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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">gg6ZzVFy9Ssm97ZyvGP3MRv</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000800303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230017</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Zonulina e Presepsina Poderiam ser Biomarcadores e Alvos Terap&#234;uticos para Miocardite Aguda?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8923-8709</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Toprak</surname>
            <given-names>Kenan</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1784-3584</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Inan&#305;r</surname>
            <given-names>Mehmet</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Memio&#287;lu</surname>
            <given-names>Tolga</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4297-1820</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kaplangoray</surname>
            <given-names>Mustafa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6560-8031</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Palice</surname>
            <given-names>Ali</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9008-6631</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tascanov</surname>
            <given-names>Mustafa Begenc</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados,</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Harran University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculty of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Department of Cardiology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Sanliurfa</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="TR">Turquia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Harran University Faculty of Medicine &#8211; Department of Cardiology, Sanliurfa &#8211; Turquia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Abant Izzet Baysal University Hospital</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bolu</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="TR">Turquia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Abant Izzet Baysal University Hospital &#8211; Cardiology, Bolu &#8211; Turquia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Sanliurfa Mehmet Akif Inan Training and Research</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Sanliurfa</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="TR">Turquia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Sanliurfa Mehmet Akif Inan Training and Research &#8211; Cardiology, Sanliurfa &#8211; Turquia</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Kenan Toprak &#8226; Harran University Faculty of Medicine &#8211; Department of Cardiology &#8211; viran&#351;ehir yolu Sanliurfa 63300 &#8211; Turquia E-mail: <email>kentoprak@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230017</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> O diagn&#243;stico de miocardite aguda geralmente &#233; feito diante de par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos e laboratoriais, podendo, por vezes, ser confundido com doen&#231;as que compartilham de caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas semelhantes, o que dificulta o diagn&#243;stico. Sendo assim, o uso de biomarcadores mais espec&#237;ficos, para al&#233;m dos cl&#225;ssicos como a troponina, acelerar&#225; o diagn&#243;stico. Al&#233;m disso, esses biomarcadores podem nos ajudar a compreender melhor o mecanismo de desenvolvimento da miocardite e, assim, prever resultados cl&#237;nicos imprevis&#237;veis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo</title>
          <p> Este estudo tem como objetivo revelar a poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o entre permeabilidade intestinal e miocardite aguda.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Neste estudo, buscamos avaliar os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de zonulina e presepsina em 138 indiv&#237;duos consecutivos, incluindo 68 pacientes com miocardite e outros 70 usados como grupo controle, pareados por idade, sexo e fatores de risco cardiovascular. Valores de p &lt; 0,05 foram considerados estatisticamente significativos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle, zonulina e presepsina foram significativamente maiores no grupo de pacientes com miocardite (p &lt; 0,001, para todos). Os n&#237;veis de zonulina foram positivamente correlacionados com presepsina, pico de CK-MB e n&#237;veis m&#225;ximos de troponina (r = 0,461, p &lt; 0,001; r = 0,744, p &lt; 0,001; r = 0,627, p &lt; 0,001; respectivamente). Na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o, presepsina e zonulina foram determinadas como preditores independentes para miocardite (OR de 1,002, IC de 95% 1,001-1,003, p = 0,025; OR de 12,331, IC de 95% 4,261-35,689; p &lt; 0,001; respectivamente). O valor preditivo de miocardite aguda de presepsina e zonulina na an&#225;lise da curva ROC foi estatisticamente significativo (p &lt; 0,001, para ambos).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> Este estudo mostrou que a zonulina e a presepsina podem ser biomarcadores para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite e tamb&#233;m podem ser alvos terap&#234;uticos para esclarecer o mecanismo de desenvolvimento da miocardite.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Biomarcadores</kwd>
        <kwd>Miocardite</kwd>
        <kwd>Permeabilidade</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="40"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <fig id="f01">
        <label>Figura Central</label>
        <caption>
          <title>: Zonulina e Presepsina Poderiam ser Biomarcadores e Alvos Terap&#234;uticos para Miocardite Aguda?</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230017-30017-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    </p>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A miocardite geralmente se refere &#224;s manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e histol&#243;gicas de uma ampla variedade de processos card&#237;acos imunopatol&#243;gicos que podem ocorrer devido &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria do sistema imunol&#243;gico ap&#243;s infec&#231;&#245;es do trato respirat&#243;rio e gastrointestinais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Embora tenham sido indicados v&#225;rios mecanismos no processo de desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a, sabe-se que, mesmo que o mecanismo exato n&#227;o seja totalmente compreendido, a doen&#231;a pode ser causada pelo efeito direto do agente infeccioso, mas &#233; causada principalmente pelo desencadeamento da rea&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica p&#243;s-infec&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A miocardite pode ser aguda, subaguda ou cr&#244;nica e pode envolver &#225;reas focais ou difusas do mioc&#225;rdio. As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da miocardite s&#227;o heterog&#234;neas, variando desde condi&#231;&#245;es assintom&#225;ticas at&#233; a destrui&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica grave por v&#237;rus e c&#233;lulas imunes, causando choque cardiog&#234;nico e arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A miocardite pode ser causada por uma ampla variedade de agentes microbianos, incluindo v&#237;rus, bact&#233;rias ent&#233;ricas e protozo&#225;rios, bem como por desencadeantes n&#227;o microbianos, como toxinas e rea&#231;&#245;es de hipersensibilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Entre as causas, infec&#231;&#245;es virais, especialmente de v&#237;rus coxsackie e parvov&#237;rus B19 , est&#227;o entre as principais causas de miocardite<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> e, nos &#250;ltimos anos, o v&#237;rus da Covid-19 e a vacina contra a Covid-19 t&#234;m sido intimamente associados &#224; miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, bact&#233;rias enteropatog&#234;nicas como salmonela, shigella e campylobacter s&#227;o algumas das principais causas de miocardite identificadas em s&#233;ries de casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O diagn&#243;stico da miocardite aguda continua sendo complexo e desafiador na pr&#225;tica de rotina, uma vez que pode ser clinicamente confundido com apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas semelhantes, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, vasoespasmo coronariano, amiloidose card&#237;aca e cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico padr&#227;o-ouro atual envolve a demonstra&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica de bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica, de acordo com os crit&#233;rios de Dallas para &#8220;inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica&#8221; sem necrose mioc&#225;rdica e isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> No entanto, al&#233;m da impraticabilidade da bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica, a defini&#231;&#227;o de miocardite de acordo com esses crit&#233;rios demonstra baixa sensibilidade e especificidade. Isso se deve ao erro de amostragem frequentemente relacionado &#224; distribui&#231;&#227;o focal de les&#245;es histol&#243;gicas espec&#237;ficas do tecido card&#237;aco e &#224; variabilidade na interpreta&#231;&#227;o patol&#243;gica. Al&#233;m disso, a classifica&#231;&#227;o de Dallas n&#227;o considera a quantifica&#231;&#227;o e a diferencia&#231;&#227;o local das c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias, e a infec&#231;&#227;o viral e a regula&#231;&#227;o autoimune nos tecidos card&#237;acos s&#227;o ignoradas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Por esses motivos, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) com contraste e par&#226;metros laboratoriais, juntamente com a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, s&#227;o os m&#233;todos mais frequentemente utilizados no diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> No entanto, apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas semelhantes, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e vasoespasmo coronariano, complicam a abordagem diagn&#243;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nesse caso, a determina&#231;&#227;o de biomarcadores auxiliares mais espec&#237;ficos, para al&#233;m da isoenzima creatina quinase-MB (CK-MB) e da troponina, que s&#227;o marcadores frequentemente utilizados de destrui&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em pacientes com sinais cl&#237;nicos ruins, se torna necess&#225;ria para orientar diagn&#243;sticos e modalidades de tratamento.</p>
      <p>Acredita-se que a miocardite e suas complica&#231;&#245;es sejam imunomediadas. A miocardite aguda geralmente se desenvolve ap&#243;s uma infec&#231;&#227;o recente do trato respirat&#243;rio ou queixas gastrointestinais, como gastroenterite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Nas etiologias infecciosas, quando o agente microbiano entra pelo sistema respirat&#243;rio ou gastroent&#233;rico, ele pode se ligar ao seu receptor espec&#237;fico no cora&#231;&#227;o e causar dano celular e lise. Posteriormente, as part&#237;culas celulares liberadas da c&#233;lula mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s a les&#227;o desencadeiam a autoimunidade na qual o mimetismo molecular desempenha um papel importante, ao mesmo tempo em que causa danos card&#237;acos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O envolvimento de pat&#243;genos gastrointestinais na etiologia da miocardite aguda nos leva a crer que o aumento da permeabilidade intestinal decorrente da inflama&#231;&#227;o do trato gastrointestinal pode desempenhar um papel na patog&#234;nese da doen&#231;a. As jun&#231;&#245;es de oclus&#227;o (JO) das c&#233;lulas epiteliais intestinais desempenham um papel fundamental na preven&#231;&#227;o da invas&#227;o intestinal por pat&#243;genos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A zonulina (precursor da haptoglobina 2) &#233; o &#250;nico modulador end&#243;geno especificamente identificado para as JOs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A zonulina modula a integridade da barreira epitelial, desencadeando uma sinaliza&#231;&#227;o em cascata que resulta em fosforila&#231;&#227;o e deslocamento de prote&#237;nas da jun&#231;&#227;o de oclus&#227;o, e os enteropat&#243;genos aumentam muito a express&#227;o do gene zonulina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> O aumento da permeabilidade gastrointestinal por um mecanismo mediado por zonulina permite a passagem paracelular de desencadeadores antig&#234;nicos da luz intestinal para a mucosa e, eventualmente, para a circula&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica. O aumento da permeabilidade intestinal mediado pela zonulina foi indicado como o mecanismo respons&#225;vel pela fisiopatologia de algumas doen&#231;as autoimunes e hiperinflamat&#243;rias cr&#244;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Isso mostrou que a regula&#231;&#227;o positiva da zonulina em indiv&#237;duos geneticamente suscet&#237;veis pode levar a doen&#231;as imunomediadas, e esse mecanismo da via da zonulina pode desempenhar um papel na fisiopatologia da miocardite, que &#233; principalmente uma entidade imunomediada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, buscamos entender o papel da endotoxemia de baixo grau, uma esp&#233;cie de confirma&#231;&#227;o do aumento da permeabilidade intestinal, na patog&#234;nese da miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> At&#233; onde sabemos, n&#227;o h&#225; dados na literatura avaliando o papel da zonulina, um biomarcador de aumento da permeabilidade intestinal, e da presepsina, um biomarcador de endotoxemia de baixo grau, em pacientes com miocardite. Este estudo teve como objetivo descobrir o papel da zonulina e da presepsina em pacientes com miocardite aguda.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo</title>
