<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "http://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="pt">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">cnw5gHFHBD7Pf4sVKp3Rjpr</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000800101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230398</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Influ&#234;ncia do Sistema Imunol&#243;gico nas Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3115-0795</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gatto</surname>
            <given-names>Mariana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8103-3338</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mota</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Augusto Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7728-4505</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Marina Politi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Marina Politi Okoshi &#8226; Universidade Estadual Paulista &#8220;J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho&#8221;, UNESP, Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Rua Prof. Armando Alves, S/N. CEP 18618-687, Rubi&#227;o Junior, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>marina.okoshi@unesp.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>11</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230398</elocation-id>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Aterosclerose/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Imunol&#243;gico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="15"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>O sistema imunol&#243;gico reage a diversos est&#237;mulos como corpos estranhos e dano tecidual. A inflama&#231;&#227;o &#233; a resposta fisiol&#243;gica inata do organismo &#224;s inj&#250;rias teciduais desencadeadas por agentes f&#237;sicos, qu&#237;micos e biol&#243;gicos como infec&#231;&#227;o, trauma, toxina, e necrose tecidual. Uma vez iniciado, o processo somente cessa com a elimina&#231;&#227;o ou neutraliza&#231;&#227;o do agente agressor e a regenera&#231;&#227;o do tecido danificado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
    <p>O processo inflamat&#243;rio decorre de complexa rea&#231;&#227;o desencadeada por eventos moleculares e bioqu&#237;micos que envolvem c&#233;lulas imunes, c&#233;lulas do tecido conjuntivo, mol&#233;culas inflamat&#243;rias e vasos sangu&#237;neos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Na inflama&#231;&#227;o aguda, c&#233;lulas residentes e c&#233;lulas imunes presentes na les&#227;o liberam histaminas, quimiocinas, interleucinas (IL), e fator de necrose tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) que aumentam a permeabilidade vascular permitindo a infiltra&#231;&#227;o tecidual de fluidos e c&#233;lulas imunes como mon&#243;citos e neutr&#243;filos. Consequentemente, ocorre a elimina&#231;&#227;o de pat&#243;genos, c&#233;lulas necr&#243;ticas e debris celulares. Finalmente, h&#225; inibi&#231;&#227;o das vias inflamat&#243;rias e o reparo tecidual ou a substitui&#231;&#227;o do tecido lesado por fibrose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
    <p>A amplitude da resposta inflamat&#243;ria depende do tipo, tempo e intensidade da inj&#250;ria tecidual. Se o est&#237;mulo agressor n&#227;o for eliminado, o processo inflamat&#243;rio evolui para fase cr&#244;nica caracterizada, principalmente, por inflama&#231;&#227;o aguda persistente e destrui&#231;&#227;o tecidual. Os linf&#243;citos participam ativamente da inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, facilitando a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o entre v&#225;rios tipos celulares e a secre&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Doen&#231;as cardiovasculares como aterosclerose, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, e hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica constituem as principais causas de &#243;bito no mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A inflama&#231;&#227;o participa ativamente da patog&#234;nese dessas doen&#231;as. Neste Editorial, vamos comentar sobre o envolvimento da inflama&#231;&#227;o nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares com &#234;nfase em artigos recentemente publicados nos Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia.</p>
    <p>A fisiopatologia da aterosclerose &#233; complexa e multifatorial, caracterizada localmente por inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, infiltra&#231;&#227;o celular e altera&#231;&#245;es da coagula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea. A forma&#231;&#227;o de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas na &#237;ntima das art&#233;rias leva a redu&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica do fluxo sangu&#237;neo. Agudamente, pode ocorrer desestabilidade da placa com ruptura, forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos e oclus&#227;o do vaso sangu&#237;neo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
    <p>O &#237;ndice imuno-inflamat&#243;rio sist&#234;mico (IIS) tem sido avaliado como um biomarcador facilmente acess&#237;vel e de baixo custo para estratificar a gravidade da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> O IIS &#233; calculado de acordo com a f&#243;rmula: (neutr&#243;filo x plaqueta)/linf&#243;cito. Em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, com ou sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST, ou angina, valores elevados de IIS foram associados a maior extens&#227;o da les&#227;o ateroscler&#243;tica e do dano tecidual, e aumento do tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Adicionalmente, o &#237;ndice foi preditor independente para eventos adversos maiores em pacientes com infarto agudo e eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST submetidos a interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> O &#237;ndice foi particularmente &#250;til quando combinado com tradicionais fatores de risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Macr&#243;fagos s&#227;o c&#233;lulas especializadas que podem se diferenciar em dois fen&#243;tipos. Os macr&#243;fagos M1 s&#227;o c&#233;lulas com maior atividade inflamat&#243;ria e alta capacidade para fagocitose e secre&#231;&#227;o de mediadores pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios como TNF-&#945; e IL-6.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Ambas as citocinas participam da aterog&#234;nese promovendo inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular, oxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica, ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas endoteliais, prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular, e ac&#250;mulo de lip&#237;dios por macr&#243;fagos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Por outro lado, os macr&#243;fagos M2 possuem menor atividade inflamat&#243;ria, podendo induzir redu&#231;&#227;o do tamanho de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Macr&#243;fagos presentes em placas ateroscler&#243;ticas acumulam maior quantidade de lip&#237;dios quando submetidos a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica elevada de lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade (LDL) e, neste caso, se diferenciam em c&#233;lulas espumosas. O papel dos macr&#243;fagos na indu&#231;&#227;o de inflama&#231;&#227;o em placas ateroscler&#243;ticas foi bem ilustrado no estudo de Castro et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A estimula&#231;&#227;o <italic>in vitro</italic> de macr&#243;fagos com LDL oxidado (ox-LDL) aumentou a secre&#231;&#227;o de IL-6 e TNF-&#945;, que foi proporcional &#224; quantidade de ox-LDL no macr&#243;fago.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
