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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">6y8W64H6WpTD3Bdmmyggmfm</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000900401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220903</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Papel do Ecocardiograma na Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Septo Interatrial e Pesquisa de Forame Oval Patente como Fonte Embolig&#234;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattoso</surname>
            <given-names>Angele Azevedo Alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8343-6410</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sena</surname>
            <given-names>Joberto Pinheiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9236-3815</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hotta</surname>
            <given-names>Viviane Tiemi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel &#8211; Hemodin&#226;mica, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">HC</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">FMUSP</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o HC-FMUSP &#8211; Unidade Clinica de Miocardiopatias e Doen&#231;as da Aorta, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Fleury Medicina e Sa&#250;de</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Fleury Medicina e Sa&#250;de, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Angele Azevedo Alves Mattoso &#8226;</bold> Hospital Santa Izabel da Santa Casa da Bahia, 500. CEP 40050-410, Salvador, BA - Brasil. E-mail: <email>angelealves@bol.com.br</email>, <email>viviane.hotta@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o: Nuno Bettencourt</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>27</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>9</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220903</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <title>Figura Central</title>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <caption>
              <title>: Papel do Ecocardiograma na Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Septo Interatrial e Pesquisa de Forame Oval Patente como Fonte Embolig&#234;nica</title>
              <p>Imagem cedida pela Dra Vera Demarchi Aiello, Laborat&#243;rio de Anatomia Patol&#243;gica do Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da FMUSP.</p>
            </caption>
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              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/6y8W64H6WpTD3Bdmmyggmfm/75dd4821f7e686c344a6f0ad0f6c96ce88af8a92.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
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        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A comunica&#231;&#227;o do septo atrial (CIA) representa, aproximadamente, de 6%-10% dos defeitos card&#237;acos cong&#234;nitos, com incid&#234;ncia de 1 em 1.500 nascidos vivos.<sup>1</sup> Forame oval patente (FOP) &#233; mais comum e est&#225; presente em mais de 20%-25% dos adultos.<sup>2</sup> S&#237;ndromes cl&#237;nicas associadas a CIA e FOP s&#227;o vari&#225;veis, com implica&#231;&#245;es abrangendo a medicina pedi&#225;trica e adulta, neurologia e cirurgia.</p>
        <p>O interesse adicional na anatomia do septo interatrial (SIA) aumentou substancialmente nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, com evolu&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea dos procedimentos percut&#226;neos envolvendo cardiopatia estrutural do lado esquerdo e procedimentos eletrofisiol&#243;gicos. Idealmente, essas interven&#231;&#245;es baseadas em cateter requerem rota direta para o &#225;trio esquerdo (AE) atrav&#233;s do SIA, necessitando completo entendimento de sua anatomia. Atualmente, tecnologias de imagem sofisticadas e n&#227;o invasivas como ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica bidimensional (ETE 2D) e tridimensional (ETE 3D), resson&#226;ncia card&#237;aca (RMC) e tomografia computadorizada (TC) passaram por um extraordin&#225;rio desenvolvimento tecnol&#243;gico, fornecendo detalhes anat&#244;micos das estruturas card&#237;acas visualizadas em formato 2D e 3D e s&#227;o essenciais para diagn&#243;stico e tratamento de pacientes com doen&#231;as card&#237;acas.</p>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da anatomia e anormalidades do SIA, portanto, requer abordagem padronizada e sistem&#225;tica, integrando modalidades diagn&#243;sticas e fornecendo avalia&#231;&#227;o adequada e uniforme para terapias cir&#250;rgicas e transcateter.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
        <kwd>Septo Atrial</kwd>
        <kwd>Forame Oval Patente</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="22"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="66"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Anatomia do septo interatrial</title>
      <p>O SIA tem tr&#234;s componentes: septo primum (SP), septo secundum (SS) e septo do canal atrioventricular. O seio venoso n&#227;o &#233; um componente do SIA verdadeiro, mas sim uma estrutura adjacente, atrav&#233;s da qual pode ocorrer uma comunica&#231;&#227;o atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os &#225;trios se desenvolvem primeiro como cavidade comum. Em aproximadamente 28 dias de gesta&#231;&#227;o, o SP, oriundo do teto atrial, come&#231;a migrar em dire&#231;&#227;o aos coxins endoc&#225;rdicos em desenvolvimento. Durante essa transi&#231;&#227;o, o espa&#231;o entre o SP e o coxim endoc&#225;rdico &#233; denominado &#8220;&#243;stio primum embrion&#225;rio&#8221; ou &#8220;forame primum&#8221; (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1A, 1B</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Esquema demonstrando o desenvolvimento normal do SIA. A) SP cresce a partir do teto atrial. B) Fenestra&#231;&#245;es se desenvolvem dentro do SP. C) SS desenvolve-se por dobradura da parede atrial. O &#243;stio secundum atua como conduto para passagem direita-esquerda de sangue oxigenado. D) Na borda anterossuperior da FO, o SP e o SS permanecem n&#227;o fundidos, o que constitui o FOP. A seta denota sangue fluindo atrav&#233;s do FOP do AD embrion&#225;rio para o AE. Os pontos azuis e roxos representam o desenvolvimento do influxo das veias cavas e pulmonares para os &#225;trios. CE: coxim endoc&#225;rdico; FO: fossa oval; FOP: forame oval patente; OP: &#243;stio primum; OS: &#243;stio secundum; SAI: septo interatrial; SP: septo primum; SS: septo secundum.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>O SS desenvolve-se &#224; direita do SP, estendendo-se superior, posterior e inferiormente e &#233; resultado de dobradura do teto atrial em vez de estrutura membranosa verdadeira (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1C</xref>); Sobreposi&#231;&#227;o do SP no lado atrial esquerdo torna-se o assoalho de depress&#227;o ovalada (fossa oval), delimitada pela borda resultante da dobradura SS, vista no lado atrial direito. O &#243;stio primum se fecha pela fus&#227;o das c&#233;lulas mesenquimais do SP com coxins endoc&#225;rdicos. Aos dois meses de gesta&#231;&#227;o, o SS e o SP se fundem, deixando o forame oval como &#250;nica comunica&#231;&#227;o residual (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1D</xref>). O SP funciona como v&#225;lvula de retalho na vida fetal, direcionando o fluxo sangu&#237;neo do &#225;trio direito (AD) para AE atrav&#233;s do &#243;stio secundum ou forame oval, sendo essencial para fornecer sangue oxigenado da placenta para &#243;rg&#227;os vitais. Ap&#243;s o nascimento, essa abertura se fecha quando press&#227;o mais alta no AE empurra o <italic>flap</italic> da v&#225;lvula contra a borda muscular. Se a ades&#227;o estiver incompleta em toda a margem do rebordo, permanece o FOP (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2A, 2B, 2C</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Esp&#233;cime anat&#244;mico do SIA de perspectiva atrial direita (A, B) e atrial esquerda (C) mostrando SP e SS n&#227;o completamente fundidos, o que constitui o FOP. A seta denota o pertuito por onde o sangue flui atrav&#233;s do FOP do AD para o AE, cortesia de Dra Vera Demarchi Aiello, Laborat&#243;rio de Anatomia Patol&#243;gica do Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da FMUSP. Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas transesof&#225;gicas tridimensionais (modo 3D Zoom) do SIA e estruturas adjacentes. Vis&#245;es (modo 3D Zoom) en face ou frontal do SIA de perspectiva atrial direita (D) e atrial esquerda (E), respectivamente. (F, G) Vis&#245;es &#8220;en face&#8221; (modo 3D Zoom &#8211; True Vue) do SIA mostrando o assoalho da FO (seta). Ao Asc: aorta ascendente; FO: fossa oval; FOP: forame oval patente; SC: seio coronariano; NC: seio a&#243;rtico n&#227;o coronariano; SP: septo primum; SS: septo secundum; VCI: veia cava inferior; VCS: veia cava superior; VM: valva mitral; VPSD: veia pulmonar superior direita.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Quando observado por perspectiva atrial direita, o SIA aparece como extensa &#225;rea, delimitada inferior e superiormente pelos orif&#237;cios da veia cava inferior (VCI) e veia cava superior (VCS), respectivamente; anteroinferiormente, esta superf&#237;cie &#233; limitada pelo orif&#237;cio do seio coron&#225;rio, anterossuperiormente, pelo seio a&#243;rtico n&#227;o-coron&#225;rio e por fim, anteriormente pela regi&#227;o de implante da c&#250;spide da valva tric&#250;spide. A ETE 3D &#233; a melhor modalidade de imagem para descrever essa superf&#237;cie e suas rela&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas, de perspectivas atrial esquerda e direita com precis&#227;o compar&#225;vel ao de esp&#233;cimes anat&#244;micos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2D, 2E, 2F, 2G</xref>). Anatomistas descrevem o SIA como uma separa&#231;&#227;o interposta entre AD e AE. Portanto, a pun&#231;&#227;o do SIA cria uma comunica&#231;&#227;o direta entre os &#225;trios sem invadir tecidos epic&#225;rdicos. Todavia, esta defini&#231;&#227;o corresponde, de fato, ao assoalho da fossa oval (FO), que se assemelha a depress&#227;o do tipo cratera, quando a face atrial direita do septo &#233; visualizada &#8220;<italic>en face</italic> ou frontal&#8221; (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figuras 2A, 2B, 2D e 2F</xref>) e como parede fina sobreposta do lado atrial esquerdo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figuras 2C, 2E e 2G</xref>).</p>
      <p>A FO &#233;, portanto, o SP embrion&#225;rio, e cobre cerca de 20% da &#225;rea supracitada, sendo definida como &#8220;septo verdadeiro&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A &#225;rea muscular que circunda as margens superior, posterior e inferior da FO que &#224; primeira vista parece estar interposta entre os &#225;trios, o &#8216;&#8217;septo secundum ou limbo da FO&#8217;&#8217;, como vimos, na verdade, n&#227;o separa realmente AD do AE. A Dissec&#231;&#227;o dessa &#225;rea revela que se trata de dobradura da parede atrial e a pun&#231;&#227;o dessa regi&#227;o interna do AD produz sa&#237;da das cavidades atriais para tecidos adiposos &#8220;externos&#8221; que ocupam a dobradura. Assim, essa dobradura &#233;, sem d&#250;vida, um &#8220;falso septo&#8221; (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; (A) Esp&#233;cime anat&#244;mico mostrando a &#225;rea muscular que circunda a FO, interposta entre AD e AE, o &#8216;&#8217;SS&#8217;&#8217; ou &#8216;&#8217;limbo da FO&#8216;&#8217;, que &#233; uma dobradura da parede atrial. A pun&#231;&#227;o dessa regi&#227;o interna do AD produz sa&#237;da das cavidades atriais para tecidos adiposos &#8220;externos&#8221; que ocupam a dobradura (&#8220;falso septo&#8221;). (B) Imagem transversal de RM obtida em paciente com hipertrofia lipomatosa do SIA, mostrando duas &#8216;&#8217;pseudomassas&#8217;&#8217; preenchidas por tecido adiposo localizadas superiormente, cont&#237;guas &#224; veia cava superior e inferiormente ao septo atrioventricular. AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; FO: fossa oval; SS: septo secundum.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Entretanto, para consist&#234;ncia com a literatura, refere-se a dobradura da parede atrial como SS. Corretamente descrita no s&#233;culo 19 por Waterston<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> e conhecida como sulco interatrial de Sondergaard, essa dobradura &#233; preenchida por quantidade vari&#225;vel de tecido adiposo epic&#225;rdico e pequenos vasos. A ETE 2D pode, potencialmente, identificar o tecido adiposo, com apar&#234;ncia caracter&#237;stica de ampulheta, mas em indiv&#237;duos normais, o sulco interatrial &#233; quase virtual, portanto, dif&#237;cil distinguir uma pequena quantidade de tecido adiposo entre as duas paredes atriais que se assemelham a parede &#250;nica. Em outros pacientes, o tecido adiposo &#233; particularmente intrusivo, invadindo o sulco interatrial e separando as paredes atriais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f05">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas transesof&#225;gicas do SIA atrav&#233;s da vis&#227;o bicaval mostrando diferentes tamanhos de FO. (A, F) Presen&#231;a de tecido adiposo significativo no SS ou sulco interatrial (setas), dando ao SIA apar&#234;ncia de ampulheta. (B, D, E) Pouco tecido adiposo, tornando o sulco atrial (seta) quase virtual. (C) Significativo ac&#250;mulo de tecido adiposo na dobradura interna do septo (invadindo o sulco interatrial ou SS) (setas vermelhas), sem comprometer a l&#226;mina da FO (setas brancas), a chamada hipertrofia lipomatosa. AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; FO: fossa oval; SAI: septo interatrial; SS: septo secundum; VCI: veia cava inferior; VCS: veia cava superior.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf04.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>A TC pode identificar tecido adiposo com base nos limiares de atenua&#231;&#227;o, entretanto, apesar da alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial da t&#233;cnica, os limites entre o tecido adiposo e a parede atrial permanecem indistintos. A melhor modalidade de imagem para ilustrar essa arquitetura &#233; a resson&#226;ncia card&#237;aca (RMC), cuja imagem do septo mantem o mesmo formato 2D que ETE 2D. A RMC permite uma distin&#231;&#227;o clara entre o tecido muscular e o adiposo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3B</xref>).</p>
      <p>A FO pode ter diferentes tamanhos e localiza&#231;&#245;es, dependendo da extens&#227;o vari&#225;vel, tanto do tecido da l&#226;mina, quanto do sulco interatrial, que n&#227;o &#233; uniforme em toda a FO (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4</xref>). Definir o tamanho da FO &#233; importante porque o local mais seguro para pun&#231;&#227;o transeptal (PTS) &#233; atrav&#233;s da mesma. Dada a grande variedade de procedimentos em cardiopatia estrutural tratadas por via percut&#226;nea, o local da PTS (sempre dentro da FO) varia de acordo com o procedimento realizado (PTS local-espec&#237;fico). Por exemplo, para implantar um dispositivo oclusor de ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo na orienta&#231;&#227;o correta, o operador puncionar&#225; o septo em uma posi&#231;&#227;o posterior e inferior, enquanto para procedimento de valva mitral a posi&#231;&#227;o &#233; mais alta (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 5A, 5B</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f06">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; (A, B) Imagens ETE 3D biplanar (X-plane) guiando a pun&#231;&#227;o transeptal atrial local-espec&#237;fico para procedimento de oclus&#227;o percut&#226;nea de ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo em posi&#231;&#227;o mais posterior e inferior do septo. A seta indica um cateter de pun&#231;&#227;o bem posicionado. (C) Imagem de ETE 3D en face (perspectiva atrial direita) do SIA mostrando a proximidade (seta dupla) do seio a&#243;rtico n&#227;o-coronariano com a regi&#227;o da FO. Seio a&#243;rtico e por&#231;&#227;o proximal de aorta ascendente delineados. AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; Ao Asc: aorta ascendente; FO: fossa oval; NC: seio a&#243;rtico n&#227;o-coronariano; VAO: valva a&#243;rtica; VCI: veia cava inferior; VSC: veia cava superior.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Geralmente, a FO maior est&#225; em grandes &#225;trios e a FO menor est&#225; associada ao ac&#250;mulo de tecido adiposo na dobradura interna, a chamada hipertrofia lipomatosa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4C</xref>).</p>