        <p>Neste estudo transversal observacional, foram inclu&#237;dos 68 pacientes, admitidos em nosso centro entre janeiro de 2021 e mar&#231;o de 2022, diagnosticados com miocardite; como grupo controle, 70 pacientes foram inclu&#237;dos no estudo, sendo pareados em termos de idade, sexo e fatores de risco cardiovascular. O grupo controle foi selecionado por meio do recrutamento consecutivo de volunt&#225;rios saud&#225;veis, pareados por idade, sexo e doen&#231;a cardiovascular, que foram admitidos no hospital para exames de rotina. Pacientes com suspeita de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, suspeita de angina vasoesp&#225;stica, doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria cr&#244;nica, doen&#231;a autoimune, infec&#231;&#227;o ativa, insufici&#234;ncia renal e hep&#225;tica avan&#231;adas e hist&#243;ria de c&#226;ncer foram exclu&#237;dos do estudo. A bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica n&#227;o &#233; realizada em nossa cl&#237;nica para pacientes com miocardite lim&#237;trofe caracterizada apenas por infiltrados inflamat&#243;rios, sem evid&#234;ncia de necrose de mi&#243;citos, e, portanto, nossa popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes consistia apenas de pacientes com necrose de mi&#243;citos confirmada por biomarcadores card&#237;acos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Protocolo de estudo e defini&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>Os pacientes foram divididos em dois grupos: aqueles com miocardite aguda e o grupo controle. Os casos de miocardite com in&#237;cio dos sintomas no m&#234;s anterior foram considerados miocardite aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A inflama&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca foi confirmada pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) com contraste em todos os pacientes. A coronariografia foi realizada para excluir causas isqu&#234;micas nos pacientes que estavam no meio, simulando infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise laboratorial</title>
        <p>As an&#225;lises de sangue foram feitas a partir de amostras de sangue venoso dos pacientes e do grupo controle no momento da admiss&#227;o no hospital. Amostras de plasma e soro foram obtidas ap&#243;s centrifuga&#231;&#227;o a 2750 &#215; g por 10 minutos. An&#225;lises bioqu&#237;micas de rotina, hemograma completo e testes de coagula&#231;&#227;o foram realizados em amostras de sangue. As amostras de soro para an&#225;lise de presepsina e zonulina foram congeladas e mantidas a -20 &#176;C at&#233; o teste. Os n&#237;veis de presepsina e zonulina foram medidos por meio de kits comerciais de Ensaio de Imunoabsor&#231;&#227;o Enzim&#225;tica (ELISA) (kit ELISA de presepsina humana: Abbexa, Cambridge, Reino Unido; Kit ELISA de zonulina humana: Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Alemanha). Os resultados s&#227;o apresentados em pg/mL para presepsina e ng/mL para zonulina. Para valores de pico de CK-MB e troponina, amostras de sangue foram coletadas a cada 12 horas durante a interna&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>O Statistical Program for Social Sciences 20 (IBM SPSS, Chicago, IL, EUA) foi utilizado para todos os c&#225;lculos estat&#237;sticos. O teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov foi usado para determinar se os dados correspondiam &#224; distribui&#231;&#227;o normal. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas que se ajustaram &#224; distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram expressas como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP) e as que n&#227;o se ajustaram &#224; distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram expressas como mediana com intervalo interquartil (IIQ). As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas s&#227;o expressas como um n&#250;mero de pessoas por cento (n, %). As compara&#231;&#245;es entre pacientes com miocardite e grupo controle foram analisadas usando o teste U de Mann-Whitney, teste t independente e an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia (ANOVA) de uma via, conforme apropriado. A an&#225;lise do teste <italic>post hoc</italic> de Bonferroni foi realizada para entender completamente as diferen&#231;as de grupo na ANOVA. O teste <italic>post hoc</italic> de Kruskal-Wallis e Brown-Forsythe foi usado para compara&#231;&#245;es de grupos m&#250;ltiplos que n&#227;o se ajustavam &#224; distribui&#231;&#227;o normal. O teste Qui-quadrado foi aplicado para vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas. O coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson foi usado para determinar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o n&#237;vel de zonulina e os n&#237;veis de presepsina, CK-MB e troponina. An&#225;lises de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica univariada e multivariada foram realizadas para determinar os preditores independentes de miocardite. As vari&#225;veis basais com signific&#226;ncia consider&#225;vel (p &lt; 0,05) pela an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica univariada foram inclu&#237;das na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica multivariada. A an&#225;lise da Curva Caracter&#237;stica de Opera&#231;&#227;o do Receptor (Curva ROC) foi realizada para identificar preditores de miocardite aguda e comparar os valores preditivos de zonulina e presepsina com outros biomarcadores. O tamanho da amostra necess&#225;rio para este estudo foi calculado com um pacote R de &#8220;poder&#8221; usando alfa = 0,05, poder = 0,80 e o tamanho do efeito estimado calculado a partir de relat&#243;rios anteriores e o tamanho m&#237;nimo da amostra necess&#225;rio para este estudo foi de 48. Portanto, o n&#250;mero de pacientes em nosso estudo foi suficiente. Tamb&#233;m calculamos uma an&#225;lise de poder <italic>post hoc</italic> para nossa pesquisa, que resultou em 99% do poder. Valores de p bicaudais &lt; 0,05 foram considerados estatisticamente significativos.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Um total de 68 pacientes diagnosticados com miocardite aguda e 70 volunt&#225;rios saud&#225;veis pareados por idade, sexo e fatores de risco cardiovascular participaram do estudo. A m&#233;dia de idade dos pacientes foi de 24,75 &#177; 6,86, sendo 43 (63,2%) do sexo masculino. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre as caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas b&#225;sicas dos pacientes e do grupo controle ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ). O hist&#243;rico de COVID-19 ou vacina&#231;&#227;o contra COVID-19 nos &#250;ltimos seis meses foi significativamente maior no grupo de miocardite do que no grupo controle. Os n&#237;veis de prote&#237;na C-reativa (PCR), fibrinog&#234;nio, pico de CK-MB e pico de troponina-I foram significativamente maiores no grupo de miocardite do que no grupo controle. Os n&#237;veis de zonulina e presepsina foram estatisticamente maiores no grupo de pacientes em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref> ). Dividimos os pacientes em 3 grupos, de acordo com seus quartis de zonulina (T) (T1 [zonulina &#8804; 1,50], T2 [1,50 &lt; zonulina &#8804; 2,90], T3 [zonulina &gt; 2,90]) ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> ). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos quanto a idade, sexo e tabagismo. O grupo 1 foi tomado como refer&#234;ncia na compara&#231;&#227;o dos grupos. Os pacientes do grupo 3 apresentaram menor fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) do que os grupos 1 e 2, e apresentaram mais dist&#250;rbios do ritmo card&#237;aco. Aqueles que relataram queixas gastrointestinais nas quatro semanas anteriores &#224; interna&#231;&#227;o foram significativamente mais comuns no grupo 3 do que nos grupos 1 e 2. Al&#233;m disso, os valores de pico de CK-MB, pico de troponina-I e presepsina foram significativamente maiores no grupo 3 em compara&#231;&#227;o com os outros grupos. No grupo de pacientes, os n&#237;veis de zonulina foram positivamente correlacionados com presepsina, pico de CK-MB e pico de troponina ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref> ). Presepsina e zonulina foram preditores independentes de miocardite aguda na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica bin&#225;ria multivariada ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Distribui&#231;&#227;o das caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas, cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais b&#225;sicas de pacientes com miocardite e grupo controle</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>Pacientes com miocardite (n = 68)</th>
                <th>Grupo controle (n = 70)</th>
                <th>p</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="4">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="4">Dados demogr&#225;ficos e hist&#243;ria m&#233;dica</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="4"> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade, anos</td>
                <td align="center">24,75 &#177; 6,86</td>
                <td align="center">25,43 &#177; 5,38</td>
                <td align="center">0,495</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>G&#234;nero, masculino, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">43 (63,2)</td>
                <td align="center">44 (62,8)</td>
                <td align="center">0,552</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC, Kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">27,3 &#177; 1,8</td>
                <td align="center">27,1 &#177; 2,1</td>
                <td align="center">0,513</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tabagismo, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">14 (20,5)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (11,4)</td>
                <td align="center">0,142</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>FEVE, (%)</td>
                <td align="center">60,0 (55,0-60,0)</td>
                <td align="center">60,0 (55,7-61,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,315</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hist&#243;ria de COVID-19 ou vacina contra a COVID-19 nos &#250;ltimos seis meses</td>
                <td align="center">26 (38,2)</td>
                <td align="center">14 (20,0)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,015*</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="4">
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Resultados Laboratoriais</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hemoglobina, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">14,72 &#177; 3,59</td>
                <td align="center">14,60 &#177; 1,74</td>
                <td align="center">0,480</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hemat&#243;crito, (%)</td>
                <td align="center">43,66 &#177; 6,43</td>
                <td align="center">44,84 &#177; 5,68</td>
                <td align="center">0,372</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leuc&#243;citos, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">10,9 (9,1-13,6)</td>
                <td align="center">10,9 (9,0-14,9)</td>
                <td align="center">0,631</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Linf&#243;citos, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">2,00 (1,50-2,69)</td>
                <td align="center">2,10 (1,56-2,72)</td>
                <td align="center">0,599</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mon&#243;citos, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">0,68 (0,49-0,89)</td>
                <td align="center">0,60 (0,42-0,80)</td>
                <td align="center">0,280</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Neutr&#243;filos, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">7,77 (5,22-11,00)</td>
                <td align="center">7,70 (5,37-11,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,868</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PG, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">103,00 (127,00-71,40)</td>
                <td align="center">110,00 (93,75-159,75)</td>
                <td align="center">0,100</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Creatinina, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">0,84 &#177; 0,31</td>
                <td align="center">0,85 &#177; 0,21</td>
                <td align="center">0,176</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;cido &#250;rico, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">5,05 (5,98-6,47)</td>
                <td align="center">5,25 (4,20-6,10)</td>
                <td align="center">0,858</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Albumina, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">4,35 &#177; 0,45</td>
                <td align="center">4,38 &#177; 0,34</td>
                <td align="center">0,560</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDH, U/L</td>
                <td align="center">266 (216-409)</td>
                <td align="center">251 (213-356)</td>
                <td align="center">0,651</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Triglicer&#237;deos, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">149,5 (95,7-213,7)</td>
                <td align="center">147,5 (102,2-237,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,519</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TC, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">187,0 (147,7-221,5)</td>
                <td align="center">181,5 (137,0-221,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,368</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HDL-C, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">32,0 (27,3-38,0)</td>
                <td align="center">34,0 (28,0-42,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,410</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDL-C, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">119,8 (87,2-146,5)</td>
                <td align="center">106,3 (84,7-126,1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,174</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CRP, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">0,94 (1,86-2,19)</td>
