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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">jPymGdCHFFFJW8Sz8tjJWTg</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000800306</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00306</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220598</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>&#193;cido Este&#225;rico (mas n&#227;o o &#193;cido Palm&#237;tico) est&#225; Associado a Biomarcadores Inflamat&#243;rios e de Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial em Indiv&#237;duos em Risco Cardiovascular</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alinho</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Henrique Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sampaio</surname>
            <given-names>Geni Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7955-656X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soares-Freitas</surname>
            <given-names>Rosana Aparecida Man&#243;lio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Damasceno</surname>
            <given-names>N&#225;gila Raquel Teixeira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Nutri&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Departamento de Nutri&#231;&#227;o , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspond&#234;ncia: Gustavo Henrique Ferreira Gon&#231;alinho &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Dr. En&#233;as Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. CEP 05403-900, Cerqueira C&#233;sar, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>gustavo.goncalinho@usp.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>01</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220598</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>31</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p>V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m associado o consumo de &#225;cidos graxos saturados (AGSs) com risco cardiovascular, mas ainda existem muitas controv&#233;rsias. A maioria desses estudos avaliou os efeitos do &#225;cido palm&#237;tico sobre lip&#237;dios circulantes. O &#225;cido este&#225;rico geralmente apresenta um efeito neutro sobre os lip&#237;dios sangu&#237;neos, mas faltam estudos cl&#237;nicos avaliando sua rela&#231;&#227;o com marcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o e de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p>Avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o de AGSs das hem&#225;cias (&#225;cido palm&#237;tico e &#225;cido este&#225;rico) com biomarcadores inflamat&#243;rios e de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial circulantes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p>Estudo transversal que incluiu 79 adultos de ambos os sexos com pelo menos um fator de risco cardiovascular, mas sem eventos pr&#233;vios (infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio ou acidente vascular cerebral). Biomarcadores plasm&#225;ticos &#8211; lip&#237;dios, marcadores glicometab&#243;licos, prote&#237;na C ultrassens&#237;vel (PCR-us), Interleucina 6 (IL-6), Interleucina 10 (IL-10), Fator de Necrose Tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;), Prote&#237;na quimioatraente de Mon&#243;citos 1 (MCP-1) &#8211; e &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias (&#225;cidos palm&#237;tico e este&#225;rico) foram analisados. As associa&#231;&#245;es foram avaliadas por an&#225;lises de correla&#231;&#245;es e regress&#245;es lineares m&#250;ltiplas, com signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica estabelecida em p&lt;0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p>O &#225;cido palm&#237;tico n&#227;o apresentou associa&#231;&#245;es com fatores de risco cardiovasculares ou com marcadores inflamat&#243;rios. Por outro lado, o &#225;cido este&#225;rico foi inversamente correlacionado com PCR-us, IL-6 e TNF-&#945;, mas independentemente associado com PCR-us, IL-6, e TNF-&#945;.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p>O &#225;cido este&#225;rico est&#225; associado com biomarcadores inflamat&#243;rios e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial em indiv&#237;duos com um ou mais fatores de risco cardiovascular.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>&#193;cidos Graxos</kwd>
        <kwd>Endot&#233;lio</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarcadores</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>CAPES</funding-source>
          <award-id>8882.330835/2019-1</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>FAPESP</funding-source>
          <award-id>2016/24531-3</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>FAPESP</funding-source>
          <award-id>2011/12523-2</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo foi financiado pela CAPES n&#186; 8882.330835/2019-1 e FAPESP n&#186; 2016/24531-3 e 2011/12523-2.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="52"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O papel da inflama&#231;&#227;o nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs) tem ganhado bastante &#234;nfase na literatura. Pacientes em terapia hipolipemiante intensiva com estatinas, ezetimiba, e inibidores de PCSK9 podem apresentar o chamado &#8220;risco inflamat&#243;rio residual&#8221;, no qual pacientes com n&#237;veis mais altos de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, tais como fator de necrose tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;), interleucina-6 (IL-6) e prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR), mesmo com redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de colesterol, podem apresentar mais eventos cardiovasculares em compara&#231;&#227;o a pacientes com n&#237;veis mais baixos. <sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> V&#225;rios biomarcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o foram associados com a incid&#234;ncia, a preval&#234;ncia, a gravidade, e o progn&#243;stico de DCVs. Eles podem refletir a DCV de uma perspectiva diferente daquela de fatores de risco tradicionais, uma vez que muitos estudos mostraram independ&#234;ncia na associa&#231;&#227;o desses marcadores. <sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> Ainda, o aumento desses marcadores inflamat&#243;rios circulantes foi associado com n&#237;veis elevados de mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o celular vascular-1 (VCAM-1), mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular-1 (ICAM-1), e E-selectina, indicadores de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Tal fato pode explicar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre inflama&#231;&#227;o e DCV; <sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> </sup> assim, marcadores inflamat&#243;rios como PCR e IL-6 tamb&#233;m podem indicar disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. <sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref> - <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>A evid&#234;ncia atual sugere que a ingest&#227;o elevada de &#225;cidos graxos saturados (AGSs) est&#225; associada a um risco cardiovascular aumentado, <sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> e limitar o consumo de AGSs para redu&#231;&#227;o desse risco &#233; ainda recomendado pelas diretrizes de nutri&#231;&#227;o da American Heart Association <sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> e da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia. <sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> Os mecanismos pelos quais os AGSs contribuem para a progress&#227;o da aterosclerose incluem principalmente o aumento nos n&#237;veis sangu&#237;neos de colesterol total, lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL), e triglicer&#237;deos, <sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> e a inflama&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> - <xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>Entre os mecanismos relatados na literatura, mostrou-se que os AGSs s&#227;o ativadores de receptores do tipo Toll (TLRs) em macr&#243;fagos, ativando a via de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria e, subsequentemente, disfun&#231;&#245;es imunometab&#243;licas encontradas nas doen&#231;as cardiometab&#243;licas. <sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica de como os AGSs influenciam a inflama&#231;&#227;o e consequentemente o risco cardiovascular permanece controverso devido aos diferentes m&#233;todos aplicados, <sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> e faltam estudos sobre a influ&#234;ncia desse AGS sobre biomarcadores da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e inflama&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Inqu&#233;ritos alimentares, comumente usados em estudos que avaliaram os efeitos dos AGSs sobre a sa&#250;de, cont&#234;m v&#225;rios vieses, e os &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias t&#234;m sido usados como biomarcadores do estado nutricional desses nutrientes, <sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> podendo fornecer evid&#234;ncias mais consistentes sobre como os AGSs est&#227;o associados com inflama&#231;&#227;o e fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial em humanos.</p>
      <p>Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo &#233; avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o dos AGSs das hem&#225;cias (&#225;cidos palm&#237;tico e este&#225;rico) com biomarcadores circulantes da inflama&#231;&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial em indiv&#237;duos com fatores de risco cardiovasculares, mas sem DCV estabelecida.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Delineamento e participantes do estudo</title>
        <p>Este foi um estudo transversal dos dados basais do ensaio cl&#237;nico CARDIONUTRI ((ReBEC: RBR-2vfhfv). Os participantes foram recrutados do ambulat&#243;rio do hospital da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo. Os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o foram indiv&#237;duos de ambos os sexos, idade entre 30 e 74 anos, com ao menos um fator de risco cardiovascular, e sem eventos cardiovasculares pr&#233;vios (infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio ou acidente vascular cerebral). Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;as agudas ou doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas graves, doen&#231;as infecciosas, mulheres gr&#225;vidas e/ou lactantes. Os indiv&#237;duos rastreados passaram por uma breve entrevista por telefone para avalia&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o e exclus&#227;o. Ainda, os indiv&#237;duos foram submetidos a uma eletrocardiografia conduzida por um cardiologista, e aqueles com altera&#231;&#245;es sugestivas de eventos cardiovasculares pr&#233;vios foram exclu&#237;dos. Um total de 374 indiv&#237;duos foram recrutados para o estudo em 2011 e 2012. Dois indiv&#237;duos recusaram a participar ap&#243;s serem informados sobre o delineamento do estudo. Quatorze pacientes foram exclu&#237;dos por apresentarem altera&#231;&#245;es no eletrocardiograma e dois por diagn&#243;stico recente de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV. Ao final do recrutamento, 356 indiv&#237;duos foram inclu&#237;dos no ensaio CARDIONUTRI. Para a an&#225;lise do presente estudo, foram inclu&#237;dos somente pacientes com informa&#231;&#245;es laboratoriais sobre marcadores inflamat&#243;rios (citoquinas plasm&#225;ticas), resultando em 79 indiv&#237;duos ( <xref rid="f02" ref-type="fig">Figura 1</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Gr&#225;fico do estudo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20220598-20598-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e nutricional</title>
        <p>A hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica de doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis e uso atual de medicamentos foram relatadas pelos pacientes. O exame f&#237;sico incluiu medida do &#205;ndice de Massa Corporal (IMC), circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura, e press&#227;o arterial. A ingest&#227;o diet&#233;tica foi obtida por tr&#234;s recordat&#243;rios alimentares de 24 horas e avaliada no programa Food Processor (ESHA Research, 2012), com subsequente ajuste quanto &#224; energia. <sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> O risco cardiovascular foi avaliado pelo escore de risco Framingham, <sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> , <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> </sup> e os indiv&#237;duos foram classificados com risco baixo, moderado ou alto. Diabetes foi considerado um equivalente da Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana (DAC). <sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise bioqu&#237;mica</title>
        <p>Amostras de sangue foram coletadas ap&#243;s jejum de 12 horas em tubos contendo EDTA (1.0 mg/mL), e os eritr&#243;citos foram separados do plasma por centrifuga&#231;&#227;o, e ambos congelados a -80 <sup>o</sup> C, imediatamente ap&#243;s a coleta. Inibidores de protease (10 &#181;g/mL de aprotinina, 10 &#181;g/mL de benzamidina, e 5 &#181;g/mL de fenilmetilsulfonil) e hidroxitolueno butilado (BHT, 100 &#181;g/mL) foram adicionados para preservar as amostras. Todas as amostras foram divididas em al&#237;quotas para evitar ciclos repetidos de degelo e armazenados a -80 <sup>o</sup> C at&#233; as an&#225;lises. Concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de colesterol total, lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL), triglicer&#237;deos, glicose, (Labtest Diagnostica SA, MG, Brasil), &#225;cidos graxos n&#227;o esterificados (AGNEs), apolipoprote&#237;nas (Apo) A-I e B (Wako Chemicals USA Inc., Richmond, VA, USA), e prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel (PCR-us) foram medidas usando kits comerciais. Valores plasm&#225;ticos de Interleucina (IL)-6, IL-10, prote&#237;na quimioatraente de mon&#243;citos 1 (MCP-1) e Fator de Necrose Tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) foram medidos usando um kit de ensaio de imunoabsor&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica (ELISA) Bio-PlexTM Human Cytokine 17-plex (Bio-Rad Laboratories, CA, EUA). A insulina s&#233;rica foi medida pelo kit de ELISA para insulina humana (Life Technologies, NY, EUA). O LDL foi calculado usando a equa&#231;&#227;o de Friedewald. <sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> A sensibilidade &#224; insulina foi medida pelo modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina (HOMA-IR), e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica foi diagnosticada foi diagnosticada se os indiv&#237;duos apresentassem qualquer das seguintes condi&#231;&#245;es: IMC &gt; 28,9 Kg/m <sup>2</sup> , HOMA-IR &gt;4,65, ou IMC &gt;27,5 kg/m <sup>2</sup> e HOMA-IR &gt;3,60. <sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup> </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise dos &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias</title>
