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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">NHTpGXKFCz7NKht5CYLDZZF</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000701301</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01301</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230303</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Posicionamento</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Posicionamento sobre Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; A Mulher no Centro do Cuidado &#8211; 2023</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8471-5745</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina Costa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9131-0439</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rassi</surname>
            <given-names>Daniela do Carmo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9168-5513</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bragan&#231;a</surname>
            <given-names>&#201;rika Olivier Vilela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4741-322X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moura</surname>
            <given-names>Lidia Zytynski</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7417-5426</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Arrais</surname>
            <given-names>Magaly</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4254-1609</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Milena dos Santos Barros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0732-9920</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lemke</surname>
            <given-names>Viviana Guzzo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5686-7058</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Avila</surname>
            <given-names>Walkiria Samuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2455-5612</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lucena</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Jorge Gomes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1777-477X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233; Luiz Cerqueira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7040-396X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;a Araujo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2834-736X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea Dumsch de Aragon</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8579-4158</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Biolo</surname>
            <given-names>Andreia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3453-8488</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Macedo</surname>
            <given-names>Ariane Vieira Scarlatelli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4228-3451</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Falc&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Breno de Alencar Araripe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2447-2577</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi Anne</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9826-9152</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lantieri</surname>
            <given-names>Carla Janice Baister</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2406-8184</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marques-Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Celi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1222-7734</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Freire</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia Maria Vilas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4207-5364</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pellegrini</surname>
            <given-names>Denise</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5210-2848</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alexandre</surname>
            <given-names>Elizabeth Regina Giunco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiana Goulart Marcondes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7448-3741</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiana Michelle Feitosa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3361-7061</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cintra</surname>
            <given-names>Fatima Dumas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1418-9361</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9227-8832</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; S&#233;rgio Nascimento</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2908-2807</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Carreira</surname>
            <given-names>Lara Terra F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2881-7402</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Lucelia Batista Neves Cunha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9852-3293</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Matos</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana Diniz Nagem Janot de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6501-1139</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Assad</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Heitor Vieira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9663-2966</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Marcia M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff32">
            <sup>32</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6514-7183</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Marconi Gomes da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff33">
            <sup>33</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3322-0459</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rivera</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Alayde Mendon&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff34">
            <sup>34</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5738-2623</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1336-6517</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Elizabeth Navegantes Caetano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff35">
            <sup>35</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6457-3217</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Sanali Moura de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff36">
            <sup>36</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9938-8425</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Castro</surname>
            <given-names>Marildes Luiza de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff37">
            <sup>37</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7302-7448</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Uellendahl</surname>
            <given-names>Marly</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff38">
