos e sem problemas de sa&#250;de subjacentes. Foram avaliadas caracter&#237;sticas socioecon&#244;micas, estilo de vida, consumo alimentar, antropometria, medidas de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal (por meio de absorciometria radiol&#243;gica de dupla energia) e perfis lip&#237;dico e glic&#234;mico. Valor de p &lt; 0,05 foi estabelecido como significativo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p>A mediana de idade dos participantes foi de 23 anos (intervalo interquartil: 21 a 25), sendo a maioria do sexo feminino (67,1%). N&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as significativas na press&#227;o arterial, idade ou n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica entre os grupos com e sem OE. No entanto, a frequ&#234;ncia de dist&#250;rbios do perfil lip&#237;dico foi maior no grupo com OE (54%) em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo sem OE (34%) (p &lt; 0,006). Circunfer&#234;ncia do pesco&#231;o, %GC e dist&#250;rbios do perfil lip&#237;dico foram positivamente associados com a OE.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p>Indiv&#237;duos com OE apresentam pior perfil cardiometab&#243;lico do que aqueles sem OE, e essa condi&#231;&#227;o est&#225; associada a importantes biomarcadores. Torna-se importante abordar esses resultados para prevenir complica&#231;&#245;es cardiometab&#243;licas de longo prazo. A avalia&#231;&#227;o e a interpreta&#231;&#227;o precisas dos dados da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal, independentemente do IMC, s&#227;o cruciais nesse cen&#225;rio.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Apolipoprote&#237;nas</kwd>
        <kwd>Composi&#231;&#227;o Corporal</kwd>
        <kwd>Dislipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Glicemia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="56"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A obesidade eutr&#243;fica (OE), descrita em 2006, &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o caracterizada por &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) normal e alto percentual de gordura corporal (%GC). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Foi descrita em raz&#227;o de falhas nos conceitos de IMC e obesidade. A obesidade &#233; definida pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de como excesso de gordura corporal associada a riscos &#224; sa&#250;de <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> e &#233; diagnosticada com base no IMC. No entanto, o IMC &#233; conhecido por ser um &#237;ndice falho, especialmente quando aplicado em n&#237;vel individual, pois n&#227;o diferencia massa corporal magra de massa corporal gorda. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Como resultado do excesso de %GC, indiv&#237;duos com OE apresentam maior risco de desenvolver s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, dislipidemia aterog&#234;nica, obesidade e doen&#231;as cardiometab&#243;licas, incluindo diabetes mellitus tipo 2 e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV), em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos com %GC normal. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> As DCV s&#227;o a principal causa de morte em todo o mundo, e existe uma proje&#231;&#227;o de que ser&#227;o respons&#225;veis por mais de 23 milh&#245;es de mortes at&#233; 2030. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Portanto, considerando a import&#226;ncia da adiposidade como fator de risco para DCV e outras doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis relacionadas &#224; nutri&#231;&#227;o, a avalia&#231;&#227;o do %GC em indiv&#237;duos com IMC normal &#233; fundamental para diagn&#243;stico preciso e interven&#231;&#245;es precoces. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Estima-se que aproximadamente 30 milh&#245;es de pessoas nos Estados Unidos apresentam OE, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> e alguns estudos brasileiros sobre esse assunto <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> revelaram que a OE est&#225; associada &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e &#224; resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina (RI). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Em estudo pr&#233;vio de nosso grupo, observamos alta frequ&#234;ncia de dislipidemia em indiv&#237;duos com OE. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Esses resultados refor&#231;am a rela&#231;&#227;o entre OE e dist&#250;rbios nos biomarcadores lip&#237;dicos e glic&#234;micos, que s&#227;o importantes preditores de DCV e desenvolvimento de diabetes mellitus tipo 2.</p>
      <p>Com base na hip&#243;tese de que o %GC elevado pode resultar em altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil cardiometab&#243;lico, mesmo na presen&#231;a de IMC normal e, pela import&#226;ncia de compreender os aspectos metab&#243;licos da OE, o presente estudo visou comparar o perfil cardiometab&#243;lico de indiv&#237;duos com e sem OE, bem como avaliar suas associa&#231;&#245;es com dados socioecon&#244;micos, antropom&#233;tricos, de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal, bioqu&#237;micos e de consumo alimentar.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Desenho do estudo e participantes</title>
        <p>Trata-se de um estudo transversal com recrutamento e coleta de dados no per&#237;odo de janeiro a junho de 2019. O estudo foi divulgado por meio de folders, redes sociais e e-mails enviados a alunos, professores e demais funcion&#225;rios da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s. Foram inclu&#237;dos indiv&#237;duos que apresentaram IMC normal (entre 18,50 e 24,99 kg/m <sup>2</sup> ) <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> e idade entre 20 e 59 anos. Conforme descrito na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref> , n&#227;o foram inclu&#237;dos: fumantes; portadores de implantes met&#225;licos ou com amputa&#231;&#227;o de membros; indiv&#237;duos que praticavam atividade f&#237;sica intensa (atletas ou praticantes regulares de exerc&#237;cios de alto rendimento); indiv&#237;duos que autorrelataram uso de suplementa&#231;&#227;o vitam&#237;nica e/ou mineral, presen&#231;a de doen&#231;as agudas e/ou cr&#244;nicas, uso de medicamentos hipolipemiantes, anti-hipertensivos, antiglic&#234;micos ou insulina; mulheres gr&#225;vidas ou lactantes; mulheres na menopausa ou em terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal; indiv&#237;duos em acompanhamento nutricional e/ou que mudaram sua alimenta&#231;&#227;o habitual nos &#250;ltimos 6 meses anteriores &#224; coleta de dados; ou aqueles que perderam alguma etapa da coleta de dados. Esses crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram implementados para gerenciar poss&#237;veis vari&#225;veis de confus&#227;o que podem introduzir vi&#233;s na rela&#231;&#227;o entre o excesso de gordura corporal e as vari&#225;veis investigadas neste estudo.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma de recrutamento de participantes</title>
              <p>IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; OE: obesidade eutr&#243;fica.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220914-20914-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Os indiv&#237;duos foram agrupados por sexo e idade, e foram aplicados os pontos de corte utilizados em dois estudos bem estabelecidos sobre OE para classificar o %GC. Os crit&#233;rios para pontos de corte foram selecionados com base na consist&#234;ncia do m&#233;todo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal. Inicialmente, foi utilizada a refer&#234;ncia dos autores que originalmente definiram a OE <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> em mulheres; no entanto, eles n&#227;o forneceram pontos de corte para homens. Para abordar essa lacuna, buscou-se uma refer&#234;ncia para indiv&#237;duos do sexo masculino com um ponto de corte mais sens&#237;vel que ainda capturasse os fatores de risco associados. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Para mulheres e homens, pontos de corte &gt; 30% <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> e &gt; 19%, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> respectivamente, foram aplicados para classificar o %GC como elevado. Considerando a falta de um crit&#233;rio padronizado para classificar a preval&#234;ncia de OE, adotamos um conjunto de limiares propostos para sobrepeso e obesidade em adultos, considerando a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o excesso de %GC e riscos &#224; sa&#250;de. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Os limites propostos para classifica&#231;&#227;o foram determinados da maneira seguinte: &lt; 20% para muito baixo, 20% a &lt; 30% para baixo, 30% a &lt; 50% para moderado, 50% a &lt; 70% para alto e &#8805; 70% para muito alto. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Coleta de dados</title>
        <p>Os dados foram coletados na Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o e na Unidade de Pesquisa Cl&#237;nica do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s. Primeiramente, os participantes receberam informa&#231;&#245;es sobre o estudo e assinaram um termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido. Foi aplicado um question&#225;rio para avaliar dados socioecon&#244;micos, demogr&#225;ficos, de sa&#250;de, estilo de vida e consumo alimentar (recordat&#243;rio alimentar de 24 horas). Foram realizadas 3 medidas n&#227;o consecutivas de press&#227;o arterial, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> absorciometria radiol&#243;gica de dupla energia (DXA) e avalia&#231;&#227;o antropom&#233;trica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m foram determinados a classifica&#231;&#227;o econ&#244;mica <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> e o n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Amostras de sangue foram coletadas da veia cubital mediana ap&#243;s jejum de 12 horas por um profissional habilitado. Imediatamente ap&#243;s a coleta, as amostras de sangue foram transferidas para tubos apropriados para obten&#231;&#227;o de soro e/ou plasma e, em seguida, enviadas ao laborat&#243;rio para an&#225;lises bioqu&#237;micas. Os indiv&#237;duos foram orientados a n&#227;o consumir bebidas alco&#243;licas ou praticar atividade f&#237;sica intensa nas 72 horas anteriores &#224; coleta de sangue. Foram tamb&#233;m instru&#237;dos a manter sua dieta habitual e um peso est&#225;vel nas &#250;ltimas 2 semanas anteriores &#224; coleta de sangue. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Dois outros recordat&#243;rios alimentares de 24 horas n&#227;o consecutivos, incluindo um dia de fim de semana, foram coletados. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Antropometria e composi&#231;&#227;o corporal</title>
        <p>A massa corporal foi medida em uma balan&#231;a digital Filizola <sup>&#174;</sup> (Filizola Shop, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil) e a estatura foi determinada com um estadi&#244;metro Seca <sup>&#174;</sup> (Seca Deutschland, Hamburgo, Alemanha). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> As circunfer&#234;ncias da cintura e do pesco&#231;o foram medidas em duplicata com uma fita m&#233;trica corporal Seca <sup>&#174;</sup> com 200 cm de comprimento e precis&#227;o de 1 mm (Seca Deutschland, Hamburgo, Alemanha), e foi usado o valor m&#233;dio para an&#225;lise dos dados. A composi&#231;&#227;o corporal foi medida usando um dispositivo DPX NT Lunar <sup>&#174;</sup> DXA (General Electric Medical Systems, Madison, EUA). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarcadores cardiometab&#243;licos</title>
        <p>Foram avaliadas as concentra&#231;&#245;es sangu&#237;neas de colesterol total (CT), triacilglicerol (TG), colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade (LDL-c), colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de alta densidade (HDL-c), colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de muito baixa densidade (VLDL-c), apolipoprote&#237;na (Apo) A1, Apo B, glicose, insulina e hemoglobina glicada (HbA1c). Os biomarcadores do perfil lip&#237;dico s&#233;rico foram determinados a partir do m&#233;todo enzim&#225;tico colorim&#233;trico direto. As concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL-c, VLDL-c e n&#227;o HDL-c foram estimadas por meio de equa&#231;&#245;es. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Foram usados os seguintes pontos de corte para classificar altera&#231;&#245;es dos marcadores: CT &#8805; 190, LDL-c &#8805; 130, n&#227;o HDL-c &#8805; 160, TG &#8805; 150, VLDL-c &#8805; 30, HDL-c &lt; 40 (todos em mg/dL); rela&#231;&#227;o CT/HDL-c &#8805; 4,4 para mulheres e &#8805; 5,1 para homens; e raz&#227;o LDL-c/HDL-c &#8805; 2,9 para mulheres e &#8805; 3,3 para homens. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> As concentra&#231;&#245;es de Apo A1 e Apo B foram analisadas pelo m&#233;todo de turbidimetria e foram consideradas alteradas quando Apo A1 estava &lt; 140 mg/dL para mulheres e &lt; 120 mg/dL para homens <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> e quando Apo B estava &#8805; 104 mg/dL para mulheres e homens. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> A rela&#231;&#227;o Apo B/Apo A1 foi considerada elevada quando estava &#8805; 0,6 para mulheres e &#8805; 0,7 para homens. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> O &#237;ndice aterog&#234;nico foi estimado, e os valores foram considerados altos quando &gt; 2,24. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de glicose foram determinadas pelo m&#233;todo colorim&#233;trico enzim&#225;tico, adotando-se os valores de refer&#234;ncia estabelecidos pela Sociedade Brasileira de Diabetes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> As concentra&#231;&#245;es sangu&#237;neas totais de HbA1c foram avaliadas pelo m&#233;todo de inibi&#231;&#227;o imunoturbidim&#233;trica, aplicando-se os valores de refer&#234;ncia da Sociedade Brasileira de Diabetes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> As concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de insulina foram avaliadas por eletroquimioluminesc&#234;ncia. Os &#237;ndices <italic>homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance</italic> (HOMA-IR), HOMA2-IR, HOMA <italic>of beta-cell function</italic> (HOMA-beta) e &#237;ndice quantitativo de verifica&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade &#224; insulina (QUICKI) foram calculados. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Os pontos de corte foram &gt; 2,71 para HOMA-IR, &gt; 1,80 para HOMA2-IR, acima do percentil 90 da amostra para HOMA-beta e inferior ao percentil 10 da amostra para o &#237;ndice QUICKI. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> O &#237;ndice triacilglicerol-glicose (TyG) foi estimado, e foram usados como pontos de corte valores superiores a 4,55 para mulheres e 4,68 para homens. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Consumo alimentar</title>