        <p>A an&#225;lise dos &#225;cidos graxos de hem&#225;cias foi realizada por cromatografia gasosa conforme descrito em outro estudo. <sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s a separa&#231;&#227;o do plasma, 300mL de hem&#225;cias foram lavadas quatro vezes com 5 mL de solu&#231;&#227;o salina tamponada com fosfato (PBS, pH 7,4). O precipitado foi transferido para tubos com tampas de rosca, aos quais foram adicionados 1,75 mL de metanol, 50 &#181;L de solu&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o interna contendo &#225;cido tetradecan&#243;ico (C13:0)/1 mL hexano, e 100 &#181;L de cloreto de acetila. A solu&#231;&#227;o foi agitada em um v&#243;rtex e aquecida em banho maria a 90 <sup>o</sup> C por uma hora. Em seguida, 1,5 mL de hexano foi adicionado, e a solu&#231;&#227;o homogeneizada por um minuto. As amostras foram centrifugadas a 1500 &#215; g, a 4 <sup>o</sup> C por dois minutos, e 800 &#181;L do sobrenadante foi transferido para outro tubo. Essa etapa foi repetida com a adi&#231;&#227;o de 750 &#181;L de hexano. Os tubos contendo os sobrenadantes coletados foram colocados em um concentrador centr&#237;fugo a 40 <sup>o</sup> C por 20 minutos. Em seguida, &#233;steres met&#237;licos de &#225;cidos graxo foram dissolvidos em 150 &#181;L de hexano e transferidos a um <italic>insert</italic> de vidro encaixado em um <italic>vial</italic> . No total, 19 &#225;cidos graxos de hem&#225;cias foram descritos, os quais inclu&#237;ram AGSs, &#225;cidos graxos monoinsaturados (AGMI), e &#225;cidos graxos poli-insaturados (AGPI). Entre os &#225;cidos graxos de hem&#225;cias, analisamos os &#225;cidos palm&#237;tico, este&#225;rico, eicosanoico, docosanoico, lignoc&#233;rico, palmitoleico, oleico, gondoico, er&#250;cico, nerv&#244;nico, linoleico, &#947;-linoleico, eicosadienoico, dihomo-&#947;-linol&#234;nico, araquid&#244;nico, 13,16-docosadienoico, &#945;-linoleico, eicosapentaenoico, e &#225;cido docosahexaenoico. No presente estudo, focamos nossas an&#225;lises nos AGSs, mais especificamente nos &#225;cidos este&#225;rico e palm&#237;tico, os quais foram os AGSs mas predominantes nos eritr&#243;citos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>A distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis foi avaliada pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. As caracter&#237;sticas das amostras s&#227;o apresentadas em m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o (DP) ou mediana e intervalo interquartil (IIQ) para as vari&#225;veis quantitativas, dependendo da distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis, e como frequ&#234;ncia (n) e porcentagem (%) para as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas.</p>
        <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o dos AGSs com os par&#226;metros cardiometab&#243;licos e citocinas foi avaliada por correla&#231;&#245;es de Pearson e de Spearman, dependendo da distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis.</p>
        <p>Para avaliar a influ&#234;ncia dos &#225;cidos palm&#237;tico e este&#225;rico sobre biomarcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o, foram aplicadas m&#250;ltiplas regress&#245;es lineares usando os biomarcadores inflamat&#243;rios (PCR-us, IL-6, IL-10, MCP-1, TNF-&#945;) como vari&#225;veis dependentes, e o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico ou este&#225;rico como a vari&#225;vel independente al&#233;m das vari&#225;veis de ajuste (idade, sexo, tabagismo, colesterol total, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, glicemia e IMC). Todos os pressupostos da regress&#227;o foram preenchidos (isto &#233;, aus&#234;ncia de multicolinearidade, homoscedasticidade, erros independentes e com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal, independ&#234;ncia das vari&#225;veis de desfechos, e linearidade das vari&#225;veis).</p>
        <p>Todos os testes foram bicaudais, com p&lt;0,05 considerado como estatisticamente significativo, e conduzidos no programa SPSS vers&#227;o 20.0.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>As caracter&#237;sticas dos participantes est&#227;o resumidas nas Tabelas 1 e S1. A amostra foi composta predominantemente por mulheres (59.5%), e a idade m&#233;dia foi 51,0 &#177; 10,3 anos. A preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas autorrelatadas na amostra foi de 60,8 % de indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o, 52,2% de dislipidemia, e 25,3% de diabetes mellitus tipo 2.</p>
      <p>Quanto ao escore de risco Framingham, a maioria dos participantes foi classificada como em alto risco cardiovascular (51,9%), seguido de risco moderado (34,2%) e baixo risco (13,9%). A amostra apresentou v&#225;rios fatores de risco cardiovasculares, tais como valores elevados de IMC, circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura, colesterolemia, glicemia, insulinemia, PCR-us e HOMA-IR, e baixo HDL ( <xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e bioqu&#237;micas dos participantes do estudo</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>M&#233;dia/Mediana</th>
                <th>DP/IIQ</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade, anos</td>
                <td align="center">51,0</td>
                <td align="center">10,3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#205;ndice de massa corporal, Kg/m <sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">31,5</td>
                <td align="center">6,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura, cm</td>
                <td align="center">101,5</td>
                <td align="center">13,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">135,2</td>
                <td align="center">19,2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">81,8</td>
                <td align="center">9,9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, bpm</td>
                <td align="center">67,8</td>
                <td align="center">13,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Colesterol total, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">199,8</td>
                <td align="center">43,9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HDL-c, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">35,8</td>
                <td align="center">10,2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDL-c, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">134,8</td>
                <td align="center">41,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Colesterol total:HDL-c</td>
                <td align="center">6,0</td>
                <td align="center">4,0 &#8211; 7,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Colesterol n&#227;o-HDL, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">164,4</td>
                <td align="center">45,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ApoA-I, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">126,9</td>
                <td align="center">25,7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ApoB, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">101,8</td>
                <td align="center">26,9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Triglicer&#237;deos, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">129,0</td>
                <td align="center">94,0 &#8211; 188,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;cidos graxos n&#227;o esterificados, mEq/dL</td>
                <td align="center">0,62</td>
                <td align="center">0,25</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Glicose, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">96,0</td>
                <td align="center">89,0 &#8211; 108,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Insulina, &#956;UI/mL</td>
                <td align="center">17,7</td>
                <td align="center">8,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                <td align="center">4,4</td>
                <td align="center">2,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PCR-us, mg/L</td>
                <td align="center">2,8</td>
                <td align="center">1,2 &#8211; 5,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IL-6, pg/mL</td>
                <td align="center">5,3</td>
                <td align="center">3,3 &#8211; 9,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IL-10, pg/mL</td>
                <td align="center">4,0</td>
                <td align="center">2,8 &#8211; 10,5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>MCP-1, pg/mL</td>
                <td align="center">15,1</td>
                <td align="center">10,5 &#8211; 21,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TNF-&#945;, pg/mL</td>
                <td align="center">15,2</td>
                <td align="center">8,2 &#8211; 25,9</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>HDL: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; LDL: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; Apo: apolipoprote&#237;na; HOMA-IR: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina; IL: interleucina; PCR-us: prote&#237;na C Reativa Ultrassens&#237;vel; TNF-&#945;: fator de necrose tumoral-&#945;, MCP-1: prote&#237;na quimioatraente de Mon&#243;citos 1; DP: desvio padr&#227;o; IIQ: intervalo interquartil.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>O perfil dos &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias est&#225; descrito na <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">Tabela 2</xref> . Os &#225;cidos graxos mais abundantes foram os &#225;cidos palm&#237;tico e este&#225;rico. O AGMI mais abundante foi o &#225;cido oleico (C18:1 n-9). Entre os AGPI, os mais frequentes foram o &#225;cido linoleico e o &#225;cido araquid&#244;nico da fam&#237;lia n-6 e o &#225;cido docosahexaen&#243;ico da fam&#237;lia n-3.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Perfil dos &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias dos participantes do estudo</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>M&#233;dia/Mediana</th>
                <th>DP/IIQ</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="3">
                  <bold>AGS, %</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C16:0 (&#225;cido palm&#237;tico)</td>
                <td align="center">44,02</td>
                <td align="center">4,87</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C18:0 (&#225;cido este&#225;rico)</td>
                <td align="center">26,12</td>
                <td align="center">4,45</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C20:0 (&#225;cido eicosan&#243;ico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,73</td>
                <td align="center">0,18</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C22:0 (&#225;cido docosanoico)</td>
                <td align="center">1,29</td>
                <td align="center">0,51</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C24:0 (&#225;cido lignoc&#233;rico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,27</td>
                <td align="center">0,14 &#8211; 0,77</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="3">
                  <bold>AGMI, %</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C16:1 n-7 (&#225;cido palmitoleico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,33</td>
                <td align="center">0,22 &#8211; 0,76</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C18:1 n-9 (&#225;cido oleico acid)</td>
                <td align="center">8,99</td>
                <td align="center">3,71</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C20:1 n-9 (&#225;cido gondoico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,08</td>
                <td align="center">0,05 &#8211; 0,14</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C22:1 n-9 (&#225;cido er&#250;cico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,14</td>
                <td align="center">0,10 &#8211; 0,21</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C24:1 n-9 (&#225;cido nerv&#244;nico)</td>
                <td align="center">1,36</td>
                <td align="center">0,67</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="3">
                  <bold>AGPI n-6, %</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C18:2 n-6 (&#225;cido linoleico)</td>
                <td align="center">4,34</td>
                <td align="center">1,91</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C18:3 n-6 (&#225;cido &#947;-linoleico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,17</td>
                <td align="center">0,12 &#8211; 0,24</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C20:2 n-6 (&#225;cido eicosadienoico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,10</td>
                <td align="center">0,07 &#8211; 0,17</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C20:3 n-6 (&#225;cido dihomo-&#947;-linol&#234;nico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,54</td>
                <td align="center">0,36</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C20:4 n-6 (&#225;cido araquid&#244;nico)</td>
                <td align="center">3,43</td>
                <td align="center">2,60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C22:2 n-6 (&#225;cido 13,16-docosadienoico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,39</td>
                <td align="center">0,21</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> n-6 total</td>
                <td align="center">9,18</td>
                <td align="center">4,07</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="3">
                  <bold>AGPI n-3, %</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C18:3 n-3 (&#225;cido &#945;-linolenico)</td>
                <td align="center">1,64</td>
                <td align="center">1,01 &#8211; 2,28</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C20:5 n-3 (&#225;cido eicosapentaenoico)</td>
                <td align="center">0,24</td>
                <td align="center">0,14</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> C22:6 n-3 (&#225;cido docosahexaenoico)</td>
                <td align="center">3,91</td>
                <td align="center">1,31</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> n-3 total</td>
                <td align="center">6,16</td>