            <sup>38</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9413-3792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Mucio Tavares de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8722-7504</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Olga Ferreira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff39">
            <sup>39</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo Alves da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff40">
            <sup>40</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1000-821X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Coutinho</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo Quental</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>41</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff42">
            <sup>42</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6839-1541</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Sheyla Cristina Tonheiro Ferro da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff43">
            <sup>43</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3093-9743</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>S&#237;lvia Marinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9899-1612</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Simone Cristina Soares</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff44">
            <sup>44</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7823-3507</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Buglia</surname>
            <given-names>Susimeire</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff40">
            <sup>40</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1372-9282</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiana Maia Jorge de Ulh&#244;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff45">
            <sup>45</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff46">
            <sup>46</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1063-3787</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Nascimento</surname>
            <given-names>Thais Aguiar do</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff47">
            <sup>47</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Thais</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff48">
            <sup>48</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff49">
            <sup>49</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0257-4185</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Campagnucci</surname>
            <given-names>Valqu&#237;ria Pelisser</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff50">
            <sup>50</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4455-6740</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Chagas</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos Palandri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">1Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio de Belo Horizonte</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio de Belo Horizonte, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG), Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">RitmoCheck</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Jos&#233; dos Campos</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">RitmoCheck, S&#227;o Jos&#233; dos Campos, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225; (PUC-PR), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (HCor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Sergipe</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Sergipe, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Cardiocare &#8211; Cl&#237;nica Cardiol&#243;gica Ltda</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardiocare &#8211; Cl&#237;nica Cardiol&#243;gica Ltda., Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>9</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>10</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Agamenon Magalh&#227;es</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Agamenon Magalh&#227;es, Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>11</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Feira de Santana</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Feira de Santana</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>12</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label>13</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Neuro e Cardiologia de Curitiba</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Neuro e Cardiologia de Curitiba (INC), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label>14</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15">
        <label>15</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16">
        <label>16</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Messejana</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Messejana, Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17">
        <label>17</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">UFRGS</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18">
        <label>18</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio Faculdade de Medicina ABC</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Santo Andr&#233;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio Faculdade de Medicina ABC, Santo Andr&#233;, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19">
        <label>19</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Tiradentes</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Tiradentes (UNIT), Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20">
        <label>20</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#227;o Lucas Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luis</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Lucas Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luis, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21">
        <label>21</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares (EBSERH), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22">
        <label>22</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital S&#227;o Lucas da Pontif&#237;cia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Lucas da Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUC-RS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff23">
        <label>23</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff24">
        <label>24</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff25">
        <label>25</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff26">
        <label>26</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco da Universidade de Pernambuco (PROCAPE/UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff27">
        <label>27</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Cardiologia Nuclear de Curitiba</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardiologia Nuclear de Curitiba, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff28">