        <p>Tr&#234;s recordat&#243;rios de 24 horas foram aplicados em dias n&#227;o consecutivos, incluindo um dia de final de semana, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> seguindo o m&#233;todo de passagens m&#250;ltiplas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Dois nutricionistas treinados aplicaram um recordat&#243;rio de 24 horas presencialmente e dois recordat&#243;rios de 24 horas por meio de telefonemas. Para auxiliar na quantifica&#231;&#227;o das por&#231;&#245;es de alimentos, foram utilizados um manual fotogr&#225;fico e utens&#237;lios de medidas caseiras. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> A convers&#227;o das medidas caseiras em gramas <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> e o gerenciamento dos dados foram padronizados. Os recordat&#243;rios alimentares de 24 horas foram avaliados por meio do software Nutrition Data System for Research software (NDSR, Nutrition Coordinating Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis&#8211;Saint Paul, EUA). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Foram aplicados os valores propostos pela Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia para macronutrientes, fibra alimentar e adequa&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e justificativa do tamanho da amostra</title>
        <p>Bancos de dados em dupla entrada foram constru&#237;dos para verificar a consist&#234;ncia. Apesar de os crit&#233;rios de sele&#231;&#227;o para a faixa et&#225;ria adulta de 20 a 59 anos, com o recrutamento de apenas dois indiv&#237;duos com mais de 40 anos, estes foram exclu&#237;dos das an&#225;lises, permanecendo apenas adultos jovens com 39 anos ou menos, de modo que, em termos de idade, a amostra n&#227;o apresentou esses valores at&#237;picos. Considerando que n&#227;o h&#225; estudos sobre OE com amostras representativas do Brasil, o c&#225;lculo amostral foi baseado no tamanho do efeito de Cohen para amostras independentes. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> O poder estat&#237;stico para rejeitar a hip&#243;tese nula foi estabelecido em 80%, com probabilidade de erro tipo I de 0,05, e tamanhos de amostra de 157 e 65 observa&#231;&#245;es para indiv&#237;duos com e sem OE, respectivamente. O tamanho do efeito estimado foi de 0,41, o que &#233; considerado um valor m&#233;dio. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados foi avaliada por meio do teste de Shapiro-Wilk. Teste t de Student n&#227;o pareado ou teste de Mann-Whitney foram aplicados para compara&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;dias, com base na distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados. A an&#225;lise de dados categ&#243;ricos e da frequ&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil cardiometab&#243;lico de indiv&#237;duos com e sem OE foi realizada por meio do teste &#967; <sup>2</sup> de Pearson ou do teste exato de Fisher. Os dados de ingest&#227;o de nutrientes foram ajustados para energia quando necess&#225;rio. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram apresentadas como frequ&#234;ncias (%) absolutas e relativas e as vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas, como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o ou mediana (intervalo interquartil) de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados.</p>
        <p>Utilizamos modelos de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla para investigar as rela&#231;&#245;es entre vari&#225;veis independentes e dependentes. Para aprimorar os modelos, usamos a estrat&#233;gia <italic>stepwise</italic> , um procedimento automatizado para selecionar as vari&#225;veis preditoras mais significativas para incluir no modelo. As vari&#225;veis independentes foram sexo, cor da pele, idade, n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica, press&#245;es arteriais sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, peso, estatura, IMC, circunfer&#234;ncias do pesco&#231;o e da cintura, %GC, %GC ginoide e androide, rela&#231;&#227;o %GC androide/ginoide, glicemia de jejum e insulina, HOMA-IR, HOMA-2IR, HOMA-beta, HbA1c, &#237;ndice QUICKI, Apo A1, Apo B, CT, HDL-c, LDL-c, n&#227;o HDL-c, VLDL-c, TG, as rela&#231;&#245;es CT/HDL-c, LDL-c/HDL-c e Apo B/Apo A1, TyG, &#237;ndice aterog&#234;nico, presen&#231;a de dist&#250;rbios nos perfis glic&#234;mico e lip&#237;dico, energia, gordura total, carboidratos, prote&#237;nas, colesterol diet&#233;tico, &#225;cidos graxos saturados, mono- e poli-insaturados, e fibras alimentares. Todas as vari&#225;veis foram escolhidas de acordo com sua import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica com a condi&#231;&#227;o estudada. P &lt; 0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo e todas as an&#225;lises foram realizadas usando o software R vers&#227;o 4.0.3. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Foram recrutados 222 indiv&#237;duos ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref> ), dos quais 67% eram mulheres. Os participantes do estudo tinham idade entre 20 e 34 anos e IMC normal. Seguindo a classifica&#231;&#227;o de %GC, 157 (71%) participantes foram designados para o grupo OE, indicando alta preval&#234;ncia, enquanto os 65 participantes restantes foram designados para o grupo sem OE. Considerando o sexo, 72,5% das mulheres e 67,1% dos homens apresentaram %GC aumentado. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ponto de corte para classifica&#231;&#227;o do %GC, utilizamos um valor &gt; 30% <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> para classificar as mulheres como tendo OE. Contudo, visto que este ponto de corte pode ser questionado, examinamos as implica&#231;&#245;es de utilizar um ponto de corte superior a 32% <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> e observamos que 14 mulheres n&#227;o preencheriam os crit&#233;rios para a classifica&#231;&#227;o em OE. Como resultado, o n&#250;mero total de indiv&#237;duos classificados como portadores de OE seria reduzido para 143, resultando em uma preval&#234;ncia global de 64,4%, ainda considerada elevada. Por&#233;m, das 14 mulheres que n&#227;o seriam classificadas como tendo OE, 11 apresentaram dist&#250;rbios nos perfis lip&#237;dico e glic&#234;mico, indicando a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco associados ao excesso de %GC.</p>
      <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> descreve os dados socioecon&#244;micos, de estilo de vida, antropom&#233;tricos, de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal e bioqu&#237;micos dos indiv&#237;duos dos grupos com e sem OE. Os indiv&#237;duos do grupo OE apresentaram maiores valores de peso, IMC, circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura, %GC, %GC androide e ginoide, rela&#231;&#227;o androide/ginoide, insulina, HOMA-IR, HOMA-beta, TyG, CT, LDL-c, n&#227;o HDL-c, VLDL-c, TG, rela&#231;&#227;o CT/HDL-c, rela&#231;&#227;o LDL-c/HDL-c, Apo B, rela&#231;&#227;o Apo B/Apo A1, bem como valores mais baixos do &#237;ndice QUICKI do que aqueles no grupo sem OE.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Vari&#225;veis socioecon&#244;micas, de estilo de vida, antropom&#233;tricas, de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal e bioqu&#237;micas da amostra total e dos grupos com e sem OE</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>Total (n = 222, 100.0%)</th>
                <th>OE (n = 157, 70.7%)</th>
                <th>Sem OE (n = 65, 29.3%)</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Sexo</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0,410</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Masculino</td>
                <td align="center">73 (32,9)</td>
                <td align="center">49 (31,2)</td>
                <td align="center">24 (36,9)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Feminino</td>
                <td align="center">149 (67,1)</td>
                <td align="center">108 (68,8)</td>
                <td align="center">41 (63,1)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Cor da pele</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0,522</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Branca</td>
                <td align="center">84 (37,8)</td>
                <td align="center">64 (40,8)</td>
                <td align="center">20 (30,8)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Parda</td>
                <td align="center">94 (42,3)</td>
                <td align="center">63 (40,1)</td>
                <td align="center">31 (47,7)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Preta</td>
                <td align="center">29 (13,1)</td>
                <td align="center">19 (12,1)</td>
                <td align="center">10 (15,4)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Amarela</td>
                <td align="center">15 (6,8)</td>
                <td align="center">11 (7,0)</td>
                <td align="center">4 (6,2)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Estado civil</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0,522</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Solteiro</td>
                <td align="center">199 (89,6)</td>
                <td align="center">138 (87,9)</td>
                <td align="center">61 (93,8)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Casado</td>
                <td align="center">22 (9,9)</td>
                <td align="center">18 (11,5)</td>
                <td align="center">4 (6,2)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Divorciado</td>
                <td align="center">1 (0,5)</td>
                <td align="center">1 (0,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>N&#237;vel de escolaridade</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0,065</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Superior incompleto</td>
                <td align="center">167 (75,2)</td>
                <td align="center">114 (72,6)</td>
                <td align="center">53 (81,5)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Superior completo</td>
                <td align="center">44 (19,8)</td>
                <td align="center">32 (20,4)</td>
                <td align="center">12 (18,5)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o completa</td>
                <td align="center">11 (5,0)</td>
                <td align="center">11 (7,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Classe socioecon&#244;mica</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0,094</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Alta</td>
                <td align="center">143 (64,4)</td>
                <td align="center">106 (67,5)</td>
                <td align="center">37 (56,9)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Intermedi&#225;ria</td>
                <td align="center">78 (35,1)</td>
                <td align="center">51 (32,5)</td>
                <td align="center">27 (41,5)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Baixa</td>
                <td align="center">1 (0,5)</td>
                <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                <td align="center">1 (1,5)</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade (anos)</td>
                <td align="center">23,0 (21,0 &#8211; 25,0)</td>
                <td align="center">23,0 (21,0 &#8211; 26,0)</td>
                <td align="center">23,0 (21,0 &#8211; 24,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,506</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAS (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">109,5 (100,0 &#8211; 115,8)</td>
                <td align="center">109,5 (100,0 &#8211; 116,0)</td>
                <td align="center">110,0 (100,0 &#8211; 115,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,682</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAD (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">67,0 (60,1 &#8211; 74,0)</td>
                <td align="center">66,5 (60,0 &#8211; 74,0)</td>
                <td align="center">70,0 (62,0 &#8211; 74,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,349</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Peso (kg)</td>
                <td align="center">60,6 (55,0 &#8211; 66,6)</td>
                <td align="center">61,3 (56,0 &#8211; 66,7)</td>
                <td align="center">57,4 (53,0&#8211; 65,9)</td>
                <td align="center">0,026</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Estatura (m)</td>
                <td align="center">1,7 (1,6 &#8211; 1,7)</td>
                <td align="center">1,7 (1,6 &#8211; 1,7)</td>
                <td align="center">1,7 (1,6 &#8211; 1,7)</td>
                <td align="center">0,719</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC (kg/m <sup>2</sup> )</td>
                <td align="center">21,8 (20,5 &#8211; 23,0)</td>
                <td align="center">22,1 (21,0 &#8211; 23,3)</td>
                <td align="center">20,8 (19,8 &#8211; 22,0)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica (MET min/semana)</td>
                <td align="center">260,0 (131,2 &#8211; 409,8)</td>
                <td align="center">240,0 (100,0 &#8211; 415,0)</td>
                <td align="center">280 (180,0 &#8211; 409,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,210</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CP (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">32,4 (31,2 &#8211; 36,0)</td>
                <td align="center">32,5 (31,4 &#8211; 35,8)</td>
                <td align="center">32,1 (30,7 &#8211; 36,1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,490</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CC (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">72,7 &#177; 5,5</td>
                <td align="center">73,8 &#177; 5,2</td>
                <td align="center">70,1 &#177; 5,4</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>%GC DXA</td>
                <td align="center">30,4 (23,4 &#8211; 36,4)</td>
                <td align="center">34,2 (28,8 &#8211; 37,7)</td>
                <td align="center">24,6 (15,4 &#8211; 28,1)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>%GC androide</td>
                <td align="center">30,7 &#177; 9,6</td>
                <td align="center">34,7 &#177; 7,6</td>
                <td align="center">20,9 &#177; 6,4</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>%GC ginoide</td>
                <td align="center">42,8 (34,2 &#8211; 48,4)</td>
                <td align="center">46,5 (38,1 &#8211; 49,5)</td>
                <td align="center">36,8 (23,2 &#8211; 41,0)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>A/G</td>
                <td align="center">0,8 (0,7 &#8211; 0,9)</td>
                <td align="center">0,8 (0,7 &#8211; 0,9)</td>
                <td align="center">0,6 (0,6 &#8211; 0,8)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Glicose (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">85,0 (80,2 &#8211; 89,8)</td>
                <td align="center">85,0 (81,0 &#8211; 90,0)</td>
                <td align="center">84,0 (80,0 &#8211; 89,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,392</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Insulina (pmol/L)</td>
                <td align="center">49,9 (38,9 &#8211; 66,6)</td>
                <td align="center">54,5 (42,4 &#8211; 71,8)</td>
                <td align="center">43,0 (35,2 &#8211; 54,5)</td>
                <td align="center">0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                <td align="center">1,4 (1,1 &#8211; 2,0)</td>
                <td align="center">1,6 (1,2 &#8211; 2,1)</td>
                <td align="center">1,2 (1,0 &#8211; 1,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HOMA2-IR</td>
                <td align="center">0,9 (0,7 &#8211; 1,2)</td>
                <td align="center">1,0 (0,8 &#8211; 1,3)</td>