                <td align="center">2,03</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>AGMI: &#225;cidos graxos monoinsaturados; AGPI: &#225;cidos graxos poli-insaturados; DP: desvio padr&#227;o; IIQ: intervalo interquartil.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>A composi&#231;&#227;o nutricional da dieta dos participantes e a sua correla&#231;&#227;o com os marcadores inflamat&#243;rios est&#227;o descritas nas Tabelas S2 e S3. O consumo m&#233;dio de AGSs foi 10,2&#177;3,9%, sendo o consumo de &#225;cido palm&#237;tico de 6,4 &#177; 4,0g e o de &#225;cido este&#225;rico 3,0 &#177; 2,4 g. N&#227;o houve correla&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa entre AGS diet&#233;tico e marcadores inflamat&#243;rios.</p>
      <p>As correla&#231;&#245;es entre AGS das hem&#225;cias (&#225;cidos palm&#237;tico e este&#225;rico) est&#227;o descritas na <xref rid="t3" ref-type="table">Tabela 3</xref> . Colesterol total, colesterol n&#227;o-HDL, raz&#227;o colesterol total: colesterol HDL, apoB, e triglicer&#237;deos correlacionaram-se inversamente com o &#225;cido este&#225;rico. No entanto, PCR-us, IL-6, IL-10, MCP-1 e TNF-&#945; correlacionaram-se positivamente com o &#225;cido este&#225;rico.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Correla&#231;&#245;es entre &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias e biomarcadores cardiovasculares</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th rowspan="2" align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th colspan="2">&#193;cido palm&#237;tico</th>
                <th colspan="2">&#193;cido este&#225;rico</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>r</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
                <th>r</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Sexo</td>
                <td align="center">0,079</td>
                <td align="center">0,490</td>
                <td align="center">0,197</td>
                <td align="center">0,082</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade, anos</td>
                <td align="center">0,062</td>
                <td align="center">0,585</td>
                <td align="center">0,163</td>
                <td align="center">0,151</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#205;ndice de massa corporal, Kg/m <sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">0,013</td>
                <td align="center">0,907</td>
                <td align="center">-0,036</td>
                <td align="center">0,756</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura, cm</td>
                <td align="center">0,021</td>
                <td align="center">0,857</td>
                <td align="center">-0,076</td>
                <td align="center">0,506</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0,034</td>
                <td align="center">0,767</td>
                <td align="center">-0,113</td>
                <td align="center">0,323</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica, mmHg</td>
                <td align="center">0,024</td>
                <td align="center">0,833</td>
                <td align="center">-0,151</td>
                <td align="center">0,184</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, bpm</td>
                <td align="center">0,049</td>
                <td align="center">0,667</td>
                <td align="center">0,072</td>
                <td align="center">0,531</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Colesterol total, mg/dL*</td>
                <td align="center">-0,032</td>
                <td align="center">0,779</td>
                <td align="center">-0,253</td>
                <td align="center">0,024</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HDL-c, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">0,089</td>
                <td align="center">0,434</td>
                <td align="center">0,198</td>
                <td align="center">0,080</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDL-c, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">-0,088</td>
                <td align="center">0,453</td>
                <td align="center">-0,211</td>
                <td align="center">0,069</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Colesterol total:HDL-c</td>
                <td align="center">-0,083</td>
                <td align="center">0,468</td>
                <td align="center">-0,330</td>
                <td align="center">0,003</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Colesterol n&#227;o-HDL, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">-0,052</td>
                <td align="center">0,649</td>
                <td align="center">-0,292</td>
                <td align="center">0,009</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ApoA-I, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">0,155</td>
                <td align="center">0,173</td>
                <td align="center">-0,023</td>
                <td align="center">0,843</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ApoB, mg/dL</td>
                <td align="center">0,009</td>
                <td align="center">0,936</td>
                <td align="center">-0,290</td>
                <td align="center">0,009</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Triglicer&#237;deos, mg/dL*</td>
                <td align="center">-0,011</td>
                <td align="center">0,927</td>
                <td align="center">-0,244</td>
                <td align="center">0,030</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;cidos graxos n&#227;o esterificados, mEq/dL</td>
                <td align="center">0,283</td>
                <td align="center">0,016</td>
                <td align="center">-0,007</td>
                <td align="center">0,954</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Glicose, mg/dL*</td>
                <td align="center">-0,114</td>
                <td align="center">0,317</td>
                <td align="center">-0,034</td>
                <td align="center">0,768</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Insulina, &#956;UI/mL</td>
                <td align="center">0,133</td>
                <td align="center">0,298</td>
                <td align="center">-0,220</td>
                <td align="center">0,083</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                <td align="center">0,093</td>
                <td align="center">0,467</td>
                <td align="center">-0,210</td>
                <td align="center">0,099</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PCR-us, mg/L*</td>
                <td align="center">0,114</td>
                <td align="center">0,325</td>
                <td align="center">0,286</td>
                <td align="center">0,012</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IL-6, pg/mL*</td>
                <td align="center">0,017</td>
                <td align="center">0,881</td>
                <td align="center">0,340</td>
                <td align="center">0,002</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IL-10, pg/mL*</td>
                <td align="center">0,029</td>
                <td align="center">0,833</td>
                <td align="center">0,357</td>
                <td align="center">0,007</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>MCP-1, pg/mL*</td>
                <td align="center">0,034</td>
                <td align="center">0,769</td>
                <td align="center">0,245</td>
                <td align="center">0,030</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TNF-&#945;, pg/mL*</td>
                <td align="center">0,009</td>
                <td align="center">0,938</td>
                <td align="center">0,364</td>
                <td align="center">0,002</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>A an&#225;lise de correla&#231;&#227;o foi realizada usando o teste de Pearson para vari&#225;veis param&#233;tricas e o teste de Spearman (*) para vari&#225;veis n&#227;o param&#233;tricas. HDL: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; LDL: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; Apo: apolipoprote&#237;na; HOMA-IR: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina; IL: interleucina; PCR-us: prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel; TNF-&#945;: fator de necrose tumoral-&#945;; MCP-1: prote&#237;na quimioatraente de Mon&#243;citos 1; DP: desvio padr&#227;o; IIQ: intervalo interquartil.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Nos modelos de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla ( <xref rid="t4" ref-type="table">Tabela 4</xref> ), o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico n&#227;o apresentou associa&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa com nenhum dos biomarcadores inflamat&#243;rios, ao passo que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico foi um fator independentemente associado PCR-us, IL-6, e TNF-&#945; quando ajustado por idade, sexo, tabagismo, colesterol total, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, glicemia e IMC.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Associa&#231;&#245;es entre &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias e biomarcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o e de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial circulantes</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="14%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th rowspan="2" align="left">Vari&#225;veis dependentes</th>
                <th rowspan="2">R2</th>
                <th rowspan="2">&#946;</th>
                <th rowspan="2">SE</th>
                <th colspan="2">IC95% para &#946;</th>
                <th rowspan="2">Valor p</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>Inferior</th>
                <th>Superior</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="7">
                  <bold>&#193;cido palm&#237;tico (C16:0)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> PCR-us</td>
                <td align="center">0,079</td>
                <td align="center">0,165</td>
                <td align="center">0,162</td>
                <td align="center">-0,158</td>
                <td align="center">0,489</td>
                <td align="center">0,311</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> IL-6</td>
                <td align="center">0,110</td>
                <td align="center">0,132</td>
                <td align="center">1,789</td>
                <td align="center">-3,438</td>
                <td align="center">3,702</td>
                <td align="center">0,941</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> IL-10</td>
                <td align="center">0,127</td>
                <td align="center">0,728</td>
                <td align="center">2,134</td>
                <td align="center">-3,589</td>
                <td align="center">5,024</td>
                <td align="center">0,735</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> MCP-1</td>
                <td align="center">0,091</td>
                <td align="center">0,399</td>
                <td align="center">2,184</td>
                <td align="center">-3,957</td>
                <td align="center">4,756</td>
                <td align="center">0,855</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> TNF-&#945;</td>
                <td align="center">0,127</td>
                <td align="center">0,112</td>
                <td align="center">1,279</td>
                <td align="center">-2,445</td>
                <td align="center">2,669</td>
                <td align="center">0,930</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="7">
                  <bold>&#193;cido este&#225;rico (C18:0)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> PCR-us</td>
                <td align="center">0,162</td>
                <td align="center">0,545</td>
                <td align="center">0,194</td>
                <td align="center">0,157</td>
                <td align="center">0,933</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,007</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> IL-6</td>
                <td align="center">0,173</td>
                <td align="center">4,620</td>
                <td align="center">2,026</td>
                <td align="center">0,577</td>
                <td align="center">8,664</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,026</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> IL-10</td>
                <td align="center">0,186</td>
                <td align="center">4,370</td>
                <td align="center">2,359</td>
                <td align="center">-0,379</td>
                <td align="center">9,120</td>
                <td align="center">0,070</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> MCP-1</td>
                <td align="center">0,116</td>
                <td align="center">3,584</td>
                <td align="center">2,526</td>
                <td align="center">-1,454</td>
                <td align="center">8,623</td>
                <td align="center">0,160</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> TNF-&#945;</td>
                <td align="center">0,194</td>
                <td align="center">3,230</td>
                <td align="center">1,443</td>
                <td align="center">0,345</td>
                <td align="center">6,116</td>
                <td align="center">0,029</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>Modelos de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla ajustados por idade, sexo, tabagismo, colesterol total, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, press&#227;o arterial, glicemia, e &#237;ndice de massa corporal. Os modelos foram compostos por uma das vari&#225;veis dependentes &#8211; Prote&#237;na C Reativa Ultrassens&#237;vel (PCR-us), Interleucina-6 (IL-6), Interleucina-10 (IL-10), Prote&#237;na quimioatraente de Mon&#243;citos 1 (MCP-1) e Fator de Necrose Tumoral-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) e vari&#225;veis independentes (&#225;cido palm&#237;tico ou &#225;cido este&#225;rico e vari&#225;veis de ajuste). IC95%: intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>O principal achado de nosso estudo ( <xref rid="f01" ref-type="fig">Figura Central</xref> ) foi que a associa&#231;&#227;o independente entre &#225;cido este&#225;rico e biomarcadores de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e inflama&#231;&#227;o, apesar das correla&#231;&#245;es inversas com lip&#237;dios aterog&#234;nicos em indiv&#237;duos com fatores de risco cardiovascular sem DCV. Ainda, o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico n&#227;o mostrou associa&#231;&#227;o significativa com nenhum dos biomarcadores avaliados.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura Central</label>