                <td align="center">0,40 (0,14-0,80)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,002**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TSH, uIU/mL</td>
                <td align="center">1,23 (0,74-1,88)</td>
                <td align="center">1,46 (1,08-2,02)</td>
                <td align="center">0,160</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>FT<sub>3</sub>, ng/mL</td>
                <td align="center">3,34 (3,24-3,60)</td>
                <td align="center">3,04 (2,68-3,17)</td>
                <td align="center">0,068</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>FT<sub>4,</sub> ng/mL</td>
                <td align="center">1,15 (1,03-1,29)</td>
                <td align="center">1,10 (1,01-1,34)</td>
                <td align="center">0,937</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>e-GFR, (ml/min)</td>
                <td align="center">105,0 (85,0-117,0)</td>
                <td align="center">107,0 (100,2-114,2)</td>
                <td align="center">0,641</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>RDW, fL</td>
                <td align="center">12,70 (12,30-13,42)</td>
                <td align="center">12,75 (11,45-13,77)</td>
                <td align="center">0,642</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>MPV, fL</td>
                <td align="center">8,19 (7,42-9,32)</td>
                <td align="center">7,98 (7,20-8,67)</td>
                <td align="center">0,141</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Bilirrubina total, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">0,60 (0,48-0,80)</td>
                <td align="center">0,60 (0,50-0,92)</td>
                <td align="center">0,738</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>F&#243;sforo, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">3,10 (2,50-3,70)</td>
                <td align="center">3,10 (2,32-3,70)</td>
                <td align="center">0,934</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>C&#225;lcio, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">9,20 (8,78-9,60)</td>
                <td align="center">9,20 (9,00-9,70)</td>
                <td align="center">0,809</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ALT, (U/L)</td>
                <td align="center">28,00 (20,25-41,75)</td>
                <td align="center">32,0 (22,25-44,00)</td>
                <td align="center">0,496</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>AST, (U/L)</td>
                <td align="center">35,00 (24,00-51,00)</td>
                <td align="center">34,00 (25,50-49,00)</td>
                <td align="center">0,790</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ALP, (U/L)</td>
                <td align="center">79,0 (65,0-86,0)</td>
                <td align="center">83,0 (73,0-97,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,053</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>GGT, (U/L)</td>
                <td align="center">23,50 (16,00-39,50)</td>
                <td align="center">26,00 (18,00-45,00)</td>
                <td align="center">0,289</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Contagem de plaquetas, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">283,0 (230,0-333,0)</td>
                <td align="center">254,5 (219,7-318,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,642</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fibrinog&#234;nio, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">429,2 (475,0-283,0)</td>
                <td align="center">283,0 (228,7-440,7)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,004**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Presepsina, (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">1.257,9 (1197,8-602,9)</td>
                <td align="center">479,1 (451,3-569,0)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Zonulina, (ng/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">2,75 (1,85-3,50)</td>
                <td align="center">1,60 (1,30-1,92)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pico de CK-MB, (ng/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">23,50 (6,72-57,50)</td>
                <td align="center">3,00 (2,00-6,22)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pico de Troponina-I, (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">4.660,0 (352,5-12458,0)</td>
                <td align="center">57,0 (42,25-1130,8)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>Salvo indica&#231;&#227;o em contr&#225;rio, os valores s&#227;o m&#233;dia &#177; DP, n (%) ou mediana (intervalo interquartil). N&#227;o houve compara&#231;&#245;es estatisticamente significativas ap&#243;s an&#225;lise com o teste t de Student. *p &lt;0,05 vs. controle: Significativo ap&#243;s an&#225;lise do teste qui-quadrado. **p &lt;0,05 vs. controle: Significativo ap&#243;s an&#225;lise do teste U de Mann-Whitney. ALP: fosfatase alcalina; ALT: Alanina Aminotransferase; AST: Aspartato aminotransferase; CT: colesterol total; e-GFR: taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular estimada; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; FT3: T3 livre; FT4: T4 livre; GGT: gama glutamil transferase; HDL-C: colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; LDH: lactato desidrogenase; LDL-C: colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; PCR: Prote&#237;na C-reativa; PG: glicose plasm&#225;tica; RDW: largura de distribui&#231;&#227;o das hem&#225;cias; TSH: horm&#244;nio estimulante da tireoide; VPM: volume plaquet&#225;rio m&#233;dio; WBC: gl&#243;bulos brancos.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; N&#237;veis de zonulina (A) e presepsina (B) em pacientes com miocardite em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230017-30017-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Distribui&#231;&#227;o das caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas e cl&#237;nicas de pacientes com miocardite de acordo com os grupos de zonulina</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>*Grupo 1 n = 22</th>
                <th>Grupo 2 n = 23</th>
                <th>Grupo 3 n = 23</th>
                <th>p</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="5">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="5">Dados demogr&#225;ficos e hist&#243;ria m&#233;dica</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade, anos</td>
                <td align="center">22,91 &#177; 6,43</td>
                <td align="center">27,17 &#177; 6,42</td>
                <td align="center">24,09 &#177; 7,24</td>
                <td align="center">0,095</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>G&#234;nero, masculino, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">15 (68,2)</td>
                <td align="center">13 (56,5)</td>
                <td align="center">15 (65,2)</td>
                <td align="center">0,699</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tabagismo, n (%)</td>
                <td align="center">4 (18,2)</td>
                <td align="center">5 (21,7)</td>
                <td align="center">5 (21,7)</td>
                <td align="center">0,944</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hist&#243;ria de COVID-19 ou vacina contra a COVID-19 nos &#250;ltimos seis meses</td>
                <td align="center">3 (13,6)</td>
                <td align="center">7 (30,4)</td>
                <td align="center">16 (69,6)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="5">
                  <hr/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="5">
                  <bold>Ecocardiografia e ECG</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>FEVE, (%)</td>
                <td align="center">59,5 &#177; 2,0</td>
                <td align="center">57,9 &#177; 7,4</td>
                <td align="center">49,7 &#177; 13,7</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,001**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dist&#250;rbios do ritmo card&#237;aco</td>
                <td align="center">1 (4,5)</td>
                <td align="center">3 (13,0)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (34,7)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="5">
                  <bold>Sintomas nas &#250;ltimas quatro semanas, n (%)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Queixas respirat&#243;rias</td>
                <td align="center">7 (31,8)</td>
                <td align="center">9 (39,1)</td>
                <td align="center">9 (39,1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,251</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Queixas gastrointestinais</td>
                <td align="center">6 (27,2)</td>
                <td align="center">7 (30,4)</td>
                <td align="center">12 (52,2)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001**</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Queixas respirat&#243;rias e gastrointestinais</td>
                <td align="center">2 (9,0)</td>
                <td align="center">1 (4,3)</td>
                <td align="center">2 (8,7)</td>
                <td align="center">0,324</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Nenhuma</td>
                <td align="center">9 (40,9)</td>
                <td align="center">6 (26,1)</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="5">
                  <bold>Resultados Laboratoriais</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CRP, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">1,42 (0,68-2,17)</td>
                <td align="center">1,80 (0,85-2,75)</td>
                <td align="center">2,35 (1,22-3,48)</td>
                <td align="center">0,369</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fibrinog&#234;nio, (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">357,2 (295,9-418,5)</td>
                <td align="center">407,8 (352,5-463,0)</td>
                <td align="center">399,4 (369,3-429,5)</td>
                <td align="center">0,124</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pico de CK-MB, (ng/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">13,86 (4,21-23,51)</td>
                <td align="center">29,86 (19,86-33,87)</td>
                <td align="center">56,34 (48,86-63,83)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001***</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pico de Troponina-I, (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">2.573,9 (3.104,2-4.362,2)</td>
                <td align="center">6.495,0 (4.256,6-8.733,3)</td>
                <td align="center">26.737,8 (2.973,8-50.501,8)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001***</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Presepsina, (pg/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">942,8 (682,5-1.203,1)</td>
                <td align="center">1.139,8 (941,4-1.338,2)</td>
                <td align="center">1.561,5 (1.306,5-1.816,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,001***</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>Salvo indica&#231;&#227;o em contr&#225;rio, os valores s&#227;o m&#233;dia &#177; DP, n (%) ou mediana (intervalo interquartil). * Grupo 1 usado como refer&#234;ncia. **p&lt;0,05 vs. controle: Significativo ap&#243;s an&#225;lise do teste One-Way ANOVA. ***p &lt;0,05 vs. controle: Significativo ap&#243;s an&#225;lise do teste de Kruskal-Wallis. CK-MB: creatina quinase-MB; ECG: eletrocardiografia.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre Zonulina e Presepsina (A), Zonulina e CK-MB (B), Zonulina e Troponina (C) em pacientes com miocardite.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230017-30017-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Preditores independentes de miocardite aguda</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="5" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th colspan="3">An&#225;lises multivariadas de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="3">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="3">Nagelkerke R<sup><bold>2</bold></sup> na etapa final = 0,643</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="3">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>Odds ratio</th>
                <th>CI de 95%</th>
                <th>Valor de p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Zonulina</td>
                <td align="center">12,331</td>
                <td align="center">4,261-35,689</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,001*</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Presepsina</td>
                <td align="center">1,001</td>
                <td align="center">1,000-1,002</td>
                <td align="center">0,025*</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>* Valor-p significativo. Vari&#225;veis inseridas: Prote&#237;na C-reativa, Hist&#243;ria de COVID-19 ou vacina&#231;&#227;o contra COVID-19 nos &#250;ltimos seis meses, Fibrinog&#234;nio, Queixas gastrointestinais, Dist&#250;rbios do ritmo card&#237;aco, Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, Presepsina, Zonulina.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Quando a an&#225;lise da curva Caracter&#237;stica de Opera&#231;&#227;o do Receptor (ROC) foi realizada, o valor de corte ideal de presepsina para prever miocardite aguda &#233; &#8805; 584,13; esse valor foi preditivo para miocardite aguda com sensibilidade de 79,4% e especificidade de 80% e zonulina &#8805; 1,85; sendo preditivo para miocardite aguda com sensibilidade de 82% e especificidade de 91% ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref> ). Al&#233;m disso, as curvas ROC foram comparadas para identificar se houve benef&#237;cio adicional do uso de presepsina e zonulina sobre CK-MB e Troponina-I ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref> ). Quando a presepsina e a zonulina foram comparadas, elas n&#227;o se mostraram superiores entre si como preditores de miocardite aguda (p = 0,105).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Curva Caracter&#237;stica de Opera&#231;&#227;o do Receptor (ROC) de presepsina, zonulina, troponina e CK-MB como preditores de miocardite aguda. Como a ASC da CK-MB e a ASC da troponina s&#227;o 1,0, elas se sobrep&#245;em.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230017-30017-gf04.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Atualmente, o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento da miocardite permanecem desafiadores entre os m&#233;dicos devido &#224; incapacidade de prever complica&#231;&#245;es de longo prazo, como a cardiomiopatia dilatada. No entanto, os mecanismos que desencadeiam a miocardite ainda n&#227;o s&#227;o totalmente compreendidos. Neste estudo, buscamos compreender o papel da zonulina, que mostra permeabilidade intestinal aumentada, e da presepsina, um biomarcador de endotoxemia de baixo grau, na fisiopatologia da miocardite e se eles podem ser biomarcadores de miocardite aguda. Em nosso estudo, quantidades aumentadas de zonulina e presepsina, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo controle, mostraram que o aumento da permeabilidade intestinal pode exercer um papel desencadeador importante na patog&#234;nese da miocardite. Sendo assim, zonulina e presepsina podem ser biomarcadores &#250;teis para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite aguda.</p>