      <p>Outra &#225;rea de interesse &#233; a regi&#227;o anterosuperior, que confina o seio peric&#225;rdico transverso e, atrav&#233;s dele, a raiz a&#243;rtica, a estrutura mais importante pr&#243;xima a FO. Alguns mil&#237;metros separam a margem anterosuperior da FO da parede atrial direita, que recobre o seio a&#243;rtico n&#227;o coron&#225;rio. De fato, a complica&#231;&#227;o mais temida da PTS &#233; a pun&#231;&#227;o da raiz da aorta (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 5C</xref>).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Hipertrofia lipomatosa</title>
      <p>O termo hipertrofia lipomatosa do SIA, criado por Prior em 1964, &#233; question&#225;vel, pois ao contr&#225;rio do lipoma, o tecido da hipertrofia lipomatosa n&#227;o &#233; encapsulado e o ac&#250;mulo de gordura &#233; caracterizado histologicamente por hiperplasia de adip&#243;citos (n&#250;mero aumentado), n&#227;o hipertrofia (tamanho aumentado). Esse ac&#250;mulo de adip&#243;citos &#233; externo ao cora&#231;&#227;o, preenchendo o sulco interatrial. As Imagens de RMC podem definir a natureza externa desse tecido adiposo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3B</xref>). Embora o ac&#250;mulo de tecido adiposo dentro do sulco interatrial (SS) tenha apar&#234;ncia caracter&#237;stica de ampulheta na ecocardiografia, tanto ETE 2D quanto 3D (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4</xref>) geralmente n&#227;o conseguem diferenciar claramente o tecido adiposo das paredes atriais. As bordas hipertr&#243;ficas foram definidas com espessura do SS de 8 mm, enquanto a lipomatosa, com espessura de 15 mm.</p>
      <p>A Hipertrofia lipomatosa do SIA &#233; benigna, embora grande quantidade de tecido adiposo possa esporadicamente obstruir a entrada da VCS ou criar distor&#231;&#227;o das paredes atriais, com consequentes arritmias.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Bolsa Septal (<italic>Septo Pouch</italic>) e Crista Septal</title>
      <p>Anomalias na fus&#227;o do SIA podem resultar em variantes anat&#244;micas, incluindo bolsa septal atrial, crista septal atrial esquerda, e anatomia mista que inclui bolsa e crista.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Bolsa septal, estrutura semelhante a bolsa de canguru, sem <italic>shunt</italic> interatrial, abre-se com mais frequ&#234;ncia no AE, ou, menos comumente, no AD, ocorrendo provavelmente por causa de fus&#227;o incompleta entre SP e SS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figura 6A-6F</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f07">
          <label>Figura 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas transesof&#225;gicas mostrando estrutura semelhante a bolsa em SIA em vis&#227;o bicaval bidimensional (A) e tridimensional (B) com o orif&#237;cio da bolsa septal esquerda (setas curvadas). (C e D) Doppler em cores (C) e uso de microbolhas de salina agitada (D) mostrando aus&#234;ncia de shunt septal. Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas em (E e F) Vis&#227;o &#8220;en face&#8221; do SIA, de perspectiva atrial esquerda (E) e direita (F). Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas transesof&#225;gicas de SIA com presen&#231;a de crista septal. (G) Vis&#227;o bidimensional bicaval mostrando imagem de crista septal (seta). (H) Vis&#227;o bidimensional bicaval mostrando integridade do SIA durante inje&#231;&#227;o de contraste de salina agitada. (I) Vis&#227;o en face (3D Zoom) do SIA de perspectiva atrial esquerda mostrando morfologia ecocardiogr&#225;fica tridimensional da crista septal (setas). AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; Ao Asc: aorta ascendente; SC: seio coronariano; SAI: septo interatrial; VCI: veia cava inferior; VCS: veia cava superior; VPSD: veia pulmonar superior direita.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf06.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Em 2006, Roberson et al., descreveram malforma&#231;&#227;o do SIA consistindo em SIA duplo com c&#226;mara na linha m&#233;dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Acredita-se que esta descri&#231;&#227;o seja consistente com grande bolsa septal. Ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claro, por&#233;m tem sido sugerido que o sangue estagnado nesta bolsa pode ser um poss&#237;vel nicho para forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo e embolia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> As ETEs 2D e 3D s&#227;o as melhores t&#233;cnicas para obter imagens da bolsa septal.</p>
      <p>A FO e o sulco interatrial constituem a extensa &#225;rea que recobre a parede medial do AE. Esta &#225;rea, com exce&#231;&#227;o da bolsa septal, &#233; quase desprovida de outras estruturas. Entretanto, embora raramente, a proeminente forma&#231;&#227;o em crista semelhante a membrana ao longo da FO e se estendendo at&#233; a parede livre atrial tem sido observada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup>A crista septal atrial, caracterizada por estrutura tubular no lado atrial esquerdo do SIA, decorrendo ao longo da FO, &#233; uma &#225;rea de tecido espessada localizada e acredita-se que seja devido &#224; fus&#227;o irregular dos septos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figura 6G-6I</xref>). A presen&#231;a de crista atrial esquerda pode potencialmente interferir na PTS em pacientes submetidos a procedimentos transcateter.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Forame Oval Patente</title>
      <p>O FOP n&#227;o &#233; uma verdadeira defici&#234;ncia do SIA, pois n&#227;o h&#225; defici&#234;ncia estrutural do tecido, mas uma separa&#231;&#227;o potencial entre SP e SS, localizada na por&#231;&#227;o anterosuperior do SIA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O forame permanece funcionalmente fechado enquanto a press&#227;o do AE for maior que a press&#227;o do AD, podendo ser apenas funcionalmente patente e ter apar&#234;ncia de t&#250;nel, com o SP formando uma v&#225;lvula oscilante (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>). As diferen&#231;as relativas nas press&#245;es atriais podem resultar em desvio intermitente de sangue. Entretanto, o FOP tamb&#233;m pode ser uma abertura el&#237;ptica verdadeira entre os &#225;trios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7A-7C</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f08">
          <label>Figura 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Vis&#227;o en face ecocardiogr&#225;fica transesof&#225;gica tridimensional (modo 3D Zoom) do SIA, mostrando o aneurisma da l&#226;mina da FO associado a descontinuidade el&#237;ptica (setas) entre os &#225;trios de perspectiva atrial esquerda (A) e direita (B) e confirmada com Doppler em cores (C). (D) Imagem transesof&#225;gica bidimensional de FOP &#8216;&#8216;stretched &#8220; (seta curva) em vis&#227;o bicaval com fluxo ao Doppler colorido da esquerda para a direita. (E, F) Imagem transesof&#225;gica bidimensional do SIA com mobilidade excessiva da l&#226;mina da FO e (G) FOP associado (seta vermelha) demonstrado ao Doppler colorido com fluxo da esquerda para direita e passagem intermitente de microbolhas de salina agitada da direita para esquerda (H). AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; Ao: aorta; Ao Asc: aorta ascendente; FO: fossa oval; SC: seio coronariano; SAI: septo interatrial; VCS: veia cava superior; VCI: veia cava inferior; VM: valva mitral; VPSD: veia pulmonar superior direita.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf07.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Alguns casos de FOP resultam do &#8220;estiramento ou <italic>stretching&#8221;</italic> da banda l&#237;mbica superior do SS por dilata&#231;&#227;o e remodelamento atrial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7D</xref>). Em outros casos, o SP &#233; verdadeiramente aneurism&#225;tico, e como tal, n&#227;o consegue fechar completamente a CIA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7E-7H</xref>). O tamanho do FOP em estudos de autopsia varia de 1 a 19 mm (m&#233;dia de 4,9 mm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Para fins de nomenclatura, o &#8216;&#8216;FOP&#8217;&#8217; &#233; referido como a passagem de sangue da direita para a esquerda, demonstrado ao Doppler em cores ou inje&#231;&#227;o de contraste de salina, sem verdadeira defici&#234;ncia do SIA. O &#8216;&#8216;FOP com fluxo da esquerda para a direita&#8217;&#8217; ocorre quando a hemodin&#226;mica atrial decorre da abertura potencial da comunica&#231;&#227;o do forame, resultando em passagem de sangue da esquerda para direita demonstrado pela imagem Doppler (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7</xref>). Quando o FOP &#233; estirado por hemodin&#226;mica atrial, cria um defeito no septo, que &#233; chamado de FOP &#8216;&#8216;<italic>stretched</italic>&#8217;&#8217;, podendo resultar em fluxo de sangue da esquerda para a direita e/ou da direita para a esquerda, dependendo das diferen&#231;as nas press&#245;es atriais.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Aneurisma do Septo Atrial</title>
      <p>O Aneurisma do septo atrial (ASA) &#233; uma redund&#226;ncia ou deformidade sacular do SIA, sempre limitado a l&#226;mina da FO, e associado ao aumento da mobilidade do tecido septal. A melhor modalidade de imagem para visualizar o ASA &#233; a ETE 3D (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figura 8</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f09">
          <label>Figura 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas transesof&#225;gicas do SIA. (A) Vis&#227;o bidimensional bicaval mostrando deslocamento acentuado da l&#226;mina da FO em dire&#231;&#227;o ao AD, compat&#237;vel com aneurisma. (B, C) Vis&#227;o tridimensional en face (3D Zoom) do septo aneurism&#225;tico de perspectiva atrial esquerda e direita, respectivamente. Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas transesof&#225;gicas bidimensionais do septo interatrial. (D) Vis&#227;o bicaval mostrando o deslocamento da l&#226;mina da FO em dire&#231;&#227;o ao AE, compat&#237;vel com o ASA. (E) Modo M de ASA demonstrando mobilidade maior que 15 mm da l&#226;mina da FO. AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; ASA: aneurisma do septo atrial; D: dist&#226;ncia; FO: fossa oval; VCI: veia cava inferior; VCS: veia cava superior.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf08.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>O ASA &#233; definido como uma excurs&#227;o do tecido septal (l&#226;mina da FO) &#8805; 10 mm do plano septal para AD ou AE ou excurs&#227;o total combinada direita-esquerda de 15 mm. A excurs&#227;o do SIA pode ser documentada usando imagem 2D, bem como avalia&#231;&#227;o modo M quando o cursor modo M &#233; alinhado perpendicularmente ao plano septal. Isso pode ser feito na incid&#234;ncia bicaval na ETE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figura 8D, 8E</xref>).</p>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia do ASA &#233; de 2% a 3%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> e tem sido associado &#224; presen&#231;a e maiores tamanhos de FOP e preval&#234;ncia aumentada de acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) criptog&#234;nico e outros eventos emb&#243;licos e m&#250;ltiplas fenestra&#231;&#245;es septais, que devem ser avaliadas cuidadosamente usando imagem Doppler colorido. A presen&#231;a e extens&#227;o do ASA &#233; fator na sele&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo oclusor de FOP. Um dispositivo grande pode ser escolhido para abranger e estabilizar o SIA ou um menor para melhor conforma&#231;&#227;o com o ASA.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>V&#225;lvula de Eust&#225;quio e Rede Chiari</title>
      <p>A V&#225;lvula de Eust&#225;quio &#233; o remanescente embriol&#243;gico da v&#225;lvula da VCI que, na vida fetal, direciona o fluxo da VCI atrav&#233;s da FO, e se estende da jun&#231;&#227;o entre a VCI e o AD. Considerada proeminente quando sua protrus&#227;o &#233; &#8805; 10 mm dentro do AD. A V&#225;lvula de Eust&#225;quio grande ou proeminente no contexto de FOP, pode contribuir indiretamente para embolia paradoxal, impedindo o fechamento espont&#226;neo do forame<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> ou quando, pr&#243;xima ao SIA, pode interferir na implanta&#231;&#227;o do lado AD do dispositivo oclusor septal.</p>
      <p>A Rede de Chiari &#233; remanescente da v&#225;lvula direita do seio venoso e aparece como malha de estruturas filamentosas em v&#225;rios locais do AD, inclusive pr&#243;ximo a desembocadura da VCI e do seio coron&#225;rio. Est&#225; presente em 2%-3% da popula&#231;&#227;o geral e est&#225; associada &#224; presen&#231;a de FOP e ASA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A Rede Chiari pode interferir na passagem de cateteres e dispositivo atrav&#233;s do AD. Portanto, a identifica&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a de rede Chiari deve fazer parte da avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica do septo interatrial</title>
      <p>A ETE 2D oferece informa&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas incrementais comparado ao ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico (ETT) para avalia&#231;&#227;o do SIA, tamb&#233;m melhora a visualiza&#231;&#227;o do SIA e das estruturas adjacentes. O SIA tem estrutura anat&#244;mica tridimensional e din&#226;mica, n&#227;o sendo verdadeiramente plano, com limita&#231;&#245;es em sua avalia&#231;&#227;o usando qualquer forma de ecocardiografia 2D. A imagem 3D oferece vis&#245;es exclusivas do SIA, e, em particular, permite vis&#227;o &#8220;<italic>en face&#8221;</italic> ou frontal da FO e seus arredores (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>). A imagem biplanar bidimensional (ou triplanar) &#233; uma modalidade advinda da tecnologia 3D, com vantagem de exibir e visualizar imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas simult&#226;neas, com alta taxa de quadros e excelente resolu&#231;&#227;o temporal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 5A, 5B</xref>). Um plano ortogonal de imagem exibido simultaneamente fornece informa&#231;&#245;es incrementais em compara&#231;&#227;o com a imagem uniplanar, e &#233; adequada para orienta&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos transcateter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p><underline>ETE 2D x SIA:</underline> vis&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas e sequenciais devem ser usadas para avalia&#231;&#227;o completa e sistem&#225;tica do SIA, determinando tamanho, forma e localiza&#231;&#227;o de qualquer CIA e sua rela&#231;&#227;o com estruturas circundantes. Recomenda-se uma avalia&#231;&#227;o sequencial a partir das vis&#245;es padr&#227;o com aumento gradual no &#226;ngulo do transdutor em s&#233;ries de 15&#186; de incrementos, para varrer o feixe de ultrassom atrav&#233;s das &#225;reas de interesse. O Doppler colorido &#233; aplicado posteriormente com escala reduzida &#224; aproximadamente 35-40 cm/s para identificar fluxos de baixa velocidade atrav&#233;s de pequena fenestra&#231;&#227;o, o FOP ou CIA menor. Na ETE, cinco vis&#245;es de base s&#227;o usadas para avaliar o SIA: Es&#244;fago superior de eixo curto, es&#244;fago m&#233;dio de eixo curto da valva a&#243;rtica, es&#244;fago m&#233;dio quatro c&#226;maras, es&#244;fago m&#233;dio bicaval e es&#244;fago m&#233;dio eixo longo.</p>
      <p><underline>ETE 3D x SIA:</underline> adquire-se dados volum&#233;tricos 3D em suas apresenta&#231;&#245;es setorial limitada (<italic>live</italic> 3D), <italic>zoom</italic> e volume completo (<italic>full-volume</italic>) a partir de vis&#245;es principais: es&#244;fago m&#233;dio de eixo curto, bicaval, bicaval sagital e quatro c&#226;maras. Quando o SIA &#233; visto a partir do AE, deve ser orientado com a veia pulmonar superior direita na posi&#231;&#227;o de 1 hora. Quando exibido do AD, a VCS deve estar localizada na posi&#231;&#227;o de 11 horas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2D, 2E</xref>).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica do Forame Oval Patente</title>
