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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">K7ykGhyrF4xGGWWtMCDxvrq</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000800501</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00501</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230171</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Carta Cient&#237;fica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Uma Situa&#231;&#227;o de &#8220;Apertar o Cora&#231;&#227;o&#8221;: Manejando Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Reduzida em Insufici&#234;ncia Adrenal Prim&#225;ria</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6465-0972</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stumpf</surname>
            <given-names>Matheo Augusto Morandi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2957-6148</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Madson Queiroz</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Unidade de Adrenal, Laborat&#243;rio de Endocrinologia Molecular e Celular LIM/25, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">ICESP</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Divis&#227;o de Oncologia End&#243;crina, Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (ICESP), Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Matheo Augusto Morandi Stumpf &#8226; Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Rua Dr. Ov&#237;dio Pires de Campos, 225. CEP 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>matheoaugusto@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230171</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Adrenal</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Renina-Angiotensina</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#243;dio</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="11"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia adrenal prim&#225;ria (IAP) &#233; um fator de risco bem estabelecido para doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica, que &#233; a causa mais comum de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. O tratamento de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (ICFEr) e IAP &#233; discut&#237;vel. Aqui, discutimos brevemente as evid&#234;ncias para o tratamento de ambas as condi&#231;&#245;es.</p>
    <p>Estudos nesta popula&#231;&#227;o em particular s&#227;o escassos na literatura. Em 1983, um &#250;nico estudo prospectivo apresentou um acompanhamento de longo prazo de 22 pacientes com IAP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Sete deles desenvolveram IC durante um acompanhamento m&#233;dio de 30 anos. Dois deles n&#227;o receberam reposi&#231;&#227;o de mineralocorticoides, enquanto os cinco restantes tiveram a dose de fludrocortisona reduzida (at&#233; o m&#225;ximo de 0,1 mg/dia). Tr&#234;s pacientes foram orientados a limitar a ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio devido &#224; IC grave. A IC foi predominantemente tratada com digoxina e furosemida, o tratamento habitual &#224; &#233;poca do estudo.</p>
    <p>Recentemente, uma terapia m&#233;dica direcionada por diretrizes (GDMT) para o tratamento de ICFEr incluiu betabloqueadores, inibidores do cotransportador de s&#243;dio-glicose-2 (SGLT2i), inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA) ou bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina II (BRA) ou, preferencialmente, inibidor da neprilisina e do receptor de angiotensina (ARNi), antagonista do receptor mineralocorticoide (MRA), todos associados a uma redu&#231;&#227;o no risco de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e/ou taxa de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Diur&#233;ticos s&#227;o adicionados para o controle sintom&#225;tico.</p>
    <p>Os betabloqueadores podem ser usados com seguran&#231;a em casos de IAP. Eles atuam inibindo a atividade simp&#225;tica, prevenindo a eleva&#231;&#227;o das catecolaminas, reduzindo a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e diminuindo os efeitos pr&#243;-apopt&#243;ticos e cardiot&#243;xicos na IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Existem diversas hip&#243;teses sobre como os SGLT2i atuam no cora&#231;&#227;o. A principal teoria &#233; o equil&#237;brio h&#237;drico, que favorece a natriurese e a diurese osm&#243;tica. Outras duas possibilidades s&#227;o o efeito antifibr&#243;tico direto sobre os miofibroblastos card&#237;acos e a remodela&#231;&#227;o do col&#225;geno.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> N&#227;o existem estudos que investiguem essa classe de f&#225;rmacos em pacientes com IAP. No entanto, o uso de SGLT2i na S&#237;ndrome da Secre&#231;&#227;o Inapropriada do Horm&#244;nio Antidiur&#233;tico revelou maior perda de &#225;gua livre,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> o que pode funcionar como um contrapeso &#224; tend&#234;ncia de hiponatremia observada na IAP e na IC.</p>