      <p>O diagn&#243;stico de miocardite aguda continua sendo um desafio para os m&#233;dicos devido a apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas semelhantes em v&#225;rios dist&#250;rbios cardiovasculares, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, vasoespasmo coronariano, amiloidose card&#237;aca e cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Se o agente infeccioso for rapidamente eliminado e o processo inflamat&#243;rio for encerrado, a doen&#231;a &#233; curada com apenas pequenas altera&#231;&#245;es no mioc&#225;rdio. Esses pacientes geralmente se recuperam completamente em semanas ou meses. Por outro lado, quando o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento s&#227;o iniciados tardiamente, a infec&#231;&#227;o viral n&#227;o &#233; eliminada e a resposta imune antiviral &#233; diminu&#237;da, podendo ocorrer consequ&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas irrevers&#237;veis que podem resultar em cardiomiopatia dilatada. Portanto, os dados dispon&#237;veis contestam a necessidade de identificar pacientes em um est&#225;gio inicial e ainda revers&#237;vel de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca associada a v&#237;rus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Embora a bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica (BEM) seja o diagn&#243;stico padr&#227;o-ouro, o uso da BEM varia muito, dependendo do m&#233;dico e do quadro cl&#237;nico dos pacientes. Embora a BEM n&#227;o possa ser aplicada em todos os centros para diagnosticar miocardite, a sensibilidade da BEM para detectar miocardite &#233; bastante baixa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Embora o uso de RMC para pacientes com miocardite tenha aumentado recentemente, a RMC n&#227;o pode ser realizada em todos os centros, nem pode determinar a extens&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, e a avalia&#231;&#227;o depende, em grande parte, da experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica. Embora a RMC tenha se tornado &#250;til na obten&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva de informa&#231;&#245;es preliminares precisas e confi&#225;veis, os dados dispon&#237;veis sobre a precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da RMC s&#227;o atualmente limitados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Muitos casos de miocardite passam despercebidos devido a apresenta&#231;&#245;es assintom&#225;ticas ou sintomas inespec&#237;ficos. Sendo assim, os pacientes inclu&#237;dos em nosso estudo, em sua maioria, chegaram ao pronto-socorro com sintomas inespec&#237;ficos e marcadores card&#237;acos elevados, como creatina quinase (CK-MB) e troponina. Embora a CK-MB seja um biomarcador preferencial para miocardite, a sensibilidade da creatina quinase no diagn&#243;stico tardio &#233; baixa, uma vez que os estudos mostram que ela cai consistentemente para n&#237;veis basais nos primeiros 3-5 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> A confiabilidade da medi&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de biomarcadores card&#237;acos em pacientes com a suspeita de miocardite &#233; baixa, mas ainda ajudam a confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Marcadores sorol&#243;gicos inespec&#237;ficos de inflama&#231;&#227;o, como fibrinog&#234;nio e prote&#237;na C-reativa, podem estar elevados em casos de miocardite suspeita. Ainda assim, os n&#237;veis normais desses testes falham em excluir uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria no mioc&#225;rdio e, assim, testes sorol&#243;gicos convencionais e biomarcadores card&#237;acos para miocardite t&#234;m baixo valor progn&#243;stico no diagn&#243;stico de miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Devido a todas essas desvantagens, &#233; importante usar biomarcadores que possam ser progn&#243;stico para miocardite, al&#233;m de marcadores convencionais no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento precoces. A zonulina e a presepsina podem ser biomarcadores promissores neste campo.</p>
      <p>Pacientes com miocardite geralmente relatam problemas respirat&#243;rios ou gastrointestinais recentes sem sintomas inespec&#237;ficos aparentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Ao examinarmos as causas da miocardite, encontramos, principalmente, v&#237;rus enteropatog&#234;nicos, como coxsackievirus, parvov&#237;rus B19, adenov&#237;rus ou COVID-19, e as causas bacterianas geralmente ocorrem ap&#243;s gastroenterite de bact&#233;rias enteropatog&#234;nicas, como salmonela, shigella e campylobacter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Essa situa&#231;&#227;o sugere que a permeabilidade intestinal prejudicada por qualquer motivo pode desempenhar um papel na patog&#234;nese da miocardite por causar transloca&#231;&#227;o viral.</p>
      <p>As jun&#231;&#245;es de oclus&#227;o s&#227;o importantes na preven&#231;&#227;o da invas&#227;o de pat&#243;genos para dentro das c&#233;lulas epiteliais intestinais e, consequentemente, da circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea e linf&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A zonulina &#233; o &#250;nico modulador fisiol&#243;gico conhecido das jun&#231;&#245;es de oclus&#227;o intercelulares, e a perda da fun&#231;&#227;o de barreira devido &#224; regula&#231;&#227;o positiva da zonulina leva a um fluxo descontrolado de ant&#237;genos diet&#233;ticos e microbianos na circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea e linf&#225;tica atrav&#233;s da submucosa, e este mecanismo tem sido implicado na patog&#234;nese de diversas doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias cr&#244;nicas e autoimunes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> A autoimunidade desempenha um papel importante na fisiopatologia do desenvolvimento da miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Al&#233;m de autoimunidade, a ativa&#231;&#227;o do complemento tamb&#233;m desempenha um papel na patog&#234;nese da miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Estudos demonstraram que a zonulina ativa a via do complemento,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> o que sugere que a ativa&#231;&#227;o do complemento mediado pela zonulina pode desempenhar um papel no desenvolvimento da miocardite.</p>
      <p>Sugerimos que o aumento da permeabilidade epitelial do trato respirat&#243;rio<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> e gastrointestinal<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> mediado por zonulina, por v&#225;rias raz&#245;es, pode ser a patog&#234;nese desencadeadora do desenvolvimento de miocardite, assim como em outras doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias e autoimunes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O Coxsackie B3 e o parvov&#237;rus B19 s&#227;o as causas mais comuns de miocardite em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Os Coxsackievirus invadem a partir dos enter&#243;citos ligando-se ao receptor de adenov&#237;rus e coxsackievirus (CAR, sigla em ingl&#234;s para <italic>coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor</italic> ) localizado em complexos de jun&#231;&#245;es de oclus&#227;o do intestino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Isso pode sugerir que pat&#243;genos como coxsackievirus, que muitas vezes desempenham um papel na patog&#234;nese da miocardite, desencadeiam o desenvolvimento da miocardite interrompendo a fun&#231;&#227;o das jun&#231;&#245;es de oclus&#227;o via receptores CAR localizados em complexos de jun&#231;&#245;es de oclus&#227;o, regulados via zonulina no epit&#233;lio intestinal, e este mecanismo pode explicar o poss&#237;vel aumento da permeabilidade intestinal ap&#243;s infec&#231;&#245;es por coxsackievirus. Estudos demonstraram que o parvov&#237;rus B19, uma das causas mais comuns de miocardite, coloniza c&#233;lulas epiteliais intestinais e as usa como reservat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> O parvov&#237;rus B19 foi considerado respons&#225;vel pela s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica por permanecer em um reservat&#243;rio no intestino<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> e o aumento da permeabilidade intestinal em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica tem sido enfatizado por seu papel importante na patog&#234;nese da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Isso pode esclarecer a associa&#231;&#227;o do aumento da permeabilidade intestinal com o parvov&#237;rus B19 em pacientes com miocardite. Al&#233;m de pat&#243;genos cl&#225;ssicos, como parvov&#237;rus B19 e coxsackiev&#237;rus, casos de miocardite relacionados a COVID-19 come&#231;aram a ser observados recentemente diante da epidemia de COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Embora muitos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos tenham sido sugeridos no desenvolvimento de miocardite devido &#224; COVID-19, o principal fator desencadeante da doen&#231;a, ainda n&#227;o &#233; conhecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Al&#233;m de afetar diversos sistemas, a COVID-19 afeta o sistema gastrointestinal com frequ&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Ao mesmo tempo, estudos descobriram que a permeabilidade intestinal &#233; aumentada em pessoas com COVID -19, e altos n&#237;veis de zonulina, um biomarcador de permeabilidade intestinal, foram encontrados nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Embora o efeito da permeabilidade intestinal n&#227;o tenha sido demonstrado em pacientes com miocardite por COVID-19, os n&#237;veis mais altos de zonulina observados em pacientes com miocardite com hist&#243;ria recente de COVID-19, como ocorre em nosso estudo, pode corroborar nossa ideia de que a COVID-19 desencadeia o desenvolvimento de miocardite por aumentar a permeabilidade intestinal. Al&#233;m disso, embora observado com menor frequ&#234;ncia do que os agentes virais, o desenvolvimento de miocardite ap&#243;s gastroenterite de bact&#233;rias enteropatog&#234;nicas indica que a permeabilidade intestinal prejudicada pode estar associada ao desenvolvimento de miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Estudos demonstraram que os lipopolissacar&#237;deos (endotoxinas) aumentam a permeabilidade intestinal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> A presepsina (um grupo sol&#250;vel de diferencia&#231;&#227;o subtipo 14 [CD14]) &#233; um marcador confi&#225;vel e indireto de endotoxemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Ela aumenta na sepse bacteriana e tamb&#233;m em infec&#231;&#245;es virais como a COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Tudo isso mostra que a presepsina pode ser um biomarcador indireto que pode mostrar um aumento da permeabilidade intestinal.</p>
      <p>Em nosso estudo, a correla&#231;&#227;o de altos n&#237;veis de zonulina com picos de CK-MB e picos de troponina-I indica que uma maior carga de ant&#237;geno desencadeia maior destrui&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca &#224; medida que a permeabilidade intestinal aumenta. O fato de os n&#237;veis de zonulina e presepsina estarem elevados em pacientes com miocardite pode ser epifenomenal ou indicar uma intera&#231;&#227;o complexa, com um papel no aumento da permeabilidade intestinal. O aumento da permeabilidade intestinal, confirmado pelos n&#237;veis de zonulina, pode levar a mais bacteremia e viremia, o que pode ser explicado pelo aumento da presepsina em correla&#231;&#227;o com os n&#237;veis de zonulina. Al&#233;m disso, ao considerarmos o papel da zonulina na patog&#234;nese da miocardite, ela pode ser um potencial biomarcador, bem como um alvo terap&#234;utico em casos graves de miocardite, como em outras doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Os v&#237;rus ent&#233;ricos utilizam micr&#243;bios intestinais para replica&#231;&#227;o e transmiss&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> o que pode explicar por que o aumento da permeabilidade intestinal na enterite gastrointestinal bacteriana causa transmiss&#227;o de v&#237;rus ent&#233;ricos e predisp&#245;e ao desenvolvimento de miocardite. O fato de a presepsina e a zonulina estarem elevadas simultaneamente em casos de miocardite corrobora essa vis&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Como resultado, levantamos a hip&#243;tese de que o aumento da permeabilidade do sistema gastrointestinal pode ser um dos principais mecanismos desencadeantes no desenvolvimento da miocardite. A zonulina e a presepsina podem ser usadas como biomarcadores, al&#233;m dos biomarcadores convencionais, quando avaliados pela cl&#237;nica. Isso visa o manejo precoce de modalidades de diagn&#243;stico e tratamento em miocardite, em que ferramentas de diagn&#243;stico padr&#227;o-ouro, como BEM e RMC, n&#227;o est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis.</p>