        <label>28</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pilar</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Pilar, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff29">
        <label>29</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff30">
        <label>30</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff31">
        <label>31</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia (INC), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff32">
        <label>32</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Socor</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Socor, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff33">
        <label>33</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">SPORTIF &#8211; Cl&#237;nica do Exerc&#237;cio e do Esporte</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SPORTIF &#8211; Cl&#237;nica do Exerc&#237;cio e do Esporte, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff34">
        <label>34</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Alagoas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Macei&#243;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AL</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Alagoas (UFAL), Macei&#243;, AL &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff35">
        <label>35</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio do Estado Par&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bel&#233;m</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio do Estado Par&#225; (CESUPA), Bel&#233;m, PA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff36">
        <label>36</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">INTERVE</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Natal</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RN</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">INTERVE, Natal, RN &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff37">
        <label>37</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade IPEMED de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade IPEMED de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff38">
        <label>38</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">DASA &#8211; Diagn&#243;sticos da Am&#233;rica S/A</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">DASA &#8211; Diagn&#243;sticos da Am&#233;rica S/A, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff39">
        <label>39</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Rede D&#8217;Or</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff40">
        <label>40</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff41">
        <label>41</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff42">
        <label>42</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Osvaldo Cruz</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Osvaldo Cruz da Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff43">
        <label>43</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">CEMISE Oncocl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">CEMISE Oncocl&#237;nicas, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff44">
        <label>44</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff45">
        <label>45</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">CARDIOCENTRO Cirurgia Cardiovascular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">CARDIOCENTRO Cirurgia Cardiovascular, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff46">
        <label>46</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff47">
        <label>47</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Cardio Ritmo Servi&#231;os M&#233;dicos</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardio Ritmo Servi&#231;os M&#233;dicos, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff48">
        <label>48</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Rede D&#8217;Or</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff49">
        <label>49</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Sergipe</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio da Universidade Federal de Sergipe (UFS), Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff50">
        <label>50</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Irmandade da Santa Casa de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Irmandade da Santa Casa de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: 20020-907. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <author-notes>
        <fn fn-type="equal">
          <p>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira e Maria Cristina Costa de Almeida contribu&#237;ram igualmente para o manuscrito</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>04</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>7</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230303</elocation-id>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="48"/>
        <table-count count="28"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="354"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Posicionamento sobre Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; A Mulher no Centro do Cuidado &#8211; 2023</label>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th colspan="2">Posicionamento sobre Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; A Mulher no Centro do Cuidado &#8211; 2023</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th colspan="2">O relat&#243;rio abaixo lista as declara&#231;&#245;es de interesse conforme relatadas &#224; SBC pelos especialistas durante o per&#237;odo de desenvolvimento deste posicionamento, 2022/2023.</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Especialista</th>
              <th align="left">Tipo de relacionamento com a ind&#250;stria</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Alexandre Jorge Gomes de Lucena</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Cardiopapers; Afya.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Andr&#233; Luiz Cerqueira de Almeida</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Boston Scientific: Palestrante Pr&#243;tese.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Andr&#233;a Araujo Brand&#227;o</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Servier: Triplixan; Daiichi Sankyo: Benicar; Libbs: Venzer. B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras. - Servier: Hipertens&#227;o Arterial. Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Servier: Hipertens&#227;o Arterial.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Andrea Dumsch de Aragon Ferreira</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Andreia Biolo</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras. - Alnylam Pharmaceuticals: Amiloidose.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Antonio Carlos Palandri Chagas</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novo Nordisk; Viatris; Instituto Vita Nova. Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novo Nordisk.