      <p>O ETT &#233; usado para a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial de FOP; entretanto, a ETE &#233; necess&#225;ria para avalia&#231;&#227;o mais abrangente de anormalidades septais, por melhor qualidade da imagem. A ETE n&#227;o &#233; invariavelmente necess&#225;ria para avalia&#231;&#227;o de FOP se o fechamento n&#227;o estiver sendo considerado, por&#233;m deve ser realizado em todos os pacientes avaliados para procedimento percut&#226;neo ou cir&#250;rgico.</p>
      <p>As vis&#245;es com ETE usadas para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de FOP come&#231;am no plano do es&#244;fago m&#233;dio com configura&#231;&#245;es otimizadas para visualizar o SIA, e o plano de imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fico deve ser girado, come&#231;ando em &#226;ngulos multiplanares de 0&#186;, com incrementos de 15&#186;, para avalia&#231;&#227;o septal completa. Imagens lado a lado com Doppler colorido em escala baixa (35-40 cm/s) s&#227;o &#250;teis para identificar fluxo atrav&#233;s do FOP e poss&#237;veis defeitos septais adicionais. A sonda poder&#225; ser levemente retirada para melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o do SIA pr&#243;ximo &#224; VCS e aprofundada para melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o do SIA pr&#243;ximo &#224; VCI. A partir de 30&#186;-50&#186;, com a VAO em corte transversal, o FOP deve ser visualizado adjacente &#224; aorta (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7D, 7G, 7H</xref>). A rota&#231;&#227;o do plano de imagem deve alinhar na imagem o t&#250;nel do FOP. Deste &#226;ngulo, o comprimento do t&#250;nel pode ser avaliado, assim como medida a espessura do SS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 9A-9F</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f10">
          <label>Figura 9</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; (A) Vis&#227;o ETE 3D (TrueVue) en face do orif&#237;cio el&#237;ptico do FOP. (B, C) vis&#227;o ETE 2D mostrando aumento da altura do t&#250;nel do FOP ap&#243;s manobra de Valsalva. (D, E) vis&#227;o ETE 2D e 3D, respectivamente, com ajustes no plano de imagem para medida do t&#250;nel do FOP. (F) vis&#227;o ETE 2D, ajustada para medida do &#226;ngulo VCI-FOP e medida da espessura e extens&#227;o do SS. Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas transesof&#225;gicas durante procedimento de oclus&#227;o percut&#226;nea de FOP. (G) Vis&#227;o bicaval mostrando dispositivo oclusor (*) bem posicionado, com discos planos e tecido septal entre os discos. (H) Imagem bicaval 3D confirmando posicionamento adequado do dispositivo. (I) Vis&#227;o en face de perspectiva atrial direita mostrando o dispositivo oclusor e estruturas adjacentes. AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; Ao Asc: aorta ascendente; FOP: forame oval patente; SS: septo secundum; VAo: valva a&#243;rtica; VCI:veia cava inferior; VCS: veia cava superior.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf09.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Com o FOP visualizado, contraste salino &#233; injetado para avaliar <italic>shunt</italic> direita-esquerda. Detalhes anat&#244;micos importantes do SIA incluem localiza&#231;&#227;o do FOP (regi&#227;o anterior ou superior da FO), comprimento total do SIA, espessura e extens&#227;o do SS, comprimento do t&#250;nel do FOP, tamanho do FOP, &#226;ngulo entre a VCI e FOP, presen&#231;a de ASA e fenestra&#231;&#245;es ou defeitos do SIA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 9A, 9B, 9C</xref>).</p>
      <p>A ETE 3D &#233; usada para definir melhor as varia&#231;&#245;es do FOP e mostrar que sua forma &#233; el&#237;ptica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 9A</xref>). A &#225;rea do FOP muda durante o ciclo card&#237;aco e &#233; maior durante a s&#237;stole ventricular. A ETE 3D tamb&#233;m &#233; usada para guiar o procedimento de fechamento com vis&#245;es &#8220;<italic>en face&#8221;</italic> do SIA, mostrando a rela&#231;&#227;o do FOP e do dispositivo com estruturas adjacentes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 9G-9I</xref>).</p>
      <p>Caracter&#237;sticas anat&#244;micas espec&#237;ficas do FOP devem ser avaliadas ao decidir sobre a sele&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo oclusor. Especificamente o comprimento do t&#250;nel do FOP, presen&#231;a e tamanho de ASA, espessura do SS e tamanho m&#225;ximo do FOP durante o ciclo card&#237;aco s&#227;o importantes na sele&#231;&#227;o apropriada do dispositivo e incid&#234;ncia menor de complica&#231;&#245;es em compara&#231;&#227;o com a estrat&#233;gia de dispositivo &#250;nico para todo FOP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Caracteriza&#231;&#227;o do Shunting</title>
      <p>O Doppler colorido pode detectar o <italic>shunt</italic> em FOP; contudo, o <italic>shunt</italic> &#233; frequentemente intermitente e pode n&#227;o ser facilmente detect&#225;vel. Quando um FOP &#233; estirado (<italic>stretched</italic>) por diferen&#231;as na press&#227;o no AE e AD, o <italic>shunt</italic> da esquerda para a direita pode ser visto no Doppler colorido (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7</xref>). A ecocardiografia com contraste usando macrobolhas de solu&#231;&#227;o salina agitada combinada com manobras fisiol&#243;gicas, aumenta a sensibilidade da detec&#231;&#227;o de FOP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Macrobolhas geradas com agita&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o grandes para passar a vasculatura pulmonar normal e s&#227;o facilmente detectadas por imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica por sua ecogenicidade aumentada (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7H</xref>). O ETT com contraste pode ser usado para detectar o FOP com sensibilidade e especificidade razo&#225;veis; entretanto, a ETE &#233; considerada o padr&#227;o de refer&#234;ncia. Seja usando ETT ou ETE, a precis&#227;o do teste ser&#225; melhorada pelo uso de protocolo padronizado, como abaixo, que inclui m&#250;ltiplas inje&#231;&#245;es de solu&#231;&#227;o salina e manobras provocativas para aumentar a press&#227;o do AD, como a manobra de Valsalva (MV), tosse ou compress&#227;o abdominal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Protocolo (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Figura suplementar 1</ext-link>):</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Inserir cateter intravenoso na veia antecubital, conectado a torneira de tr&#234;s vias.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Combinar em seringa de 10 mL conectada &#224; torneira, 8 mL de solu&#231;&#227;o salina mais 1 mL de sangue do paciente, mais 1 mL de ar; adi&#231;&#227;o de sangue a solu&#231;&#227;o de contraste resulta em aumento da intensidade das MB detectadas pela ecocardiografia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Agitar a solu&#231;&#227;o rapidamente para frente e para tr&#225;s entre duas seringas de 10 mL anexada a torneira de tr&#234;s vias para produzir bolhas.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Injetar a solu&#231;&#227;o agitada rapidamente na veia antecubital junto com aquisi&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica de clipe longo de imagem (cerca de 10 batimentos), registradas a partir da vis&#227;o quatro c&#226;maras no ETT, e a melhor vis&#227;o do SIA na ETE, geralmente est&#225; entre 30&#186;-100&#186;.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Uso de imagens biplanares pode melhorar a detec&#231;&#227;o de pequenos fluxos de sangue da direita para a esquerda.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Aparecimento de macrobolhas no AE dentro de 3-6 batimentos card&#237;acos ap&#243;s a opacifica&#231;&#227;o do AD &#233; considerada positiva para presen&#231;a de <italic>shunt</italic> intracard&#237;aco. Idealmente, as bolhas ser&#227;o visualizadas cruzando o SIA atrav&#233;s do FOP (10E, 10G).</p>
      <p>Manobras fisiol&#243;gicas que aumentem transitoriamente a press&#227;o do AD s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para promover uma passagem da direita para a esquerda das macrobolhas, a fim de identificar o FOP quando nenhum <italic>shunt</italic> estiver presente. A MV &#233; comumente realizada e deve ser mantida por tempo suficiente para que as bolhas preencham o AD, e sua efic&#225;cia pode ser avaliada via ecocardiografia pela presen&#231;a de abaulamento para a esquerda do SIA, indicando obten&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o no AD maior que AE. O aparecimento de macrobolhas no AE ap&#243;s 3-6 batimentos card&#237;acos indica <italic>shunt</italic> intrapulmonar, como malforma&#231;&#227;o arteriovenosa, que &#233; confirmada quando as bolhas s&#227;o visualizadas entrando no AE a partir das veias pulmonares e n&#227;o visualizadas cruzando o SIA (11A-11D). Outras raz&#245;es para estudo falso-positivo de bolhas para FOP s&#227;o defeito do septo seio venoso ou outra CIA n&#227;o identificada.</p>
      <p>Estudos com bolhas podem resultar em achados falso-negativos devido &#224; opacifica&#231;&#227;o inadequada do AD, a MV inadequada, presen&#231;a de v&#225;lvula de Eust&#225;quio direcionando o retorno venoso da VCI para o SIA (impedindo que MB oriundas da VCS cruzem o septo), incapacidade de aumentar a press&#227;o do AD acima da press&#227;o do AE, como na disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica ventricular esquerda, e baixa qualidade de imagem. Com essa qualidade, o uso de imagens de segunda harm&#244;nica pode melhorar a identifica&#231;&#227;o e detec&#231;&#227;o de macrobolhas. Uma inje&#231;&#227;o na veia da perna tamb&#233;m pode, raramente, ser usada para superar a rede de Chiari ou v&#225;lvula de Eust&#225;quio muito grandes que acabam impedindo as bolhas de preencherem o AD a partir da VCS. Pode-se quantificar o <italic>shunt</italic> da direita para a esquerda com base no n&#250;mero de bolhas que aparecem no cora&#231;&#227;o esquerdo em quadro ecocardiogr&#225;fico est&#225;tico; entretanto, este n&#250;mero depende da quantidade de macrobolhas injetadas e de uma MV adequada.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Ecocardiografia no fechamento transcateter</title>
      <p>Uma imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica &#233; usada para auxiliar fechamento percut&#226;neo de FOP, fornecendo informa&#231;&#245;es significativas na sele&#231;&#227;o do paciente e dispositivo, orienta&#231;&#227;o do procedimento, monitoramento de complica&#231;&#245;es e avalia&#231;&#227;o dos resultados. A escolha do dispositivo oclusor deve levar em conta anatomia do SIA e do FOP, disponibilidade do dispositivo e experi&#234;ncia da equipe. A escolha habitualmente privilegia dispositivos pr&#243;prios para fechamento dessa estrutura, entretanto, em casos espec&#237;ficos, em raz&#227;o da an&#225;lise da anatomia, o dispositivo escolhido pode ser um que tenha sido idealizado para oclus&#227;o de CIA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11"/> </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f11">
          <label>Figura 10</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas transesof&#225;gicas. (A, B, C, D) mostram vis&#245;es bidimensionais de microbolhas de salina entrando no AE a partir das veias pulmonares direitas em paciente com f&#237;stula arteriovenosa pulmonar. (E) vis&#227;o bidimensional bicaval mostrando microbolhas cruzando o septo atrial atrav&#233;s da FO, confirmando presen&#231;a de FOP. (F, G, H) Vis&#245;es tridimensionais en face de perspectiva atrial esquerda, confirmando a chegada das bolhas no AE (seta) atrav&#233;s do FOP. AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; FO: fossa oval; FOP: forame oval patente; VPID: veia pulmonar inferior direita; VPSD: veia pulmonar superior direita.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf10.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Em outubro de 2016, o <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> dos EUA (FDA) aprovou uso do oclusor Amplatzer PFO (St. Jude Medical, Inc.) para fechamento percut&#226;neo de FOP e tornou-se o primeiro dispositivo comercialmente dispon&#237;vel nos Estados Unidos para uso em pacientes com AVC criptog&#234;nico presumidamente mediado por FOP. Tr&#234;s dispositivos estudados no Estados Unidos em grandes ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados s&#227;o: Oclusor Amplatzer PFO, oclusor septal StarFlex (NMT Medical, Inc.) e o Helex/Cardioform septal oclusor (Gore &amp; Associates).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Emboliza&#231;&#227;o e eros&#227;o por dispositivo</title>
      <p>Complica&#231;&#245;es dos dispositivos oclusores do FOP s&#227;o raras e incluem emboliza&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo, perfura&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, tamponamento e eros&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A emboliza&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo ocorre em aproximadamente 0,1%&#8211;0,4% dos casos, e &#233; mais comum com dispositivos de fechamento de CIA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> &#201; potencialmente fatal e requer remo&#231;&#227;o imediata por interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea ou cir&#250;rgica, sendo diagnosticada por ETT de rotina, que avalia a localiza&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo deslocado e sequelas fisiol&#243;gicas (obstru&#231;&#227;o de entrada/sa&#237;da, ruptura valvar) que resultam da emboliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>A eros&#227;o por dispositivo &#233; rara, mas potencialmente fatal, podendo ocorrer com v&#225;rios dispositivos, e atinge o teto do AD ou AE ou jun&#231;&#227;o da aorta e pode resultar em hemoperic&#225;rdio, tamponamento, f&#237;stula a&#243;rtica e/ou morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> A eros&#227;o pode come&#231;ar como um evento subcl&#237;nico, com o dispositivo colidindo com estruturas circundantes, tensionando tecido atrial ou a&#243;rtico, ou resultando em derrame peric&#225;rdico subcl&#237;nico. A maioria das eros&#245;es ocorre na primeira semana ap&#243;s a implanta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Os fatores mais significativos para esta complica&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o o superdimensionamento do dispositivo (40% dos casos), aus&#234;ncia completa de borda a&#243;rtica, localiza&#231;&#227;o septal alta/superior do defeito e insufici&#234;ncia associada da borda posterior. Importantes fatores de risco para eros&#227;o ap&#243;s a coloca&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo incluem deforma&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo de fechamento na raiz a&#243;rtica e derrame peric&#225;rdico observado dentro de 24 horas de implanta&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Imagem do SIA imediatamente ap&#243;s o procedimento</title>
      <p>Uma avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica &#233; realizada para confirmar que os discos direito e esquerdo do dispositivo oclusor estejam planos e apostos ao septo com tecido septal entre os discos. Uma avalia&#231;&#227;o completa do dispositivo, do SIA e das estruturas adjacentes &#233; realizada antes da libera&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 9G-9I</xref>). Uma avalia&#231;&#227;o de Doppler colorido &#233; realizada para excluir fluxo residual nas margens do dispositivo, cuja presen&#231;a sugere tamanho ou posi&#231;&#227;o inadequados do dispositivo. Interfer&#234;ncia com veias pulmonares, seio coron&#225;rio, fun&#231;&#227;o das valvas atrioventriculares e deforma&#231;&#227;o da raiz da aorta s&#227;o cuidadosamente avaliadas e exclu&#237;das antes da libera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Forame Oval Patente e acidente vascular cerebral criptog&#234;nico</title>