    <p>A ativa&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica ocorre n&#227;o somente em placas ateroscler&#243;ticas, mas tamb&#233;m no mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s infarto agudo ou outras formas de agress&#227;o card&#237;aca. A estimula&#231;&#227;o do sistema imune, iniciada no mioc&#225;rdio estruturalmente alterado, se estende para o restante do organismo e pode ser detectada pela presen&#231;a de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios no plasma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Enquanto a inflama&#231;&#227;o exacerbada e cr&#244;nica contribui para pior progn&#243;stico de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> alguns subtipos de linf&#243;citos, como os TCD4<sup>+</sup> auxiliares, e mediadores anti-inflamat&#243;rios contribuem para reduzir o tamanho e a progress&#227;o de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas. A IL-10 e o fator de crescimento transformador tipo beta s&#227;o exemplos de citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias que atenuam a les&#227;o causada por inflama&#231;&#227;o; em elevadas concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas, associam-se a melhor progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Ainda no cen&#225;rio de mecanismos anti-inflamat&#243;rios, a IL-35 &#233; uma citocina com propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias e imunossupressoras, capaz de suprimir fun&#231;&#245;es delet&#233;rias dos linf&#243;citos TCD4+ e induzir diferencia&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas regulat&#243;rias. Recentemente, Oflar et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> sugeriram que, em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, baixa concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de IL-35 pode estar associada a maior extens&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
    <p>Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, a comunidade cient&#237;fica mostrou que ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema imunol&#243;gico participa ativamente da homeostase cardiovascular em situa&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas e patol&#243;gicas. Entretanto, ainda h&#225; necessidade de melhor entendimento sobre o envolvimento da inflama&#231;&#227;o na fisiopatologia das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares para que se possa conduzir terapeuticamente o sistema imunol&#243;gico para o tratamento de pacientes.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <mixed-citation>1. Akhmerov A, Parimon T. Extracellular vesicles, inflammation, and cardiovascular disease. Cells. 2022; 11(14):2229. doi: 10.3390/cells11142229.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Akhmerov</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Parimon</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Extracellular vesicles, inflammation, and cardiovascular disease</article-title>
          <source>Cells</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <issue>14</issue>
          <fpage>2229</fpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/cells11142229</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <label>2</label>
        <mixed-citation>2. Libby P, Loscalzo J, Ridker PM, Farkouh ME, Hsue PY, Fuster V, et al. Inflammation, immunity, and infection in atherothrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018; 72(17):2071-81. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.08.1043.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Libby</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Loscalzo</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ridker</surname>
              <given-names>PM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Farkouh</surname>
              <given-names>ME</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hsue</surname>
              <given-names>PY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fuster</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Inflammation, immunity, and infection in atherothrombosis</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <year>2018</year>
          <volume>72</volume>
          <issue>17</issue>
          <fpage>2071</fpage>
          <lpage>2081</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.jacc.2018.08.1043</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <label>3</label>
        <mixed-citation>3. Golia E, Limongelli G, Natale F, Fimiani F, Maddaloni V, Pariggiano I, et al. Inflammation and cardiovascular disease: from pathogenesis to therapeutic target. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2014; 16(9):435. doi: 10.1007/s11883-014-0435-z.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Golia</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Limongelli</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Natale</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fimiani</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maddaloni</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pariggiano</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Inflammation and cardiovascular disease: from pathogenesis to therapeutic target</article-title>
          <source>Curr Atheroscler Rep</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>16</volume>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <size units="pages">435</size>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s11883-014-0435-z</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <label>4</label>
        <mixed-citation>4. Tsao CW, Aday AW, Almarzooq ZI, Anderson CA, Arora P, Avery CL, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics&#8212;2023 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2023; 147(8):e93-621.doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000001123.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Tsao</surname>
              <given-names>CW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Aday</surname>
              <given-names>AW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Almarzooq</surname>
              <given-names>ZI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Anderson</surname>
              <given-names>CA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Arora</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Avery</surname>