    <p>A IAP &#233; acompanhada de hiperatividade do sistema renina-angiotensina, resultando em n&#237;veis elevados de angiotensina II, a qual exerce efeitos vasoconstritores e indutores de fibrose. Portanto, o uso de IECA/BRA/ARNi tem sido amplamente indicado.</p>
    <p>O principal aspecto controverso &#233; o uso de MRA, uma vez que a IAP &#233; caracterizada pela defici&#234;ncia end&#243;gena de aldosterona. No entanto, vale ressaltar que a produ&#231;&#227;o residual de aldosterona pode ocorrer em determinadas circunst&#226;ncias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
    <p>O estudo RALES &#233; o estudo pivotal do MRA no tratamento da ICFEr.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de renina e aldosterona n&#227;o foram medidos para propor a terapia com o MRA, e a dose de espironolactona associada a benef&#237;cios cardiovasculares foi baixa (25-50 mg por dia). De acordo com nosso entendimento sobre outras doen&#231;as end&#243;crinas, a espironolactona em baixas doses n&#227;o &#233; capaz de bloquear completamente a a&#231;&#227;o da aldosterona. A maioria dos pacientes com hiperaldosteronismo prim&#225;rio requer altas doses de espironolactona (100-200 mg por dia). Al&#233;m disso, a espironolactona em baixa dose &#233; frequentemente usada para tratar o hiperandrogenismo ovariano, n&#227;o sendo associada a evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas ou bioqu&#237;micas de defici&#234;ncia de aldosterona (como hipotens&#227;o, hiponatremia e hipercalemia). Ao considerarmos essas evid&#234;ncias, o MRA pode proporcionar benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos na ICFEr, provavelmente devido ao bloqueio do RM nos cardiomi&#243;citos em dose menor do que a necess&#225;ria para prejudicar a a&#231;&#227;o da aldosterona nos rins.</p>
    <p>Assim, embora alguns autores argumentem contra o uso de fludrocortisona e outros contra o uso de MRA, propomos o uso tanto de fludrocortisona quanto de MRA em baixa dose para mimetizar uma condi&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica, como aquela de pacientes com ICFEr sem IAP. Se o paciente tiver IAP parcial e/ou tolerar a retirada da fludrocortisona (o que &#233; mais prov&#225;vel de ocorrer quando a hidrocortisona oral &#233; administrada, j&#225; que alguma atividade mineralocorticoide &#233; esperada), o MRA de baixa dose ainda deve ser usado pelos motivos mencionados acima.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, alguns autores acreditam que o principal ligante end&#243;geno no RM card&#237;aco &#233; um glicocorticoide, em vez da aldosterona, devido &#224; falta de 11&#946;-hidroxiesteroide desidrogenase tipo 2 (enzima que converte o cortisol em cortisona inativa).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Como resultado, essa teoria tamb&#233;m corrobora o uso de espironolactona mesmo quando n&#227;o h&#225; reposi&#231;&#227;o de mineralocorticoides.</p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda induzida por fludrocortisona tamb&#233;m foi descrita na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Em ambos os relatos de casos, a suspens&#227;o da reposi&#231;&#227;o de mineralocorticoide melhorou o quadro cl&#237;nico e reverteu a cardiomiopatia dilatada.</p>
    <p>Quanto &#224;s modifica&#231;&#245;es do estilo de vida, a ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio n&#227;o deve ser restringida nem estimulada, com limite di&#225;rio de 2300 mg (correspondente a aproximadamente seis gramas de sal). Uma dieta rica em s&#243;dio pode aumentar a hipervolemia na IC. Um estudo randomizado controlado recente (SODIUM-HF) observou que uma dieta com baixo teor de s&#243;dio (menos de 1.500 mg/d) n&#227;o reduziu o desfecho composto prim&#225;rio (interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar relacionada a doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, visita ao pronto-socorro relacionada a doen&#231;as cardiovasculares ou morte por todas as causas em 12 meses) em pacientes com IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
    <p>O manejo atual da ICFEr na IAP ainda est&#225; longe de ser considerado ideal. Tratando-se de uma situa&#231;&#227;o rara na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, o n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia para o tratamento &#233; baixo (a partir de pequenas s&#233;ries de casos ou relatos de casos isolados). A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> apresenta uma abordagem utilizada em nossa institui&#231;&#227;o com base na opini&#227;o de especialistas e em dados coletados da popula&#231;&#227;o com ICFEr sem IAP.</p>
    <p>