      <p>O AVC criptog&#234;nico &#233; definido como infarto cerebral n&#227;o atribu&#237;vel a fonte definida de cardioembolismo, aterosclerose de grandes art&#233;rias, doen&#231;a de pequenas art&#233;rias ou outras etiologias determinadas, tais como: vasculopatias n&#227;o ateroscler&#243;ticas, estados de hipercoagulabilidade ou dist&#250;rbios hematol&#243;gicos, apesar de extensiva avalia&#231;&#227;o vascular, card&#237;aca e sorol&#243;gica &#8211; crit&#233;rio <italic>TOAST (Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment)</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Afeta cerca de 25% a 40% dos pacientes com isquemia cerebrovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O AVC emb&#243;lico de origem desconhecida &#233; uma subcategoria de AVC criptog&#234;nico isqu&#234;mico que denota especificamente AVC n&#227;o-lacunar sem etiologia imediatamente identific&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O FOP tem sido associado a m&#250;ltiplas patologias: enxaqueca; s&#237;ndrome platipn&#233;ia ortodeoxia, doen&#231;a de descompress&#227;o de alta altitude e relacionada ao mergulho; e mais comumente, o AVC criptog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre AVC criptog&#234;nico e FOP foi creditada pela primeira vez ao patologista Julius Cohnheim em 1877. Entretanto, o interesse moderno come&#231;ou ap&#243;s Lechat et al., em 1988 observarem que o FOP estava presente em 40% dos indiv&#237;duos com AVC criptog&#234;nico em compara&#231;&#227;o com apenas 10% em controles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Desde ent&#227;o, outros estudos documentaram a associa&#231;&#227;o de FOP com pacientes que sofrem AVC, particularmente em idade &lt; 55 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O FOP tem sido associado ao AVC criptog&#234;nico por embolia paradoxal, na qual co&#225;gulo ou part&#237;cula emb&#243;lica da circula&#231;&#227;o venosa perif&#233;rica passa para circula&#231;&#227;o arterial atrav&#233;s de um <italic>shunt</italic> direito-esquerda, contornando o sistema de filtra&#231;&#227;o natural na vasculatura pulmonar, ou ainda, trombose <italic>in situ</italic> no t&#250;nel do FOP, estase sangu&#237;nea local no lado esquerdo do SIA, ou forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo dentro do ASA concomitante ao FOP, e, indiretamente, atrav&#233;s do aumento da suscetibilidade a arritmias. H&#225; indica&#231;&#245;es de que a atividade el&#233;trica do AE pode ser alterada na presen&#231;a do FOP, o que aumenta ainda mais o risco de AVC. O estiramento do SIA induzido por aberra&#231;&#245;es septais (t&#250;nel grande do FOP, ASA) podem modificar a despolariza&#231;&#227;o atrial, ativando substrato arritmog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Trombos atravessando o FOP podem ser eventualmente observados tanto em aut&#243;psias quanto em alguns poucos relatos de exames ecocardiogr&#225;ficos (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Figura suplementar 2</ext-link>), sugerindo este mecanismo como um poss&#237;vel respons&#225;vel de embolia paradoxal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
      <p>Apesar de pouco frequente visualiza&#231;&#227;o de trombos em FOP, a observa&#231;&#227;o epidemiol&#243;gica indica que ele &#233; respons&#225;vel por um n&#250;mero consider&#225;vel de AVCs. Hist&#243;ricos de trombose venosa profunda, embolia pulmonar, hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar, viagens prolongadas, MV precedendo in&#237;cio de sintomas de AVC, enxaqueca e apneia do sono t&#234;m sido descritos como fatores de risco independentes para associa&#231;&#227;o entre o FOP e o AVC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Outros mecanismos podem ser respons&#225;veis por AVC criptog&#234;nico, tais como a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) n&#227;o detectada ou oculta. A FA oculta est&#225; associada ao aumento de 2,5 vezes no risco de AVC, embora com baixa rela&#231;&#227;o temporal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Assim tamb&#233;m, valvopatia mitral, contraste espont&#226;neo em AE, calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral, pr&#243;teses card&#237;acas, tumores card&#237;acos, ateroma a&#243;rtico e dist&#250;rbios hematol&#243;gicos com suscetibilidade &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> &#201; proposta proped&#234;utica m&#237;nima para AVC de origem indeterminada com tomografia/resson&#226;ncia de cr&#226;nio, ecocardiograma, imagem extra/intravascular, pesquisa de dist&#250;rbios hipercoagul&#225;veis e monitoriza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca por &#8805; 24 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; importante para desmascarar arritmias ocultas, especificamente, a FA que ainda &#233; a causa mais comum de AVC criptog&#234;nico.</p>
      <p>O ETT e, especialmente, a ETE com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de bolhas de salina, faz parte da avalia&#231;&#227;o do FOP, desde a detec&#231;&#227;o do <italic>shunt</italic>, caracter&#237;sticas anat&#244;micas do FOP, diagn&#243;stico diferencial com outras comunica&#231;&#245;es atriais ou <italic>shunt</italic> pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O Doppler transcraniano &#233; mais sens&#237;vel, por&#233;m menos espec&#237;fico que a ETE no diagn&#243;stico de FOP. Sua insensibilidade de fazer diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre <italic>shunt</italic> card&#237;aco e pulmonar e impossibilidade diagn&#243;stica das altera&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas do FOP justificam a menor especificidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Entretanto, h&#225; controv&#233;rsia sobre manejo ideal do FOP no cen&#225;rio de AVC criptog&#234;nico. A base do tratamento era terapia antitromb&#243;tica, derivada dos estudos FRENCH PFO-ASA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> e PICSS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Estes n&#227;o mostraram risco aumentado de recorr&#234;ncia de AVC independentemente da presen&#231;a de FOP. Apesar da hip&#243;tese emb&#243;lica do AVC criptog&#234;nico no cen&#225;rio de FOP, a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o foi superior &#224; aspirina na preven&#231;&#227;o de AVCs recorrentes. Estes achados tamb&#233;m foram replicados no estudo NAVIGATE ESUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> que encontrou redu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o estatisticamente significativa de AVC isqu&#234;mico com anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, se comparado &#224; aspirina. Entretanto, no AVC criptog&#234;nico, a taxa de recorr&#234;ncia relatada &#233; substancial, e pode variar de 3% a 6%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Portanto, &#233; inevit&#225;vel considerar op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento mec&#226;nico para FOP. O fechamento cir&#250;rgico do defeito trouxe morbidade significativa e sem evid&#234;ncia de benef&#237;cio na preven&#231;&#227;o de recorr&#234;ncias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Evid&#234;ncia para fechamento percut&#226;neo do FOP</title>
      <p>O fechamento percut&#226;neo do FOP est&#225; associado a significativamente menos morbidade do que cirurgia, e &#233; op&#231;&#227;o na embolia paradoxal. Na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada, o desafio foi demonstrar o benef&#237;cio na popula&#231;&#227;o com baixa incid&#234;ncia de AVC. Dois ensaios principais, CLOSURE I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> e PC trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> n&#227;o conseguiram demonstrar clara superioridade do fechamento percut&#226;neo, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; terapia medicamentosa. Houve, entretanto, um aumento na incid&#234;ncia de arritmias atriais no grupo FOP de fechamento por dispositivo. Em seguida, o estudo RESPECT<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> mostrou que fechamento do FOP com Amplatzer PFO Occluder foi superior ao manejo medicamentoso na redu&#231;&#227;o de AVC isqu&#234;mico recorrente a longo prazo em pacientes com AVC criptog&#234;nico e evid&#234;ncia de FOP. Com base nos dados cumulativos dos estudos, as diretrizes do AHA/ASA 2014 forneceram recomenda&#231;&#227;o Classe III para fechamento do FOP em pacientes com AVC criptog&#234;nico e nenhuma evid&#234;ncia de trombose venosa profunda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Entretanto, ensaios iniciais tiveram limita&#231;&#245;es significativas. Eles utilizaram dispositivos mais antigos associados a maiores taxas de complica&#231;&#245;es e tempo de acompanhamento com uma m&#233;dia apenas de 2-4 anos. Resultados favor&#225;veis a longo prazo foram relatados por ensaios observacionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, metan&#225;lises de pacientes demonstraram superioridade do uso do Dispositivo Oclusor Amplatzer PFO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Posteriormente, tr&#234;s ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados adicionais, CLOSE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> DEFENSE-PFO<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> e REDUCE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> mostraram superioridade do fechamento percut&#226;neo do FOP, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a terapia medicamentosa isolada.</p>
      <p>M&#250;ltiplas metan&#225;lises avaliaram evid&#234;ncias de fechamento do FOP. Nasir et al., investigaram os seis principais ensaios avaliando fechamento do FOP: CLOSURE I, PC trial, RESPECT, CLOSE, REDUCE e DEFENSE-PFO com um total de 3.510 pacientes. Esse estudo mostrou o benef&#237;cio persistente do fechamento do FOP versus antiplaquet&#225;rio ou anticoagula&#231;&#227;o isolada, com um n&#250;mero necess&#225;rio para tratar de 41 (OR 0,34, IC 95% 0,15&#8211;0,79, p = 0,012). Efeitos colaterais principais foram compar&#225;veis, sem diferen&#231;a na mortalidade ou eventos hemorr&#225;gicos maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Wintzer-Wehekind et al., demonstraram que, com fechamento percut&#226;neo do FOP, e ap&#243;s a descontinua&#231;&#227;o da terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria, n&#227;o houve aumento de eventos no seguimento de longo prazo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Tabela suplementar 1</ext-link>) mostra os principais estudos randomizados neste cen&#225;rio.</p>
      <p>V&#225;rios estudos tamb&#233;m buscaram determinar, com maior precis&#227;o, quais pacientes mais se beneficiariam do tratamento intervencionista. Dados de estudos recentes sugerem que, associado ao ASA, o FOP de maior tamanho e septo hiperm&#243;vel pode obter maior benef&#237;cio do fechamento. Em todos os ensaios discutidos, a ETE foi usada como modalidade de imagem para avaliar o FOP. Enquanto n&#227;o havia valores de corte recomendados para uso nesses ensaios, CLOSE incluiu apenas o FOP com &gt; 30 bolhas (MB) ou ASA associado &gt; 10 mm, e REDUCE estratificou o tamanho do <italic>shunt</italic> em quatro grupos (0 MB sem <italic>shunt</italic>; 1&#8211;5 MB pequeno; 6&#8211;25 MB moderado; &gt; 25 MB grande) 81% com <italic>shunts</italic> moderados ou grandes.</p>
      <p>Apesar dos resultados positivos dos dados de fechamento de FOP, h&#225; limita&#231;&#245;es. Em cinco dos seis estudos, o limite de idade superior foi de 60, com o restante sendo insuficiente para maiores de 60 anos. Portanto, os resultados n&#227;o podem ser generalizados para toda popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Houve um aumento de 4,7% no risco de nova FA no grupo de fechamento em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo tratamento medicamentoso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Isso pode ser atribu&#237;do a irrita&#231;&#227;o atrial durante o procedimento, pois a maioria dos eventos foi periprocedimento e transit&#243;rio. Adicionalmente, existem complica&#231;&#245;es raras do procedimento, incluindo perfura&#231;&#227;o atrial com tamponamento exigindo remo&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica do dispositivo. Por fim, est&#225; o risco potencial de longo prazo de dilata&#231;&#227;o radicular e subsequentes eros&#245;es causadas pelo dispositivo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> bem como potencial forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos no dispositivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Candidatos para fechamento Do FOP</title>
      <p>Apesar das evid&#234;ncias que ligam FOP e AVC criptog&#234;nico, nem todo FOP precisa ser fechado. Cerca de um ter&#231;o dos FOPs s&#227;o encontrados acidentalmente, com outras etiologias mais plaus&#237;veis de AVC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Se a investiga&#231;&#227;o convencional n&#227;o revelar a causa do AVC, a triagem do paciente para fechamento percut&#226;neo do FOP, de acordo com fatores de risco espec&#237;ficos do paciente, est&#225; justificada.</p>
      <p>Para ajudar a identificar pacientes com AVC e FOP nos quais o FOP &#233; a causa prov&#225;vel, o Escore de Risco de Embolia Paradoxal (RoPE) foi desenvolvido. (Conforme a <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Tabela suplementar 2</ext-link>)<bold>.</bold></p>
      <p>Esse &#237;ndice foi criado usando dados de regress&#227;o de 12 bancos de dados envolvendo pacientes com AVC criptog&#234;nico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> e leva em considera&#231;&#227;o dados cl&#237;nicos como hist&#243;rico de hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, AVC ou acidente isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio (AIT), tabagismo, infarto cortical evidenciado em exames de imagem e idade do paciente. Quanto maior a pontua&#231;&#227;o, maior a probabilidade do FOP ser a causa do AVC criptog&#234;nico (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Tabela suplementar 3</ext-link>).</p>
      <p>As pontua&#231;&#245;es 7, 8 e 9-10 correspondem, respectivamente, a 72%, 84% e 88% de chance de que o FOP seja a causa do AVC criptog&#234;nico e define um subconjunto de pacientes que pode se beneficiar do fechamento. Al&#233;m disso, o baixo escore RoPE &#8804; 6 foi identificado como fator de risco independente para mortalidade e AVC isqu&#234;mico recorrente ap&#243;s fechamento do FOP, juntamente com outros fatores de risco, como maiores dimens&#245;es do &#225;trio esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Pacientes jovens, com AVC superficial e sem fatores de risco vascular, apresentam escore elevado. Em pacientes com escore baixo, idosos com fatores de risco vasculares, a presen&#231;a de FOP sugere ser acidental. O risco de AVC ou AIT &#233; calculado em 2 anos para cada grupo.</p>