      <p>Se essa rela&#231;&#227;o for claramente demonstrada, o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento precoces podem ajudar a prevenir complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas da miocardite, como a cardiomiopatia dilatada. Al&#233;m disso, em casos com apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas semelhantes, o uso desses dois biomarcadores em adi&#231;&#227;o aos biomarcadores tradicionais &#233; uma op&#231;&#227;o mais econ&#244;mica na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, uma vez que reduz a aplica&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos caros, como BEM, RMC e coronariografia, que s&#227;o usados para o diagn&#243;stico e exclus&#227;o de miocardite aguda e requerem um conhecimento especializado para a sua aplica&#231;&#227;o e interpreta&#231;&#227;o de resultados.</p>
      <p>Com base nesses achados, estudos mais extensos nessa &#225;rea podem esclarecer a patog&#234;nese desencadeante da miocardite e auxiliar no desenvolvimento de novos modelos farmacol&#243;gicos para reduzir a probabilidade de desfechos cl&#237;nicos ruins, como a cardiomiopatia dilatada.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo</title>
        <p>Nosso estudo apresentou algumas limita&#231;&#245;es. Primeiramente, nosso tamanho de amostra foi relativamente pequeno e tratou-se de um estudo transversal. Em segundo lugar, apenas pacientes com miocardite aguda, com biomarcadores card&#237;acos elevados, foram inclu&#237;dos em nosso estudo. A exclus&#227;o de pacientes com miocardite lim&#237;trofe e subcl&#237;nica e pacientes com miocardite cr&#244;nica pode afetar os resultados. Os resultados de PCR ou isolamento dos v&#237;rus causadores n&#227;o puderam ser inclu&#237;dos no estudo devido &#224; inadequa&#231;&#227;o t&#233;cnica. Ainda assim, a avalia&#231;&#227;o combinada da hist&#243;ria dos pacientes, resultados de RMC, marcadores biol&#243;gicos como troponina e CK-MB e m&#233;todos invasivos e n&#227;o invasivos de angiografia coron&#225;ria foram suficientes para excluir outras causas. Por fim, a bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica, ferramenta diagn&#243;stica padr&#227;o-ouro, n&#227;o foi utilizada no diagn&#243;stico, o que pode ter afetado nossos resultados.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>A miocardite pode se apresentar, de forma semelhante &#224; cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica, com dor tor&#225;cica, anormalidades nos eletrocardiogramas e biomarcadores card&#237;acos elevados, podendo ser confundida com patologias card&#237;acas que s&#227;o semelhantes em sintomas e achados laboratoriais, incluindo amiloidose card&#237;aca e cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. Portanto, casos suspeitos de miocardite permanecem um diagn&#243;stico desafiador para os m&#233;dicos em termos de apresenta&#231;&#227;o, caracter&#237;sticas e curso. A esse respeito, quando ferramentas diagn&#243;sticas padr&#227;o-ouro, como BEM e RMC, n&#227;o est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis, biomarcadores auxiliares, al&#233;m de CK-MB e troponina card&#237;aca, podem ser usados para diagn&#243;stico r&#225;pido de casos de miocardite e exclus&#227;o de outras causas card&#237;acas. Al&#233;m disso, o aumento do trato respirat&#243;rio e da permeabilidade intestinal pode ser um dos principais mecanismos desencadeantes do desenvolvimento da miocardite. Sendo assim, a zonulina e a presepsina podem ser biomarcadores promissores tanto para o diagn&#243;stico quanto para o tratamento de acompanhamento em pacientes com miocardite.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
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    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Could Zonulin and Presepsin Be Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets for Acute Myocarditis?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8923-8709</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Toprak</surname>
            <given-names>Kenan</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1784-3584</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Inan&#305;r</surname>
            <given-names>Mehmet</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Memio&#287;lu</surname>
            <given-names>Tolga</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4297-1820</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kaplangoray</surname>
            <given-names>Mustafa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6560-8031</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Palice</surname>
            <given-names>Ali</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9008-6631</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Tascanov</surname>
            <given-names>Mustafa Begenc</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="TR">Turkey</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Harran University Faculty of Medicine &#8211; Department of Cardiology, Sanliurfa &#8211; Turkey</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="TR">Turkey</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Abant Izzet Baysal University Hospital &#8211; Cardiology, Bolu &#8211; Turkey</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="TR">Turkey</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Sanliurfa Mehmet Akif Inan Training and Research &#8211; Cardiology, Sanliurfa &#8211; Turkey</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Kenan Toprak &#8226; Harran University Faculty of Medicine &#8211; Department of Cardiology &#8211; viran&#351;ehir yolu Sanliurfa 63300 &#8211; Turkey E-mail: kentoprak@hotmail.com</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>The diagnosis of acute myocarditis is usually made with clinical and laboratory parameters. This can sometimes be mixed up with diseases that have similar clinical features, making the diagnosis difficult. Therefore, the use of more specific biomarkers, in addition to the classically used biomarkers such as troponin, will accelerate the diagnosis. In addition, these biomarkers may help us to understand the mechanism of myocarditis development and thus predict unpredictable clinical outcomes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p>This study aims to reveal the possible relationship between intestinal permeability and acute myocarditis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>In this study, we wanted to evaluate serum levels of zonulin and presepsin in 138 consecutive subjects, including 68 patients with myocarditis and another 70 as the control group, matched for age, gender, and cardiovascular risk factors. P-values &lt;0.05 were considered to be statistically significant.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>Compared to the control group, zonulin and presepsin were significantly higher in the patient group with myocarditis (p &lt; 0.001, for all). Zonulin levels were positively correlated with presepsin, peak CK-MB, and peak troponin levels (r = 0.461, p &lt; 0.001; r = 0.744, p &lt; 0.001; r = 0.627, p &lt; 0.001; respectively). In regression analysis, presepsin and zonulin were determined as independent predictors for myocarditis (OR 1.002, 95% CI 1.001-1.003, p = 0.025; OR 12.331, 95% CI 4.261-35.689; p &lt; 0.001; respectively). The predictive value of acute myocarditis of presepsin and zonulin in ROC curve analysis was statistically significant (p &lt; 0.001, for both).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p>This study showed that zonulin and presepsin could be biomarkers that can be used in the diagnosis of myocarditis, and they can also be therapeutic targets by shedding light on the developmental mechanism of myocarditis.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Biomarkers</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocarditis</kwd>
        <kwd>Permeability</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01001">
          <label>Central Illustration</label>
          <caption>
            <title>: Could Zonulin and Presepsin Be Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets for Acute Myocarditis?</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230017-30017-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Myocarditis generally refers to the clinical and histological manifestations of a wide variety of pathological immune processes in the heart that may occur due to secondary immune system activation after respiratory tract and gastrointestinal infections.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Although various mechanisms have been suggested in the development process of the disease, it is known that although the exact mechanism is not fully understood, the disease may be caused by the direct effect of the infective agent, but it is mostly caused by the triggering of the immune reaction after the infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Myocarditis can be acute, subacute, or chronic and may either involve focal or diffuse areas of the myocardium. The clinical manifestations of myocarditis are heterogeneous, ranging from asymptomatic conditions to severe myocardial destruction by viruses and immune cells causing cardiogenic shock and arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Myocarditis can be caused by a wide variety of microbial agents, including viruses, enteric bacteria, and protozoa, as well as by non-microbial triggers such as toxins and hypersensitive reactions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Among these causes, viral infections, especially coxsackie virus and parvovirus B19, are among the leading causes of myocarditis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> and in recent years, the Covid-19 virus and the Covid-19 vaccine have been closely associated with myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> In addition, enteropathogenic bacteria such as salmonella, shigella and campylobacter are some of the major causes of myocarditis in case series.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Acute myocarditis remains a complex and challenging diagnosis in routine practice, as it can be clinically mixed up with similar clinical presentations such as myocardial infarction, coronary vasospasm, cardiac amyloidosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The current gold standard diagnosis involves histological demonstration of endomyocardial biopsy according to the Dallas criteria for &#8220;myocardial inflammation&#8221; without myocardial necrosis and ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> However, both endomyocardial biopsy is impractical and the definition of myocarditis according to these criteria shows poor sensitivity and specificity. This is due to sampling error often related to the focal distribution of specific histological lesions from heart tissue, and variability in pathological interpretation. Also, the Dallas classification does not consider the local quantification and differentiation of inflammatory cells, and viral infection and autoimmune regulation in heart tissues are ignored in this classification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> For these reasons, contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI) and laboratory parameters are the most frequently used methods in the diagnosis, together with the clinical diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> However, similar clinical presentations, such as myocardial infarction and coronary vasospasm, complicate the diagnostic approach.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In this case, the determination of more specific auxiliary biomarkers in addition to creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme (CK-MB) and troponin, which are frequently used markers of cardiac destruction in patients with faint clinical signs, increases the necessity for guiding diagnoses and treatment modalities.</p>
        <p>Myocarditis and its complications are believed to be immune-mediated. Acute myocarditis usually develops after a recent respiratory tract infection or gastrointestinal complaints such as gastroenteritis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In infectious etiologies, when the microbial agent enters through the respiratory or gastroenteric system, it may bind to its specific receptor in the heart and cause cell damage and lysis. Subsequently, cellular particles released from the myocardial cell after myocardial injury trigger autoimmunity in which molecular mimicry plays an important role while also causing cardiac damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The involvement of gastrointestinal pathogens in the etiology of acute myocarditis led us to believe that increased intestinal permeability as a result of inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract may play a role in the pathogenesis of the disease. Tight junctions (TJ) in intestinal epithelial cells play a key role in preventing intestinal invasion of pathogens in the intestine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Zonulin (haptoglobin 2 precursor) is the only endogenous modulator specifically identified for TJs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Zonulin modulates epithelial barrier integrity by triggering a signaling cascade that results in phosphorylation and displacement of tight junction proteins, and enteropathogens greatly increase zonulin gene expression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Increased gastrointestinal permeability by a zonulin-mediated mechanism allows paracellular passage of antigenic triggers from the intestinal lumen to the mucosa and eventually to the systemic circulation. The zonulin-mediated increase in intestinal permeability in the gastrointestinal tract has been suggested as the mechanism responsible for the pathophysiology of some chronic autoimmune and hyperinflammatory diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> This showed that up-regulation of zonulin in genetically susceptible individuals can lead to immune-mediated diseases, and this zonulin pathway mechanism may play a role in the pathophysiology of myocarditis, which is mainly an immune-mediated entity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> In addition, we aimed to uncover the role of low-grade endotoxemia, a kind of confirmation of increased intestinal permeability, in the pathogenesis of myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> To the best of our knowledge, there is no literature evaluating the role of zonulin, a biomarker of increased intestinal permeability, and presepsin, a low-grade endotoxemia biomarker, in patients with myocarditis. This study aimed to uncover the role of zonulin and presepsin in patients with acute myocarditis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study population</title>