      <fig id="f01">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>&#8211; Algoritmo sugerido para o manejo. &#186;N&#227;o utilizar renina ou hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica como par&#226;metro para aumento de dose; evitar mais de 0,1 mg de fludrocortisona por dia devido ao risco de agravamento da sobrecarga vol&#234;mica. *Pacientes com IAP raramente toleram as doses m&#225;ximas da GDMT. ARNi: inibidor da neprilisina e do receptor de angiotensina; BRA: bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina; GDMT: terapia m&#233;dica direcionada por diretrizes; IAP: insufici&#234;ncia adrenal prim&#225;ria; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; ICFEr: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida; IECA: inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina; K: n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de pot&#225;ssio; MRA: antagonista do receptor mineralocorticoide; SGLT2i: inibidores do cotransportador de s&#243;dio-glicose-2.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230171-30171-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Ensaios cl&#237;nicos futuros s&#227;o necess&#225;rios, comparando grupos tratados com MRA com adi&#231;&#227;o a fludrocortisona, MRA isolado e fludrocortisona isolada. Devido &#224; falta de estudos de qualidade, o tratamento desses pacientes deve ser sempre individualizado. Um acompanhamento rigoroso, com reavalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e laboratorial frequente, tamb&#233;m se faz necess&#225;rio.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Research Letter</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>A &#8220;Grasp Heart&#8221; Situation: Managing Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction in Primary Adrenal Insufficiency</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6465-0972</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stumpf</surname>
            <given-names>Matheo Augusto Morandi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2957-6148</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Madson Queiroz</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Unidade de Adrenal, Laborat&#243;rio de Endocrinologia Molecular e Celular LIM/25, Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Divis&#227;o de Oncologia End&#243;crina, Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (ICESP), Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Matheo Augusto Morandi Stumpf &#8226; Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Rua Dr. Ov&#237;dio Pires de Campos, 225. Postal Code 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: matheoaugusto@hotmail.com</corresp>
        <fn id="fn1001">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Adrenal Insufficiency</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Renin-Angiotensin System</kwd>
        <kwd>Sodium</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) is a well-established risk factor for ischemic heart disease, the most prevalent cause of heart failure. Treatment of patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and PAI is debatable. Here, we briefly discuss the evidence for treating both conditions.</p>
      <p>Trials in this particular population are lacking in the literature. In 1983, a single prospective study showed a long-term follow-up of 22 patients with PAI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Seven patients developed HF during a mean follow-up of 30 years. Two of them did not receive mineralocorticoid replacement, while the remaining five had their fludrocortisone dose reduced (to a maximum of 0.1 mg/d). Three patients were advised to limit their sodium intake due to severe HF. HF was predominantly treated with digoxin and furosemide, the usual course of treatment at the time.</p>
      <p>Recently, a guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT) for HFrEF included beta-blocker, sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i), angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARB) or, preferable, angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitors (ARNi), mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (MRA), which are all associated with a reduction in hospitalization and/or mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Diuretics are added for symptom control.</p>
      <p>Beta-blockers can be safely used in PAI. They act by inhibiting sympathetic activity, preventing catecholamine elevation, reducing heart rate, and decreasing proapoptotic and cardiotoxic effects in HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>There are several hypotheses about how SGLT2i acts in the heart. The main theory is fluid balance, which favors natriuresis and osmotic diuresis. Two additional possibilities are the direct antifibrotic effect in the cardiac myofibroblasts and collagen remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> There is no study of this drug class in PAI patients. However, the use of SGLT2i in the Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion revealed a greater loss of free water,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> which may function as a counterweight to the tendency of hyponatremia seen in PAI and HF.</p>