      <p>Um estudo recente observacional de 107 pacientes com e sem AVC criptog&#234;nico que foram programados para fechamento percut&#226;neo de FOP, tiveram as caracter&#237;sticas anat&#244;micas dele avaliadas por ETE e demonstraram que algumas caracter&#237;sticas anat&#244;micas do FOP predisp&#245;em a forma&#231;&#227;o e passagem de trombos do AD para o AE sendo a causa de embolias sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As caracter&#237;sticas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas do FOP avaliadas foram:</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Altura do FOP:</bold> separa&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima entre SP e SS no frame sist&#243;lico final. Considerada grande quando &#8805; 2,0 mm.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Comprimento do T&#250;nel:</bold> sobreposi&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima entre SP e SS. Comprimento &#8805; 10 mm foi definido como FOP de t&#250;nel longo, que pode ser um espa&#231;o para a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Grau do <italic>Shunt</italic> Direita-Esquerda:</bold> avaliado em repouso e ap&#243;s MV, utilizando-se contraste de salina. N&#250;mero de MB &#233; contado em &#250;nico frame, e &gt; 20 MB &#233; considerado grande <italic>shunt</italic>, com maior risco de AVC.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>&#194;ngulo entre VCI e <italic>Flap</italic> do FOP:</bold> medido em plano de imagem que exibe a VCI e o SIA. Definido baixo &#226;ngulo de FOP quando &#8804; 10&#186; podendo direcionar preferencialmente o fluxo sangu&#237;neo da VCI para o SIA e o orif&#237;cio do FOP, sendo considerado de maior risco para AVC.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Aneurisma do Septo Interatrial:</bold> tecido redundante, m&#243;vel, na regi&#227;o da FO, com excurs&#227;o septal f&#225;sica da linha m&#233;dia para AD ou AE &#8805; 10 mm ou excurs&#227;o total &#8805; 15 mm entre AD e AE.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Hipermobilidade do Septo Interatrial:</bold> septo m&#243;vel com excurs&#227;o &#8805; 5 mm em cada batimento card&#237;aco. Mecanismos que t&#234;m sido propostos como respons&#225;veis por embolia paradoxal causada por aneurisma ou hipermobilidade do SIA s&#227;o:</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Embolia paradoxal por passagem de trombo do AD para AE atrav&#233;s do FOP.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>ASA sem <italic>shunt</italic> intracard&#237;aco, pequenos trombos de fibrina e plaquetas podem se formar no lado esquerdo do septo, desprendendo-se com oscila&#231;&#227;o do aneurisma.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>V&#225;lvula de Eust&#225;quio e Rede de Chiari:</bold> podem direcionar o fluxo, que chega pela VCI diretamente para o SIA, favorecendo o FOP e ASA, e, indiretamente, facilitando embolia paradoxal. O FOP com grande <italic>shunt</italic> direita-esquerda foi observado com maior frequ&#234;ncia nos pacientes que tinham rede de Chiari.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Caracter&#237;sticas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas que aumentam o risco de AVC incluem grande tamanho do FOP, grande <italic>shunt</italic> direita-esquerda, <italic>shunt</italic> espont&#226;neo direita-esquerda, maior mobilidade da l&#226;mina do FOP, v&#225;lvula de Eust&#225;quio proeminente, rede de Chiari e ASA. A an&#225;lise multivariada dessas observa&#231;&#245;es evidenciou fatores ecocardiogr&#225;ficos que foram preditores independentes de eventos cerebrais isqu&#234;micos demonstrados na <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Tabela suplementar 4</ext-link>.</p>
      <p>Baseado nesses dados anat&#244;micos analisados pela ecocardiografia, foi elaborado um escore de risco para o FOP, sendo respons&#225;vel pela embolia paradoxal em pacientes que apresentarem AVC (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Tabela suplementar 5</ext-link>).</p>
      <p>Escores elevados s&#227;o observados em pacientes jovens com AVC superficial sem ou com poucos fatores de risco tradicionais. Pacientes com escores baixos, com fatores de risco vascular e idosos sugerem que o FOP &#233; acidental e n&#227;o diretamente respons&#225;vel pelo evento isqu&#234;mico. O risco de AVC/AIT &#233; calculado para um per&#237;odo de 2 anos.</p>
      <p>Essas observa&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o apoiadas por achados dos ensaios CLOSE e DEFENSE-PFO. Estudos que inclu&#237;ram apenas o FOP de alto risco, demonstrando aus&#234;ncia de AVC recorrente no bra&#231;o fechamento aos 5 e 2 anos, respectivamente. Em contraste, pacientes com AVC isqu&#234;mico tamb&#233;m foram relatados como tendo FOP de t&#250;nel curto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Assim, mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para elucidar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre comprimento do t&#250;nel de FOP e AVC, identificando mecanismos.</p>
      <p>Determina&#231;&#227;o da gravidade do <italic>shunt</italic> pelo n&#250;mero de bolhas que cruzam o SIA atrav&#233;s do FOP pode n&#227;o ser completamente precisa, pois algumas bolhas podem n&#227;o estar no plano de imagem. &#201; prov&#225;vel que haja pouca diferen&#231;a entre o <italic>shunt</italic> com 20 e 21 bolhas, mas nesta an&#225;lise, um &#233; classificado como pequeno e o outro como grande. Al&#233;m disso, a determina&#231;&#227;o dicot&#244;mica da gravidade do <italic>shunt</italic> (pequeno vs grande) pode ser propensa a vi&#233;s significativo. A MV depende substancialmente do esfor&#231;o do paciente, e essa n&#227;o uniformidade pode afetar as caracter&#237;sticas morfom&#233;tricas do FOP.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, o influxo de evid&#234;ncias mostrando o benef&#237;cio do fechamento percut&#226;neo do FOP no cen&#225;rio de AVC criptog&#234;nico, em compara&#231;&#227;o com terapia medicamentosa isolada e a evolu&#231;&#227;o dos procedimentos percut&#226;neos envolvendo cardiopatia estrutural e procedimentos eletrofisiol&#243;gicos, trouxe interesse adicional na anatomia do SIA. Com base nos dados atuais, al&#233;m de avalia&#231;&#227;o completa do paciente, uma caracteriza&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica detalhada e padronizada do SIA s&#227;o recomendados.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
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        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="fn_ast1">
        <label>*</label>
        <p>Material suplementar</p>
        <p>Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">clique aqui</ext-link>.</p>
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    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento</p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>The Role of Echocardiography in the Assessment of the Interatrial Septum and Patent Foramen Ovale as an Emboligenic Source</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattoso</surname>
            <given-names>Angele Azevedo Alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8343-6410</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sena</surname>
            <given-names>Joberto Pinheiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9236-3815</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hotta</surname>
            <given-names>Viviane Tiemi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel &#8211; Hemodin&#226;mica, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o HC-FMUSP &#8211; Unidade Clinica de Miocardiopatias e Doen&#231;as da Aorta, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Fleury Medicina e Sa&#250;de, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing Address: Angele Azevedo Alves Mattoso &#8226;</bold> Hospital Santa Izabel da Santa Casa da Bahia, 500. Postal Code 40050-410, Salvador, BA - Brazil. E-mail: angelealves@bol.com.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <p>Editor responsible for the review: Nuno Bettencourt</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <title>Central Illustration</title>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <caption>
              <title>: The Role of Echocardiography in the Assessment of the Interatrial Septum and Patent Foramen Ovale as an Emboligenic Source</title>
              <p>Courtesy of Dr. Vera Demarchi Aiello, Pathological Anatomy Laboratory of the Heart Institute of the Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas of FMUSP .</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Atrial septal defects (ASD) account for approximately 6%-10% of congenital heart defects, with an incidence of 1 in 1,500 live births.<sup>1</sup> Patent foramen ovale (PFO) is more common and is present in more than 20%-25% of adults.<sup>2</sup> Clinical syndromes associated with ASD and PFO are variable, and their implications are targeted by pediatric and adult medicine, neurology, and surgery.</p>
        <p>Additional interest in the anatomy of the interatrial septum (IAS) has increased substantially over the last two decades. Additionally, percutaneous procedures involving left-sided structural heart disease and electrophysiological procedures have evolved considerably. Ideally, these catheter-based interventions require a direct route to the left atrium (LA) through the IAS, with a full understanding of its anatomy. Also, sophisticated and noninvasive imaging technologies such as two-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography (2D-TEE) and three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography (3D-TEE), cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), and computed tomography (CT) have evolved considerably, providing anatomical details of cardiac structures visualized in 2D and 3D format and being key for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with heart diseases.</p>
        <p>Therefore, assessing the anatomy of the IAS and any abnormalities requires a standardized and systematic approach, integrating diagnostic modalities and enabling adequate and consistent evaluation for both surgical and transcatheter therapies.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
        <kwd>Septo Atrial</kwd>
        <kwd>Foramen Ovale, Patent</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Anatomy of the interatrial septum</title>
        <p>The IAS has three components: septum primum (SP), septum secundum (SS), and atrioventricular canal septum. The sinus venosus is not a component of the true IAS but is an adjacent structure through which atrial communication (defect) can occur.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The atria first develop as a common cavity. At approximately 28 days of gestation, the SP, derived from the atrial roof, begins to migrate toward the developing endocardial cushions. During this transition, the space between the SP and the endocardial cushion is called the &#8220;embryonic ostium primum&#8221; or &#8220;foramen primum&#8221; (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1A, 1B</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Scheme demonstrating the normal development of the IAS. (A) The SP grows from the atrial roof. (B) Fenestrations develop within the SP. (C) The SS develops by a folding of the atrial wall. The ostium secundum acts as a conduit for the right-to-left passage of oxygenated blood. (D) The SP and SS remain unfused at the anterosuperior edge of the FO, constituting the PFO. The arrow shows blood flowing through the PFO from the embryonic RA to the LA. The blue and purple dots represent the development of inflow from the vena cava and pulmonary to the atria. EC: endocardial cushion; FO: fossa ovalis; PFO: patent foramen ovale; OP: ostium primum; OS: ostium secundum; IAS: interatrial septum; SP: septum primum; SS: septum secundum.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>The SS develops to the right of the SP, extending superiorly, posteriorly, and inferiorly and is the result of an infolding of the atrial roof rather than a true membranous structure (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1C</xref>); SP overlapping on the left atrial side becomes the floor of an oval depression (fossa ovalis), delimited by the resulting edge of the SS infolding, seen on the right atrial side. The ostium primum closes by the fusion of the mesenchymal cells of the SP with endocardial cushions. At two months of gestation, the SS and SP fuse, leaving the foramen ovale as the only residual communication (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1D</xref>). The SP acts as a flap valve in fetal life, directing blood flow from the right atrium (RA) to the LA through the ostium secundum or foramen ovale, which is essential to supply oxygenated blood from the placenta to vital organs. After birth, this opening closes when higher pressure in the LA pushes the valve flap against the muscular rim. If adhesion is incomplete around the entire margin of the rim, the PFO remains (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2A, 2B, 2C</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Anatomical specimen of the IAS from right atrial (A, B) and left atrial (C) perspective showing the SP and SS not completely fused, which constitutes the PFO. The arrow shows the port where blood flows through the PFO from the RA to the LA, courtesy of Dr. Vera Demarchi Aiello, Pathological Anatomy Laboratory of the Heart Institute of the Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas of FMUSP. Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiographic images (3D Zoom mode) of the IAS and adjacent structures. En face or frontal views (3D Zoom mode) of the IAS from right atrial (D) and left atrial (E) perspective, respectively. (F, G) En face views (3D Zoom mode &#8211; TrueVue) of the IAS showing the FO floor (arrow). Asc Ao: ascending aorta; FO: fossa ovalis; PFO: patent foramen ovale; CS: coronary sinus; NC: non-coronary aortic sinus; SP: septum primum; SS: septum secundum; IVC: inferior vena cava; SVC: superior vena cava; MV: mitral valve; RUPV: right upper pulmonary vein.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>When observed from a right atrial perspective, the IAS appears as an extensive area, delimited inferiorly and superiorly by the orifices of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and superior vena cava (SVC), respectively; anteroinferiorly, this surface is limited by the orifice of the coronary sinus, anterosuperiorly by the non-coronary aortic sinus and, finally, anteriorly by the implantation region of the tricuspid valve leaflet. The 3D-TEE is the best imaging modality to describe this surface and its anatomical relationships from left and right atrial perspectives with accuracy comparable to anatomical specimens (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2D, 2E, 2F, 2G</xref>). Anatomists describe the IAS as an interposed separation between the RA and the LA. Therefore, IAS puncture creates a direct communication between the atria without invading epicardial tissues. However, this definition actually corresponds to the floor of the fossa ovalis (FO), which resembles a crater-type depression when the right atrial surface of the septum is visualized &#8220;<italic>en face</italic> or frontally&#8221; (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figures 2A, 2B, 2D, and 2F</xref>) and as a superimposed thin wall on the left atrial side (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figures 2C, 2E, and 2G</xref>).</p>
        <p>The FO is, therefore, the embryonic SP, covering about 20% of the aforementioned area, defined as the &#8220;true septum.&#8221;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> The muscle area that surrounds the superior, posterior, and inferior margins of the FO, which at first appears to be interposed between the atria, the &#8220;septum secundum or limbus of the FO,&#8221; as we have seen, does not actually separate the RA from the LA. Dissection of this area shows that it is an infolding of the atrial wall, and the puncture of this internal region of the RA produces an outflow from the atrial cavities to the &#8220;external&#8221; adipose tissues that occupy the fold. Thus, this infolding is undoubtedly a &#8220;false septum&#8221; (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04001">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; (A) Anatomical specimen showing the muscular area that surrounds the FO, interposed between the RA and the LA, the &#8220;SS&#8221; or &#8220;FO limbus,&#8221; which is an infolding of the atrial wall. Puncture of this internal region of the RA produces an outflow from the atrial cavities to the &#8220;external&#8221; adipose tissues that occupy the fold (&#8220;false septum&#8221;). (B) Cross-sectional CMR image obtained in a patient with lipomatous hypertrophy of the IAS, showing two &#8220;pseudomasses&#8221; filled with adipose tissue located superiorly, adjacent to the superior vena cava and inferiorly to the atrioventricular septum. RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium; FO: fossa ovalis; SS: septum secundum.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>However, atrial wall infolding is referred to as the SS for consistency with the literature. Correctly described in the 19th century by Waterston<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> and known as Sondergaard&#8217;s interatrial groove, this infolding is filled with a variable amount of epicardial adipose tissue and small vessels. The 2D-TEE can potentially identify adipose tissue with a characteristic hourglass appearance. However, the interatrial groove is almost virtual in normal individuals. Consequently, it is difficult to distinguish a small amount of adipose tissue between the two atrial walls that resemble a single wall. In other patients, the adipose tissue is particularly intrusive, invading the interatrial groove and separating the atrial walls (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05001">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Transesophageal echocardiographic images of the IAS through the bicaval view showing different FO sizes. (A, F) Presence of significant adipose tissue in the SS or interatrial groove (arrows), giving the IAS an hourglass appearance. (B, D, E) Little adipose tissue, making the atrial groove (arrow) almost virtual. (C) Significant accumulation of adipose tissue in the infolding of the septum (invading the interatrial groove or SS) (red arrows), without compromising the FO lamina (white arrows), the so-called lipomatous hypertrophy. RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium; FO: fossa ovalis; IAS: interatrial septum; SS: septum secundum; IVC: inferior vena cava; SVC: superior vena cava.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>CT can identify adipose tissue based on attenuation thresholds. However, despite the high spatial resolution of the technique, the boundaries between adipose tissue and the atrial wall remain indistinct. The best imaging modality to illustrate this architecture is cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), showing the septum in the same 2D format as 2D-TEE. CMR imaging clearly distinguishes muscle and adipose tissue (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3B</xref>).</p>