                <td align="center">0,8 (0,6 &#8211; 1,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HOMA-beta</td>
                <td align="center">122,0 (87,9 &#8211; 170,1)</td>
                <td align="center">134,0 (95,1 &#8211; 176,1)</td>
                <td align="center">104,5 (78,9 &#8211; 149,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,011</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HbA1c%</td>
                <td align="center">4,8 (4,6 &#8211; 5,0)</td>
                <td align="center">4,8 (4,6 &#8211; 5,0)</td>
                <td align="center">4,8 (4,6 &#8211; 5,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,953</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#205;ndice QUICKI</td>
                <td align="center">0,36 &#177; 0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,36 &#177; 0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,37 &#177; 0,02</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CT (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">175,7 &#177; 32,0</td>
                <td align="center">179,8 &#177; 33,1</td>
                <td align="center">165,8 &#177; 26,9</td>
                <td align="center">0,002</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">55,0 (47,0 &#8211; 65,0)</td>
                <td align="center">55,0 (47,0 &#8211; 65,0)</td>
                <td align="center">56,0 (48,0 &#8211; 65,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,782</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">99,0 (82,0 &#8211; 117,8)</td>
                <td align="center">103,0 (83,0 &#8211; 118,0)</td>
                <td align="center">93,0 (74,0 &#8211; 107,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,008</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o HDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">115,0 (96,2 &#8211; 136,0)</td>
                <td align="center">121,0 (100,0 &#8211; 140,0)</td>
                <td align="center">109,0 (90,0 &#8211; 121,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,002</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>VLDL-c (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">14,8 (10,6 &#8211; 20,8)</td>
                <td align="center">16,4 (11,4 &#8211; 21,8)</td>
                <td align="center">12,8 (9,6 &#8211; 16,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TG (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">74,0 (53,2 &#8211; 104,0)</td>
                <td align="center">82,0 (57,0 &#8211; 109,0)</td>
                <td align="center">64,0 (48,0 &#8211; 83,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rela&#231;&#227;o CT/HDL-c</td>
                <td align="center">3,0 (2,6 &#8211; 3,6)</td>
                <td align="center">3,1 (2,7 &#8211; 3,8)</td>
                <td align="center">2,8 (2,5 &#8211; 3,3)</td>
                <td align="center">0,021</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rela&#231;&#227;o LDL-c/HDL-c</td>
                <td align="center">1,8 (1,4 &#8211; 2,3)</td>
                <td align="center">1,8 (1,4 &#8211; 2,4)</td>
                <td align="center">1,7 (1,3 &#8211; 2,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,050</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Apo A1 (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">151,0 (137,0 &#8211; 168,0)</td>
                <td align="center">151,5 (138,8 &#8211; 172,2)</td>
                <td align="center">149,0 (137,0 &#8211; 163,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,246</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Apo B (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">76,0 (65,0 &#8211; 89,0)</td>
                <td align="center">80,4 &#177; 19,0</td>
                <td align="center">70,6 &#177; 14,8</td>
                <td align="center">0,0003</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rela&#231;&#227;o Apo B/Apo A1</td>
                <td align="center">0,5 (0,4 &#8211; 0,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,5 (0,4 &#8211; 0,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,5 (0,4 &#8211; 0,5)</td>
                <td align="center">0,031</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TyG</td>
                <td align="center">3,5 &#177; 0,2</td>
                <td align="center">3,5 &#177; 0,2</td>
                <td align="center">3,4 &#177; 0,2</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#205;ndice aterog&#234;nico</td>
                <td align="center">1,0 (0,7 &#8211; 1,5)</td>
                <td align="center">1,0 (0,8 &#8211; 1,7)</td>
                <td align="center">0,9 (0,6 &#8211; 1,2)</td>
                <td align="center">0,022</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o, mediana (intervalo interquartil) ou frequ&#234;ncias absolutas e relativas. A/G: rela&#231;&#227;o entre percentual de gordura corporal androide e ginoide; Apo A1: apolipoprote&#237;na A1; Apo B: apolipoprote&#237;na B; CC: circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura; CP: circunfer&#234;ncia do pesco&#231;o; CT: colesterol total; HbA1c: hemoglobina glicada; HDL-c: colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de alta densidade; HOMA-beta: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase da fun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas beta; HOMA-IR: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina; HOMA2-IR: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase 2 da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; LDL-c: colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade; MET: equivalentes metab&#243;licos; n&#227;o HDL-c: colesterol n&#227;o-HDL; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; %GC androide: percentual de gordura corporal androide; %GC DXA: percentual de gordura corporal avaliado por absorciometria radiol&#243;gica de dupla energia; %GC ginoide: percentual de gordura corporal ginoide; OE: obesidade eutr&#243;fica; TG: triacilglicerol; TyG: &#237;ndice de triacilglicerol-glicose; VLDL-c: colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de muito baixa densidade. Diferen&#231;as significativas entre os grupos: teste t de Student ou teste de Mann-Whitney, teste &#967; <sup>2</sup> de Pearson ou teste exato de Fisher.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, observamos altera&#231;&#245;es na maioria dos biomarcadores dos perfis lip&#237;dico e glic&#234;mico nos indiv&#237;duos do grupo OE, conforme demonstrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2A</xref>. Considerando o perfil lip&#237;dico tradicional (CT, HDL-c, LDL-c, n&#227;o HDL-c, VLDL-c, TG, rela&#231;&#227;o CT/HDL-c e rela&#231;&#227;o LDL-c/HDL-c), 44% dos indiv&#237;duos no grupo com OE apresentaram um ou mais dist&#250;rbios. Os indiv&#237;duos do grupo sem OE apresentaram menor frequ&#234;ncia (23%; p = 0,004). Quando consideradas as concentra&#231;&#245;es de Apo A1 e Apo B, mais da metade (54%) dos indiv&#237;duos do grupo com OE e 34% do grupo sem OE apresentaram um ou mais dist&#250;rbios no perfil lip&#237;dico (p = 0,006), conforme mostrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2B</xref>. A frequ&#234;ncia de pelo menos um dist&#250;rbio nos biomarcadores do perfil glic&#234;mico foi maior no grupo OE (23%) do que no grupo sem OE (11%) (p = 0,037).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; A) Frequ&#234;ncia de dist&#250;rbios do perfil lip&#237;dico e glic&#234;mico nos grupos com e sem obesidade eutr&#243;fica. B) Frequ&#234;ncia de pelo menos um dist&#250;rbio do perfil lip&#237;dico ou glic&#234;mico nos grupos com e sem obesidade eutr&#243;fica. Apo A1: apolipoprote&#237;na A1; Apo B: apolipoprote&#237;na B; CT: colesterol total; HbA1c: hemoglobina glicada; HDL-c: colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de alta densidade; HOMA-beta: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase da fun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas beta; HOMA-IR: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina; HOMA2-IR: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase 2 da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina; IA: &#237;ndice aterog&#234;nico; LDL-c: colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade; n&#227;o HDL-c: colesterol n&#227;o-HDL; OE: s&#237;ndrome de obesidade eutr&#243;fica; TG: triacilglicerol; VLDL-c: colesterol em lipoprote&#237;nas de muito baixa densidade.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220914-20914-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Foi observada diferen&#231;a entre os grupos com e sem OE em rela&#231;&#227;o ao consumo alimentar de risco apenas para ingest&#227;o de gordura total (p = 0,028). No entanto, a preval&#234;ncia de ingest&#227;o inadequada de fibra alimentar e de gordura saturada no grupo com OE foi not&#225;vel (88,5% para ambos) ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Preval&#234;ncia de consumo de alimentos de risco na amostra total e nos grupos com e sem OE</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="13%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="2">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th colspan="2">Amostra total (n=222)</th>
                <th colspan="2">OE (n=157)</th>
                <th colspan="2">Sem OE (n=65)</th>
                <th rowspan="2">Valor p</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>n</th>
                <th>%</th>
                <th>n</th>
                <th>%</th>
                <th>n</th>
                <th>%</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>VET &gt; necessidade energ&#233;tica</td>
                <td align="center">109</td>
                <td align="center">49,1</td>
                <td align="center">72</td>
                <td align="center">45,9</td>
                <td align="center">37</td>
                <td align="center">56,9</td>
                <td align="center">0,134</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Prote&#237;na &gt; 15% do VET</td>
                <td align="center">166</td>
                <td align="center">74,8</td>
                <td align="center">116</td>
                <td align="center">73,9</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
                <td align="center">76,9</td>
                <td align="center">0,635</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carboidratos &gt; 60% do VET</td>
                <td align="center">13</td>
                <td align="center">5,8</td>
                <td align="center">7</td>
                <td align="center">4,5</td>
                <td align="center">6</td>
                <td align="center">9,2</td>
                <td align="center">0,209</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fibra alimentar &lt; 25 g/dia*</td>
                <td align="center">192</td>
                <td align="center">86,5</td>
                <td align="center">139</td>
                <td align="center">88,5</td>
                <td align="center">53</td>
                <td align="center">81,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,165</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lip&#237;dios &gt; 35% do VET</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">54,5</td>
                <td align="center">93</td>
                <td align="center">59,2</td>
                <td align="center">28</td>
                <td align="center">43,1</td>
                <td align="center">0,028</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>AGS &#8805; 10% do VET</td>
                <td align="center">190</td>
                <td align="center">85,6</td>
                <td align="center">139</td>
                <td align="center">88,5</td>
                <td align="center">51</td>
                <td align="center">78,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,052</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>AGMI &gt; 15% do VET</td>
                <td align="center">42</td>
                <td align="center">18,9</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">21,0</td>
                <td align="center">9</td>
                <td align="center">13,8</td>
                <td align="center">0,214</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>AGPI &gt; 10% do VET</td>
                <td align="center">24</td>
                <td align="center">10,8</td>
                <td align="center">19</td>
                <td align="center">12,1</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
                <td align="center">7,7</td>
                <td align="center">0,336</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>AGMI: &#225;cidos graxos monoinsaturados; AGPI: &#225;cidos graxos poli-insaturados; AGS: &#225;cidos graxos saturados; OE: obesidade eutr&#243;fica; VET: valor energ&#233;tico total.* Ajustado para ingest&#227;o de energia. Teste &#967; <sup>2</sup> de Pearson ou teste exato de Fisher.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Para a an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o, foram exclu&#237;dos 3 indiv&#237;duos em raz&#227;o da falta de dados (n = 219; OE = 154 e sem OE = 65). O modelo final incluiu as seguintes vari&#225;veis independentes: sexo, %GC, altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil lip&#237;dico, circunfer&#234;ncia do pesco&#231;o, IMC e ingest&#227;o m&#233;dia de carboidratos ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> ). Para cada 1% de aumento no %GC, houve 3,04 vezes mais chances de pertencer ao grupo com OE, e para cada aumento de 1 cm na circunfer&#234;ncia do pesco&#231;o, houve 2,52 vezes mais chances de pertencer ao grupo com OE. A OE tamb&#233;m foi positivamente associada com a presen&#231;a de um ou mais dist&#250;rbios no perfil lip&#237;dico. Houve associa&#231;&#245;es negativas entre OE e sexo feminino e IMC, de modo que para cada aumento de 1 kg/m <sup>2</sup> no IMC, observou-se 51% menos chance de pertencer ao grupo com OE.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Modelo final de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica m&#250;ltipla ajustado pela estrat&#233;gia <italic>stepwise</italic> para analisar associa&#231;&#245;es entre a presen&#231;a da obesidade eutr&#243;fica e as vari&#225;veis analisadas (n = 219)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="14%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th>Estimativa (&#946;)</th>
                <th>EP</th>
                <th>OR (IC 95%)</th>
                <th>Valor z</th>
                <th>pr (&gt;|t|)</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Intercepto</td>
                <td align="center">-36,183098</td>
                <td align="center">9,713135</td>
                <td align="center">0,00 (0,00 &#8211; 0,00)</td>
                <td align="center">-3,725</td>
                <td align="center">0,000195</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Vari&#225;veis</bold>
                </td>
                <td colspan="6"> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sexo feminino</td>
                <td align="center">-8,930783</td>
                <td align="center">1,948802</td>
                <td align="center">0,00 (0,00 &#8211; 0,01)</td>
                <td align="center">-4,583</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>%GC total</td>
                <td align="center">1,112949</td>
                <td align="center">0,207149</td>