          <p>In this observational cross-sectional study, 68 patients admitted to our center between January 2021 and March 2022 and diagnosed with myocarditis were included; as a control group, 70 patients were included in the study by matching them in terms of age, gender, and cardiovascular risk factors. The control group was selected by consecutively recruiting healthy volunteers, matched for age, sex, and cardiovascular disease, who were admitted to the hospital for routine examinations. Those with suspected myocardial infarction, suspected vasospastic angina, chronic inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, active infection, advanced kidney and liver failure, and a history of cancer were excluded from the study. Since we did not perform endomyocardial biopsy in our clinic for borderline myocarditis patients characterized only by inflammatory infiltrates without evidence of myocyte necrosis, our patient population consisted only of patients with myocyte necrosis confirmed by cardiac biomarkers.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Study protocol and definitions</title>
          <p>The patients were divided into two groups: those with acute myocarditis and the control group. Myocarditis cases with symptoms that started within the last month were considered acute myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Cardiac inflammation was confirmed by contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI) in all patients. Coronary angiography was performed to exclude ischemic causes in the patients who were in the middle, mimicking myocardial infarction.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Laboratory analysis</title>
          <p>Blood measurements were taken from venous blood samples from the patients and control groups at the time of admission to the hospital. Plasma and serum specimens were obtained after centrifugation at 2750 &#215; g for 10 minutes. Routine biochemistry analyses, complete blood counts and coagulation tests were conducted on blood samples. Serum samples for presepsin and zonulin analysis were frozen and kept at -20 &#176;C until testing. Presepsin and zonulin levels were measured by using commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kits (Human presepsin ELISA kit: Abbexa, Cambridge, UK; Human zonulin ELISA kit: Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany). Results are presented in pg/mL for presepsin and ng/mL for zonulin. For peak CK-MB and troponin values, blood samples were taken every 12 hours during hospitalization.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>The Statistical Program for Social Sciences 20 (IBM SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA) was used for all statistical calculations. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine whether the data matched the normal distribution. Continuous variables that fit the normal distribution were expressed as means &#177; standard deviation (SD), and those that did not fit the normal distribution were expressed as median with interquartile range (IQR). Categorical variables are expressed as a number of people-percent (n, %). Comparisons between patients with myocarditis and control group were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U test, independent t-test, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), where appropriate. Bonferroni post hoc test analysis was performed to fully understand group differences in ANOVA. Kruskal-Wallis and then Brown-Forsythe post hoc test were used for multiple group comparisons that did not fit the normal distribution. The Chi-square test was applied to categorical variables. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine the relationship between zonulin level and presepsin, CK-MB and troponin levels. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to determine the independent predictors of myocarditis. Baseline variables with considerable significance (p &lt; 0.05) by univariate logistic regression analyses were included in the multivariate logistic regression analysis. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed to identify predictors of acute myocarditis and to compare the predictive values of zonulin and presepsin with other biomarkers. We calculated the required sample size for this study with a &#8220;power&#8221; R package using alpha=0.05, power=0.80, and the estimated effect size calculated from previous reports and the minimum sample size required for this study was 48. Therefore, the number of patients in our study was sufficient. We also calculated a post hoc power analysis for our research, which resulted in 99% of the power. Two-tailed p-values of &lt; 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>A total of 68 patients diagnosed with acute myocarditis and 70 healthy volunteers matched for age, sex, and cardiovascular risk factors participated in the study. The mean age of the patients was 24.75 &#177; 6.86, and 43 (63.2%) were male. There was no difference between the basic demographic characteristics of the patients and the control group ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ). The history of having COVID-19 disease or being vaccinated against COVID-19 in the last six months was significantly higher in the myocarditis group than in the control group. C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, peak CK-MB, and peak troponin-I levels were significantly higher in the myocarditis group than in the control group. Zonulin and presepsin levels were statistically higher in the patient group than in the control group ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref> ). We divided the patients into 3 groups according to their zonulin quartiles (T) (T1 [zonulin &#8804; 1.50], T2 [1.50 &lt; zonulin &#8804; 2.90], T3 [zonulin &gt; 2.90]) ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> ). There was no statistically significant difference between groups in terms of age, gender, and smoking. Group 1 was taken as a reference in the comparison of groups. Patients in group 3 had lower left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) than groups 1 and 2, and had more rhythm disturbances. Those who described gastrointestinal complaints within the last four weeks of admission were significantly more common in group 3 than in groups 1 and 2. In addition, Peak CK-MB, peak Troponin-I, and presepsin values were significantly higher in group 3 compared to other groups. In the patient group, zonulin levels were positively correlated with presepsin, peak CK-MB, and peak troponin levels ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref> ). Presepsin and zonulin were found to be independent predictors of acute myocarditis in multivariate binary logistic regression analysis ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Distribution of basic demographic, clinical and laboratory characteristics of patients with myocarditis and control group</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>Patients with myocarditis (n = 68)</th>
                  <th>Control group (n = 70)</th>
                  <th>p</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="4">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="4">Demographics and medical history</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age, years</td>
                  <td align="center">24.75 &#177; 6.86</td>
                  <td align="center">25.43 &#177; 5.38</td>
                  <td align="center">0.495</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gender, male, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">43 (63.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">44 (62.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.552</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BMI, Kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">27.3 &#177; 1.8</td>
                  <td align="center">27.1 &#177; 2.1</td>
                  <td align="center">0.513</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Smoking, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">14 (20.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">8 (11.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.142</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LVEF, (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">60.0 (55.0-60.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">60.0 (55.7-61.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.315</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>History of COVID-19 or COVID-19 vaccination in the last six months</td>
                  <td align="center">26 (38.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">14 (20.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.015*</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="4">
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="4">
                    <bold>Laboratory Results</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hemoglobin, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">14.72 &#177; 3.59</td>
                  <td align="center">14.60 &#177; 1.74</td>
                  <td align="center">0.480</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hematocrit, (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">43.66 &#177; 6.43</td>
                  <td align="center">44.84 &#177; 5.68</td>
                  <td align="center">0.372</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>WBC, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">10.9 (9.1-13.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">10.9 (9.0-14.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.631</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lymphocyte, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.00 (1.50-2.69)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.10 (1.56-2.72)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.599</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Monocytes, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.68 (0.49-0.89)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.60 (0.42-0.80)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.280</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Neutrophil, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">7.77 (5.22-11.00)</td>
                  <td align="center">7.70 (5.37-11.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.868</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>PG, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">103.00 (127.00-71.40)</td>
                  <td align="center">110.00 (93.75-159.75)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.100</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Creatinine, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.84 &#177; 0.31</td>
                  <td align="center">0.85 &#177; 0.21</td>
                  <td align="center">0.176</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Uric acid, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.05 (5.98-6.47)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.25 (4.20-6.10)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.858</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Albumin, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">4.35 &#177; 0.45</td>
                  <td align="center">4.38 &#177; 0.34</td>
                  <td align="center">0.560</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDH, U/L</td>
                  <td align="center">266 (216-409)</td>
                  <td align="center">251 (213-356)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.651</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Triglycerides, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">149.5 (95.7-213.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">147.5 (102.2-237.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.519</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TC, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">187.0 (147.7-221.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">181.5 (137.0-221.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.368</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HDL-C, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">32.0 (27.3-38.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">34.0 (28.0-42.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.410</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDL-C, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">119.8 (87.2-146.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">106.3 (84.7-126.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.174</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CRP, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.94 (1.86-2.19)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.40 (0.14-0.80)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.002**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TSH, uIU/mL</td>
                  <td align="center">1.23 (0.74-1.88)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.46 (1.08-2.02)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.160</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>FT<sub>3</sub>, ng/mL</td>
                  <td align="center">3.34 (3.24-3.60)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.04 (2.68-3.17)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.068</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>FT<sub>4,</sub>ng/mL</td>