              <given-names>CL</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Heart disease and stroke statistics&#8212;2023 update: a report from the American Heart Association</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <year>2023</year>
          <volume>147</volume>
          <issue>8</issue>
          <fpage>e93</fpage>
          <lpage>621</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIR.0000000000001123</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <label>5</label>
        <mixed-citation>5. Pellegrini C, Martelli A, Antonioli L, Fornai M, Blandizzi C, Calderone V. NLRP3 inflammasome in cardiovascular diseases: pathophysiological and pharmacological implications. Med Res Ver. 2021;41(4):1890-926. doi: 10.1002/med.21781.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Pellegrini</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Martelli</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Antonioli</surname>
              <given-names>L</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fornai</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Blandizzi</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Calderone</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>NLRP3 inflammasome in cardiovascular diseases: pathophysiological and pharmacological implications</article-title>
          <source>Med Res Ver</source>
          <year>2021</year>
          <volume>41</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>1890</fpage>
          <lpage>1926</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1002/med.21781</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <label>6</label>
        <mixed-citation>6. Gur DO, Efe MM, Alpsoy S, Aky&#252;z A, Uslu N, &#199;elikkol A, et al. Systemic immune-inflammatory index as a determinant of atherosclerotic burden and high-risk patients with acute coronary syndromes. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2022; 119(3):382-90. doi: 10.36660/abc.20210416.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gur</surname>
              <given-names>DO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Efe</surname>
              <given-names>MM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Alpsoy</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Aky&#252;z</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Uslu</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>&#199;elikkol</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Systemic immune-inflammatory index as a determinant of atherosclerotic burden and high-risk patients with acute coronary syndromes</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>119</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>382</fpage>
          <lpage>390</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20210416</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <label>7</label>
        <mixed-citation>7. Saylik F, Akbulut T. Systemic immune-inflammation index predicts major cardiovascular adverse events in patients with ST-segment elevated myocardial infarction. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2022; 119(1):14-22. doi: 10.36660/abc.20210412.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Saylik</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Akbulut</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Systemic immune-inflammation index predicts major cardiovascular adverse events in patients with ST-segment elevated myocardial infarction</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>119</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>14</fpage>
          <lpage>22</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20210412</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B8">
        <label>8</label>
        <mixed-citation>8. Adali MK, Buber I, Sen G, Yilmaz S. Relationship between systemic immune-inflammation index and coronary collateral circulation in patients with chronic total occlusion. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2022; 119(1):69-75. doi: 10.36660/abc.20210414.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Adali</surname>
              <given-names>MK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buber</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sen</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yilmaz</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Relationship between systemic immune-inflammation index and coronary collateral circulation in patients with chronic total occlusion</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>119</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>69</fpage>
          <lpage>75</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20210414.</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B9">
        <label>9</label>
        <mixed-citation>9. Yang S, Yuan HQ, Hao YM, Ren Z, Qu SL, Liu LS, et al. Macrophage polarization in atherosclerosis. Clin Chim Acta. 2020; 501:142-6. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2019.10.034.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Yang</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yuan</surname>
              <given-names>HQ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hao</surname>
              <given-names>YM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ren</surname>
              <given-names>Z</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Qu</surname>
              <given-names>SL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Liu</surname>
              <given-names>LS</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Macrophage polarization in atherosclerosis</article-title>
          <source>Clin Chim Acta</source>
          <year>2020</year>
          <volume>501</volume>
          <fpage>142</fpage>
          <lpage>146</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.cca.2019.10.034</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B10">
        <label>10</label>
        <mixed-citation>10. Ridker PM, Rane M. Interleukin-6 signaling and anti-interleukin-6 therapeutics in cardiovascular disease. Circ Res. 2021; 128(11):1728-46. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.319077.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ridker</surname>
              <given-names>PM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rane</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Interleukin-6 signaling and anti-interleukin-6 therapeutics in cardiovascular disease</article-title>
          <source>Circ Res</source>
          <year>2021</year>
          <volume>128</volume>
          <issue>11</issue>
          <fpage>1728</fpage>
          <lpage>1746</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.319077</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B11">
        <label>11</label>
        <mixed-citation>11. Castro CA, Buzinari TC, Lino RL, de Ara&#250;jo HS, An&#237;bal FF, Verzola RM, et al. Profile of IL-6 and TNF in foam cell formation: an improved method using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) probe. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2022; 119(4):533-41. doi: 10.36660/abc.20210682.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Castro</surname>