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ariane Vieira Scarlatelli Macedo</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Bayer: Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; Pfizer: Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e amiloidose; Jannsen: Leucemia. Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Bayer: Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Breno de Alencar Araripe Falc&#227;o</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Edwards Lifescience: Proctor de TAVI e TMVR; Medtronic: Proctor de TAVI; Boston Scientific: Proctor de CTO PCI.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carisi Anne Polanczyk</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carla Janice Baister Lantieri</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Celi Marques-Santos</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Claudia Maria Vilas Freire</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Daniela do Carmo Rassi</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Denise Pellegrini</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Elizabeth Regina Giunco Alexandre</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Lilly: Trulicity, Jardiance, Glyxambi. Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novo Nordisk: Ozempic.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>&#201;rika Olivier Vilela Bragan&#231;a</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Fabiana Goulart Marcondes Braga</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novartis: Palestras; AstraZeneca: Palestras e Conselho Consultivo; Boehringer: Conselho Consultivo.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Fabiana Michelle Feitosa de Oliveira</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Fatima Dumas Cintra</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva Costa</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Jos&#233; S&#233;rgio Nascimento Silva</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Lara Terra F. Carreira</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Lidia Zytynski Moura</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Forxiga; Boehringer: Jardiance; Bayer: Vericiguat; Vifor: Ferrinject. B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras. - Bayer: Vericiguat.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Lucelia Batista Neves Cunha Magalh&#227;es</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luciana Diniz Nagem Janot de Matos</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Magaly Arrais</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Edwards / Boston: Implante transcateter valvar; Medtronic: Implante.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcelo Heitor Vieira Assad</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida; AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina; BI: Empagliflozina; GSK: Shingrix; Biolab: Evolucumabe; Daiichi Sankyo: Benicar Triplo; Novartis: Dislipidemia. B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras. - Amgen: LP(A). Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novo Nordisk: Semaglutina; BI: Empagliglozina.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcia M. Barbosa</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marconi Gomes da Silva</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Maria Alayde Mendon&#231;a Rivera</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Maria Cristina Costa de Almeida</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Maria Cristina de Oliveira Izar</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Amgen: Repatha; Amryt Pharma: Lojuxta; AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina; Ach&#233;: Trezor, Trezete; Biolab: Livalo; Abbott: Lipidil; EMS: Rosuvastatina; Eurofarma: Rosuvastatina; Sanofi: Praluent, Zympass, Zympass Eze, Efluelda; Libbs: Plenance, Plenance Eze; Novo Nordisk: Ozempic, Victoza; Servier: Acertamlo, Alertalix; PTCBio: Waylivra. B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras. - PTCBio: Waylivra; Amgen: Repatha; Novartis: Inclisiran, Pelacarsen; NovoNordisk: Ziltivekimab. Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novo Nordisk: Diabetes.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Maria Elizabeth Navegantes Caetano Costa</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Libbs: Plenance Enze; Servier: Vastarel. Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Libbs; Servier: Participa&#231;&#227;o em congresso.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Maria Sanali Moura de Oliveira Paiva</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marildes Luiza de Castro</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - AstraZeneca: Forxiga/Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; Servier: Acertil/Hipertens&#227;o arterial.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marly Uellendahl</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - GE/Healthcare: Palestras e treinamentos na &#225;rea de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Cardiovascular.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Milena dos Santos Barros Campos</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Mucio Tavares de Oliveira Junior</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Sanofi/Pasteur: Vacinas; AstraZeneca / Boehringer Ingelheim / Merck: palestras; Novo Nordisk: Conselho consultivo.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Olga Ferreira de Souza</td>
              <td>Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Daiichi Sankyo.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ricardo Alves da Costa</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ricardo Quental Coutinho</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Sheyla Cristina Tonheiro Ferro da Silva</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Palestras para Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Forxiga/ Xigduo; alia&#231;a Boeringher-Lilly: Jardiance; Servier: Acertil, Acertalix, triplixan; Novonordisk: Saxenda, Ozempic, Rybelsus; Libbis: Naprix; Vifor: Ferinject. Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Alian&#231;a Boeringher-Lilly: Jardiance; Novonordisk: Ozempic, Rybelsus, Saxenda; Servier: Acertil, Acertalix, Triplixan.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>S&#237;lvia Marinho Martins</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Simone Cristina Soares Brand&#227;o</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Susimeire Buglia</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Tatiana Maia Jorge de Ulh&#244;a Barbosa</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Thais Aguiar do Nascimento</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Abbott: Consultoria.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Thais Vieira</td>
              <td>Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Boehringer / AstraZeneca / Torrent / Novo Nordisk: Palestrante.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Valqu&#237;ria Pelisser Campagnucci</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Viviana Guzzo Lemke</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Walkiria Samuel Avila</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Sum&#225;rio</p>