                <td align="center">3,04 (2,03 &#8211; 4,57)</td>
                <td align="center">5,373</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,0001</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,001</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil lip&#237;dico (&#8805; 1)</td>
                <td align="center">1,415612</td>
                <td align="center">0,699868</td>
                <td align="center">4,12 (1,04 &#8211; 16,24)</td>
                <td align="center">2,023</td>
                <td align="center">0,043106</td>
                <td align="center">0,050</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Circunfer&#234;ncia do pesco&#231;o</td>
                <td align="center">0,924465</td>
                <td align="center">0,297740</td>
                <td align="center">2,52 (1,41 &#8211; 4,52)</td>
                <td align="center">3,105</td>
                <td align="center">0,001903</td>
                <td align="center">0,010</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC</td>
                <td align="center">-0,708130</td>
                <td align="center">0,340233</td>
                <td align="center">0,49 (0,25 &#8211; 0,96)</td>
                <td align="center">-2,081</td>
                <td align="center">0,037405</td>
                <td align="center">0,050</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ingest&#227;o m&#233;dia de carboidratos</td>
                <td align="center">-0,012656</td>
                <td align="center">0,007977</td>
                <td align="center">0,99 (0,97 &#8211; 1,00)</td>
                <td align="center">-1,587</td>
                <td align="center">0,112615</td>
                <td align="center">1,000</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>Desvio nulo: 266,362 com 218 graus de liberdade. Desvio residual: 64,027 com 212 graus de liberdade. N&#250;mero de itera&#231;&#245;es de pontua&#231;&#227;o de Fisher: 8. EP: erro padr&#227;o; IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; OR: raz&#227;o de chances; %GC total: percentual de gordura corporal total. Regress&#227;o log&#237;stica com estimativa de odds ratio e seu respectivo intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%, tendo como desfecho a presen&#231;a/aus&#234;ncia de obesidade eutr&#243;fica.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Este estudo &#233; um dos primeiros realizados no Brasil para avaliar o perfil cardiometab&#243;lico de indiv&#237;duos jovens com OE em compara&#231;&#227;o com seus pares sem OE. A preval&#234;ncia de OE foi significativamente alta. Indiv&#237;duos com OE apresentaram piores resultados em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; composi&#231;&#227;o corporal e biomarcadores cardiometab&#243;licos do que aqueles do grupo sem OE. Al&#233;m disso, foram encontradas associa&#231;&#245;es significativas entre a presen&#231;a de OE e fatores de risco cardiometab&#243;licos.</p>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia muito elevada de OE deve ser interpretada e generalizada com cautela. Al&#233;m do aumento das taxas de obesidade em todo o mundo, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> o excesso de %GC tem v&#225;rias consequ&#234;ncias prejudiciais, mesmo quando n&#227;o associado a um aumento do IMC. Em m&#233;dio e longo prazos, a perda de massa muscular aliada ao alto %GC pode resultar em consequ&#234;ncias negativas na qualidade de vida e contribuir para o desenvolvimento da obesidade sarcop&#234;nica e outras doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis relacionadas &#224; nutri&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um aspecto importante de nossos resultados &#233; o maior IMC apresentado pelos indiv&#237;duos com OE. No entanto, esse resultado poderia ser esperado, uma vez que o IMC apresenta boa correla&#231;&#227;o com o %GC em diversas popula&#231;&#245;es. Esse resultado demonstra que esses indiv&#237;duos, mesmo com maior IMC, poderiam ser classificados como eutr&#243;ficos, desconsiderando os fatores de risco associados ao excesso de %GC. <sup>2</sup> Portanto, &#233; indispens&#225;vel avaliar e classificar adequadamente os indiv&#237;duos com OE.</p>
      <p>Outro resultado importante &#233; a baixa faixa et&#225;ria de nossa amostra, diferente de outros estudos com OE. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> A alta preval&#234;ncia de OE e dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos em indiv&#237;duos jovens traz &#224; tona a import&#226;ncia de se refletir sobre mudan&#231;as nos crit&#233;rios de avalia&#231;&#227;o e classifica&#231;&#227;o da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal. Os impactos em longo prazo, incluindo as consequ&#234;ncias negativas no perfil da composi&#231;&#227;o muscular ao longo do tempo, tamb&#233;m precisam ser extensivamente investigados.</p>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia de %GC aumentada em nosso estudo foi maior do que em um estudo com indiv&#237;duos estadunidenses (n = 6.171), que mostrou preval&#234;ncia de OE de 33,4% tanto para mulheres quanto para homens. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m foi maior do que o observado em um estudo com indiv&#237;duos chineses (n = 23.748), com uma preval&#234;ncia de OE de aproximadamente 8%. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Essa diferen&#231;a pode ser explicada, em parte, pelos pontos de corte mais altos (33,3% para mulheres e 23,1% para homens e &#8805; 24% para homens e &#8805; 33% para mulheres nos estudos dos Estados Unidos e da China, respectivamente) e pelo m&#233;todo utilizado para classifica&#231;&#227;o da OE (bioimped&#226;ncia utilizada em ambos). Madeira et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> avaliaram adultos brasileiros com OE e identificaram preval&#234;ncias menores (9,1%) do que as encontradas em nosso estudo. Os pontos de corte para %GC foram 23,1% para homens e 33,3% para mulheres, e dobras cut&#226;neas foram usadas para a sua medi&#231;&#227;o. Esses resultados refor&#231;am ainda mais a necessidade de estudos para padronizar os pontos de corte e m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal, bem como para melhor caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da OE. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em contraste, um estudo transversal realizado com 1.354 adultos jovens na Am&#233;rica Latina encontrou preval&#234;ncia moderada (29,1%) de OE. Essa condi&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m foi associada a maior risco cardiovascular, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> corroborando nossos resultados. Esses resultados tamb&#233;m enfatizam a import&#226;ncia de cuidados de sa&#250;de adequados, considerando que o excesso de %GC pode contribuir progressivamente para um aumento do risco de doen&#231;as cardiometab&#243;licas e mortalidade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
      <p>No presente estudo, usamos um valor &gt; 30% <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> para classificar as mulheres com presen&#231;a de OE. No entanto, isso pode ser questionado e exploramos as implica&#231;&#245;es de aplicar um ponto de corte mais alto, de 32%. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Verificamos que 14 mulheres n&#227;o atenderiam aos crit&#233;rios para classifica&#231;&#227;o da OE, o que resultaria em uma preval&#234;ncia geral de 64,4%. No entanto, vale ressaltar que a maioria das mulheres que n&#227;o seriam classificadas com OE apresentou altera&#231;&#245;es nos perfis lip&#237;dico e glic&#234;mico, indicando a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco associados ao excesso de %GC. Portanto, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um ponto de corte &gt; 30% garantiria a inclus&#227;o de mulheres que apresentam fatores de risco relacionados ao excesso de %GC e poderia auxiliar na identifica&#231;&#227;o indiv&#237;duos pass&#237;veis de serem beneficiados por interven&#231;&#245;es para melhora da sa&#250;de metab&#243;lica.</p>
      <p>Alguns resultados observados nos indiv&#237;duos com OE em nosso estudo, tais como IMC mais alto, embora apenas ligeiramente em compara&#231;&#227;o com a faixa normal, %GC, androide e ginoide %GC e rela&#231;&#227;o androide/ginoide eram esperados, uma vez que o aumento do %GC &#233; a base desta condi&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No entanto, um maior %GC androide contribui para um risco cardiometab&#243;lico aumentado, uma vez que o ac&#250;mulo de gordura na regi&#227;o abdominal pode resultar em altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, embora nenhum indiv&#237;duo tenha apresentado circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura fora da faixa normal, os valores mais elevados encontrados em indiv&#237;duos com OE indicam uma predisposi&#231;&#227;o a maior risco cardiometab&#243;lico. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> A circunfer&#234;ncia do pesco&#231;o tamb&#233;m &#233; uma medida importante na avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiometab&#243;lico <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> e foi positivamente associada &#224; presen&#231;a de OE.</p>
      <p>Quando avaliamos os biomarcadores tradicionais do perfil lip&#237;dico, quase 45% dos indiv&#237;duos com OE apresentaram altera&#231;&#245;es. Em estudo anterior, encontramos uma preval&#234;ncia de 52,5%. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Esses altos percentuais de altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil lip&#237;dico, bem como a associa&#231;&#227;o da OE com as concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL-c e TG, s&#227;o importantes para o perfil cardiovascular geral desses indiv&#237;duos. O excesso de tecido adiposo visceral suscita o aumento da lip&#243;lise de &#225;cidos graxos, que s&#227;o direcionados ao f&#237;gado. No f&#237;gado, os &#225;cidos graxos livres s&#227;o substratos para a s&#237;ntese de lipoprote&#237;nas, incluindo as VLDL. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Como a VLDL &#233; uma lipoprote&#237;na rica em TG, pode haver maior quantidade de &#225;cidos graxos para armazenamento. Al&#233;m disso, como a capta&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos das VLDL pelo tecido adiposo &#233; facilitada pela insulina, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> indiv&#237;duos com RI podem desenvolver dist&#250;rbios no metabolismo das lipoprote&#237;nas. Outras lipoprote&#237;nas aterog&#234;nicas, como a LDL pequena e densa, tamb&#233;m podem se acumular quando o excesso de tecido adiposo &#233; encontrado na regi&#227;o visceral, o que pode piorar o perfil cardiovascular. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Quando foram avaliadas as concentra&#231;&#245;es de Apo A1 e B, a frequ&#234;ncia de dist&#250;rbios no perfil lip&#237;dico foi maior em indiv&#237;duos com OE do que no grupo sem OE. A Apo A1 &#233; a principal lipoprote&#237;na da HDL e desempenha papel importante na remo&#231;&#227;o do excesso de colesterol dos tecidos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> A Apo B &#233; amplamente distribu&#237;da nas lipoprote&#237;nas, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> e durante a RI, sua depura&#231;&#227;o e a entrada da LDL nas c&#233;lulas s&#227;o comprometidas, o que acelera o processo aterog&#234;nico. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Portanto, a associa&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a presen&#231;a de OE e as concentra&#231;&#245;es de Apo A1, bem como a maior frequ&#234;ncia de dist&#250;rbios nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de Apo B e no &#237;ndice HOMA-IR encontrados em indiv&#237;duos com OE, s&#227;o aspectos importantes a serem considerados no estudo desta condi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>A frequ&#234;ncia de dist&#250;rbios nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de insulina e no &#237;ndice HOMA-IR foram semelhantes aos observados em estudo com indiv&#237;duos poloneses, no qual, de um total de 168 mulheres e homens, 73 (43%) apresentavam OE. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> O excesso de c&#233;lulas adiposas promove disfun&#231;&#227;o tecidual e ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas imunes com potencial atividade pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria, desencadeando mediadores pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios locais e sist&#234;micos, independente do IMC. Consequentemente, h&#225; desregula&#231;&#227;o nas vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o e a&#231;&#227;o comprometida da insulina, o que resulta na redu&#231;&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelas c&#233;lulas e consequente RI. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
      <p>At&#233; o momento, apenas alguns estudos avaliaram os h&#225;bitos alimentares de indiv&#237;duos com OE. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> M&#228;nnist&#246; et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> identificaram fatores diet&#233;ticos que podem aumentar o risco de dist&#250;rbios cardiometab&#243;licos em indiv&#237;duos com OE. Embora n&#227;o tenha sido avaliado o consumo de gordura saturada, foi encontrada baixa ingest&#227;o de fibra alimentar, semelhante aos nossos resultados. O consumo adequado de fibra alimentar promove melhoras no perfil glic&#234;mico, nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL-c, de n&#227;o HDL-c e de outras lipoprote&#237;nas; diminui o risco de doen&#231;as cardiometab&#243;licas; e melhora os perfis inflamat&#243;rio e imunol&#243;gico. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> O percentual elevado de consumo excessivo de gorduras totais e saturadas observado em indiv&#237;duos com OE deve ser cuidadosamente considerado porque h&#225; evid&#234;ncias contundentes sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o entre esses nutrientes e riscos maiores de DCVs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um estudo de base populacional em Teer&#227; (seguimento m&#233;dio de 18 anos) avaliou a associa&#231;&#227;o entre %GC e risco de mortalidade por DCV em 8.287 indiv&#237;duos com mais de 30 anos. Considerando a circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura e a rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril como indicadores de adiposidade, indiv&#237;duos com peso normal e com obesidade central apresentaram risco aumentado de mortalidade por todas as causas e por DCV em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos com peso normal e sem obesidade central. Embora os autores tenham usado apenas indicadores indiretos para avaliar o %GC, os resultados refor&#231;am a import&#226;ncia de avaliar os riscos cardiometab&#243;licos em adultos com excesso de %GC. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Entre os pontos fortes do nosso estudo, &#233; importante mencionar que usamos DXA para avaliar a composi&#231;&#227;o corporal, que &#233; o m&#233;todo padr&#227;o-ouro. Al&#233;m disso, a an&#225;lise das concentra&#231;&#245;es de apolipoprote&#237;nas forneceu dados mais robustos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao perfil cardiometab&#243;lico. Tamb&#233;m &#233; pertinente mencionar a homogeneidade nos dados socioecon&#244;micos e de estilo de vida dos grupos avaliados, o que reduz poss&#237;veis vieses. Al&#233;m disso, garantimos que fossem exclu&#237;dos do estudo indiv&#237;duos com condi&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas preexistentes ou pr&#225;ticas de estilo de vida n&#227;o convencionais que poderiam introduzir interpreta&#231;&#245;es e generaliza&#231;&#245;es tendenciosas. Por outro lado, uma limita&#231;&#227;o importante para a discuss&#227;o de nossos resultados depende dos diferentes pontos de corte e m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o do %GC encontrados em outros estudos, bem como da falta de pontos de corte padronizados para a popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira. Vale ressaltar que o estudo identificou fatores de risco associados a adultos jovens assintom&#225;ticos e saud&#225;veis. Isso destaca a import&#226;ncia de fornecer aten&#231;&#227;o e cuidados de sa&#250;de adequados a esses indiv&#237;duos na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, visto que podem apresentar risco aumentado de desfechos adversos &#224; sa&#250;de, inicialmente sem sintomas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Os indiv&#237;duos com OE apresentaram pior perfil cardiometab&#243;lico do que aqueles sem OE. A OE foi associada a importantes vari&#225;veis antropom&#233;tricas, de composi&#231;&#227;o corporal e cardiometab&#243;licas. De modo geral, esses resultados corroboram aqueles relatados em alguns estudos pr&#233;vios. No entanto, estudos futuros sobre a padroniza&#231;&#227;o de pontos de corte e m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o de extrema import&#226;ncia. A avalia&#231;&#227;o e interpreta&#231;&#227;o precisas da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal, independentemente do IMC, s&#227;o cruciais na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica para facilitar o manejo eficaz das comorbidades de m&#233;dio e longo prazos associadas ao excesso de %GC. Essas avalia&#231;&#245;es auxiliar&#227;o os profissionais de sa&#250;de a reduzir os riscos de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiometab&#243;licas negativas, fornecendo estrat&#233;gias de gerenciamento personalizadas para indiv&#237;duos com OE.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Associations between Normal-Weight Obesity and Disturbances in the Lipid Profile of Young Adults</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passos</surname>
            <given-names>Anna Flavia Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Acsa de Castro</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2518-7575</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Coelho</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Siqueira Guedes</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9972-4743</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cominetti</surname>
            <given-names>Cristiane</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Grupo de Pesquisa em Gen&#244;mica Nutricional, Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o, Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label> 2 </label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Faculdade de Agronomia, Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address: Cristiane Cominetti</bold> &#8226; Grupo de Pesquisa em Gen&#244;mica Nutricional, Faculdade de Nutri&#231;&#227;o, Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s - Rua 227, s/n, Quadra 68, Leste Universit&#225;rio. Postal Code 74605-080, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brazil E-mail: ccominetti@ufg.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <title>Central Illustration</title>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <caption>
              <title>: Associations between Normal-Weight Obesity and Disturbances in the Lipid Profile of Young Adults</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>BMI: body mass index; NWO: normal-weight obesity.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220914-20914-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>Normal-weight obesity (NWO) is characterized by normal body mass index (BMI) but high body fat percentage (%BF) that increases the risks of cardiometabolic comorbidities. Accurate assessment and interpretation of body composition data are necessary to reduce these risks.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p>To compare the cardiometabolic profile of individuals with NWO and normal %BF and evaluate the associated risk factors.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>A cross-sectional study was conducted with 222 Brazilian adults from a university community, of whom 157 had NWO and 65 had normal BMI and %BF (non-NWO). All participants reported being asymptomatic and without underlying health conditions. Socioeconomic, lifestyle, food intake, anthropometry, body composition measures (using dual-energy radiological absorptiometry), and lipid and glycemic profiles were evaluated. A p &lt; 0.05 was established as significant.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>The median age of the participants was 23 years (interquartile range: 21 to 25), and most were female (67.1%). No significant differences were found in blood pressure, age, or physical activity levels between the NWO and non-NWO groups. However, the frequency of lipid profile disturbances was higher in the NWO group (54%) compared to the non-NWO group (34%) (p &lt; 0.006). Neck circumference, %BF, and lipid profile disturbances were positively associated with NWO.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p>Individuals with NWO have a worse cardiometabolic profile than those without NWO, and this condition is associated with important biomarkers. Addressing these outcomes is important for preventing long-term cardiometabolic complications. Accurate assessment and interpretation of body composition data, regardless of BMI, are crucial in this scenario.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Apolipoproteins</kwd>
        <kwd>Body Composition</kwd>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Blood Glucose</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Normal-weight obesity (NWO), which was described in 2006, is a condition characterized by normal body mass index (BMI) and high body fat percentage (%BF). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> It was described because of failures in the concepts of BMI and obesity. Obesity is defined by the World Health Organization as an excess of body fat associated with health risks <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> and is diagnosed based on BMI. However, BMI is known to be a flawed index, especially when applied at the individual level, as it does not differentiate between lean body mass and fat body mass. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As a result of excess %BF, individuals with NWO are at a higher risk of developing metabolic syndrome, atherogenic dyslipidemia, obesity, and cardiometabolic diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), compared to individuals with normal %BF. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> CVDs are the leading cause of death worldwide and are projected to account for over 23 million deaths by 2030. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Therefore, considering the importance of adiposity as a risk factor for CVDs and other nutrition-related chronic non-communicable diseases, the assessment of %BF in individuals with normal BMI is crucial for accurate diagnosis and early interventions. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> It is estimated that approximately 30 million people from the United States have NWO, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> and a few Brazilian studies on this subject <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> have revealed that NWO is associated with metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance (IR). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> In our previous study, we showed a high frequency of dyslipidemia in individuals with NWO. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> These results reinforce the relationship between NWO and disturbances in lipid and glycemic biomarkers, which are important predictors of CVDs and type 2 diabetes mellitus development.</p>
        <p>Driven by the hypothesis that high %BF can lead to a disturbed cardiometabolic profile even in the presence of normal BMI and the importance of understanding the metabolic aspects of NWO, this study aimed to compare the cardiometabolic profile of individuals with and without NWO, as well as to evaluate the associations with socioeconomic, anthropometric, body composition, biochemical, and food consumption data.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study design and participants</title>
          <p>This was a cross-sectional study with recruitment and data collection from January to June 2019. The study was disseminated through folders, social networks, and e-mails sent to students, professors, and other employees at the Federal University of Goi&#225;s. Individuals who presented with a normal BMI (between 18.50 and 24.99 kg/m <sup>2</sup> ) <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> and aged between 20 and 59 years were included. Smokers; individuals with metal implants or limb amputation; individuals with intense physical activity (athletes or regular practitioners of high-performance exercise); self-reported vitamin and/or mineral supplementation; self-reported acute and/or chronic diseases; self-reported use of lipid-lowering drugs, anti-hypertensives, anti-glycemic drugs, or insulin; pregnant or lactating women; women in menopause or undergoing hormone replacement therapy; individuals undergoing nutritional monitoring and/or who changed their usual diet in the last 6 months prior to data collection; and those who missed some stage of data collection were not included, as described in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref> . These exclusion criteria were implemented to manage potential confounding variables that may introduce bias in the relationship between excess body fat and the variables under investigation in this study.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Flow-chart of participation recruitment</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220914-20914-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Individuals were grouped according to sex and age, and the cutoff points used in two well-established studies on NWO were applied to classify %BF. The criteria for cutoff points were selected based on consistency in the method of body composition assessment. Initially, the reference by the authors who originally defined NWO <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> was utilized for women; however, they did not provide cutoff points for men. To address this gap, a male reference with a more sensitive cutoff point that still captured associated risk factors was sought. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> For women and men, cutoff points &gt; 30% <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> and &gt; 19%, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> respectively, were applied to classify high %BF. Given the lack of a standardized criterion for classifying the prevalence of NWO, we adopted a set of proposed thresholds for overweight and obesity in adults, considering the association between excess %BF and health risks. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The proposed limits for classification were determined as follows: &lt; 20% for very low, 20% to &lt; 30% for low, 30% to &lt; 50% for moderate, 50% to &lt; 70% for high, and &#8805; 70% for very high. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Data collection</title>
          <p>Data were collected at the School of Nutrition and the Clinical Research Unit of the Federal University of Goi&#225;s Teaching Hospital. First, the participants received information about the study and signed an informed consent form. A questionnaire was administered to assess socioeconomic, demographic, health, lifestyle, and food consumption data (one 24-hour dietary recall). Three non-consecutive measurements of blood pressure, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> dual-energy radiological absorptiometry (DXA), and anthropometric evaluation <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> were conducted. Economic classification <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> and physical activity level <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> were also determined.</p>
          <p>Blood samples were collected from the median cubital vein after a 12-hour fast by a qualified professional. Immediately after collection, blood samples were transferred to appropriate tubes to obtain serum and/or plasma and then sent to the laboratory for biochemical analyses. Individuals were instructed not to consume alcoholic beverages or engage in intense physical activity within 72 hours prior to blood collection. They were instructed to maintain their usual diet and maintain a stable weight in the last two weeks prior to blood collection. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Two other non-consecutive 24-hour dietary recalls, including one weekend day, were collected. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Anthropometry and body composition</title>
          <p>Body mass was measured on a Filizola <sup>&#174;</sup> digital scale (Filizola Shop, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil), and height was determined using a Seca <sup>&#174;</sup> stadiometer (Seca Deutschland, Hamburg, Germany). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Waist and neck circumferences were measured in duplicate with a 200 cm long and 1 mm accurate Seca <sup>&#174;</sup> body measure tape (Seca Deutschland, Hamburg, Germany), and the mean value was used for data analysis. Body composition was measured using a DPX NT Lunar <sup>&#174;</sup> DXA device (General Electric Medical Systems, Madison, USA). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiometabolic biomarkers</title>