                  <td align="center">1.15 (1.03-1.29)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.10 (1.01-1.34)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.937</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>e-GFR, (ml/min)</td>
                  <td align="center">105.0 (85.0-117.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">107.0 (100.2-114.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.641</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>RDW, fL</td>
                  <td align="center">12.70 (12.30-13.42)</td>
                  <td align="center">12.75 (11.45-13.77)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.642</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MPV, fL</td>
                  <td align="center">8.19 (7.42-9.32)</td>
                  <td align="center">7.98 (7.20-8.67)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.141</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Total bilirubin, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.60 (0.48-0.80)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.60 (0.50-0.92)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.738</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Phosphorus, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.10 (2.50-3.70)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.10 (2.32-3.70)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.934</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Calcium, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">9.20 (8.78-9.60)</td>
                  <td align="center">9.20 (9.00-9.70)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.809</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ALT, (U/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">28.00 (20.25-41.75)</td>
                  <td align="center">32.0 (22.25-44.00)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.496</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>AST, (U/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">35.00 (24.00-51.00)</td>
                  <td align="center">34.00 (25.50-49.00)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.790</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ALP, (U/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">79.0 (65.0-86.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">83.0 (73.0-97.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.053</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>GGT, (U/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">23.50 (16.00-39.50)</td>
                  <td align="center">26.00 (18.00-45.00)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.289</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Platelet count, (x1000/mm<sup>3</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">283.0 (230.0-333.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">254.5 (219.7-318.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.642</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fibrinogen, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">429.2 (475.0-283.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">283.0 (228.7-440.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.004**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Presepsin, (pg/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.257.9 (1197.8-602.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">479.1 (451.3-569.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Zonulin, (ng/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.75 (1.85-3.50)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.60 (1.30-1.92)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Peak CK-MB, (ng/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">23.50 (6.72-57.50)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.00 (2.00-6.22)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Peak Troponin-I, (pg/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">4.660.0 (352.5-12458.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">57.0 (42.25-1130.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>Unless otherwise stated, values are mean &#177; SD, n (%), or median (interquartile range). There were no statistically significant comparisons after analysis with Student&#8217;s t-test. *p &lt;0.05 vs. control: Significant after analysis Chi-square test. **p &lt;0.05 vs. control: Significant after analysis of Mann-Whitney U test. ALT: Alanine Aminotransferase; AST: Aspartate aminotransferase; ALP: alkaline phosphatase; BMI: body mass index; CRP: C- reactive protein; PG: plasma glucose; GGT: gamma glutamyl transferase; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; e-GFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate; TSH: thyroid stimulating hormone; FT3 : free T3; FT4: free T4; TC: total cholesterol; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; MPV: mean platelet volume; RDW: red cell distribution width; WBC: white blood cell.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Zonulin (A) and presepsin (B) levels in patients with myocarditis compared to the control group.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230017-30017-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Distribution of demographic and clinical characteristics of patients with myocarditis according to zonulin groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>*Group 1 n = 22</th>
                  <th>Group 2 n = 23</th>
                  <th>Group 3 n = 23</th>
                  <th>p</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="5">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="5">Demographics and medical history</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="5"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age, years</td>
                  <td align="center">22.91 &#177; 6.43</td>
                  <td align="center">27.17 &#177; 6.42</td>
                  <td align="center">24.09 &#177; 7.24</td>
                  <td align="center">0.095</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gender, male, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (68.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">13 (56.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (65.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.699</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Smoking, n (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">4 (18.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">5 (21.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">5 (21.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.944</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>History of COVID-19 or COVID-19 vaccination in the last six months</td>
                  <td align="center">3 (13.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (30.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">16 (69.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="5">
                    <hr/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="5">
                    <bold>Echocardiography and EKG</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LVEF, (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">59.5 &#177; 2.0</td>
                  <td align="center">57.9 &#177; 7.4</td>
                  <td align="center">49.7 &#177; 13.7</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.001**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Rhythm disturbances</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (4.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">3 (13.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">8 (34.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>Symptoms in the last four weeks, n (%)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Respiratory tract complaints</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (31.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (39.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (39.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.251</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>GIS complaints</td>
                  <td align="center">6 (27.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (30.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">12 (52.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001**</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Respiratory tract and GIS complaints</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (9.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (4.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (8.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.324</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>None</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (40.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">6 (26.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>Laboratory Results</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CRP, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.42 (0.68-2.17)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.80 (0.85-2.75)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.35 (1.22-3.48)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.369</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fibrinogen, (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">357.2 (295.9-418.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">407.8 (352.5-463.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">399.4 (369.3-429.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.124</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Peak CK-MB, (ng/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">13.86 (4.21-23.51)</td>
                  <td align="center">29.86 (19.86-33.87)</td>
                  <td align="center">56.34 (48.86-63.83)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001***</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Peak Troponin-I, (pg/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.573.9 (3.104.2-4.362.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">6.495.0 (4.256.6-8.733.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">26.737.8 (2.973.8-50.501.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt;0.001***</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Presepsin, (pg/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">942.8 (682.5-1.203.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.139.8 (941.4-1.338.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.561.5 (1.306.5-1.816.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001***</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>Unless otherwise stated, values are mean &#177; SD, n (%), or median (interquartile range). * Group 1 taken as reference. **p&lt;0.05 vs. control: Significant after analysis of One-Way ANOVA test. ***p &lt;0.05 vs. control: Significant after analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test. EKG: electrocardiography; GIS: gastrointestinal system; CK-MB: creatine kinase- MB.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Positive correlation between Zonulin and Presepsin (A), Zonulin and CK-MB (B), Zonulin and Troponin (C) in patients with myocarditis.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230017-30017-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Independent predictors of acute myocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="5" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th colspan="3">Multivariate logistic regression analyses</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="3">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="3">Nagelkerke R<sup><bold>2</bold></sup> in final step = 0.643</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="3">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Odds ratio</th>
                  <th>95% CI</th>
                  <th>p-value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Zonulin</td>
                  <td align="center">12.331</td>
                  <td align="center">4.261-35.689</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.001*</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Presepsin</td>
                  <td align="center">1.001</td>
                  <td align="center">1.000-1.002</td>
                  <td align="center">0.025*</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>* Significant p-value. Entered variables: C- reactive protein, History of COVID-19 or COVID-19 vaccination in the last six months, Fibrinogen, GIS complaints, Rhythm disturbances, Left ventricular ejection fraction, Presepsin, Zonulin.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>When Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed, the optimal cut-off value of presepsin to predict acute myocarditis is presepsin &#8805; 584.13; it was predictive for acute myocarditis with 79.4% sensitivity and 80% specificity, and zonulin &#8805; 1.85; it was predictive for acute myocarditis with 82% sensitivity and 91% specificity ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref> ). In addition, the ROC curves were compared to identify if there was an additional benefit of using presepsin and zonulin on CK-MB and Troponin-I ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref> ). When presepsin and zonulin were compared, they were not found to be superior to each other in terms of predicting acute myocarditis (p = 0.105).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04001">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) curve of presepsin, zonulin, troponin and CK-MB for predicting acute myocarditis. Since the AUC of CK-MB and the AUC of Troponin are 1.0, they overlayed each other.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20230017-30017-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Today, the diagnosis and treatment of myocarditis remain challenging among clinicians due to the inability to predict long-term complications such as dilated cardiomyopathy. However, the mechanisms that trigger myocarditis are still not fully understood. In this study, we wanted to uncover the role of zonulin, which shows increased intestinal permeability, and presepsin, a low-grade endotoxemia biomarker, in the pathophysiology of myocarditis and whether they can be biomarkers for acute myocarditis. In our study, increased zonulin and presepsin amounts compared to the control group showed that increased intestinal permeability might have a triggering role in the pathogenesis of myocarditis. Therefore, zonulin and presepsin may be useful biomarkers that can be used in the diagnosis of acute myocarditis.</p>