    <p>1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o/Highlights 11</p>
    <p>1.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 12</p>
    <p>1.2 Destaques deste Posicionamento 12</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.1. Epidemiologia</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.2. Bases Fisiopatol&#243;gicas da Doen&#231;a Aterotromb&#243;tica</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.3. Apresenta&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica, Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento Cl&#237;nico</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.4. Diagn&#243;stico por Avalia&#231;&#227;o Funcional Gr&#225;fica</bold> 13</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.5. Diagn&#243;stico por Imagem Cardiovascular N&#227;o Invasiva</bold> 13</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.6. Arritmias na Cardiopatia Isqu&#234;mica</bold> 13</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.7. Aterotrombose na Gravidez, Contracep&#231;&#227;o, Infertilidade, S&#237;ndrome Antifosfol&#237;pide</bold> 14</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.8. Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica</bold> 14</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.9. Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea</bold> 14</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.10. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica e Transplante Card&#237;aco</bold> 14</p>
    <p><bold>1.2.11. Reabilita&#231;&#227;o na Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica</bold> 15</p>
    <p>2. Epidemiologia da Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o nas Mulheres 15</p>
    <p>2.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 15</p>
    <p>2.2. Mortalidade 15</p>
    <p>2.3. Preval&#234;ncia e Incid&#234;ncia 18</p>
    <p>2.4. Carga de Doen&#231;as 21</p>
    <p>2.5. Fatores de Risco 21</p>
    <p>2.6. Conclus&#227;o 22</p>
    <p>3. Bases Fisiopatol&#243;gicas da Doen&#231;a Aterotromb&#243;tica 23</p>
    <p>3.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 23</p>
    <p>3.2. Ruptura de Placa 23</p>
    <p>3.3. Dissec&#231;&#227;o Espont&#226;nea de Coron&#225;ria 23</p>
    <p>3.4. Espasmo Coronariano 24</p>
    <p>3.5. Disfun&#231;&#227;o Microvascular Coronariana 24</p>
    <p>3.6. Embolia e Trombose 24</p>
    <p>3.7. S&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo 24</p>
    <p>3.8. Miocardite 24</p>
    <p>4. Apresenta&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica, Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento Cl&#237;nico 25</p>
    <p>4.1. Dor Tor&#225;cica de Etiologia Isqu&#234;mica 25</p>
    <p>4.2. Fatores de Risco Estabelecidos e Modific&#225;veis 26</p>
    <p>4.3. Fatores de Risco Estabelecidos e N&#227;o Modific&#225;veis 27</p>
    <p>4.4. Fatores de Risco Espec&#237;ficos da Mulher 27</p>
    <p>4.5. Fatores de Risco Sub-reconhecidos 28</p>
    <p><bold>4.5.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold> 28</p>
    <p>4.6. Tratamento Medicamentoso nas Diferentes Formas de Manifesta&#231;&#227;o Isqu&#234;mica 28</p>
    <p><bold>4.6.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold> 29</p>
    <p>5. Diagn&#243;stico por Avalia&#231;&#227;o Funcional Gr&#225;fica 29</p>
    <p>5.1. Eletrocardiograma de Repouso 29</p>
    <p>5.2. Teste Ergom&#233;trico 29</p>
    <p><bold>5.2.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold> 30</p>
    <p>5.3. Teste Cardiopulmonar de Exerc&#237;cio 30</p>
    <p>6. Diagn&#243;stico por Imagem Cardiovascular N&#227;o Invasiva 32</p>
    <p>6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 32</p>
    <p>6.2. Ecocardiograma de Repouso e sob Estresse 32</p>
    <p>6.3. Ultrassonografia Vascular 33</p>
    <p>6.4. Tomografia Computadorizada 34</p>
    <p>6.5. Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Card&#237;aca 34</p>
    <p>6.6. Medicina Nuclear 35</p>
    <p>7. Arritmias na Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica 36</p>
    <p>7.1. Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial e Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o 36</p>
    <p>7.2. Arritmias Ventriculares: Morte S&#250;bita, Preven&#231;&#227;o e Tratamento 37</p>
    <p>7.3. Terapia de Ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca 39</p>
    <p>7.4. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es 40</p>
    <p>8. Aterotrombose na Gravidez, Contracep&#231;&#227;o, Infertilidade, S&#237;ndrome Antifosfol&#237;pide 41</p>
    <p>8.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 41</p>
    <p>8.2. Per&#237;odo da Gravidez 41</p>
    <p>8.3. Contracep&#231;&#227;o 41</p>
    <p><bold>8.3.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold> 44</p>
    <p>8.4. Infertilidade 44</p>
    <p>8.5. S&#237;ndrome Antifosfol&#237;pide 45</p>
    <p><bold>8.5.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold> 47</p>
    <p>9. Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica na Mulher 47</p>
    <p>9.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 47</p>
    <p>9.2. Tratamento Cl&#237;nico 48</p>
    <p>9.3. Dispositivos e Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Avan&#231;ada 48</p>
    <p>9.4. Cardiodesfibrilador Implant&#225;vel 51</p>
    <p>9.5. Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Avan&#231;ada 51</p>
    <p>9.6. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es 51</p>
    <p><bold>9.6.1. Manejo Cl&#237;nico e Indica&#231;&#245;es de Terapias Avan&#231;adas</bold> 51</p>
    <p>10. Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea 51</p>
    <p>10.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 51</p>
    <p>10.2. Acesso Vascular para o Cateterismo Card&#237;aco e Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea em Mulheres 51</p>
    <p>10.3. Diagn&#243;stico 52</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.1. Angiografia Coron&#225;ria</bold> 52</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.2. Imagem Intravascular</bold> 52</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.3. Testes Invasivos com Guia de Medi&#231;&#227;o</bold> 53</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.3.1. Reserva de Fluxo Fracionada</bold> 53</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.3.2. Raz&#227;o de Press&#227;o Instant&#226;nea Livre de Onda</bold> 53</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.4. Testes Funcionais</bold> 53</p>