          <p>Blood concentrations of total cholesterol (TC), triacylglycerol (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), apolipoprotein (Apo) A1, Apo B, glucose, insulin, and glycated hemoglobin (HbA <sub>1c</sub> ) were evaluated. Serum lipid profile biomarkers were determined using a direct colorimetric enzymatic method. The LDL-C, VLDL-C, and non-HDL-C concentrations were estimated using equations. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The following cutoffs were used to classify the markers as altered: TC &#8805; 190, LDL-C &#8805; 130, non-HDL-C &#8805; 160, TG &#8805; 150, VLDL-C &#8805; 30, HDL-C &lt; 40 (all in mg/dL); TC:HDL-C ratio &#8805; 4.4 for women and &#8805; 5.1 for men; and LDL-C:HDL-C ratio &#8805; 2.9 for women and &#8805; 3.3 for men. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Apo A1 and Apo B concentrations were analyzed using the turbidimetry method and were considered altered when Apo A1 was &lt; 140 mg/dL for women and &lt; 120 mg/dL for men <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> and when Apo B was &#8805; 104 mg/dL for women and men. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> The Apo B:Apo A1 ratio was considered elevated when it was &#8805; 0.6 for women and &#8805; 0.7 for men. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> The atherogenic index was estimated, and values were considered high when &gt; 2.24. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Serum glucose concentrations were determined using the enzymatic colorimetric method, and the reference values established by the Brazilian Society of Diabetes were adopted. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Total blood HbA <sub>1c</sub> concentrations were evaluated with the immunoturbidimetric inhibition method, and the Brazilian Society of Diabetes reference values were applied. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Serum insulin concentrations were assessed using electrochemiluminescence. Homeostasis model assessment of IR (HOMA-IR), HOMA2-IR, HOMA of beta-cell function (HOMA-beta), and quantitative insulin sensitivity check (QUICKI) indices were calculated. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> The cutoff points were &gt; 2.71 for HOMA-IR, &gt; 1.80 for HOMA2-IR, above the ninetieth percentile of the sample for HOMA-beta, and lower than the tenth percentile of the sample for the QUICKI index. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> The triacylglycerol-glucose (TyG) index was estimated, and values higher than 4.55 for women and 4.68 for men were used as cutoff points. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Food consumption</title>
          <p>Three 24-hour dietary recalls were applied on non-consecutive days, including one weekend day, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> following the multiple pass method. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Two trained nutritionists applied one face-to-face 24-hour dietary recall and two 24-hour dietary recall via phone calls. A photographic manual and household measuring utensils were used to aid in the quantification of food portions. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Conversion of household measures into grams <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> and data management were standardized. The 24-hour dietary recalls were evaluated using Nutrition Data System for Research software (NDSR, Nutrition Coordinating Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis&#8211;Saint Paul, USA). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The values proposed by the Brazilian Society of Cardiology were applied for macronutrients, dietary fiber, and fatty acid adequacy. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis and justification of sample size</title>
          <p>Double-entry databases were built to check for consistency. Despite the selection criteria for the adult age group from 20 to 59 years old according to the World Health Organization, with the recruitment of only two adults over 40 years old, these were excluded from the analyses, remaining only young adults aged 39 years old or less, so that in terms of age, the sample did not show these outliers. Considering that there are no studies with representative samples of Brazil, the sample calculation was based on Cohen&#8217;s effect size for independent samples. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> The statistical power to reject the null hypothesis was set at 80%, with a type I error probability of 0.05, and sample sizes of 157 and 65 observations for NWO and non-NWO, respectively. The estimated effect size was 0.41, which is considered medium. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Either an unpaired Student&#8217;s t test or a Mann-Whitney test was used for comparison, based on the data distribution. Analysis of categorical data and frequency of disturbances in the cardiometabolic profile of individuals with and without NWO was performed using either the &#967; <sup>2</sup> test or Fisher&#8217;s exact test. Nutrient intake data were energy-adjusted when necessary. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Categorical variables were presented as absolute and relative frequencies (%), and continuous variables were presented as mean &#177; standard deviation or median (interquartile range) according to data distribution.</p>
          <p>We employed multiple logistic regression models to investigate the relationships between independent and dependent variables. To enhance the models, we used the stepwise strategy, an automated procedure for selecting the most significant predictor variables to include in the model. Independent variables were sex; skin color; age; physical activity level; systolic and diastolic blood pressures; weight; height; BMI; neck and waist circumferences; %BF; gynoid and android %BF; android to gynoid %BF ratio; fasting blood glucose and insulin; HOMA-IR; HOMA-2IR; HOMA-beta; HbA <sub>1c</sub> ; QUICKI index; Apo A1; Apo B; TC; HDL-C; LDL-C; non-HDL-C; VLDL-C; TG; TC:HDL-C, LDL-C:HDL-C, and Apo B:Apo A1 ratios; TyG; atherogenic index; presence of disturbances in glycemic and lipid profiles; energy; total fat; carbohydrate; protein; dietary cholesterol; saturated, mono-, and polyunsaturated fatty acids; and dietary fiber intake. All variables were chosen according to their clinical importance with the studied condition. P &lt; 0.05 was considered statistically significant, and all analyses were performed using R software version 4.0.3. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>A total of 222 individuals were recruited ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref> ), 67% of whom were women. The study participants were aged between 20 and 34 years and had normal BMI. Following the classification of %BF, 157 (71%) participants were assigned to the NWO group, indicating a high prevalence, while the remaining 65 participants were assigned to the non-NWO group. When considering sex, 72.5% of women and 67.1% of men showed increased %BF. Regarding the cutoff point for %BF classification, we used a value &gt; 30% <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> to classify women as having NWO. However, because this cutoff point can be questioned, we examined the implications of using a cutoff point greater than 32% <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> and found that 14 women would not meet the criteria for the NWO classification. As a result, the total number of individuals classified as having NWO would be reduced to 143, resulting in an overall prevalence of 64.4%, still considered high. However, out of the 14 women who would not be classified as having NWO, 11 exhibited disturbances in lipid and glycemic profiles, indicating the presence of risk factors associated with excess %BF.</p>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> describes socioeconomic, lifestyle, anthropometric, body composition, and biochemical data of individuals in the NWO and the non-NWO groups. Individuals in the NWO group showed higher values of weight, BMI, waist circumference, %BF, android and gynoid %BF, android to gynoid ratio, insulin, HOMA-IR, HOMA-beta, TyG, TC, LDL-C, non-HDL-C, VLDL-C, TG, TC:HDL-C ratio, LDL-C:HDL-C ratio, Apo B, and Apo B:Apo A1 ratio, as well as lower QUICKI index values than those in the non-NWO group.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Socioeconomic, lifestyle, anthropometric, body composition, and biochemical variables of the total sample and the NWO and non-NWO groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>Total (n = 222, 100.0%)</th>
                  <th>NWO (n = 157, 70.7%)</th>
                  <th>Non-NWO (n = 65, 29.3%)</th>
                  <th>p value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Sex</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">0.410</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Male</td>
                  <td align="center">73 (32.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">49 (31.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">24 (36.9)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Female</td>
                  <td align="center">149 (67.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">108 (68.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">41 (63.1)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Skin color</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">0.522</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>White</td>
                  <td align="center">84 (37.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">64 (40.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">20 (30.8)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Brown</td>
                  <td align="center">94 (42.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">63 (40.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">31 (47.7)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Black</td>
                  <td align="center">29 (13.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">19 (12.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (15.4)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Asian</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (6.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">11 (7.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">4 (6.2)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Marital status</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">0.522</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Single</td>
                  <td align="center">199 (89.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">138 (87.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">61 (93.8)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Married</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (9.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">18 (11.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">4 (6.2)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Divorced</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (0.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (0.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Education level</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">0.065</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Higher incomplete</td>
                  <td align="center">167 (75.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">114 (72.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">53 (81.5)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Higher complete</td>
                  <td align="center">44 (19.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">32 (20.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">12 (18.5)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Graduation complete</td>
                  <td align="center">11 (5.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">11 (7.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Socioeconomic class</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">0.094</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Higher</td>
                  <td align="center">143 (64.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">106 (67.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">37 (56.9)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Intermediate</td>
                  <td align="center">78 (35.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">51 (32.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">27 (41.5)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lower</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (0.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (1.5)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age (years)</td>
                  <td align="center">23.0 (21.0 &#8211; 25.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">23.0 (21.0 &#8211; 26.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">23.0 (21.0 &#8211; 24.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.506</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SBP (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">109.5 (100.0 &#8211; 115.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">109.5 (100.0 &#8211; 116.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">110.0 (100.0 &#8211; 115.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.682</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>DBP (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">67.0 (60.1 &#8211; 74.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">66.5 (60.0 &#8211; 74.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">70.0 (62.0 &#8211; 74.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.349</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Weight (kg)</td>
                  <td align="center">60.6 (55.0 &#8211; 66.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">61.3 (56.0 &#8211; 66.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">57.4 (53.0&#8211; 65.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.026</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Height (m)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.7 (1.6 &#8211; 1.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.7 (1.6 &#8211; 1.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.7 (1.6 &#8211; 1.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.719</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BMI (kg/m <sup>2</sup> )</td>
                  <td align="center">21.8 (20.5 &#8211; 23.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">22.1 (21.0 &#8211; 23.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">20.8 (19.8 &#8211; 22.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>PA level (MET min/week)</td>
                  <td align="center">260.0 (131.2 &#8211; 409.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">240.0 (100.0 &#8211; 415.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">280 (180.0 &#8211; 409.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.210</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>NC (cm)</td>
                  <td align="center">32.4 (31.2 &#8211; 36.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">32.5 (31.4 &#8211; 35.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">32.1 (30.7 &#8211; 36.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.490</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>WC (cm)</td>
                  <td align="center">72.7 &#177; 5.5</td>
                  <td align="center">73.8 &#177; 5.2</td>
                  <td align="center">70.1 &#177; 5.4</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>%BF DXA</td>
                  <td align="center">30.4 (23.4 &#8211; 36.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">34.2 (28.8 &#8211; 37.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">24.6 (15.4 &#8211; 28.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Android %BF</td>
                  <td align="center">30.7 &#177; 9.6</td>
                  <td align="center">34.7 &#177; 7.6</td>
                  <td align="center">20.9 &#177; 6.4</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gynoid %BF</td>
                  <td align="center">42.8 (34.2 &#8211; 48.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">46.5 (38.1 &#8211; 49.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">36.8 (23.2 &#8211; 41.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>A:G</td>