          <caption>
            <title>: &#193;cido Este&#225;rico (mas n&#227;o o &#193;cido Palm&#237;tico) est&#225; Associado a Biomarcadores Inflamat&#243;rios e de Disfun&#231;&#227;o Endotelial em Indiv&#237;duos em Risco Cardiovascular</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>DCV: doen&#231;a cardiovascular; PCR-us: prote&#237;na C ultrassens&#237;vel; IL-6: Interleucina 6.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20220598-20598-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Limitar a ingest&#227;o de AGS para diminuir o risco cardiovascular &#233; uma recomenda&#231;&#227;o das diretrizes nutricionais recentemente publicadas. <sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref> , <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> </sup> Uma meta-an&#225;lise de Ensaios Cl&#237;nicos Randomizados (ECRs) mostrou que a ingest&#227;o de &#243;leo de palma rico em &#225;cido palm&#237;tico aumentou os n&#237;veis de LDL em 9mg/dL em compara&#231;&#227;o a &#243;leos vegetais pobres em AGS. <sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> Tal fato pode ser traduzido em um risco 6% maior de Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana (DAC). <sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup> Outra meta-an&#225;lise mostrou que uma redu&#231;&#227;o no consumo de AGSs diminuiu o n&#237;vel de LDL em 5mg/dL em crian&#231;as e adolescentes. <sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> O mais importante, esses efeitos ocorrem quando a faixa de ingest&#227;o dos &#225;cidos graxos encontra-se entre 20 e 30% do total de energia ingerida. Quando a ingest&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos &#233; maior que 30%, a magnitude do efeito do AGS de elevar os n&#237;veis de LDL aumentou para 24 mg/dL. <sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> Contudo, outros estudos mostraram fracas associa&#231;&#245;es entre a ingest&#227;o de AGS e desfechos cardiovasculares. <sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> , <xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref> </sup> Tais controv&#233;rsias poderiam ser explicadas pela substitui&#231;&#227;o dos AGSs por carboidratos refinados, <sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> e a compara&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos dos AGSs com os de &#225;cidos graxos trans, gordura animal, ou &#243;leo de coco, <sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> dificultaria a avalia&#231;&#227;o do real efeito dos AGSs. Ainda, a maioria dos estudos observacionais n&#227;o distinguem os efeitos do &#225;cido palm&#237;tico e do &#225;cido este&#225;rico, os quais s&#227;o encontrados mais no &#243;leo de palma, e na manteiga e na banha, respectivamente. <sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Em nosso estudo, contudo, o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico n&#227;o apresentou correla&#231;&#227;o significativa com colesterol sangu&#237;neo. Esse foi um resultado inesperado, uma vez que &#233; sabido que o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico aumenta os n&#237;veis de colesterol total e de LDL. <sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup> Embora os AGSs de hem&#225;cias reflitam a ingest&#227;o de AGS, <sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup> sabe-se tamb&#233;m que carboidratos diet&#233;ticos modulam os n&#237;veis de AGSs circulantes por meio da lipog&#234;nese <italic>de novo</italic> , levando a uma discrep&#226;ncia entre o estado nutricional e a ingest&#227;o de AGSs. <sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> A lipog&#234;nese <italic>de novo</italic> encontra-se elevada na obesidade, <sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> o que poderia explicar a falta de associa&#231;&#227;o entre &#225;cidos graxos diet&#233;ticos e das hem&#225;cias, observada no presente estudo (Tabela S3). Ainda, a ingest&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos totais e AGSs n&#227;o foi elevada (29,7 % e 10,2 % da ingest&#227;o de energia, respectivamente) e, portanto, a possibilidade de que o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico cause hipercolesterolemia nesses n&#237;veis de ingest&#227;o &#233; baixa. <sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Por outro lado, o &#225;cido este&#225;rico mostrou uma correla&#231;&#227;o inversa significativa com o colesterol total, colesterol n&#227;o-HDL, apoB, e triglicer&#237;deos. Um ECR relatou que os efeitos dos &#225;cidos este&#225;rico, oleico, e linoleico n&#227;o apresentaram diferen&#231;a, sugerindo que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico, diferentemente do &#225;cido palm&#237;tico, n&#227;o aumenta os n&#237;veis de LDL. <sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise recente mostrou que a substitui&#231;&#227;o do &#225;cido palm&#237;tico com &#225;cido este&#225;rico teve pouco ou nenhum efeito sobre o colesterol total, LDL, e apo B. <sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup> Ainda, a substitui&#231;&#227;o diet&#233;tica do &#225;cido este&#225;rico com AGMI ou AGPI n&#227;o afetou sobre as concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL, HDL, colesterol total ou triglicer&#237;deos, diferentemente da substitui&#231;&#227;o do &#225;cido palm&#237;tico com AGMI ou AMPI. Tal fato corrobora a hip&#243;tese de que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico diet&#233;tico pode ser menos delet&#233;rio que o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico quanto aos efeitos sobre o perfil lip&#237;dico. Assim, nossos resultados corroboram essa hip&#243;tese, uma vez que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico das hem&#225;cias mostrou melhor correla&#231;&#227;o com os lip&#237;dios sangu&#237;neos em compara&#231;&#227;o ao &#225;cido palm&#237;tico.</p>
      <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre AGS circulante e risco cardiovascular tem sido controversa. A metan&#225;lise de Chowdhury et al. <sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup> n&#227;o encontraram rela&#231;&#227;o entre biomarcadores do status de AGS e desfechos coronarianos. Contudo, esses resultados foram criticados, <sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup> uma vez que a meta-an&#225;lise incluiu estudos que utilizaram diferentes fra&#231;&#245;es lip&#237;dicas, que refletem a ingest&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos de diferentes maneiras (por exemplo, os n&#237;veis de &#225;cidos graxos plasm&#225;ticos de jejum refletem o consumo dos &#250;ltimos 3-4 dias, enquanto os n&#237;veis de &#225;cidos graxos derivados de fosfolip&#237;dios refletem a ingest&#227;o nos &#250;ltimos meses). <sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> , <xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref> </sup> Dos oito estudos inclu&#237;dos na meta-an&#225;lise, <sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup> quatro estudos que analisaram fosfolip&#237;dios plasm&#225;ticos mostraram associa&#231;&#245;es significativas com DAC e mortalidade, <sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref> - <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> </sup> sendo as associa&#231;&#245;es mais fortes com &#225;cido palm&#237;tico e este&#225;rico.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m da modula&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo das lipoprote&#237;nas, os AGSs podem influenciar o risco cardiovascular por meio da inflama&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Os AGSs atuam como agonistas n&#227;o microbianos do receptor do tipo Toll 4 (TLR4), ativando vias inflamat&#243;rias por meio do o fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o nuclear kappa B (NF-kB), que exerce um papel crucial na indu&#231;&#227;o de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios tais como IL-1&#946;, IL-6, MCP1, TNF-&#945;, entre outros. <sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref></sup> Os AGSs tamb&#233;m induzem indiretamente a ativa&#231;&#227;o de TLR4 por meio da produ&#231;&#227;o elevada ade lipopolissacar&#237;deos e toxinas ur&#234;micas pela microbiota intestinal ap&#243;s a ingest&#227;o de uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica. Essa endotoxemia metab&#243;lica leva a um estresse oxidativo, e &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios aterog&#234;nicos, LDL oxidado (LDLox) e fosfolip&#237;dios oxidados &#8211; que levam &#224; resposta inflamat&#243;ria do complexo CD36-TLR4-TLR6. <sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> , <xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">36</xref> </sup> Ainda, o consumo elevado de AGSs aumenta os n&#237;veis de lip&#237;dios, de LDL minimamente modificada e de LDLox, que ativam a via inflamat&#243;ria CD14-TLR4-MD2. <sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref></sup> O consumo elevado de AGSs tamb&#233;m pode alterar a composi&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica do HDL e a capacidade de efluxo do colesterol, diminuindo sua fun&#231;&#227;o e aumentando o risco cardiovascular. <sup><xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref> , <xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>Nosso estudo corrobora esse fato, ao mostrar que os AGSs das hem&#225;cias associam-se independentemente com marcadores inflamat&#243;rios. No entanto, essa associa&#231;&#227;o restringiu-se ao &#225;cido este&#225;rico. Sabe-se que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico induz a resposta inflamat&#243;ria. <sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref></sup> Em uma an&#225;lise de uma subamostra do PREDIMED, os AGSs plasm&#225;ticos e, especificamente, o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico, mostraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o positiva com n&#237;veis mais altos de mol&#233;culas p&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias circulantes, particularmente IL-6. <sup><xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref></sup> Por outro lado, Voon et al. <sup><xref rid="B40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref></sup> mostraram que uma dieta rica em &#225;cido palm&#237;tico n&#227;o modificou os n&#237;veis de biomarcadores. Contudo, biomarcadores do status de AGSs n&#227;o foram medidos no estudo. Outros estudos mostraram que AGSs totais est&#227;o associados a n&#237;veis mais elevados de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, tais como PCR-us e IL-6, <sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref> , <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> , <xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref> , <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup> e risco cardiovascular mais alto. <sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref> - <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> </sup> Por&#233;m, quando analisados separadamente, as associa&#231;&#245;es tende a ser mais significativas e mais fortes com o &#225;cido este&#225;rico, sugerindo que o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico isoladamente n&#227;o altera o risco cardiovascular na mesma magnitude que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico. <sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref> - <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> , <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>Devido ao seu efeito neutro sobre o metabolismo de lipoprote&#237;nas, o &#225;cido este&#225;rico tem sido considerado um substituto diet&#233;tico para os &#225;cidos graxos <italic>trans</italic> visando redu&#231;&#227;o no risco cardiovascular. <sup><xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref></sup> Contudo, o risco cardiovascular n&#227;o se resume aos fatores de risco tradicionais principais, <sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> e v&#225;rios biomarcadores cardiovasculares potenciais que refletem diferentes aspectos da sa&#250;de cardiovascular tem sido estudados. <sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref> </sup> A associa&#231;&#227;o independente do &#225;cido este&#225;rico das hem&#225;cias com a PCR-us, IL-6 e TNF-&#945; encontrada em nosso estudo sugere uma a&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria dos &#225;cidos graxos, que leva &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e ao aumento do risco cardiovascular, independentemente dos efeitos sobre o metabolismo das lipoprote&#237;nas, corroborando estudos anteriores. <sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref> - <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> , <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup> Contudo, a maioria dos estudos s&#227;o observacionais. Um ECR recente comparando uma dieta rica em &#225;cido palm&#237;tico e uma dieta rica em &#225;cido este&#225;rico mostrou que, apesar dos melhores efeitos sobre o metabolismo lip&#237;dico, o &#225;cido este&#225;rico aumentou os n&#237;veis de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios de baixo grau circulantes. <sup><xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref></sup> Estudos laboratoriais mostram que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico tem efeitos compar&#225;veis aos do &#225;cido palm&#237;tico em ativar a cascata de resposta inflamat&#243;ria TLR4/Nf-&#954;B. <sup><xref rid="B46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref></sup> Um estudo pr&#233;vio mostrou que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico &#233; um fator contribuinte importante para a lipotoxicidade nas c&#233;lulas beta de camundongos, mostrando efeitos mais delet&#233;rios que o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico na sobrevida de c&#233;lulas beta e controle glicometab&#243;lico. <sup><xref rid="B47" ref-type="bibr">47</xref></sup> Entretanto, n&#227;o observamos nenhuma associa&#231;&#227;o entre os AGSs e marcadores glicometab&#243;licos no estudo. Tamb&#233;m foi demonstrado que o tratamento de macr&#243;fagos polarizados M1 com &#225;cido este&#225;rico aumenta sua susceptibilidade &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o e estresse de ret&#237;culo endoplasm&#225;tico por meio da inflama&#231;&#227;o independente de TLR4/2. <sup><xref rid="B48" ref-type="bibr">48</xref></sup> Ainda, o &#225;cido este&#225;rico, em concentra&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas, mas n&#227;o o &#225;cido palm&#237;tico, induz efeitos lipot&#243;xicos sobre c&#233;lulas angiog&#234;nicas circulantes, reduzindo, assim sua capacidade de reparo endotelial. <sup><xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a express&#227;o de genes pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios, induzida por &#225;cido este&#225;rico, aumenta o estresse de ret&#237;culo endoplasm&#225;tico e apoptose de c&#233;lulas angiog&#234;nicas, o que poderia estar associado com dano e disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular aumentados. <sup><xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref></sup> A associa&#231;&#227;o do &#225;cido este&#225;rico encontrada no presente estudo tamb&#233;m pode ser explicada por seu efeito de aumentar a atividade de estearoil-CoA 1 (SDC1), uma enzima lipog&#234;nica associada &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica e inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de baixo grau, embora os mecanismos pelos quais a SCD1 aumenta a inflama&#231;&#227;o sejam desconhecidas. <sup><xref rid="B50" ref-type="bibr">50</xref></sup> Contudo, n&#227;o avaliamos polimorfismos de nucleot&#237;deo &#250;nico ou atividade da SCD1 em nosso estudo.</p>