    <p>10.4. Tratamento Percut&#226;neo da Doen&#231;a Aterotromb&#243;tica Coron&#225;ria em Mulheres 54</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.1. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o para S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Cr&#244;nicas</bold> 54</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.1.1. Doen&#231;a do Tronco de Coron&#225;ria Esquerda</bold> 55</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.1.2. Oclus&#227;o Total Cr&#244;nica</bold> 55</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.2. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o para Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio sem Supradesnivelamento do Segmento ST</bold> 55</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.3. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o para Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio Com Supradesnivelamento do Segmento ST</bold> 55</p>
    <p>
      <bold>10.4.3.1. Estrat&#233;gias na Abordagem da Doen&#231;a Coronariana M&#250;ltipla</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>10.4.3.2. Choque Cardiog&#234;nico</bold> 55</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.4. Considera&#231;&#245;es sobre o Dispositivo durante a Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o Percut&#226;nea</bold> 55</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.4.1. Stents Farmacol&#243;gicos</bold> 55</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.4.2. Bal&#227;o Farmacol&#243;gico</bold> 55</p>
    <p><bold>10.4.4.3. Aterectomia Rotacional e Litotripsia Intravascular</bold> 56</p>
    <p>10.5. Terapia Farmacol&#243;gica Adjunta 56</p>
    <p>10.6. Gaps no Conhecimento 57</p>
    <p>10.7. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es 58</p>
    <p>11. Interven&#231;&#227;o Cir&#250;rgica, Transplante Card&#237;aco 58</p>
    <p>11.1. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do Mioc&#225;rdio 58</p>
    <p><bold>11.1.1. Cirurgia de Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do Mioc&#225;rdio em Mulheres &#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold> 60</p>
    <p>11.2. Transplante Card&#237;aco 60</p>
    <p><bold>11.2.1. Transplante Card&#237;aco em Mulheres &#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold> 62</p>
    <p>12. Reabilita&#231;&#227;o na Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica das Mulheres 62</p>
    <p>Refer&#234;ncias 63</p>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o/Highlights</title>
      <sec>
        <title>1.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>As diferen&#231;as entre os sexos v&#227;o al&#233;m das quest&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas entre homens (XY) e mulheres (XX). Os valores sociais, as percep&#231;&#245;es e os comportamentos distintos moldam padr&#245;es e criam diferentes pap&#233;is na sociedade, o que pode gerar diferen&#231;as no estilo de vida e comportamento, possivelmente influenciando epidemiologia, manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>&#201; importante destacar que, do ponto de vista cl&#237;nico, a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o (DIC) ocorre mais precocemente no homem. Contudo, a incid&#234;ncia e a preval&#234;ncia na mulher aumentam acentuadamente ap&#243;s a menopausa. Enfatiza-se ainda que a maior propor&#231;&#227;o de mulheres com sintomas anginosos e s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) tem DIC n&#227;o obstrutiva.</p>
        <p>A DIC em mulheres inclui a aterosclerose coronariana cl&#225;ssica e compreende fisiopatologia variada, como disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, anormalidades vasomotoras e dissec&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea de art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria (DEAC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; anatomia, mulheres t&#234;m art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas menores do que homens, mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste para superf&#237;cie corporal e massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE). Por&#233;m, em compara&#231;&#227;o com os homens, as mulheres t&#234;m menor preval&#234;ncia de aterosclerose coronariana obstrutiva e caracter&#237;sticas de placa diversas, ainda que em n&#237;veis compar&#225;veis de isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As mulheres que apresentam DIC obstrutiva geralmente s&#227;o mais velhas do que os homens, t&#234;m mais comorbidades cardiovasculares e maior incid&#234;ncia de desfechos cardiovasculares adversos, incluindo mortalidade ap&#243;s infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As mulheres s&#227;o menos propensas do que os homens a apresentar ruptura de placa e, nelas, a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria oclu&#237;da pode ser mais dif&#237;cil devido a sangramento no local de acesso e art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias pequenas e mais tortuosas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A dor tor&#225;cica &#233; o sintoma mais prevalente de IAM em ambos os sexos. No entanto, as mulheres s&#227;o mais propensas a apresentar sintomas at&#237;picos, incluindo dor na parte superior das costas e pesco&#231;o, fadiga, n&#225;useas e v&#244;mitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A maioria das mulheres com IAM apresenta sintomas prodr&#244;micos de falta de ar, fadiga incomum ou desconforto em bra&#231;o/mand&#237;bula nas semanas anteriores. Angina est&#225;vel &#233; a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica mais frequente em mulheres com DIC em oposi&#231;&#227;o a IAM ou morte s&#250;bita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Revis&#227;o recentemente publicada resume alguns aspectos relacionados a vantagens e desvantagens, bem como valores de sensibilidade e especificidade de acordo com o g&#234;nero, dos principais m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A menor sensibilidade do teste ergom&#233;trico (TE) para detec&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva em mulheres limita sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o no cen&#225;rio da cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica (CMI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> A ecocardiografia sob estresse (exerc&#237;cio ou dobutamina - ESE) tem performance melhor do que o TE, embora inferior &#224; de outros m&#233;todos, com estudos mostrando desempenho similar ou inferior em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A incorpora&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o por doppler tecidual tem permitido an&#225;lise quantitativa de viabilidade. A cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica com imagens obtidas por tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico (SPECT) tem boa performance em mulheres, principalmente quanto &#224; sensibilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Algumas limita&#231;&#245;es em mulheres s&#227;o relacionadas a falsos positivos decorrentes de atenua&#231;&#227;o mam&#225;ria e menor acur&#225;cia em cora&#231;&#245;es pequenos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Para avalia&#231;&#227;o de estresse mioc&#225;rdio, a tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitron (PET) &#233; superior ao SPECT em qualidade