                  <td align="center">0.8 (0.7 &#8211; 0.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.8 (0.7 &#8211; 0.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.6 (0.6 &#8211; 0.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Glucose (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">85.0 (80.2 &#8211; 89.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">85.0 (81.0 &#8211; 90.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">84.0 (80.0 &#8211; 89.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.392</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Insulin (pmol/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">49.9 (38.9 &#8211; 66.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">54.5 (42.4 &#8211; 71.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">43.0 (35.2 &#8211; 54.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                  <td align="center">1.4 (1.1 &#8211; 2.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.6 (1.2 &#8211; 2.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.2 (1.0 &#8211; 1.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HOMA2-IR</td>
                  <td align="center">0.9 (0.7 &#8211; 1.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.0 (0.8 &#8211; 1.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.8 (0.6 &#8211; 1.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HOMA-beta</td>
                  <td align="center">122.0 (87.9 &#8211; 170.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">134.0 (95.1 &#8211; 176.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">104.5 (78.9 &#8211; 149.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.011</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HbA <sub>1c</sub> %</td>
                  <td align="center">4.8 (4.6 &#8211; 5.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">4.8 (4.6 &#8211; 5.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">4.8 (4.6 &#8211; 5.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.953</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>QUICKI Index</td>
                  <td align="center">0.36 &#177; 0.02</td>
                  <td align="center">0.36 &#177; 0.02</td>
                  <td align="center">0.37 &#177; 0.02</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TC (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">175.7 &#177; 32.0</td>
                  <td align="center">179.8 &#177; 33.1</td>
                  <td align="center">165.8 &#177; 26.9</td>
                  <td align="center">0.002</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HDL-C (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">55.0 (47.0 &#8211; 65.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">55.0 (47.0 &#8211; 65.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">56.0 (48.0 &#8211; 65.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.782</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDL-C (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">99.0 (82.0 &#8211; 117.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">103.0 (83.0 &#8211; 118.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">93.0 (74.0 &#8211; 107.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.008</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Non-HDL-C (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">115.0 (96.2 &#8211; 136.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">121.0 (100.0 &#8211; 140.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">109.0 (90.0 &#8211; 121.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.002</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>VLDL-C (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">14.8 (10.6 &#8211; 20.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">16.4 (11.4 &#8211; 21.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">12.8 (9.6 &#8211; 16.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TG (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">74.0 (53.2 &#8211; 104.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">82.0 (57.0 &#8211; 109.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">64.0 (48.0 &#8211; 83.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TC:HDL-C ratio</td>
                  <td align="center">3.0 (2.6 &#8211; 3.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.1 (2.7 &#8211; 3.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.8 (2.5 &#8211; 3.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.021</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDL-C:HDL-C ratio</td>
                  <td align="center">1.8 (1.4 &#8211; 2.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.8 (1.4 &#8211; 2.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.7 (1.3 &#8211; 2.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.050</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Apo A1 (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">151.0 (137.0 &#8211; 168.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">151.5 (138.8 &#8211; 172.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">149.0 (137.0 &#8211; 163.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.246</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Apo B (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">76.0 (65.0 &#8211; 89.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">80.4 &#177; 19.0</td>
                  <td align="center">70.6 &#177; 14.8</td>
                  <td align="center">0.0003</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Apo B:Apo A1 ratio</td>
                  <td align="center">0.5 (0.4 &#8211; 0.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.5 (0.4 &#8211; 0.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.5 (0.4 &#8211; 0.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.031</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TyG</td>
                  <td align="center">3.5 &#177; 0.2</td>
                  <td align="center">3.5 &#177; 0.2</td>
                  <td align="center">3.4 &#177; 0.2</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>AI</td>
                  <td align="center">1.0 (0.7 &#8211; 1.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.0 (0.8 &#8211; 1.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.9 (0.6 &#8211; 1.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.022</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>Data are presented as mean &#177; standard deviation, median (interquartile range), or absolute and relative frequencies. A:G: ratio between android and gynoid %BF; AI: atherogenic index; Apo A1: apolipoprotein A1; Apo B: apolipoprotein B; android %BF: percentage of android body fat; BMI: body mass index; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; gynoid %BF: percentage of gynoid body fat; HbA <sub>1c</sub>: glycated hemoglobin; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HOMA-beta: homeostatic model assessment of beta cell function; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; HOMA2-IR: homeostasis model assessment 2 of insulin resistance; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; MET: metabolic equivalents; NC: neck circumference; non-HDL-C: non-HDL cholesterol; NWO: normal-weight obesity; PA: physical activity level; %BF DXA: percentage of body fat assessed by dual-energy radiological absorptiometry; SBP: systolic blood pressure; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triacylglycerol; TyG: triacylglycerol glucose index; VLDL-C: very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; WC: waist circumference. Significant differences between groups: Student&#8217;s t test or Mann-Whitney test, Pearson&#8217;s &#967; <sup>2</sup> test or Fisher&#8217;s exact test.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Furthermore, we observed disturbances in most biomarkers of lipid and glycemic profiles in individuals in the NWO group, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2A</xref>. Considering the traditional lipid profile (TC, HDL-C, LDL-C, non-HDL-C, VLDL-C, TG; TC:HDL-C and LDL-C:HDL-C ratios), 44% of the individuals in the NWO group showed one or more disturbances. Individuals in the non-NWO group showed a lower frequency (23%; p = 0.004). When Apo A1 and Apo B concentrations were considered, more than half (54%) of the individuals in the NWO group and 34% of those in the non-NWO group showed one or more disturbances in the lipid profile (p = 0.006), as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2B</xref>. The frequency of at least one disturbance in the biomarkers of the glycemic profile was higher in the NWO group (23%) than in the non-NWO group (11%) (p = 0.037).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; A) Frequency of lipid and glycemic profile disturbances in the NWO and non-NWO groups. B) Frequency of at least one lipid or glycemic profile disturbance in the NWO and non-NWO groups. AI: atherogenic index; Apo A1: apolipoprotein A1; Apo B: apolipoprotein B; HbA1c: glycated hemoglobin; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HOMA-beta: homeostatic model assessment of beta cell function; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; HOMA2-IR: homeostasis model assessment 2 of insulin resistance; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; non-HDL-C: non-HDL cholesterol; NWO: normal-weight obesity; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triacylglycerol; VLDL-C: very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220914-20914-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A difference between the NWO and non-NWO groups regarding risky food consumption was observed only for total fat intake (p = 0.028). However, the prevalence of inadequate intake of dietary fiber and saturated fat in the NWO group was noteworthy (88.5% for both) ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Prevalence of risky food consumption in the total sample and the NWO and non-NWO groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2">Variables</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Total sample (n=222)</th>
                  <th colspan="2">NWO (n=157)</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Non-NWO (n=65)</th>
                  <th rowspan="2">p value</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>n</th>
                  <th>%</th>
                  <th>n</th>
                  <th>%</th>
                  <th>n</th>
                  <th>%</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>TEI &gt; energy requirement</td>
                  <td align="center">109</td>
                  <td align="center">49.1</td>
                  <td align="center">72</td>
                  <td align="center">45.9</td>
                  <td align="center">37</td>
                  <td align="center">56.9</td>
                  <td align="center">0.134</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Protein &gt; 15% of TEI</td>
                  <td align="center">166</td>
                  <td align="center">74.8</td>
                  <td align="center">116</td>
                  <td align="center">73.9</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                  <td align="center">76.9</td>
                  <td align="center">0.635</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Carbohydrates &gt; 60% of TEI</td>
                  <td align="center">13</td>
                  <td align="center">5.8</td>
                  <td align="center">7</td>
                  <td align="center">4.5</td>
                  <td align="center">6</td>
                  <td align="center">9.2</td>
                  <td align="center">0.209</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dietary fiber &lt; 25 g/day*</td>
                  <td align="center">192</td>
                  <td align="center">86.5</td>
                  <td align="center">139</td>
                  <td align="center">88.5</td>
                  <td align="center">53</td>
                  <td align="center">81.5</td>
                  <td align="center">0.165</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lipids &gt; 35% of TEI</td>
                  <td align="center">121</td>
                  <td align="center">54.5</td>
                  <td align="center">93</td>
                  <td align="center">59.2</td>
                  <td align="center">28</td>
                  <td align="center">43.1</td>
                  <td align="center">0.028</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SFA &#8805; 10% of TEI</td>
                  <td align="center">190</td>
                  <td align="center">85.6</td>
                  <td align="center">139</td>
                  <td align="center">88.5</td>
                  <td align="center">51</td>
                  <td align="center">78.5</td>
                  <td align="center">0.052</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MUFA &gt; 15% of TEI</td>
                  <td align="center">42</td>
                  <td align="center">18.9</td>
                  <td align="center">33</td>
                  <td align="center">21.0</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                  <td align="center">13.8</td>
                  <td align="center">0.214</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>PUFA &gt; 10% of TEI</td>
                  <td align="center">24</td>
                  <td align="center">10.8</td>
                  <td align="center">19</td>
                  <td align="center">12.1</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                  <td align="center">7.7</td>
                  <td align="center">0.336</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids; NWO: normal-weight obesity; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids; SFA: saturated fatty acids; TEI: total energy intake. *Adjusted for energy intake. Pearson&#8217;s &#967; <sup>2</sup> test or Fisher&#8217;s exact test.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>For the regression analysis, 3 individuals were excluded due to missing data (n = 219; NWO = 154 and non-NWO = 65). The final model included the following independent variables: sex, %BF, disturbances in lipid profile, neck circumference, BMI, and mean carbohydrate intake ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> ). For each 1% increase in %BF, there were 3.04 times higher odds of belonging to the NWO group, and for each 1 cm increase in neck circumference, there were 2.52 times higher odds of belonging to the NWO group. NWO was also positively associated with the presence of one or more disturbances in the lipid profile. There were negative associations between NWO and female sex and BMI, such that for each 1 kg/m <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> increase in BMI, there was 51% lower odds of belonging to the NWO group.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Final multiple logistic regression model adjusted by the stepwise strategy to analyze associations between the presence of normal-weight obesity and the analyzed variables (n = 219)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>Estimate (&#946;)</th>
                  <th>SE</th>
                  <th>OR (95% CI)</th>
                  <th>z value</th>
                  <th>pr (&gt;|t|)</th>
                  <th>p value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Intercept</td>
                  <td align="center">-36.183098</td>
                  <td align="center">9.713135</td>
                  <td align="center">0.00 (0.00 &#8211; 0.00)</td>