      <p>Em conjunto, os resultados de nosso estudo e da literatura corroboram o efeito pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio do &#225;cido este&#225;rico. Sabe-se que a PCR-us, o IL-6, e o TNF-&#945; n&#227;o s&#227;o apenas marcadores do sistema de inflama&#231;&#227;o, como tamb&#233;m biomarcadores da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. <sup><xref rid="B51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref> , <xref rid="B52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref> </sup> A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial &#233; o principal marco de DCV e est&#225; associada com pior progn&#243;stico independentemente dos fatores de risco. <sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> De fato, n&#237;veis elevados de &#225;cido este&#225;rico podem aumentar o risco inflamat&#243;rio cardiovascular, independentemente dos n&#237;veis de colesterol sangu&#237;neo. Nosso estudo tem limita&#231;&#245;es devido &#224; sua natureza transversal, o tamanho amostral, e a falta de desfechos cl&#237;nicos. Os pontos fortes do estudo incluem o uso de &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias como um biomarcador do status de AGS, e o uso de biomarcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o e de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. A raz&#227;o pelo qual os &#225;cidos graxos de hem&#225;cias n&#227;o se correlacionaram com &#225;cidos graxos da dieta pode ser atribu&#237;da a v&#225;rios vieses inerentes aos inqu&#233;ritos alimentares, sugerindo a vantagem de se utilizar biomarcadores do status de &#225;cidos graxos, particularmente &#225;cidos graxos das hem&#225;cias, que refletem a ingest&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos nos &#250;ltimos tr&#234;s meses aproximadamente.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Nossos resultados mostraram que o &#225;cido este&#225;rico de hem&#225;cias associa-se independentemente com biomarcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o e de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial em indiv&#237;duos com um ou mais fator de risco cardiovascular.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>Os autores agradecem a Sra. Elizabeth Torres por disponibilizar o cromat&#243;grafo a g&#225;s para o estudo.</p>
    </ack>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de mestrado de Gustavo Henrique Ferreira Gon&#231;alinho pela Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Departamento de Nutri&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica do Hospital da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 0063.0.207.198-11. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="fn_ast1">
        <label>*</label>
        <p>Material suplementar</p>
        <p>Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, clique aqui. http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12008/2022-0598_AO_Supplementary_tables.pdf</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn7">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo foi financiado pela CAPES n&#186; 8882.330835/2019-1 e FAPESP n&#186; 2016/24531-3 e 2011/12523-2.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Stearic Acid, but not Palmitic Acid, is Associated with Inflammatory and Endothelial Dysfunction Biomarkers in Individuals at Cardiovascular Risk</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alinho</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Henrique Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sampaio</surname>
            <given-names>Geni Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7955-656X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soares-Freitas</surname>
            <given-names>Rosana Aparecida Man&#243;lio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Damasceno</surname>
            <given-names>N&#225;gila Raquel Teixeira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Departamento de Nutri&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Gustavo Henrique Ferreira Gon&#231;alinho &#8226; Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Dr. En&#233;as Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. Postal Code 05403-900, Cerqueira C&#233;sar, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: gustavo.goncalinho@usp.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>Several studies have associated dietary saturated fatty acids (SFAs) with cardiovascular risk but there are still many controversies. Most of these studies have focused on the effects of palmitic acid on circulating lipids. Stearic acid usually shows a neutral effect on blood lipids, however, there is a lack of clinical studies assessing the link with inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p>To evaluate the association of red blood cell (RBC) SFA (palmitic and stearic acids) with circulating inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction biomarkers.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>Cross-sectional study of 79 adults of both sexes with at least one cardiovascular risk factor but without previous events (acute myocardial infarction or stroke). Plasma biomarkers &#8211; lipids, glucometabolic markers, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) &#8211; and RBC palmitic and stearic fatty acids were analyzed. The associations were assessed by correlation and multiple linear regression analyses, with statistical significance set at p &lt; 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>Palmitic acid showed no significant associations with traditional cardiovascular risk factors or inflammatory markers. Stearic acid, on the other hand, was inversely correlated with blood cholesterol and triglycerides, but independently associated with hs-CRP, IL-6, and TNF-&#945;.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p>Stearic acid is associated with inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction biomarkers in individuals with at least one cardiovascular risk factor.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Fatty Acids</kwd>
        <kwd>Endothelium</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarkers</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The role of inflammation in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) has gained much emphasis in the literature. Patients who are on intensive cholesterol-lowering therapy using statins, ezetimibe, and PCSK9 inhibitors may have a so-called &#8220;residual inflammatory risk&#8221;, in which patients with higher levels of inflammatory markers such as tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF-&#945;), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP), despite cholesterol lowering, may experience more cardiovascular events when compared to patients with lower levels.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup>Several biomarkers of inflammation have been associated with the incidence, prevalence, severity, and prognosis of CVDs. They may reflect CVD from a different perspective than that of traditional risk factors since many studies have shown independence in the association of these markers.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup>Also, the increase in these circulating inflammatory markers has been associated with increased levels of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and E-selectin, indicators of impaired endothelial function. This may explain the relationship between inflammation and CVD.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> </sup>Therefore, inflammatory markers such as CRP and IL-6 may also indicate endothelial dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref> - <xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Current evidence suggests that high intake of dietary saturated fatty acids (SFAs) is associated with increased cardiovascular risk,<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup>and limiting SFA consumption to reduce this risk is still recommended by the recently published nutrition guidelines of the American Heart Association<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup>and the Brazilian Society of Cardiology.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup>Mechanisms of how SFAs contribute to atherosclerosis progression and increase cardiovascular risk include mainly increased blood total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-c), triglycerides,<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup>and inflammation.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> - <xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Among the mechanisms demonstrated in the literature, it has been shown that SFAs are activators of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in macrophages, triggering the inflammatory signaling pathway and subsequently, immunometabolic dysfunctions found in cardiometabolic diseases.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup>Clinical evidence of how SFAs influence inflammation and consequently CVD risk remains controversial due to different methods.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup>Most studies have investigated the effects of palmitic acid; studies focusing on stearic acid have shown a nearly neutral effect on human health from the lipoprotein point of view. Studies on the influence of this SFA on biomarkers of endothelial function and inflammation are lacking.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup>Food surveys, commonly used in studies that assessed the effects of SFAs on health, contain several biases, and red blood cells (RBC) fatty acids have been used as biomarkers of the nutritional status of these nutrients,<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup>and may provide more consistent evidence of how SFAs are associated with inflammation and endothelial function in humans.</p>
        <p>Therefore, the objective of the present study is to evaluate the association of RBC SFAs (palmitic and stearic acids) with circulating biomarkers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors but without established CVD.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study design and participants</title>
          <p>This was a cross-sectional study of baseline data from the CARDIONUTRI clinical trial (ReBEC: RBR-2vfhfv). The participants were recruited from the outpatient clinic at the University of S&#227;o Paulo Hospital. Inclusion criteria were individuals of both sexes, 30 to 74 years, with at least one cardiovascular risk factor, and no previous cardiovascular events (acute myocardial infarction or stroke). Exclusion criteria were individuals with acute or severe chronic diseases, infectious diseases, pregnant, and/or lactating women. Screened individuals were submitted to a short phone interview to assess inclusion and exclusion criteria. Additionally, individuals underwent an electrocardiogram conducted by a cardiologist and those with alterations suggesting previous cardiovascular events were excluded. Three hundred and seventy-four individuals were recruited for the study from 2011 to 2012. Two individuals declined after being informed about the study design. Fourteen were excluded due to altered electrocardiograms and two due to recent HIV diagnosis. At the end of the recruitment, 356 individuals were included in the CARDIONUTRI trial. For the present study analysis, only participants who had laboratory information on inflammatory markers (plasma cytokines) were included, resulting in 79 subjects ( <xref rid="f02001" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Study flow chart.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20220598-20598-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical and nutritional assessment</title>
          <p>Medical history of non-communicable chronic diseases and current medication use was self-reported. Physical examination included body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood pressure assessment. Dietary intake was obtained through three 24-hour recalls and assessed in the Food Processor software (ESHA Research, 2012), with subsequent energy adjustment.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup>Cardiovascular risk was assessed by the Framingham Risk Score,<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> , <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> </sup>and individuals were classified as at low, moderate, or high risk. Diabetes was considered a coronary artery disease (CAD) equivalent.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biochemical analysis</title>