de imagem e acur&#225;cia, tanto em mulheres quanto em homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Dados adicionais caracterizam inflama&#231;&#227;o e vulnerabilidade das placas, eventos adversos e potencial benef&#237;cio de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O TE e a ESE s&#227;o considerados seguros na gesta&#231;&#227;o, pois evitam exposi&#231;&#227;o a radia&#231;&#227;o, enquanto dobutamina e dipiridamol s&#227;o considerados categoria B. T&#233;cnicas de SPECT e PET-CT devem ser evitadas, mas a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) &#233; uma boa op&#231;&#227;o na gesta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, t&#234;m sido documentadas diferen&#231;as na fisiologia e fisiopatologia cardiovascular entre mulheres e homens. Essas diferen&#231;as incluem as propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas da c&#233;lula card&#237;aca, o que pode influenciar na ocorr&#234;ncia de arritmias cl&#237;nicas distintas entre os sexos. Possivelmente, tais diferen&#231;as s&#227;o de origem multifatorial. Entretanto, a a&#231;&#227;o hormonal e a influ&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica s&#227;o fatores importantes no comportamento eletrofisiol&#243;gico distinto entre mulheres e homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A m&#233;dia da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) em mulheres &#233; aproximadamente 3 a 5 batimentos/minuto mais alta que a observada em homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, foi documentado um menor tempo de recupera&#231;&#227;o do n&#243; sinusal, menor intervalo HV, maior velocidade de condu&#231;&#227;o ventricular e aumento no intervalo QT em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia de taquicardia sinusal inapropriada &#233; muito maior em mulheres. Um estudo com 321 pacientes acompanhados por taquicardia sinusal inapropriada mostrou que 92% deles eram do sexo feminino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Aproximadamente 60% das taquicardias de QRS estreito observadas na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica s&#227;o secund&#225;rias a taquicardia por reentrada nodal, sendo sua preval&#234;ncia duas vezes maior nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> O per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio da via lenta &#233; menor no sexo feminino, o que pode aumentar a janela de indutibilidade arr&#237;tmica e justificar o maior n&#250;mero de casos em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Entretanto, vale ressaltar que essa caracter&#237;stica n&#227;o interfere no sucesso do tratamento por abla&#231;&#227;o, que corresponde a 95% dos casos em ambos os sexos. Em contraste, a taquicardia por reentrada atrioventricular predomina no sexo masculino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Os homens apresentam mais frequentemente uma via acess&#243;ria manifesta, com localiza&#231;&#227;o lateral esquerda. Por outro lado, nas mulheres, observa-se quase tr&#234;s vezes mais vias &#224; direita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A incid&#234;ncia de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) ajustada para idade &#233; uma vez e meia a duas vezes maior em homens. Entretanto, o risco de FA ao longo da vida &#233; semelhante em ambos os sexos devido &#224; maior expectativa de vida no sexo feminino. Nas mulheres, existe um aumento desproporcional de FA com o avan&#231;ar da idade, de tal forma que, aos 85 anos, as diferen&#231;as na preval&#234;ncia s&#227;o discretas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, as mulheres s&#227;o mais sintom&#225;ticas e apresentam pior qualidade de vida quando comparadas com os homens. Os mecanismos associados &#224;s diferen&#231;as entre os sexos na FA s&#227;o in&#250;meros, mas &#233; importante ressaltar que a DIC, mais observada no sexo masculino, pode corroborar com a maior incid&#234;ncia de FA nesse grupo. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento com drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas (DAA), as mulheres apresentam mais efeitos adversos. O aumento no intervalo QT basal pode afetar a toler&#226;ncia ao uso de DAA, especialmente da classe III, exigindo uma monitoriza&#231;&#227;o mais cuidadosa nesse grupo de pacientes. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos resultados da abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter, estudos observacionais demonstram que as mulheres s&#227;o submetidas menos frequente e mais tardiamente a abla&#231;&#227;o, em geral com evolu&#231;&#227;o pior ap&#243;s o procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As arritmias ventriculares em pacientes com cora&#231;&#227;o normal apresentam caracter&#237;sticas epidemiol&#243;gicas vari&#225;veis entre os sexos. A taquicardia ventricular (TV) de via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo direito &#233; mais frequente em mulheres, ao passo que as arritmias com origem fascicular ocorrem mais em homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Pacientes pr&#233;-p&#250;beres do sexo masculino com s&#237;ndrome do QT longo tipo I e pr&#233;-p&#250;beres do sexo feminino com s&#237;ndrome do QT longo tipo II apresentam maior risco de arritmia ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A ocorr&#234;ncia de morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca em mulheres &#233; quase a metade da ocorr&#234;ncia em homens, mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste para fatores predisponentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As mulheres com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) geralmente s&#227;o mais idosas que os homens e t&#234;m maior preval&#234;ncia de IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada (ICFEp). Al&#233;m disso, mostram mais cardiopatia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic> (DM) e hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS). V&#225;rios fatores levam a menor inclus&#227;o de mulheres nos estudos sobre DIC. Os relacionados &#224; condi&#231;&#227;o da paciente s&#227;o (1) necessidade de viajar e se ausentar do trabalho, (2) ausentar-se das responsabilidades com os filhos, a fam&#237;lia e o lar, (3) necessidade de elevado n&#237;vel de compromisso, (4) barreiras socioecon&#244;micas, psicol&#243;gicas, culturais e de sa&#250;de. Os fatores relacionados ao estudo s&#227;o: (1) baixas taxas de encaminhamento e triagem de elegibilidade, (2) falta de crit&#233;rio de elegibilidade relacionado ao sexo, (3) lideran&#231;a heterog&#234;nea dos estudos, principalmente composta por homens, (4) exclus&#227;o de idosos. A&#231;&#245;es futuras s&#227;o importantes para uma maior inclus&#227;o de mulheres portadoras de DIC nos grandes estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>Este posicionamento, atrav&#233;s de a&#231;&#227;o conjunta das especialidades da cardiologia com expertise na mulher, tem como principal objetivo divulgar informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a DIC sob v&#225;rios aspectos para um melhor entendimento de suas particularidades, visando melhor tratar essas pacientes e consequentemente reduzir sua morbimortalidade.