              <given-names>CA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buzinari</surname>
              <given-names>TC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lino</surname>
              <given-names>RL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>de Ara&#250;jo</surname>
              <given-names>HS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>An&#237;bal</surname>
              <given-names>FF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Verzola</surname>
              <given-names>RM</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Profile of IL-6 and TNF in foam cell formation: an improved method using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) probe</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>119</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>533</fpage>
          <lpage>541</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20210682</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B12">
        <label>12</label>
        <mixed-citation>12. Martinez PF, Bonomo C, Guizoni DM, Oliveira Jr SA, Damatto RL, Cezar MD, et al. Modulation of MAPK and NF-&#954;B signaling pathways by antioxidant therapy in skeletal muscle of heart failure rats. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2016; 39(1):371-84. doi: 10.1159/000445631.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Martinez</surname>
              <given-names>PF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bonomo</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Guizoni</surname>
              <given-names>DM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Oliveira</surname>
              <given-names>SA</given-names>
              <suffix>Jr</suffix>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Damatto</surname>
              <given-names>RL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cezar</surname>
              <given-names>MD</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Modulation of MAPK and NF-&#954;B signaling pathways by antioxidant therapy in skeletal muscle of heart failure rats</article-title>
          <source>Cell Physiol Biochem</source>
          <year>2016</year>
          <volume>39</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>371</fpage>
          <lpage>384</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1159/000445631</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B13">
        <label>13</label>
        <mixed-citation>13. Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Mariani Jr J, Prado GF, Caixeta AM, Almeida BO, et al. Inflammatory phenotype by OCT coronary imaging: specific features among de novo lesions, in-stent neointima, and in-stent neo-atherosclerosis. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2022; 119(6):931-7. doi: 10.36660/abc.20220045.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Pinheiro</surname>
              <given-names>LF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Garzon</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mariani</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
              <suffix>Jr</suffix>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Prado</surname>
              <given-names>GF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Caixeta</surname>
              <given-names>AM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Almeida</surname>
              <given-names>BO</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Inflammatory phenotype by OCT coronary imaging: specific features among de novo lesions, in-stent neointima, and in-stent neo-atherosclerosis</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>119</volume>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <fpage>931</fpage>
          <lpage>937</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220045</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B14">
        <label>14</label>
        <mixed-citation>14. Anguera I, Miranda-Guardiola F, Bosch X, Filella X, Sitges M, Mar&#237;n JL, et al. Elevation of serum levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 and decreased risk of coronary events in patients with unstable angina. Am Heart J. 2002; 144(5):811-7. doi: 10.1067/mhj.2002.124831</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Anguera</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Miranda-Guardiola</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bosch</surname>
              <given-names>X</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Filella</surname>
              <given-names>X</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sitges</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mar&#237;n</surname>
              <given-names>JL</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Elevation of serum levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 and decreased risk of coronary events in patients with unstable angina</article-title>
          <source>Am Heart J</source>
          <year>2002</year>
          <volume>144</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>811</fpage>
          <lpage>817</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1067/mhj.2002.124831</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B15">
        <label>15</label>
        <mixed-citation>15. Oflar E, Sahin MH, Demir B, Ertugrul AS, Oztas DM, Beyaz MO, et al. Interleukin-35 levels in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2021; 118(2):400-8. doi: 10.36660/abc.20200945.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Oflar</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sahin</surname>
              <given-names>MH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Demir</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ertugrul</surname>
              <given-names>AS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Oztas</surname>
              <given-names>DM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Beyaz</surname>
              <given-names>MO</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Interleukin-35 levels in patients with stable coronary artery disease</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2021</year>
          <volume>118</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>400</fpage>
          <lpage>408</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200945</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Influence of the Immune System on Cardiovascular Disease</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3115-0795</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gatto</surname>