          <p>Blood was collected after a 12-h fast into EDTA tubes (1.0 mg/mL), and erythrocytes were separated from plasma by centrifugation; both were frozen at -80 &#176;C immediately after collection. Protease inhibitors (10 &#181;g/mL of aprotinin, 10 &#181;g/mL of benzamidine, and 5 &#181;g/mL of phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, 100 &#181;g/mL) were added to preserve samples. All samples were divided into aliquots to avoid repeated defrost cycles and stored at -80 &#176;C until analyses. Plasma total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-c), triglycerides, glucose (Labtest Diagnostica SA, MG, Brazil), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), apolipoproteins (Apo) A-I and B (Wako Chemicals USA Inc., Richmond, VA, USA), and high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) (Diagnostic System Laboratories, Inc., Webster, TX, USA) were measured by commercial kits. Plasma interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and TNF-&#945; were measured using a Bio-PlexTM Human Cytokine 17-plex Assay ELISA kit (Bio-Rad Laboratories, CA, USA). Serum insulin was measured by a Human Insulin ELISA kit (Life Technologies, NY, USA). LDL-c was calculated using the Friedewald equation.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup>Insulin sensitivity was measured by the Homeostasis Model Assessment &#8211; Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR), and insulin resistance was diagnosed if the individuals presented any of the following conditions: BMI &gt; 28.9 kg/m<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup>, HOMA-IR &gt;4.65, or BMI &gt;27.5 kg/m<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup>and HOMA-IR &gt;3.60.<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Red blood cell fatty acids analysis</title>
          <p>Analysis of RBC fatty acids was performed by gas chromatography as described elsewhere.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup>After plasma separation, 300 &#956;L of RBC were washed with 5 mL of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution (pH 7.4) four times. The precipitate was transferred to screw-cap tubes, to which 1.75 mL of methanol, 50 &#181;L of an internal standard solution containing 1 mg tridecanoic acid (C13:0)/1 mL hexane, and 100 &#181;L of acetyl chloride were added. Thereafter, the solution was vortexed and heated in a water bath at 90 &#176;C for one hour. After that, 1.5 mL of hexane was added, and the solution was homogenized for 1 min. The samples were centrifuged at 1500&#215; g, 4 &#176;C for two minutes, and 800 &#181;L of the supernatant was transferred to a different tube. This step was repeated with the addition of 750 &#181;L of hexane. The tubes containing the collected supernatants were placed in a centrifugal concentrator at 40 &#176;C for 20 minutes. Then the FA methyl esters were dissolved in 150 &#181;L of hexane and transferred to a glass insert in a vial. In total, 19 RBC fatty acids were detailed, which included SFA, monounsaturated FA (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Among the RBC fatty acids we analyzed palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, lignoceric, palmitoleic, oleic, gondoic, erucic, nervonic, linoleic, &#947;-linoleic, eicosadienoic, dihomo-&#947;-linoleic, arachidonic, 13,16-docosadienoic, &#945;-linoleic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids. In the present study, we focused our analyses on SFAs, more specifically on stearic and palmitic acids, which were the most predominant SFA in erythrocytes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>The distribution of variables was assessed through the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Sample characteristics are presented as mean and standard deviation (SD) or median and interquartile range (IQR) for quantitative variables, depending on the variables&#8217; distribution, and frequency (n) and percentage (%) for categorical variables.</p>
          <p>The relationship of SFAs with cardiometabolic parameters and cytokines was assessed through Pearson&#8217;s and Spearman&#8217;s correlations depending on the variables&#8217; distribution.</p>
          <p>To assess the influence of palmitic and stearic acids on inflammation biomarkers, multiple linear regressions were applied using the inflammation biomarkers (hs-CRP, IL-6, IL-10, MCP-1, TNF-&#945;) as dependent variables, and palmitic or stearic acid as the independent variable in addition to the adjustment variables (age, sex, smoking, total cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, glucose, and BMI). All regression assumptions were fulfilled ( <italic>i.e</italic> ., no multicollinearity, homoscedasticity, normally distributed and independent errors, independence of the outcome variables, and linearity of the variables).</p>
          <p>All statistical tests were two-sided, with p &lt; 0.05 considered statistically significant, and performed on the SPSS software version 20.0.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>Characteristics of the participants are summarized in <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref> and Table S1. The sample was composed mainly of women (59.5%) and had a mean age of 51.0 &#177; 10.3 years. The prevalence of self-reported chronic disease in the sample was 60.8% of individuals with hypertension, 52.2% of dyslipidemia, and 25.3% of type 2 diabetes mellitus.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Clinical and biochemical characteristics of the participants</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>Mean/Median</th>
                  <th>SD/IQR</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age, <italic>years</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">51.0</td>
                  <td align="center">10.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Body mass index, <italic>kg/m</italic> <sup><italic>2</italic></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">31.5</td>
                  <td align="center">6.1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Waist circumference, <italic>cm</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">101.5</td>
                  <td align="center">13.1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Systolic blood pressure, <italic>mmHg</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">135.2</td>
                  <td align="center">19.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diastolic blood pressure, <italic>mmHg</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">81.8</td>
                  <td align="center">9.9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Heart rate, <italic>bpm</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">67.8</td>
                  <td align="center">13.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Total cholesterol, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">199.8</td>
                  <td align="center">43.9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HDL-c, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">35.8</td>
                  <td align="center">10.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDL-c, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">134.8</td>
                  <td align="center">41.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Total cholesterol:HDL-c</td>
                  <td align="center">6.0</td>
                  <td align="center">4.0 &#8211; 7.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Non-HDL-c, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">164.4</td>
                  <td align="center">45.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ApoA-I, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">126.9</td>
                  <td align="center">25.7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ApoB, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">101.8</td>
                  <td align="center">26.9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Triglycerides, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">129.0</td>
                  <td align="center">94.0 &#8211; 188.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Non-esterified fatty acids, <italic>mEq/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.62</td>
                  <td align="center">0.25</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Glucose, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">96.0</td>
                  <td align="center">89.0 &#8211; 108.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Insulin, <italic>&#956;UI/mL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">17.7</td>
                  <td align="center">8.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                  <td align="center">4.4</td>
                  <td align="center">2.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>hs-CRP, <italic>mg/L</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">2.8</td>
                  <td align="center">1.2 &#8211; 5.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IL-6, <italic>pg/mL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">5.3</td>
                  <td align="center">3.3 &#8211; 9.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IL-10, <italic>pg/mL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">4.0</td>
                  <td align="center">2.8 &#8211; 10.5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MCP-1, <italic>pg/mL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">15.1</td>
                  <td align="center">10.5 &#8211; 21.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TNF-&#945;, <italic>pg/mL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">15.2</td>
                  <td align="center">8.2 &#8211; 25.9</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>HDL: high-density lipoprotein, LDL: low-density lipoprotein, Apo: apolipoprotein, HOMA-IR: Homeostasis Model Assessment &#8211; Insulin Resistance, IL: interleukin, hs-CRP: high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; TNF-&#945;: tumor necrosis factor-&#945;, MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. SD: standard deviation; IQR: interquartile range</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Regarding the Framingham Risk Score, most of the participants were classified as high cardiovascular risk (51.9%), followed by moderate risk (34.2%) and low risk (13.9%). The sample presented several cardiovascular risk factors, such as elevated BMI and waist circumference, hypercholesterolemia, low HDL-c, hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, HOMA-IR, and elevated hs-CRP ( <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref> ).</p>
        <p>The RBC fatty acids profile is described in <xref rid="t2001" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref> . The most abundant RBC fatty acids were palmitic and stearic acids. The most abundant MUFA was oleic acid (C18:1 n-9). Among PUFA, the most abundant FA were linoleic acid and arachidonic acid of the n-6 family and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) of the n-3 family.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Profile of red blood cell fatty acids of the participants</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>Mean/Median</th>
                  <th>SD/IQR</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>SFA, <italic>%</italic> </bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C16:0 (Palmitic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">44.02</td>
                  <td align="center">4.87</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C18:0 (Stearic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">26.12</td>
                  <td align="center">4.45</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C20:0 (Arachidic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.73</td>
                  <td align="center">0.18</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C22:0 (Behenic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.29</td>
                  <td align="center">0.51</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C24:0 (Lignoceric acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.27</td>
                  <td align="center">0.14 &#8211; 0.77</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>MUFA, <italic>%</italic> </bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C16:1 n-7 (Palmitoleic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.33</td>
                  <td align="center">0.22 &#8211; 0.76</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C18:1 n-9 (Oleic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">8.99</td>
                  <td align="center">3.71</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C20:1 n-9 (Gondoic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.08</td>
                  <td align="center">0.05 &#8211; 0.14</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C22:1 n-9 (Erucic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.14</td>
                  <td align="center">0.10 &#8211; 0.21</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C24:1 n-9 (Nervonic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.36</td>
                  <td align="center">0.67</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>PUFA n-6, <italic>%</italic> </bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C18:2 n-6 (Linoleic acid)</td>
                  <td>4.34</td>
                  <td align="center">1.91</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C18:3 n-6 (&#947;-linoleic acid)</td>
                  <td>0.17</td>
                  <td align="center">0.12 &#8211; 0.24</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C20:2 n-6 (Eicosadienoic acid)</td>
                  <td>0.10</td>
                  <td align="center">0.07 &#8211; 0.17</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C20:3 n-6 (Dihomo- &#947;-linoleic acid)</td>
                  <td>0.54</td>
                  <td align="center">0.36</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C20:4 n-6 (Arachidonic acid)</td>
                  <td>3.43</td>
                  <td align="center">2.60</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C22:2 n-6 (13,16-Docosadienoic acid)</td>
                  <td>0.39</td>
                  <td align="center">0.21</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Total n-6</td>
                  <td>9.18</td>
                  <td align="center">4.07</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>PUFA n-3, <italic>%</italic> </bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C18:3 n-3 (&#945;-linolenic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.64</td>
                  <td align="center">1.01 &#8211; 2.28</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C20:5 n-3 (Eicosapentaenoic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.24</td>
                  <td align="center">0.14</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> C22:6 n-3 (Docosahexaenoic acid)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.91</td>
                  <td align="center">1.31</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Total n-3</td>
                  <td align="center">6.16</td>