        <p>The FO can have different sizes and locations, depending on the variable extent of both the lamina tissue and the interatrial groove, which is not uniform throughout the FO (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4</xref>). Defining the size of the FO is important because the safest place for a transseptal puncture (TSP) is through the FO. Given the wide variety of procedures in structural heart disease treated percutaneously, the site of the TSP (always within the FO) varies according to the procedure performed (site-specific TSP). For example, to implant a left atrial appendage occluder device in the correct position, the surgeon will puncture the septum posteriorly and inferiorly. In contrast, the position is higher for a mitral valve procedure (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figure 5A, 5B</xref>).</p>
        <p>Generally, a larger FO is found in large atria, and a smaller FO has been associated with adipose tissue accumulation in the infolding, the so-called lipomatous hypertrophy (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4C</xref>).</p>
        <p>Another area of interest is the anterosuperior region, which abuts the transverse pericardial sinus and, through it, the aortic root, the most important structure close to the FO. A few millimeters separate the anterosuperior margin of the FO from the right atrial wall, which covers the non-coronary aortic sinus. In fact, the most feared complication of TSP is aortic root puncture (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figure 5C</xref>).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Lipomatous hypertrophy</title>
        <p>The term lipomatous hypertrophy of the IAS, coined by Prior in 1964, is questionable because, unlike lipoma, the lipomatous hypertrophy tissue is not encapsulated, and the accumulation of fat is histologically characterized by adipocyte hyperplasia (increased number), not hypertrophy (increased size). This accumulation of adipocytes is external to the heart, filling the interatrial groove. CMR images can define the external nature of this adipose tissue (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3B</xref>). Although the accumulation of adipose tissue within the interatrial groove (SS) has a characteristic hourglass shape on echocardiography, both 2D and 3D-TEE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4</xref>) generally cannot clearly distinguish adipose tissue from the atrial walls. Hypertrophic edges were defined with an SS thickness of 8 mm, while lipomatous edges were defined with a thickness of 15 mm.</p>
        <p>Lipomatous hypertrophy of the IAS is benign, although a large amount of adipose tissue may sporadically obstruct the entrance to the SVC or create distortion of the atrial walls with consequent arrhythmias.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Septal Pouch and Ridge Septal</title>
        <p>Anomalies in the IAS fusion can result in anatomical variants, including atrial septal pouch, left atrial septal ridge, and mixed anatomy, including pouch and ridge.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Septal pouch, a kangaroo pouch-like structure without an interatrial shunt, opens more frequently in the LA or, less commonly, in the RA, probably occurring because of an incomplete fusion between the SP and SS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07001">Figure 6A-6F</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f07001">
            <label>Figure 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Transesophageal echocardiographic images showing a pouch-like structure in the IAS in two-dimensional (A) and three-dimensional (B) bicaval views with the orifice of the left septal pouch (curved arrows). (C and D) Color Doppler (C) and use of agitated saline microbubbles (D) showing the absence of septal shunt. Echocardiographic images t in (E and F) En face view of the IAS, from a left (E) and right (F) atrial perspective. Transesophageal echocardiographic images of the IAS with the presence of septal ridge. (G) Two-dimensional bicaval view showing septal ridge image (arrow). (H) Two-dimensional bicaval view showing IAS integrity during agitated saline contrast injection. (I) En face view (3D Zoom) of the IAS from a left atrial perspective showing three-dimensional echocardiographic morphology of the septal ridge (arrows). RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium; Asc Ao: ascending aorta, CS: coronary sinus, IAS: interatrial septum, IVC: inferior vena cava, SVC: superior vena cava, RUPV: right upper pulmonary vein.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>In 2006, Roberson et al. described a malformation of the IAS consisting of a double IAS with a midline chamber.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> This description is believed to be consistent with a large septal pouch. It is still unclear, but it has been suggested that stagnant blood in this pouch may be a possible niche for thrombus formation and embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> The 2D and 3D-TEEs are the best techniques to obtain images of the septal pouch.</p>
        <p>The FO and the interatrial groove constitute the extensive area that covers the medial wall of the LA. Except for the septal pouch, this area is almost devoid of other structures. However, although rarely, a prominent membrane-like crest formation along the FO and extending to the atrial free wall has been observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The atrial septal ridge, characterized by a tubular structure on the left atrial side of the IAS running along the FO, is a localized area of thickened tissue and is thought to be due to irregular fusion of the septa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07001">Figure 6G-6I</xref>). A left atrial ridge may interfere with TSP in patients undergoing transcatheter procedures.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Patent Foramen Ovale</title>
        <p>PFO is not a true IAS defect, as there is no structural deficiency of the tissue, but a potential separation between the SP and SS, located in the anterosuperior portion of the IAS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The foramen remains functionally closed as long as the LA pressure is greater than the RA pressure and may only be functionally patent and have the appearance of a tunnel, with the SP forming an oscillating valve (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>). Relative differences in atrial pressures can result in intermittent shunting of blood. However, PFO can also be a true elliptical opening between the atria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7A-7C</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f08001">
            <label>Figure 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiographic en face view (3D Zoom mode) of the IAS, showing the FO lamina aneurysm associated with elliptical discontinuity (arrows) between the atria from left (A) and right (B) atrial perspective and confirmed with color Doppler (C). (D) Two-dimensional transesophageal image of stretched PFO (curved arrow) in bicaval view with color Doppler flow from left to right. (E, F) Two-dimensional transesophageal image of the IAS with excessive mobility of the FO lamina and (G) associated PFO (red arrow) demonstrated on color Doppler with flow from left to right and intermittent passage of agitated saline microbubbles from right to left (H). RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium; Ao: aorta; Asc Ao: ascending aorta; FO: fossa ovalis; CS: coronary sinus; IAS: interatrial septum; SVC: superior vena cava; IVC: inferior vena cava; MV: valve mitral; RUPV: right upper pulmonary vein.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf07-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Some PFO cases result from stretching the superior limbic band of the SS by atrial dilation and remodeling (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7D</xref>). In other cases, the SP is truly aneurysmal and fails to completely close the ASD (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7E-7H</xref>). The PFO size in autopsy studies ranges from 1 to 19 mm (mean 4.9 mm).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>For purposes of nomenclature, &#8220;PFO&#8221; is referred to as right-to-left blood flow demonstrated by color Doppler or saline contrast injection without a true IAS defect. &#8220;Left-to-right flow PFO&#8221; occurs when the atrial hemodynamics results from the potential opening of the foramen communication, resulting in a blood flow from left to right, as demonstrated by the Doppler image (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7</xref>). When the PFO is stretched by atrial hemodynamics, it creates a septal defect, which is called a &#8220;stretched&#8221; PFO, and may result in left-to-right and/or right-to-left blood flow, depending on differences in the atrial pressures.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Atrial Septal Aneurysm</title>
        <p>Atrial septal aneurysm (ASA) is a saccular redundancy or deformity of the IAS, always limited to the FO lamina, and associated with increased mobility of the septal tissue. The best imaging modality to visualize ASA is 3D-TEE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09001">Figure 8</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f09001">
            <label>Figure 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Transesophageal echocardiographic images of the IAS. (A) Two-dimensional bicaval view showing a marked displacement of the FO lamina towards the RA, compatible with an aneurysm. (B, C) Three-dimensional en face view (3D Zoom) of the aneurysmal septum from the left and right atrial perspective, respectively. Two-dimensional transesophageal echocardiographic images of the interatrial septum. (D) Bicaval view showing the displacement of the FO lamina toward the LA, compatible with ASA. (E) M-mode of ASA demonstrating greater than 15 mm mobility of the FO lamina. RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium; ASA: atrial septal aneurysm; D: distance; FO: fossa ovalis; IVC: inferior vena cava; SVC: superior vena cava.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf08-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>ASA is defined as a septal tissue (FO lamina) excursion &#8805; 10 mm from the septal plane to the RA or the LA or a total combined left-right excursion of 15 mm. IAS excursion can be documented using 2D imaging as well as M-mode evaluation when the M-mode cursor is aligned perpendicular to the septal plane. This can be done in the bicaval view on TEE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09001">Figure 8D, 8E</xref>).</p>
        <p>The prevalence of ASA is 2% to 3%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> and has been associated with the presence and larger sizes of PFO and increased prevalence of cryptogenic cerebrovascular accident (CVA) and other embolic events and multiple septal fenestrations, which must be carefully evaluated using color Doppler imaging. The presence and extent of the ASA is a factor in selecting the PFO occluder device. A large device can be chosen to span and stabilize the IAS or a smaller one to better conform to the ASA.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Eustachian Valve and Chiari Network</title>
        <p>The Eustachian valve is the embryological remnant of the IVC valve that, in fetal life, directs the flow of the IVC through the FO, and extends from the junction between the IVC and the RA. It is considered prominent when its protrusion is &#8805; 10 mm inside the RA. A large or prominent Eustachian valve in the context of PFO may indirectly contribute to paradoxical embolism, preventing the spontaneous closure of the foramen.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> When close to the IAS, it may interfere with the deployment of the RA side of the septal occluder device.</p>
        <p>The Chiari network is a remnant of the right valve of the sinus venosus and appears as a mesh of filamentous structures in several places in the RA, including close to the mouth of the IVC and the coronary sinus. It is present in 2%-3% of the general population and is associated with the presence of PFO and ASA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> The Chiari network can interfere with the passage of catheters and the device through the RA. Therefore, identifying the presence of the Chiari network should be part of the echocardiographic evaluation.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiographic assessment of the interatrial septum</title>
        <p>The 2D-TEE provides incremental anatomical information compared to transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) for IAS assessment; it also improves visualization of the IAS and surrounding structures. The IAS has a three-dimensional and dynamic anatomical structure, not being truly flat, with limitations in its evaluation using any form of 2D echocardiography. In addition, the 3D image offers unique views of the IAS and, in particular, allows for an &#8220;<italic>en face</italic>&#8221; or frontal view of the FO and its surroundings (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>). Two-dimensional biplane (or triplane) imaging is a modality resulting from 3D technology, with the advantage of displaying and visualizing simultaneous echocardiographic images with a high frame rate and excellent temporal resolution (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figure 5A, 5B</xref>). A simultaneously displayed orthogonal image plane provides incremental information compared to a single plane imaging and is suitable for guiding transcatheter procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>2D-TEE x IAS: Multiple, sequential views should be used for a complete and systematic assessment of the IAS, determining the size, shape, and location of any ASD and its relationship with surrounding structures. A sequential assessment from standard views with a gradual increase in transducer angle in a series of 15&#176; increments is recommended to scan the ultrasound beam across areas of interest. Color Doppler is subsequently applied at a reduced scale at approximately 35-40 cm/s to identify low-velocity flows through a small fenestration, the PFO, or minor ASD. In TEE, five baseline views are used to assess the IAS: Short-axis upper esophagus, short-axis aortic valve mid-esophagus, four-chamber mid-esophagus, bicaval mid-esophagus, and long-axis mid-esophagus.</p>