        <p>Acute myocarditis remains a diagnostic challenge for clinicians due to similar clinical presentations in various cardiovascular disorders such as myocardial infarction, coronary vasospasm, cardiac amyloidosis, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> If the infectious agent is quickly eliminated and the inflammatory process is terminated, the disease will heal with only minor changes in the myocardium. These patients usually recover completely within weeks or months. Conversely, when diagnosis and treatment are started too late, the viral infection is not eliminated, and the antiviral immune response is diminished, irreversible clinical consequences may be encountered, which may result in dilated cardiomyopathy. Therefore, available data dispute the need to identify patients at an early and still reversible stage of virus-associated heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Although endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) is the diagnostic gold standard, the use of EMB varies widely depending on the physician and the clinical presentation of the patients. Although EMB cannot be applied in every center for diagnosing myocarditis, the sensitivity of EMB for detecting myocarditis is quite low.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Although the use of cardiac MRI for myocarditis patients has recently increased, cardiac MRI cannot be performed in every center nor can it determine the extent of myocardial inflammation, and assessment is largely dependent on clinical experience. Although cMRI has become useful in noninvasively obtaining accurate and reliable preliminary information, available data on the diagnostic accuracy of cMRI is currently limited.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Many cases of myocarditis go undetected because of asymptomatic presentations or nonspecific symptoms. Therefore, the patients included in our study mostly consisted of patients who arrived at the emergency department with nonspecific symptoms and had high cardiac markers such as creatine kinase (CK-MB) and troponin. Although CK-MB is a preferred biomarker for myocarditis, the sensitivity of creatine kinase in late diagnosis is poor because studies show that it consistently drops to basal levels in the early 3-5 days.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> The reliability of measuring cardiac biomarker levels in patients with suspected myocarditis is low, but they still help confirm the diagnosis of myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Nonspecific serological markers of inflammation, such as fibrinogen and C-reactive protein, may be elevated in the case of suspected myocarditis. Still, normal levels of these tests fail to exclude an inflammatory response in the myocardium, so conventional serological tests and cardiac biomarkers for myocarditis are of poor prognostic value in diagnosing myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Because of all these handicaps, it is important to use biomarkers that can be prognostic for myocarditis in addition to conventional markers in early diagnosis and treatment. Zonulin and presepsin may be promising biomarkers in this field.</p>
        <p>Patients with myocarditis often report recent respiratory or gastrointestinal issues without apparent nonspecific symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> When we look at the causes of myocarditis, it is mostly caused by enteropathogenic viruses such as coxsackievirus, parvovirus B19, adenovirus, or COVID-19, and it is seen that bacterial causes often occur after gastroenteritis of enteropathogenic bacteria such as salmonella, shigella and campylobacter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> This situation suggested that impaired intestinal permeability in the gastrointestinal tract for any reason may play a role in the pathogenesis of myocarditis by causing viral translocation.</p>
        <p>Tight junctions are important in preventing pathogen invasion in intestinal epithelial cells and thus into blood and lymph circulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Zonulin is the only known physiological modulator of intercellular tight junctions, and loss of barrier function due to upregulation of zonulin leads to an uncontrolled flow of dietary and microbial antigens into blood and lymph circulation through the submucosa, and this mechanism has been implicated in the pathogenesis of many chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Autoimmunity plays an important role in the pathophysiology of myocarditis development.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> In addition to autoimmunity, complement activation also plays a role in the pathogenesis of myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Studies have shown that zonulin activates the complement pathway.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> This suggests that zonulin-mediated complement activation may play a role in the development of myocarditis.</p>
        <p>We suggest that the zonulin-mediated increase in epithelial permeability in respiratory<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> and gastrointestinal tract<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> for various reasons may be the pathogenesis that triggers the development of myocarditis, as in other inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Coxsackie B3 and parvovirus B19 are the most common causes of myocarditis worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Coxsackieviruses invade from the enterocytes by binding to the coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR), which is located in tight junctional complexes in the intestine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> This may suggest that pathogens such as coxsackieviruses, which often play a role in the pathogenesis of myocarditis, trigger the development of myocarditis by disrupting the function of tight junctions via CAR receptors located in tight junction complexes, which is regulated via zonulin in the intestinal epithelium and this mechanism may explain the possible increase in intestinal permeability after coxsackievirus infections. Studies have shown that parvovirus B19, one of the most common causes of myocarditis, colonizes intestinal epithelial cells and uses intestinal cells as a reservoir.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Parvovirus B19 has been held responsible for chronic fatigue syndrome by remaining at a reservoir in the intestine,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> and it has been emphasized that the increase in intestinal permeability in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome has an important role in the pathogenesis of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> This may shed light on the association of increased intestinal permeability with parvovirus B19 in patients with myocarditis. In addition to classical pathogens such as parvovirus B19 and coxsackievirus, myocarditis cases related to COVID-19 have recently started to be seen frequently with the COVID-19 epidemic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Although many pathophysiological mechanisms have been suggested in the development of myocarditis due to COVID-19, the main triggering factor of the disease is not yet known.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Besides affecting many systems, COVID-19 affects the gastrointestinal system frequently.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> At the same time, studies have found that intestinal permeability is increased in those who have COVID-19, and high zonulin levels, a biomarker of intestinal permeability, has been found in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Although the effect of intestinal permeability has not been demonstrated in patients with myocarditis due to COVID-19, the higher zonulin levels observed in myocarditis patients with a recent history of COVID-19, as in our study, may support our idea that COVID-19 triggers the development of myocarditis by increasing intestinal permeability. In addition, although it is seen less frequently than viral agents, the development of myocarditis after gastroenteritis of enteropathogenic bacteria from bacterial causes indicates that impaired intestinal permeability may be associated with the development of myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Studies have shown that lipopolysaccharides (endotoxin) increase intestinal permeability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Presepsin (a soluble cluster of differentiation subtype 14 [CD14]) is a reliable and indirect marker of endotoxemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> It has been shown to increase in bacterial sepsis and also in viral infections such as COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> All this shows that presepsin may be an indirect biomarker that can show an increase in intestinal permeability.</p>
        <p>In our study, the correlation of high zonulin levels with peak CK-MB and peak troponin-I levels indicates that a greater antigen load triggers greater cardiac destruction as intestinal permeability increases. The fact that zonulin and presepsin levels were high in patients with myocarditis may be epiphenomenal or indicate a complex interaction that plays a role in increased intestinal permeability. The increase in intestinal permeability, confirmed by zonulin levels, may lead to more bacteremia and viremia, which can be explained by an increase in presepsin in correlation with zonulin levels. Furthermore, considering the role of zonulin in the pathogenesis of myocarditis, zonulin may be a potential biomarker for myocarditis, as well as a therapeutic target in severe myocarditis cases, as in other inflammatory diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Enteric viruses utilize gut microbes for replication and transmission,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> which may explain why increased intestinal permeability in bacterial gastrointestinal enteritis causes enteric virus transmission and predisposes to myocarditis development. The fact that presepsin and zonulin were found to be high together in myocarditis cases supports this view.</p>
        <p>As a result, we hypothesize that increased permeability in the gastrointestinal system may be one of the main triggering mechanisms in the development of myocarditis. Zonulin and presepsin can be used as biomarkers in addition to conventional biomarkers when evaluated by the clinic. This is for the early management of diagnosis and treatment modalities in myocarditis where gold standard diagnostic tools such as EMB and cMRI are unavailable.</p>
        <p>If this relationship is clearly demonstrated, early diagnosis and treatment may help prevent chronic complications of myocarditis such as dilated cardiomyopathy. In addition, in cases with similar clinical presentations, the use of these two biomarkers in addition to traditional biomarkers is a cost-effective option in clinical practice by reducing the application of expensive diagnostic methods such as EMB, cMRI and coronary angiography, which are used for the diagnosis and exclusion of acute myocarditis and require special expertise for their application and interpretation of results.</p>
        <p>Based on these findings, more extensive studies in this area may shed light on the triggering pathogenesis of myocarditis and assist in the development of new pharmacological models to reduce the likelihood of poor clinical outcomes such as dilated cardiomyopathy.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limitations of the study</title>
          <p>Our study had some limitations. Firstly, our sample size was relatively small, and it was a cross-sectional study. Secondly, only acute myocarditis patients with high cardiac biomarkers were included in our study. The exclusion of patients with borderline and subclinical myocarditis and patients with chronic myocarditis may affect the results. Patients&#8217; PCR or isolation results of causative viruses could not be included in the study due to technical inadequacy. Still, the combined evaluation of patients&#8217; histories, cMRI results, biological markers such as troponin and CK-MB, and invasive and non-invasive coronary angiographic methods were sufficient to exclude other causes. Finally, endomyocardial biopsy, the gold standard diagnostic tool, was not used in the diagnosis, which may have affected our results.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Myocarditis may present, similarly to ischemic heart disease, with chest pain, abnormalities in electrocardiograms and elevated cardiac biomarkers. It may be mixed up with these cardiac pathologies that are similar in symptoms and laboratory findings, including cardiac amyloidosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Therefore, suspected cases of myocarditis remain a challenging diagnosis for clinicians in terms of its presentation, features, and course. In this respect, when gold standard diagnostic tools such as EMB and cMRI are not available, auxiliary biomarkers that can be used in addition to CK-MB and cardiac troponin for rapid diagnosis of myocarditis cases and exclusion of other confounding cardiac causes. In addition, increased respiratory tract and intestinal permeability may be one of the main mechanisms triggering the development of myocarditis. Therefore, zonulin and presepsin may be promising biomarkers for both diagnosis and follow-up treatment in myocarditis patients.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Harran University under the protocol number HRJ/20/21/35. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