            <given-names>Mariana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8103-3338</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mota</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Augusto Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7728-4505</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Marina Politi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Marina Politi Okoshi &#8226; Universidade Estadual Paulista &#8220;J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho&#8221;, UNESP, Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Rua Prof. Armando Alves, S/N. Postal Code 18618-687, Rubi&#227;o Junior, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: marina.okoshi@unesp.br</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>Immune System</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>The immune system reacts to stimuli such as foreign molecules and tissue damage. Inflammation is an innate physiological response of the organism to tissue injuries triggered by physical, chemical, and biological agents such as infection, trauma, toxin, and tissue necrosis. Once started, the process only ends with the elimination or neutralization of the aggressor agent and the regeneration of the damaged tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The inflammatory process results from complex reactions triggered by molecular and biochemical events involving immune cells, connective tissue cells, inflammatory molecules, and blood vessels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In acute inflammation, resident cells and immune cells present in the injured tissue release histamines, chemokines, interleukins (IL), and tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) that increase vascular permeability allowing tissue infiltration of fluids and immune cells such as monocytes and neutrophils. Consequently, pathogens, necrotic cells, and cellular debris are eliminated. Finally, inflammatory pathways are inhibited with tissue repair or replacement by fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The amplitude of the inflammatory response depends on the type, duration, and intensity of tissue injury. If the aggressor stimulus is not eliminated, the inflammatory process evolves into a chronic phase characterized by persistent acute inflammation and tissue destruction. Lymphocytes participate in chronic inflammation, facilitating signaling between different cell types and the secretion of inflammatory cytokines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, heart failure, and systemic arterial hypertension are the main causes of death worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Inflammation actively participates in the pathogenesis of these diseases. In this Editorial, we will comment on the involvement of inflammation in cardiovascular disease, emphasizing articles recently published in the <italic>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</italic> .</p>
      <p>The pathophysiology of atherosclerosis is complex and multifactorial, characterized by chronic inflammation, cell infiltration, and blood clotting disorders. Atherosclerotic plaques in the intima of arteries lead to a chronic reduction in blood flow. Acutely, plaque instability may occur with rupture, thrombus formation, and blood vessel occlusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The systemic immunoinflammatory index (SII) has been evaluated as an easily accessible and low-cost biomarker to stratify the severity of coronary artery disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The SII is calculated using the formula: (neutrophil x platelet)/lymphocyte. Elevated SII values were associated with a greater extent of atherosclerotic lesions, higher tissue damage, and increased length of hospital stay in patients with acute myocardial infarction or angina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Additionally, the index was an independent predictor of major adverse events in patients with acute myocardial infarction and ST-segment elevation undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The index was particularly useful when combined with traditional risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Macrophages are specialized cells that can differentiate into two phenotypes. M1 macrophages have high inflammatory activity with elevated capacity for phagocytosis and secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators such as TNF-&#945; and IL-6.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Both cytokines participate in atherogenesis inducing vascular inflammation, lipid oxidation, endothelial cell activation, cell proliferation, and macrophage lipid accumulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> On the other hand, M2 macrophages have poor inflammatory activity and may induce a reduction in atherosclerotic plaque size.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Macrophages present in atherosclerotic plaques accumulate a great amount of lipids when subjected to high levels of plasma low-density lipoproteins (LDL); in this case, these cells differentiate into foam cells. The role of macrophages in inducing inflammation in atherosclerotic plaques was well illustrated in the study by Castro et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> <italic>In vitro</italic> stimulation of macrophages with oxidized LDL (ox-LDL) increased IL-6 and TNF-&#945; secretion, which was proportional to the amount of ox-LDL in the macrophage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Immunologic activation occurs not only in atherosclerotic plaques but also in the myocardium after acute infarction or other types of cardiac injury. The stimulation of the immune system, initiated in the structurally altered myocardium, spreads to the bloodstream and can be detected by increased levels of plasma inflammatory biomarkers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>While exacerbated and chronic inflammation contributes to a worse prognosis in cardiovascular disease,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> some lymphocyte subtypes, such as TCD4+ helper and anti-inflammatory mediators, reduce the size and progression of atherosclerotic plaques. IL-10 and transforming growth factor beta are examples of anti-inflammatory cytokines that attenuate damage caused by inflammation; in high plasma concentrations, they are related to a better prognosis of coronary artery disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Still, in the scenario of anti-inflammatory mechanisms, IL-35 is a cytokine with anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties that can suppress the deleterious function of TCD4+ lymphocytes and induce differentiation of regulatory cells. Recently, Oflar et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> suggested that low levels of IL-35 plasma concentration are associated with a greater extension of coronary artery disease.</p>
      <p>In recent decades, extensive research has shown that activation of the immunologic system is involved in cardiovascular homeostasis in physiological and pathophysiological conditions. However, a better understanding of the role of inflammation in cardiovascular disease is needed so that immunomodulation of the immune system can be used to treat patients.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