        <p>3D-TEE x IAS: 3D volumetric data are acquired in its limited sector presentations (live 3D), zoom, and full-volume from main views: short-axis mid-esophagus, bicaval, sagittal bicaval, and four chambers. When the IAS is viewed from the LA, it should be oriented with the right superior pulmonary vein at the 1 o&#8217;clock position. When viewed from the RA, the SVC should be located at the 11 o&#8217;clock position (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2D, 2E</xref>).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiographic Assessment of the Patent Foramen Ovale</title>
        <p>TTE is used for the initial assessment of PFO. However, TEE is necessary for a more comprehensive evaluation of septal abnormalities due to better image quality. TEE is not invariably required to assess PFO if closure is not considered, but it should be performed in all patients assessed for percutaneous or surgical procedures.</p>
        <p>TEE views used for PFO assessment begin in the mid-esophageal plane with settings optimized to view the IAS, and the echocardiographic image plane must be rotated, starting at 0&#176; multiplane angles with 15&#176; increments for complete septal evaluation. Low-scale color Doppler side-by-side imaging (35-40 cm/s) is useful to identify flow through the PFO and possible additional septal defects. The probe can be slightly withdrawn for a better assessment of the IAS close to the SVC and deepened for a better assessment of the IAS close to the IVC. From 30&#186;-50&#186;, with the AoV in cross-section, the PFO must be visualized adjacent to the aorta (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7D, 7G, 7H</xref>). Rotating the imaging plane should align the PFO tunnel on the image. From this angle, the length of the tunnel can be assessed, and the SS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> thickness measured (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10001">Figure 9A-9F</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f10001">
            <label>Figure 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; (A) En face 3D-TEE view (TrueVue) of the elliptical PFO orifice. (B, C) 2D-TEE view showing PFO tunnel height increase after the Valsalva maneuver. (D, E) 2D and 3D-TEE view, respectively, with image plane adjustments for PFO tunnel measurement. (F) 2D-TEE view, adjusted to measure the IVC-PFO angle and measure the thickness and length of the SS. Transesophageal echocardiographic images during a percutaneous PFO occlusion procedure. (G) Bicaval view showing occluder device (*) well positioned, with flat disks and septal tissue between the disks. (H) 3D bicaval image confirming proper device positioning. (I) En face view from right atrial perspective showing the occluder device and adjacent structures. RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium; Asc Ao: ascending aorta;</title>
              <p>PFO: patent foramen ovale; SS: septum secundum; AoV: aortic valve; IVC: inferior vena cava; SVC: superior vena cava.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf09-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>With the PFO visualized, saline contrast is injected to assess the right-to-left shunt. Important anatomical details of the IAS include the location of the PFO (anterior or superior region of the FO), the total length of the IAS, thickness and extent of the SS, length of the PFO tunnel, PFO size, the angle between the IVC and the PFO, the presence of ASA, and IAS fenestrations or defects (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10001">Figures 9A, 9B, 9C</xref>).</p>
        <p>The 3D-TEE is used to define the PFO variations better and show its elliptical shape (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09001">Figure 9A</xref>). The PFO area changes during the cardiac cycle and is larger during ventricular systole. The 3D-TEE is also used to guide the closure procedure with &#8220;<italic>en face</italic>&#8221; views of the IAS, showing the PFO&#8217;s and device&#8217;s relationship with adjacent structures (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10001">Figure 9G-9I</xref>).</p>
        <p>Specific anatomic features of the PFO must be evaluated when deciding on the occluder device. Specifically, PFO tunnel length, ASA presence and size, SS thickness, and maximum PFO size during the cardiac cycle are important aspects to be considered when selecting the correct device and enable a lower incidence of complications compared to the single-device-to-all-PFO strategy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Shunting Characteristics</title>
        <p>Color Doppler can detect a shunt through the PFO. However, the shunt is often intermittent and may not be easily detectable. When the PFO is stretched by pressure differences in the LA and AD, the left-to-right shunt can be seen on color Doppler (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7</xref>). Contrast echocardiography using agitated saline macrobubbles (MB) combined with physiological maneuvers increases the sensitivity of PFO detection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Agitated macrobubbles are too large to pass normal pulmonary vasculature and are easily detected by echocardiographic imaging because of their increased echogenicity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7H</xref>). Contrast-enhanced TTE can be used to detect PFO with reasonable sensitivity and specificity. Nevertheless, TEE is considered the gold standard. Whether using TTE or TEE, a standardized protocol improves test accuracy, as shown below. The protocol includes multiple saline injections and provocative maneuvers to increase RA pressure, such as the Valsalva maneuver (VM), coughing, or abdominal compression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Protocol (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Supplementary Figure 1</ext-link>):</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Insert an intravenous catheter into the antecubital vein, connected to a three-way stopcock.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>In a 10 mL syringe connected to the stopcock, mix 8 mL of saline solution with 1 mL of the patient&#8217;s blood and 1 mL of air. Adding blood to the contrast solution results in increased intensity of the macrobubbles detected by echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Rapidly agitate the solution back and forth between two 10 mL syringes attached to the three-way stopcock to produce bubbles.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Inject the rapidly agitated solution into the antecubital vein along with the echocardiographic acquisition of a long image clip (about 10 beats), recorded from the four-chamber view on TTE, and the best view of the IAS on TEE is usually between 30&#186;-100&#186;.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Biplane imaging can improve the detection of small right-to-left blood flows.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>The appearance of macrobubbles in the LA within 3-6 heartbeats after RA opacification is considered positive for the presence of an intracardiac shunt. Ideally, the bubbles will be visualized crossing the IAS through the PFO (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11001">Figure 10E, 10G</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f11001">
            <label>Figure 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Transesophageal echocardiographic images (A, B, C, D) show two-dimensional views of saline microbubbles entering the LA from the right pulmonary veins in a patient with pulmonary arteriovenous fistula. (E) Bicaval two-dimensional view showing microbubbles crossing the atrial septum through the FO, confirming the presence of PFO. (F, G, H) Three-dimensional en face views of left atrial perspective, confirming the arrival of bubbles in the LA (arrow) through the PFO. RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium; FO: fossa ovalis; PFO: patent foramen ovale; RLPV: right lower pulmonary vein; RUPV: right upper pulmonary vein.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf10-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Physiological maneuvers that transiently increase RA pressure are required for the right-to-left passage of macrobubbles to identify PFO when no shunt is present. The VM is commonly performed and must be maintained for enough time for the bubbles to fill the RA; its effectiveness can be assessed via echocardiography by the presence of IAS bulging to the left, indicating higher pressure in the RA compared to the LA. The appearance of macrobubbles in the LA after 3-6 heartbeats indicates an intrapulmonary shunt, such as an arteriovenous malformation, which is confirmed when bubbles are visualized entering the LA from the pulmonary veins and not visualized crossing the IAS (Figure 11A-11D). Other reasons for false-positive bubble studies for PFO are sinus venosus septal defect or other unidentified ASD.</p>
        <p>Bubble studies may result in false-negative findings due to inadequate RA opacification, inadequate VM, presence of Eustachian valve directing venous return from the IVC to the IAS (preventing MB from the SVC from crossing the septum), inability to increase RA pressure above LA pressure, as in left ventricular diastolic dysfunction, and poor image quality. With this quality, second harmonic imaging can improve the identification and detection of macrobubbles. Rarely, an injection into the leg vein can also be used to bypass the very large Chiari network or Eustachian valve that ends up preventing the bubbles from filling the RA from the SVC. The right-to-left shunt can be quantified based on the number of bubbles that appear in the left heart in a static echocardiographic image. However, this number depends on the amount of injected macrobubbles and an adequate VM.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiography in transcatheter closure</title>
        <p>Echocardiography is used to aid percutaneous PFO closure, providing significant information for patient and device selection, guiding the procedure, monitoring complications, and evaluating results. The choice of the occluder device should consider the anatomy of the IAS and PFO, device availability, and staff experience. The choice usually favors devices that are specifically recommended for closing this structure. However, in specific cases, due to the analysis of the anatomy, a device designed for ASD occlusion can be chosen.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In October 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of the Amplatzer PFO occluder (St. Jude Medical, Inc.) for percutaneous closure of PFO and became the first commercially available device in the United States for use in patients with presumably PFO-mediated cryptogenic stroke. The three devices studied in the United States in large randomized controlled trials are Amplatzer PFO occluder, StarFlex septal occluder (NMT Medical, Inc.), and Helex/Cardioform septal occluder (Gore &amp; Associates).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Device embolization and erosion</title>
        <p>Complications of PFO occluder devices are rare and include device embolization, cardiac perforation, tamponade, and erosion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Device embolization occurs in approximately 0.1%&#8211;0.4% of cases and is more common with ASD closure devices.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> It is potentially fatal and requires immediate removal by percutaneous or surgical intervention and is diagnosed by routine TTE, which assesses the location of the displaced device and physiological sequelae (inflow/outflow obstruction, valve rupture) resulting from embolization.</p>
        <p>Device erosion is rare but potentially fatal, can occur with multiple devices, reaches the roof of the RA or LA or aortic junction, and can result in hemopericardium, tamponade, aortic fistula, and/or death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Erosion can begin as a subclinical event, with the device colliding with surrounding structures, straining the atrial or aortic tissue, or resulting in subclinical pericardial effusion. Most erosions occur in the first week after implantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> The most significant factors for this complication are device oversizing (40% of the cases), complete absence of aortic rim, high/upper septal location of the defect, and associated insufficiency of the posterior rim. Important risk factors for erosion after device placement include deformation of the closure device at the aortic root and pericardial effusion observed within 24 hours of implantation.</p>
        <p>IAS imaging immediately after the procedure</p>
        <p>An echocardiographic evaluation is performed to confirm that the right and left disks of the occluder device are flat and apposed to the septum with septal tissue between the disks. The device, IAS, and surrounding structures are assessed before release (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10001">Figure 9G-9I</xref>). A color Doppler evaluation is performed to exclude residual flow at the device&#8217;s margins, which suggests improper device size or position. Interference with pulmonary veins, coronary sinus, atrioventricular valve function, and aortic root deformation are carefully evaluated and excluded before release.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Patent Foramen Ovale and cryptogenic stroke</title>
        <p>Cryptogenic stroke is defined as cerebral infarction not attributable to a defined source of cardioembolism, large artery atherosclerosis, small artery disease, or other determined etiologies such as non-atherosclerotic vasculopathies, hypercoagulable states or hematological disorders despite extensive vascular, cardiac, and serologic evaluation &#8211; TOAST criteria (Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> It affects about 25% to 40% of patients with cerebrovascular ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Embolic stroke of unknown origin is a subcategory of cryptogenic ischemic stroke that specifically denotes non-lacunar stroke with no immediately identifiable etiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>PFO has been associated with multiple pathologies: migraine, platypnea-orthodeoxia syndrome, high altitude decompression sickness and, most commonly, cryptogenic stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The association between cryptogenic stroke and PFO was first credited to pathologist Julius Cohnheim in 1877. However, modern interest began after Lechat et al. observed in 1988 that PFO was present in 40% of individuals with cryptogenic stroke compared to only 10% in controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Since then, other studies have documented the association of PFO with patients who suffer from stroke, particularly aged &lt; 55.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>POF has been associated with cryptogenic stroke due to paradoxical embolism, in which a clot or embolic particle from the peripheral venous circulation passes into the arterial circulation through a right-to-left shunt, bypassing the natural filtration system in the pulmonary vasculature or even thrombosis <italic>in situ</italic> in the PFO tunnel, local blood stasis on the left side of the IAS, or thrombus formation within the ASA concomitant with the PFO, and indirectly through increased arrhythmia susceptibility. There are indications that the electrical activity of the LA can be altered in the presence of PFO, which further increases the risk of stroke. IAS stretching induced by septal aberrations (large PFO tunnel, ASA) can modify atrial depolarization, activating arrhythmogenic substrate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Thrombi crossing the PFO can occasionally be observed both in autopsies and in a few reports of echocardiographic examinations (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Supplementary Figure 2</ext-link>), suggesting this mechanism is a possible cause of paradoxical embolism (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