      <p>PAI has a hyperactive angiotensin-renin system, resulting in high levels of angiotensin II, which has vasoconstrictor and fibrosis-induced effects. Therefore, the use of ACEi/ARB/ARNi is well indicated.</p>
      <p>The main controversial aspect is the use of MRA since PAI is characterized by endogenous aldosterone deficiency. Nevertheless, it is important to emphasize that residual aldosterone production may occur in some circumstances.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>RALES study is the pivotal trial of MRA therapy in HFrEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Serum renin and aldosterone levels were not measured to propose MRA therapy, and the dose of spironolactone associated with cardiovascular benefits was low (25-50 mg per day). According to our understanding of other endocrine diseases, low-dose spironolactone cannot completely block the action of aldosterone. Most patients with primary hyperaldosteronism require high doses of spironolactone (100-200 mg per day) for the medical treatment of aldosterone excess. Moreover, low-dose spironolactone is often used to treat ovarian hyperandrogenism and is not associated with clinical or biochemical evidence of aldosterone deficiency (such as hypotension, hyponatremia, and hyperkalemia). Considering this evidence, MRA might provide a clinical benefit in HFrEF, probably due to MR blockage in cardiomyocytes at a lower dose than would be required to impair the action of aldosterone in the kidney.</p>
      <p>Therefore, although some authors argue against using fludrocortisone and others against using MRA, we propose using both fludrocortisone and low-dose MRA to mimic a physiological condition such as in HFrEF patients without PAI. If the patient has partial PAI and/or tolerates the withdrawal of fludrocortisone (which is more likely to occur when oral hydrocortisone is taken as there will be some mineralocorticoid activity), low-dose MRA should still be used for the reasons stated above.</p>
      <p>Additionally, some authors believe that the main endogenous ligand in the heart MR is rather a glucocorticoid than aldosterone due to a lack of the 11&#946;-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (enzyme that converts cortisol into inactive cortisone).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> As a result, this theory also supports the use of spironolactone even when no mineralocorticoid replacement is given.</p>
      <p>Acute fludrocortisone-induced heart failure has also been described in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> In both case reports, discontinuing mineralocorticoid replacement improved the clinical condition and reverted dilated cardiomyopathy.</p>
      <p>Concerning lifestyle modifications, sodium intake should not be restricted nor encouraged, with a daily limit of 2300 mg (corresponding to approximately six grams of salt). A high-sodium diet could enhance hypervolemia in HF. A recent randomized controlled trial (SODIUM-HF) observed that a low-sodium diet of less than 1500 mg/d did not reduce the primary composite outcome (cardiovascular-related admission to hospital, cardiovascular-related emergency department visit, or all-cause death within 12 months) in patients with HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Management of HFrEF in PAI is still far from state of the art. Since it is a rare situation in clinical practice, the level of evidence for treatment is low (from small case series or isolated case reports). <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> provides an approach used in our Institution based on expert opinion and gathered data from the HFrEF population without PAI.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01001">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Suggested algorithm for management. &#186;Do not use renin or orthostatic hypotension as a parameter for dosage increases; avoid more than 0.1 mg of fludrocortisone per day due to the risk of worsening volume overload. * PAI patients rarely tolerate maximum doses of GDMT. ACEi: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; ARB: angiotensin receptor blockers; ARNi: angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor; GDMT: guideline-directed medical therapy; HF: heart failure; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; K: serum potassium levels; MRA: mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist; PAI: primary adrenal insufficiency; SGLT2i: sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230171-30171-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Future clinical trials comparing groups treated with MRA in addiction to fludrocortisone, MRA alone, and fludrocortisone alone are required. Due to the lack of high-quality studies, the treatment of these patients should always be individualized. Close follow-up, with frequent clinical and laboratory reevaluation, is also warranted.</p>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