                  <td align="center">2.03</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids, SD: standard deviation; IQR: interquartile range.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>The nutritional composition of the participants&#8217; diet and its correlation with inflammatory markers are described in Table S2 and Table S3. The mean consumption of SFAs was 10.2 &#177; 3.9 %, with palmitic and stearic acids consumption of 6.4 &#177; 4.0 and 3.0 &#177; 2.4 g, respectively. There was no statistically significant correlation between dietary SFA and inflammatory markers.</p>
        <p>The correlations between RBC SFA (palmitic and stearic acids) are described in <xref rid="t3001" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref> . Total cholesterol, non-HDL-c, total cholesterol: HDL-c ratio, apoB, and triglycerides were inversely correlated with stearic acid. However, hs-CRP, IL-6, IL-10, MCP-1, and TNF-&#945; were positively correlated with stearic acid.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Correlations between red blood cell fatty acids and cardiovascular biomarkers</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3">Variables</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Palmitic acid</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Stearic acid</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                  <th colspan="2">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>r</th>
                  <th>p-value</th>
                  <th>r</th>
                  <th>p-value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sex</td>
                  <td align="center">0.079</td>
                  <td align="center">0.490</td>
                  <td align="center">0.197</td>
                  <td align="center">0.082</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age, <italic>years</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.062</td>
                  <td align="center">0.585</td>
                  <td align="center">0.163</td>
                  <td align="center">0.151</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Body mass index, <italic>kg/m</italic> <sup><italic>2</italic></sup></td>
                  <td align="center">0.013</td>
                  <td align="center">0.907</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.036</td>
                  <td align="center">0.756</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Waist circumference, <italic>cm</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.021</td>
                  <td align="center">0.857</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.076</td>
                  <td align="center">0.506</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Systolic blood pressure, <italic>mmHg</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.034</td>
                  <td align="center">0.767</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.113</td>
                  <td align="center">0.323</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diastolic blood pressure, <italic>mmHg</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.024</td>
                  <td align="center">0.833</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.151</td>
                  <td align="center">0.184</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Heart rate, <italic>bpm</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.049</td>
                  <td align="center">0.667</td>
                  <td align="center">0.072</td>
                  <td align="center">0.531</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Total cholesterol, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">-0.032</td>
                  <td align="center">0.779</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.253</td>
                  <td align="center">0.024</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HDL-c, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.089</td>
                  <td align="center">0.434</td>
                  <td align="center">0.198</td>
                  <td align="center">0.080</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDL-c, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">-0.088</td>
                  <td align="center">0.453</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.211</td>
                  <td align="center">0.069</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Total cholesterol:HDL-c*</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.083</td>
                  <td align="center">0.468</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.330</td>
                  <td align="center">0.003</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Non-HDL-c, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">-0.052</td>
                  <td align="center">0.649</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.292</td>
                  <td align="center">0.009</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ApoA-I, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.155</td>
                  <td align="center">0.173</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.023</td>
                  <td align="center">0.843</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ApoB, <italic>mg/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.009</td>
                  <td align="center">0.936</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.290</td>
                  <td align="center">0.009</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Triglycerides, <italic>mg/dL*</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">-0.011</td>
                  <td align="center">0.927</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.244</td>
                  <td align="center">0.030</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Non-esterified fatty acids, <italic>mEq/dL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.283</td>
                  <td align="center">0.016</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.007</td>
                  <td align="center">0.954</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Glucose, <italic>mg/dL*</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">-0.114</td>
                  <td align="center">0.317</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.034</td>
                  <td align="center">0.768</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Insulin, <italic>&#956;UI/mL</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.133</td>
                  <td align="center">0.298</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.220</td>
                  <td align="center">0.083</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                  <td align="center">0.093</td>
                  <td align="center">0.467</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.210</td>
                  <td align="center">0.099</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>hs-CRP, <italic>mg/L*</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.114</td>
                  <td align="center">0.325</td>
                  <td align="center">0.286</td>
                  <td align="center">0.012</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IL-6, <italic>pg/mL*</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.017</td>
                  <td align="center">0.881</td>
                  <td align="center">0.340</td>
                  <td align="center">0.002</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IL-10, <italic>pg/mL*</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.029</td>
                  <td align="center">0.833</td>
                  <td align="center">0.357</td>
                  <td align="center">0.007</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MCP-1, <italic>pg/mL*</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.034</td>
                  <td align="center">0.769</td>
                  <td align="center">0.245</td>
                  <td align="center">0.030</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TNF-&#945;, <italic>pg/mL*</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">0.009</td>
                  <td align="center">0.938</td>
                  <td align="center">0.364</td>
                  <td align="center">0.002</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>HDL: high-density lipoprotein, LDL: low-density lipoprotein, Apo: apolipoprotein, HOMA-IR: Homeostasis Model Assessment &#8211; Insulin Resistance, IL: interleukin, hs-CRP: high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; TNF-&#945;: tumor necrosis factor-&#945;, MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, SD: standard deviation; IQR: interquartile range; the correlation analysis was performed using Pearson&#8217;s test for parametric variables and Spearman&#8217;s test (*) for non-parametric variables</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>In the multiple linear regression models ( <xref rid="t4001" ref-type="table">Table 4</xref> ), palmitic acid did not present any statistically significant association with inflammatory biomarkers, whereas stearic acid was independently factor associated with hs-CRP, IL-6, and TNF-&#945; when adjusted by age, sex, smoking status, total cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, plasma glucose, and BMI.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4001">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Associations between red blood cell fatty acids and circulating inflammation and endothelial dysfunction biomarkers</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3">Dependent variables</th>
                  <th rowspan="3">R<sup><bold>2</bold></sup></th>
                  <th rowspan="3">&#946;</th>
                  <th rowspan="3">SE</th>
                  <th colspan="2">95% CI for &#946;</th>
                  <th rowspan="3">p-value</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Lower</th>
                  <th>Upper</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="7">
                    <bold>Palmitic acid (C16:0)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> hs-CRP</td>
                  <td align="center">0.079</td>
                  <td align="center">0.165</td>
                  <td align="center">0.162</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.158</td>
                  <td align="center">0.489</td>
                  <td align="center">0.311</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> IL-6</td>
                  <td align="center">0.110</td>
                  <td align="center">0.132</td>
                  <td align="center">1.789</td>
                  <td align="center">-3.438</td>
                  <td align="center">3.702</td>
                  <td align="center">0.941</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> IL-10</td>
                  <td align="center">0.127</td>
                  <td align="center">0.728</td>
                  <td align="center">2.134</td>
                  <td align="center">-3.589</td>
                  <td align="center">5.024</td>
                  <td align="center">0.735</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> MCP-1</td>
                  <td align="center">0.091</td>
                  <td align="center">0.399</td>
                  <td align="center">2.184</td>
                  <td align="center">-3.957</td>
                  <td align="center">4.756</td>
                  <td align="center">0.855</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> TNF-&#945;</td>
                  <td align="center">0.127</td>
                  <td align="center">0.112</td>
                  <td align="center">1.279</td>
                  <td align="center">-2.445</td>
                  <td align="center">2.669</td>
                  <td align="center">0.930</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="7">
                    <bold>Stearic acid (C18:0)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> hs-CRP</td>
                  <td align="center">0.162</td>
                  <td align="center">0.545</td>
                  <td align="center">0.194</td>
                  <td align="center">0.157</td>
                  <td align="center">0.933</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.007</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> IL-6</td>
                  <td align="center">0.173</td>
                  <td align="center">4.620</td>
                  <td align="center">2.026</td>
                  <td align="center">0.577</td>
                  <td align="center">8.664</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.026</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> IL-10</td>
                  <td align="center">0.186</td>
                  <td align="center">4.370</td>
                  <td align="center">2.359</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.379</td>
                  <td align="center">9.120</td>
                  <td align="center">0.070</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> MCP-1</td>
                  <td align="center">0.116</td>
                  <td align="center">3.584</td>
                  <td align="center">2.526</td>
                  <td align="center">-1.454</td>
                  <td align="center">8.623</td>
                  <td align="center">0.160</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> TNF-&#945;</td>
                  <td align="center">0.194</td>
                  <td align="center">3.230</td>
                  <td align="center">1.443</td>
                  <td align="center">0.345</td>
                  <td align="center">6.116</td>
                  <td align="center">0.029</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4001">