        <p>Despite the infrequent visualization of thrombi in PFO, epidemiological observation indicates that it is responsible for a considerable number of strokes. History of deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, pulmonary arterial hypertension, prolonged travel, VM preceding the onset of stroke symptoms, migraine, and sleep apnea have been described as independent risk factors for the association between PFO and stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Other mechanisms, such as undetected or occult atrial fibrillation (AF), may be responsible for cryptogenic stroke. Occult AF has been associated with a 2.5-fold increase in the risk of stroke, although with a low temporal relationship.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Likewise, mitral valve disease, spontaneous contrast in the LA, calcification of the mitral annulus, cardiac prostheses, cardiac tumors, aortic atheroma, and blood disorders with susceptibility to thrombus formation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A minimal work-up is proposed for stroke of undetermined origin with tomography/magnetic resonance of the skull, echocardiogram, extra/intravascular imaging, research for hypercoagulable disorders, and cardiac monitoring for &#8805; 24 hours.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Cardiac monitoring is important to unmask occult arrhythmias, specifically AF, which is still the most common cause of cryptogenic stroke.</p>
        <p>TTE and, especially, TEE using saline bubbles are part of the PFO&#8217;s assessment, including shunt detection, anatomical characteristics of the PFO, differential diagnosis of other atrial septal defects, or pulmonary shunt.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Transcranial Doppler is more sensitive but less specific than TEE in diagnosing PFO. Its insensitivity to making a differential diagnosis between cardiac and pulmonary shunt and the impossibility of diagnosing PFO anatomical changes justify its lower specificity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> However, there is controversy about the ideal management of PFO in cryptogenic stroke. The main treatment was antithrombotic therapy, derived from the FRENCH PFO-ASA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> and PICSS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> studies. These did not show an increased risk of stroke recurrence, regardless of the presence of PFO. Despite the embolic hypothesis of cryptogenic stroke in PFO, anticoagulation was not superior to aspirin in preventing recurrent strokes. These findings were also replicated in the NAVIGATE ESUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> study, which found a non-statistically significant reduction in ischemic stroke with anticoagulation compared to aspirin. However, the reported recurrence rate in cryptogenic stroke is substantial and can range from 3% to 6%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Therefore, mechanical treatment options for PFO should be considered. Surgical closure of the defect resulted in significant morbidity and no evidence of benefit in preventing recurrences.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Evidence for percutaneous PFO closure</title>
        <p>Percutaneous PFO closure is associated with significantly less morbidity than surgery and is an option in paradoxical embolism. Over the last decade, the challenge has been to demonstrate the benefit in populations with a low incidence of stroke. Two main trials, CLOSURE I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> and PC trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> failed to demonstrate a clear superiority of percutaneous closure over drug therapy. There was, however, an increased incidence of atrial arrhythmias in the PFO device closure group. Next, the RESPECT study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> showed that PFO closure with the Amplatzer PFO Occluder was superior to drug management in reducing long-term recurrent ischemic stroke in patients with cryptogenic stroke and evidence of PFO. Based on cumulative trial data, the 2014 AHA/ASA guidelines provided a Class III recommendation for PFO closure in patients with cryptogenic stroke without evidence of deep vein thrombosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
        <p>However, early trials had significant limitations. They used older devices associated with higher complication rates and follow-up time averaging only 2-4 years. Observational trials have reported favorable long-term outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Additionally, patient meta-analyses have demonstrated the superiority of using the Amplatzer PFO Occluder Device.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Subsequently, three additional randomized clinical trials, CLOSE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> DEFENSE-PFO,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> and REDUCE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> showed superiority of percutaneous PFO closure compared to drug therapy alone.</p>
        <p>Multiple meta-analyses have assessed evidence of PFO closure. Nasir et al. investigated the six main trials evaluating PFO closure: CLOSURE I, PC trial, RESPECT, CLOSE, REDUCE, and DEFENSE-PFO, with a total of 3,510 patients. This study showed the persistent benefit of PFO closure versus antiplatelet or anticoagulation alone, with the number needed to treat being 41 (OR 0.34, 95% CI 0.15&#8211;0.79, p = 0.012). Major side effects were comparable, with no difference in mortality or major bleeding events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Wintzer-Wehekind et al. demonstrated that, with percutaneous PFO closure and after discontinuation of antiplatelet therapy, there was no increase in events in long-term follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Supplementary Table 1</ext-link>) shows the main randomized studies in this setting.</p>
        <p>Several studies have also sought to determine, with greater precision, which patients would most benefit from interventional treatment. Data from recent studies suggest that, while associated with the ASA, larger PFO and hypermobile septum could obtain greater benefits from closure. TEE was used as an imaging modality to assess PFO in all the trials discussed. While there were no recommended cut-off values for use in these trials, CLOSE only included PFO with &gt; 30 bubbles (MB) or associated ASA &gt; 10 mm, and REDUCE stratified shunt size into four groups (0 MB without shunt; 1&#8211;5 MB Small; 6&#8211;25 MB Moderate; &gt; 25 MB Large), 81% with moderate or large shunts.</p>
        <p>Despite the positive results of PFO closure data, there are limitations. In five of the six studies, the age limit was set at 60, with the remainder being insufficient for those over 60. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized to the entire population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> There was a 4.7% increase in the risk of new AF in the closure group compared to the drug treatment group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> This can be attributed to atrial irritation during the procedure, as most events were periprocedural and transient. Additionally, the procedure has rare complications, including atrial perforation with tamponade requiring surgical removal of the device. Finally, there is the potential long-term risk of root dilation and subsequent erosions caused by the device,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> as well as potential thrombus formation in the device.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Candidates for PFO Closure</title>
        <p>Despite evidence linking PFO and cryptogenic stroke, not all PFO needs to be closed. About one-third of PFOs are found incidentally, with other more plausible stroke etiologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> If conventional investigation does not reveal the cause of the stroke, screening the patient for percutaneous PFO closure, according to patient-specific risk factors, is justified.</p>
        <p>The Risk of Paradoxical Embolism (RoPE) Score was created to help identify stroke patients with PFO in whom PFO is the likely cause. (According to <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Supplementary Table 2</ext-link>).</p>
        <p>This index was created using regression data from 12 databases involving patients with cryptogenic stroke<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> and considers clinical data such as history of hypertension, diabetes, stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA), smoking, cortical infarction evidenced in imaging exams, and patient&#8217;s age. The higher the score, the more likely it is that PFO is the cause of the cryptogenic stroke (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Supplementary Table 3</ext-link>).</p>
        <p>Scores of 7, 8, and 9-10 correspond, respectively, to a 72%, 84%, and 88% chance that PFO is the cause of cryptogenic stroke and define a subset of patients who may benefit from closure. In addition, a low RoPE score &#8804; 6 was identified as an independent risk factor for mortality and recurrent ischemic stroke after PFO closure, along with other risk factors such as larger left atrial dimensions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Young patients with superficial stroke and without vascular risk factors have a high score. In low-score patients, elderly patients with vascular risk factors, the presence of PFO suggests that it is accidental. The risk of stroke or TIA is calculated at two years for each group.</p>
        <p>In a recent observational study, 107 patients with and without cryptogenic stroke who were scheduled for percutaneous PFO closure had their anatomical features evaluated by TEE. The findings demonstrated that some PFO anatomical features predispose to the formation and passage of thrombi from the RA to the LA, resulting in systemic embolisms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The evaluated echocardiographic characteristics of PFO were:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>PFO height:</bold> maximum separation between the SP and SS in the end-systolic frame. Considered large when &#8805; 2.0 mm.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Tunnel Length:</bold> Maximum overlap between the SP and SS. Length &#8805; 10 mm was defined as a long tunnel PFO, which can be a space for thrombus formation.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Degree of Right-to-Left Shunt:</bold> assessed at rest and after VM using saline contrast. The number of MB is counted in a single frame, and &gt; 20 MB is considered a large shunt with a higher risk of stroke.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Angle between the IVC and PFO Flap:</bold> measured in the image plane that displays the IVC and the IAS. A low PFO angle is defined as &#8804; 10&#186;, which can preferentially direct the blood flow from the IVC to the IAS and the PFO orifice, posing an increased risk for stroke.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Interatrial Septal Aneurysm:</bold> redundant, mobile tissue in the FO region, with midline phasic septal excursion to the RA or LA &#8805; 10 mm or total excursion &#8805; 15 mm between the RA and the LA.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Hypermobility of the Interatrial Septum:</bold> mobile septum with excursion &#8805; 5 mm in each heartbeat. The mechanisms that have been proposed as responsible for paradoxical embolism caused by aneurysm or IAS hypermobility are:</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Paradoxical embolism due to the passage of a thrombus from the RA to the LA through the PFO.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>ASA without an intracardiac shunt, small thrombi of fibrin and platelets may form on the left side of the septum, detaching due to oscillation of the aneurysm.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Eustachian Valve and Chiari Network:</bold> they can direct the flow, which comes through the IVC directly to the IAS, favoring PFO and ASA and, indirectly, facilitating paradoxical embolism. PFO with a large right-to-left shunt was seen more frequently in patients with a Chiari network.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Echocardiographic features that increase the risk of stroke include large PFO size, large right-to-left shunt, spontaneous right-to-left shunt, greater mobility of the PFO lamina, prominent Eustachian valve, Chiari network, and ASA. The multivariate analysis of these observations showed echocardiographic factors that were independent predictors of ischemic cerebral events shown in <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Supplementary Table 4</ext-link>.</p>
        <p>Based on the anatomical data analyzed by echocardiography, a risk score was created for POF, which is responsible for paradoxical embolism in stroke patients (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">Supplementary Table 5</ext-link>).</p>
        <p>Elevated scores are observed in young patients with superficial stroke without or with few traditional risk factors. Patients with low scores, those with vascular risk factors and the elderly, suggest that PFO is accidental and not directly responsible for the ischemic event. The risk of stroke/TIA is calculated for two years.</p>
        <p>Findings from the CLOSE and DEFENSE-PFO studies support these observations. Studies that included only high-risk PFO demonstrated no recurrent stroke in the closure arm at five and two years, respectively. In contrast, short tunnel PFO has also been reported in patients with ischemic stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Thus, further studies are needed to elucidate the relationship between PFO tunnel length and stroke, identifying the mechanisms.</p>
        <p>Determining shunt severity by the number of bubbles crossing the IAS through the PFO may not be completely accurate, as some bubbles may not be in the imaging plane. There is likely to be little difference between the shunt with 20 and 21 bubbles, but in this analysis, one is classified as small and the other as large. Furthermore, dichotomous determination of shunt severity (small vs. large) may be prone to significant bias. The VM substantially depends on the patient&#8217;s effort, and the lack of consistency can affect the morphometric characteristics of the PFO.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>In recent years, the influx of evidence showing the benefit of percutaneous PFO closure in cryptogenic stroke compared to medical therapy alone and the evolution of percutaneous procedures involving structural heart disease and electrophysiological procedures have brought additional interest in the anatomy of the IAS. Based on current data, a thorough patient assessment and a detailed and standardized anatomical characterization of the IAS are recommended.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f06001">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Biplane 3D-TEE images (X-plane) guiding the site-specific atrial transseptal puncture for percutaneous occlusion of the left atrial appendage in a more posterior and inferior position of the septum. The arrow indicates a well-placed puncture catheter. (C) En face 3D-TEE image (right atrial perspective) of the IAS showing the proximity (double arrow) of the non-coronary aortic sinus to the FO region. Aortic sinus and proximal portion of the ascending aorta are outlined. RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium; Asc Ao: ascending aorta; FO: fossa ovalis; NC: non-coronary aortic sinus; AoV: aortic valve; IVC: inferior vena cava; SVC: superior vena cava.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-09-e20220903-20903-gf11-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="fn_ast1001">
          <label>*</label>
          <p>Supplemental Materials</p>
          <p>For additional information, please <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12009/2022-0903_material-suplementar.pdf">click here</ext-link>.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding</p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