                  <td align="center">-3.725</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000195</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Variables</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Female sex</td>
                  <td align="center">-8.930783</td>
                  <td align="center">1.948802</td>
                  <td align="center">0.00 (0.00 &#8211; 0.01)</td>
                  <td align="center">-4.583</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Total %BF</td>
                  <td align="center">1.112949</td>
                  <td align="center">0.207149</td>
                  <td align="center">3.04 (2.03 &#8211; 4.57)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.373</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.0001</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.001</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Disturbances in lipid profile (&#8805;1)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.415612</td>
                  <td align="center">0.699868</td>
                  <td align="center">4.12 (1.04 &#8211; 16.24)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.023</td>
                  <td align="center">0.043106</td>
                  <td align="center">0.050</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Neck circumference</td>
                  <td align="center">0.924465</td>
                  <td align="center">0.297740</td>
                  <td align="center">2.52 (1.41 &#8211; 4.52)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.105</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001903</td>
                  <td align="center">0.010</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BMI</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.708130</td>
                  <td align="center">0.340233</td>
                  <td align="center">0.49 (0.25 &#8211; 0.96)</td>
                  <td align="center">-2.081</td>
                  <td align="center">0.037405</td>
                  <td align="center">0.050</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mean carbohydrate intake</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.012656</td>
                  <td align="center">0.007977</td>
                  <td align="center">0.99 (0.97 &#8211; 1.00)</td>
                  <td align="center">-1.587</td>
                  <td align="center">0.112615</td>
                  <td align="center">1.000</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>Null deviance: 266.362 with 218 degrees of freedom. Residual deviance: 64.027 with 212 degrees of freedom. Number of Fisher scoring iterations: 8. BMI: body mass index; CI: confidence interval; OR: odds ratio; %BF total: percentage of total body fat; SE: standard error. Logistic regression with an estimate of odds ratio and its respective 95% CI, using the presence/absence of normal-weight obesity as the outcome.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>This study is one of the first performed in Brazil to assess the cardiometabolic profile of young individuals with NWO compared with their non-NWO counterparts. The prevalence of NWO was significantly high. Individuals with NWO showed worse results regarding body composition and cardiometabolic biomarkers than those in the non-NWO group. Furthermore, significant associations between the presence of NWO and cardiometabolic risk factors were found.</p>
        <p>The very high prevalence of NWO should be cautiously interpreted and generalized. In addition to increasing obesity rates worldwide, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> excess %BF has several harmful consequences, even when not associated with an increased BMI. In the medium- and long-terms, loss of muscle mass combined with high %BF can lead to negative consequences on quality of life and contribute to the development of sarcopenic obesity and other nutrition-related chronic non-communicable diseases. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>An important aspect of our results is the higher BMI presented by individuals with NWO. However, this result could be expected, since BMI presents a good correlation with %BF in several populations. This result demonstrates that these individuals, even with a higher BMI, could be classified as normal-weight, disregarding the risk factors associated with excess %BF. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Therefore, it is imperative to evaluate and properly classify individuals with NWO.</p>
        <p>Another important finding is the low age range of our sample, which is different from that of other studies with NWO. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> The high prevalence of NWO and metabolic disturbances in young individuals raises the importance of reflecting on changes in assessment criteria and classification of body composition. The long-term impacts, including the negative consequences on the muscle composition profile over time, also need to be extensively investigated.</p>
        <p>The prevalence of increased %BF in our study was higher than that in a study of individuals from the United States (n = 6,171), which showed an NWO prevalence of 33.4% for both women and men. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> It was also higher than that observed in a study of Chinese individuals (n = 23,748), with an NWO prevalence of approximately 8%. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> This difference can be partly explained by the higher cutoff points (33.3% for women and 23.1% for men and &#8805; 24% for men and &#8805; 33% for women in the studies from the United States and China, respectively) and by the method used for the classification of NWO (bioimpedance used in both). Madeira et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> evaluated Brazilian adults with NWO and identified lower prevalence rates (9.1%) than those found in our study. The cutoff points for %BF were 23.1% for men and 33.3% for women, and skinfolds were used to measure it. These results further underscore the need for studies to standardize the cutoff points and methods for assessing body composition, as well as to better characterize NWO. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In contrast, a cross-sectional study conducted with 1,354 young adults in Latin America found a moderate prevalence (29.1%) of NWO. This condition was also associated with a higher cardiovascular risk, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> corroborating our results. These results also emphasize the importance of proper healthcare, considering that excess %BF can progressively contribute to an increased risk of cardiometabolic diseases and mortality. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In this study, we used a value &gt; 30% <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> to classify women as having NWO. However, this can be questioned, and we explored the implications of using a higher cutoff point of 32%. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> We found that 14 women would not meet the criteria for NWO classification, resulting in an overall prevalence of 64.4%. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that the majority of the women who would not be classified as having NWO exhibited disturbances in lipid and glycemic profiles, indicating the presence of risk factors associated with excess %BF. Therefore, the use of a cutoff point &gt; 30% would ensure the inclusion of women who have risk factors related to excess %BF and may help to identify individuals who could benefit from interventions to improve their metabolic health.</p>
        <p>Some results observed in individuals with NWO in our study, such as higher BMI, although only slightly compared to the normal range, %BF, android and gynoid %BF, and android to gynoid ratio were expected, given that increased %BF is the foundation of this condition. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nevertheless, higher android %BF contributes to an increased cardiometabolic risk since the accumulation of fat in the abdominal region can result in alterations in endothelial function. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> In addition, although no individual had waist circumference outside the normal range, the higher values found in individuals with NWO indicate a predisposition to higher cardiometabolic risk. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Neck circumference is also an important measure in the assessment of cardiometabolic risk <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> and was positively associated with the presence of NWO.</p>
        <p>When we evaluated traditional biomarkers, almost 45% of individuals with NWO showed disturbances in their lipid profiles. In a previous study, we found a prevalence of 52.5%. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> These high percentages of disturbances in the lipid profile, as well as the association of NWO with LDL-C and TG concentrations, are important to the overall cardiovascular profile of these individuals. Excess visceral adipose tissue leads to increased lipolysis of fatty acids, which are supplied to the liver. In the liver, free fatty acids are substrates for the synthesis of lipoproteins, including VLDL. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> As VLDL is a TG-rich lipoprotein, there may be a higher amount of fatty acids for storage. In addition, because the uptake of fatty acids from VLDL by adipose tissue is facilitated by insulin, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> individuals with IR may develop disturbances in lipoprotein metabolism. Other atherogenic lipoproteins, such as small and dense LDL, can also accumulate when excess adipose tissue is found in the visceral region, thereby worsening the cardiovascular profile. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
        <p>When Apo A1 and B concentrations were evaluated, the frequency of disturbances in the lipid profile was higher in individuals with NWO than in the non-NWO group. Apo A1 is the main lipoprotein of HDL, and it plays an important role in removing excess cholesterol from tissues. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Apo B is widely distributed in lipoproteins, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> and during IR, its clearance and LDL entry into cells are impaired, which accelerates the atherogenic process. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Therefore, the negative association between NWO and Apo A1 concentrations, as well as the higher frequency of disturbances in Apo B concentrations and the HOMA-IR index found in individuals with NWO, are important aspects to be considered in the study of this condition.</p>
        <p>The frequency of disturbances in insulin concentrations and HOMA-IR were similar to those observed in a study of Polish individuals, in which, from a total of 168 women and men, 73 (43%) had NWO. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Excess adipose cells promote tissue dysfunction and activation of immune cells with potential proinflammatory activity, triggering local and systemic proinflammatory mediators, regardless of BMI. Consequently, there is a deregulation in signaling pathways and an impaired insulin action, which results in reduced glucose uptake by cells and subsequent IR. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
        <p>To date, only a few studies have evaluated the dietary habits of individuals with NWO. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> M&#228;nnist&#246; et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> identified dietary factors that may increase the risk of cardiometabolic disturbances in individuals with NWO. Although the consumption of saturated fat was not evaluated, a low intake of dietary fiber was found, which is similar to our results. Adequate consumption of dietary fiber promotes improvements in glycemic profile, LDL-C, non-HDL-C, and other lipoprotein concentrations; lowers the risk of cardiometabolic diseases; and improves inflammatory and immune profiles. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> The high percentage of excessive consumption of total and saturated fats observed in individuals with NWO must be carefully managed because there is overwhelming evidence on the relationship between these nutrients and higher risks of CVDs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A population-based study in Tehran (median follow-up of 18 years) evaluated the association between %BF and the risk of mortality from CVD in 8,287 individuals older than 30 years. Considering waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio as adiposity indicators, normal-weight individuals with central obesity showed an increased risk of all-cause and CVD mortality compared with normal-weight and non-centrally obese individuals. Although the authors used only indirect indicators to assess %BF, the results underscore the importance of assessing cardiometabolic risks in adults with excess %BF. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Among the strengths of our study, it is important to mention that we used DXA to evaluate body composition, which is the gold-standard method. In addition, the analysis of apolipoprotein concentrations provided more robust data regarding the cardiometabolic profile. It is also pertinent to mention the homogeneity in the socioeconomic and lifestyle data of the groups evaluated, which reduces possible bias. In addition, we took great care to ensure that individuals with preexisting medical conditions or unconventional lifestyle practices that could potentially introduce biased interpretations and generalizations were excluded from the study. On the other hand, an important limitation to the discussion of our results relies on the different cutoff points and methods for the evaluation of %BF found in other studies, as well as the lack of standardized cutoff points for the Brazilian population. It is noteworthy that the study identified risk factors associated with asymptomatic, healthy young adults. This highlights the importance of providing appropriate attention and healthcare to this individuals in clinical practice, as they may be at increased risk of adverse health outcomes that may initially present without symptoms.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Individuals with NWO showed a worse cardiometabolic profile than those without it. NWO was associated with important anthropometric, body composition, and cardiometabolic variables. Overall, these results corroborate those previously reported. However, further studies on the standardization of cutoff points and methods of assessing body composition in different populations are extremely important. Accurate evaluation and interpretation of body composition, independent of BMI, is crucial in clinical practice to facilitate effective management of medium- and long-term comorbidities associated with excess %BF. Such assessments will help healthcare professionals reduce the risks of negative cardiometabolic complications by providing tailored management strategies for individuals with NWO.</p>
      </sec>
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    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Anna Fl&#225;via Ferreira Passos, from Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s.</p>
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s under the protocol number 2.772.022, CAAE: 91618318.4.0000.5083. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