                <p>Multiple linear regression models adjusted by age, sex, smoking status, total cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, glucose, and body mass index. The models were composed by one of the dependent variables &#8211; high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP); interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL: interleukin-10 (IL-10), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF-&#945;) and independent variables (palmitic acid or stearic acid and the adjustment variables), 95%CI: 95% confidence interval</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The main finding of our study ( <xref rid="f01001" ref-type="fig">Central Illustration</xref> ) was that stearic acid was independently associated with circulating biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction and inflammation despite inverse correlations with atherogenic blood lipids in individuals with cardiovascular risk factors without CVD. Additionally, there was statistically significant association of palmitic acid with any of the biomarkers assessed.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Stearic Acid, but not Palmitic Acid, is Associated with Inflammatory and Endothelial Dysfunction Biomarkers in Individuals at Cardiovascular Risk</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Hs-CRP: high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; IL: Interleukin; CVD: cardiovascular disease.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-08-e20220598-20598-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Limiting SFA intake for cardiovascular risk lowering is recommended by recently published nutrition guidelines.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref> , <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> </sup>A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCT) showed that palm oil rich in palmitic acid raised LDL-c by 9 mg/dL when compared to low-SFA vegetable oils.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup>This can be translated into a 6% higher risk of coronary artery disease (CAD).<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup>Another meta-analysis showed that dietary SFA reduction decreased LDL-c by 5 mg/dL in children and adolescents.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup>Importantly, these effects occur when fatty acid intake range is within 20 to 30% of total daily energy intake. When the fatty acid energy intake is greater than 30%, the magnitude of the LDL-c raising effect by SFA increased to 24 mg/dL.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup>However, other studies showed weak associations between SFA intake and CVD outcomes.<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> , <xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref> </sup>These controversies could be explained by the replacement of SFAs with refined carbohydrates,<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup>and comparing the effects of SFA with <italic>trans-</italic> fatty acid, animal fat, or coconut oil,<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup>could make it difficult to evaluate the real effect of SFA. Furthermore, most observational studies do not distinguish the overall effects of palmitic acid and stearic acid, which are found more in palm oil and butter and lard, respectively.<sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In our study, however, palmitic acid did not have any significant correlation with blood cholesterol. It was an unexpected result since it is known that palmitic acid raises total cholesterol and LDL-c.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup>Although red blood cells&#8217; SFAs reflect the SFA intake,<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup>it is also known that carbohydrate intake modulates circulating SFA levels through <italic>de novo</italic> lipogenesis, causing a discrepancy between nutritional status and SFA intake.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> <italic>De novo</italic> lipogenesis is found elevated in obesity,<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup>which could explain the lack of association between RBC and dietary fatty acid found in the present study (Table S3). Furthermore, total fatty acids and SFA intake was not high (29.7% energy and 10.2% energy, respectively), making it unlikely that palmitic acid causes hypercholesterolemia at these intake levels.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Stearic acid, on the other hand, showed a significant inverse correlation with total cholesterol, non-HDL-c, apoB, and triglycerides. One RCT reported that the effects of stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids on lipoproteins had no difference, suggesting that stearic acid, unlike the palmitic acid, does not raise LDL-c.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup>A recent meta-analysis showed that replacing dietary palmitic acid with stearic acid had little or no effect on total cholesterol, LDL-c, and apoB.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup>Furthermore, dietary substitution of stearic acid with MUFA or PUFA showed that concentrations of LDL-c, HDL-c, total cholesterol, or triglycerides were not affected, contrasting with the effects when palmitic acid was replaced by MUFA or PUFA. This corroborates the hypothesis that dietary stearic acid might be less detrimental than palmitic acid on blood lipids. Thus, our results corroborate this hypothesis, since RBC stearic acid showed more favorable correlations with blood lipids compared to palmitic acid.</p>
        <p>The association between circulating SFA and cardiovascular risk has been controversial. The meta-analysis of Chowdhury et al.<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup>found no relationship between SFA status biomarkers and coronary outcomes. However, these results have been criticized,<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup>since the meta-analysis included studies that used different lipid fractions, which reflect dietary fatty acid intake variously (e.g., fasting plasma fatty acid reflects intake over the last 3-4 days, whilst plasma phospholipid fatty acids reflect intake over the last months).<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> , <xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref> </sup>Of the eight studies included in the meta-analysis,<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup>four studies analyzing plasma phospholipids, showed significant associations with coronary heart disease and mortality,<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref> - <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> </sup>with stronger associations with palmitic and stearic acids.</p>
        <p>In addition to modulation of lipoprotein metabolism, SFAs may influence cardiovascular risk through inflammation.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup>SFAs act as non-microbial Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonists, triggering inflammatory pathways through nuclear factor kappa B (NF-&#954;B), which plays a crucial role in the induction of inflammatory mediators such as IL-1&#946;, IL-6, MCP1, TNF-&#945;, and others.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref></sup>SFA also trigger TLR4 activation indirectly by the overproduction of lipopolysaccharides and uremic toxins by gut microbiota after a high-fat dietary intake. This metabolic endotoxemia leads to oxidative stress thereby producing atherogenic lipids &#8211; oxidized LDL (oxLDL) and oxidized phospholipids &#8211; which trigger the CD36-TLR4-TLR6 complex inflammatory response.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> , <xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">36</xref> </sup>Furthermore, high SFA consumption increases lipemia and minimally modified LDL and oxLDL levels, which activate CD14-TLR4-MD2 inflammatory pathway.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref></sup>In addition, high SFA consumption may alter HDL lipid composition and cholesterol efflux capacity, decreasing its function and increasing cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref> , <xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>In line with that, our study showed that RBCSFA are independently associated with inflammatory markers. However, this association was restricted to stearic acid. Palmitic acid is known to induce the inflammatory response.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref></sup>In an analysis of a PREDIMED sub-sample, plasma SFA and specifically palmitic acid were positively associated with higher levels of circulating pro-inflammatory molecules, particularly IL-6.<sup><xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref></sup>On the other hand, Voon et al.<sup><xref rid="B40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref></sup>showed that a high palmitic acid diet did not modify inflammatory biomarkers. However, SFA status biomarkers were not measured in the study. Other studies showed that circulating total SFAs are associated with higher inflammatory markers circulating levels such as hs-CRP and IL-6,<sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref> , <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> , <xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref> , <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup>and higher cardiovascular risk<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup>but when analyzed separately, the associations tend to be more significant and stronger with stearic acid, suggesting that palmitic acid alone does not modify cardiovascular risk in the same magnitude as with stearic acid.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref> - <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> , <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Due to its neutral effect on lipoprotein metabolism, stearic acid has been considered a dietary substitute for <italic>trans</italic> fatty acids for cardiovascular risk reduction.<sup><xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref></sup>However, cardiovascular risk goes beyond major traditional risk factors,<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup>and several emerging potential cardiovascular biomarkers that reflect different aspects of cardiovascular health are being studied.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref> , <xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref> </sup>The independent association of RBC stearic acid with hs-CRP, IL-6, and TNF-&#945; found in our study suggests a pro-inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction-causing action, and consequently, a cardiovascular risk-raising effect of the fatty acids, independently of their effects on lipoprotein metabolism, corroborating the aforementioned studies.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref> - <xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref> , <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup>Nonetheless, most of the studies are observational. A recent RCT comparing a palmitic acid-rich diet and a stearic acid-rich diet showed that although better lipid metabolism effects, stearic acid increased the circulating levels of low-grade inflammation markers.<sup><xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref></sup>Laboratory studies show that stearic acid has comparable effects to palmitic acid in activating the TLR4/Nf-&#954;B inflammatory response cascade.<sup><xref rid="B46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref></sup>A previous study demonstrated that stearic acid is a major contributor to lipotoxicity in beta cells of mice, showing more detrimental effects than palmitic acid in beta cell survival and glucometabolic control.<sup><xref rid="B47" ref-type="bibr">47</xref></sup>However, we did not observe any association between SFA and glucometabolic markers in the study. It was also shown that treatment of M1polarized macrophages with stearic acid increases their susceptibility to inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress through TLR4/2-independent inflammation.<sup><xref rid="B48" ref-type="bibr">48</xref></sup>Additionally, stearic acid at physiological concentrations, but not palmitic acid, induces lipotoxic effects on circulating angiogenic cells (CACs), thereby reducing its endothelial repair capacity.<sup><xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref></sup>Moreover, the expression of pro-inflammatory genes induced by stearic acid increases ER stress and CAC apoptosis, which could be associated with increased vascular damage and dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref></sup>The association of stearic acid found in the present study can also be explained by its effect of increasing the activity of stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1), a lipogenic enzyme associated with metabolic dysfunction and chronic low-grade inflammation, but the mechanisms which SCD1 increases inflammation are unknown.<sup><xref rid="B50" ref-type="bibr">50</xref></sup>However, we did not evaluate single nucleotide polymorphisms or SCD1 activity in our study.</p>
        <p>Together, the findings of our study and the cited literature corroborate the pro-inflammatory effect of stearic acid. It is known that hs-CRP, IL-6, and TNF-&#945; are not only markers of systemic inflammation but also endothelial dysfunction biomarkers.<sup><xref rid="B51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref> , <xref rid="B52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref> </sup>Endothelial dysfunction is the main hallmark of CVD and is associated with worse prognostic independently of risk factors.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup>Accordingly, high levels of stearic acid might increase residual inflammatory cardiovascular risk independently of blood cholesterol levels. Our work has limitations due to its cross-sectional nature, the small sample, and the lack of clinical outcomes. The strengths of the study include the use of RBC fatty acids a biomarker of SFA status and the use of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction biomarkers. The reason why RBC fatty acids were not correlated with dietary FA may be attributed to various biases embedded in food surveys, suggesting the advantage of using FA status biomarkers, specifically RBC fatty acids, which reflect FA intake approximately over the last three months.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>In conclusion, our findings showed that RBC stearic acid is independently associated with inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction biomarkers in individuals with at least one cardiovascular risk factor.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgments</title>
        <p>The authors cordially thank Elizabeth Torres for making the gas chromatography equipment available for the study.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Gustavo Henrique Ferreira Gon&#231;alinho, from Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Departamento de Nutri&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo under the protocol number 0063.0.207.198-11. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="fn_ast1001">
          <label>*</label>
          <p>Supplemental Materials</p>
          <p>For additional information, please click here. http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12008/2022-0598_AO_Supplementary_tables.pdf</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn7001">
          <p>Sources of funding: This study was partially funded by CAPES n&#186; 8882.330835/2019-1 and FAPESP n&#186; 2016/24531-3 and 2011/12523-2.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