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.2. Destaques deste Posicionamento</title>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.1. Epidemiologia</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A DIC mant&#233;m-se como a principal causa de morte de mulheres e homens no Brasil. Houve diminui&#231;&#227;o mais pronunciada do percentual da taxa de mortalidade por DIC padronizada nas mulheres entre os anos de 1990 e 2019, -55,5 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -58,7; -52,3), do que nos homens, -49,5 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -52,5; -46,6), nesse mesmo per&#237;odo. Esse decl&#237;nio foi desigual nas unidades da federa&#231;&#227;o em ambos os sexos, estando relacionado com o envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o e com o &#237;ndice sociodemogr&#225;fico (SDI) de 2019.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A incid&#234;ncia e a preval&#234;ncia da DIC v&#234;m diminuindo no Brasil ao longo dos &#250;ltimos 20 anos em mulheres e homens, embora tenha ocorrido aumento na mortalidade precoce por DIC entre 18 anos e 55 anos, especialmente nas mulheres. Nas mulheres, houve uma diferen&#231;a entre as regi&#245;es brasileiras na incid&#234;ncia de DIC padronizada por idade, que foi maior nas regi&#245;es Sudeste e Sul e menor na regi&#227;o Norte.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; As mulheres apresentaram taxas significativamente menores de angioplastia prim&#225;ria e significativamente maiores de mortalidade hospitalar. A preval&#234;ncia de MINOCA (infarto do mioc&#225;rdio na aus&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o arterial coron&#225;ria) &#233; maior nas mulheres, com mortalidade semelhante &#224; da DIC obstrutiva, associando-se com risco de eventos maiores.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; O estudo do <italic>Global Burden of Diseases</italic> (GBD) 2019 estimou taxa padronizada de DALYs (anos de vida ajustados por incapacidade) por DIC por 100 mil habitantes de 1.088,4 (992,8; 1.158,9) nas mulheres e de 2.116,5 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 1.989,9; 2.232,2) nos homens. A DIC foi a segunda causa mais comum de DALYs no Brasil nas mulheres (ap&#243;s dist&#250;rbios neonatais) e nos homens (ap&#243;s viol&#234;ncia interpessoal) em 2019. Essas taxas foram heterog&#234;neas nas regi&#245;es geogr&#225;ficas brasileiras e a tend&#234;ncia das taxas de DALYs padronizadas por idade de 1990 a 2019, nas mulheres, assemelhou-se &#224; das taxas de mortalidade.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; As mulheres apresentam maior frequ&#234;ncia de fatores de risco cardiovascular (FRCV) n&#227;o tradicionais, como estresse mental e depress&#227;o, e sofrem maior consequ&#234;ncia das desvantagens sociais devido a ra&#231;a, etnicidade e renda. As mulheres t&#234;m ainda os fatores de risco (FR) inerentes ao sexo, como gravidez, menopausa e menarca, entre outros.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.2. Bases Fisiopatol&#243;gicas da Doen&#231;a Aterotromb&#243;tica</title>
          <p>A doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva, caracterizada pela presen&#231;a de placas de aterosclerose nas paredes das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, &#233; o substrato mais frequente de DIC nas mulheres. Entretanto, &#233; reconhecido que a doen&#231;a coronariana n&#227;o obstrutiva com evid&#234;ncias de danos ao m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco ou outros sinais de enfermidade coronariana afeta desproporcionalmente mais mulheres.</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos envolvidos na MINOCA incluem ruptura de placa coronariana, DEAC, vasoespasmo coronariano, disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana e embolismo/trombose. Importante destacar as s&#237;ndromes que mimetizam clinicamente MINOCA, como Takotsubo, miocardite e cardiomiopatia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.3. Apresenta&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica, Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento Cl&#237;nico</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; As diferen&#231;as biol&#243;gicas e socioculturais espec&#237;ficas do sexo feminino na apresenta&#231;&#227;o da dor tor&#225;cica da DIC podem explicar as diferen&#231;as em sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, seu diagn&#243;stico e seu manejo, levando a atrasos na conduta e, consequentemente, desfechos desfavor&#225;veis.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Os sintomas isqu&#234;micos das mulheres s&#227;o mais relacionados ao estresse emocional ou mental e menos frequentemente precipitados pela atividade f&#237;sica, em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens. Escore de risco global e caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de angina n&#227;o devem ser usados uniformemente em mulheres e homens, devido ao impacto diferente dos FR e &#224;s manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas vari&#225;veis entre os sexos.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Existem diferentes propor&#231;&#245;es na relev&#226;ncia dos FR entre os sexos, como HAS, obesidade, DM e tabagismo. Os FR espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino s&#227;o relevantes na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco: pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia e diabetes gestacional aumentam o risco cardiovascular (RCV) da mulher por toda a vida.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Mulheres s&#227;o menos submetidas a coronariografia e tratamento cir&#250;rgico, incluindo suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico no choque cardiog&#234;nico. No entanto, t&#234;m maior mortalidade e complica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias, apesar de menor carga ateroscler&#243;tica.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Menos de 50% das pacientes s&#227;o submetidas a tratamento medicamentoso adequado, al&#233;m de ser baixa a ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento e existir subutiliza&#231;&#227;o de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; O tratamento da MINOCA e da isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio sem doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva (INOCA) baseia-se na mudan&#231;a de estilo de vida, controle dos FR e tratamento antianginoso.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.4. Diagn&#243;stico por Avalia&#231;&#227;o Funcional Gr&#225;fica</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A posi&#231;&#227;o inadequada dos eletrodos no eletrocardiograma (ECG) pode causar diagn&#243;stico equivocado nas mulheres. Mamas volumosas ou pr&#243;teses mam&#225;rias podem gerar complexos de baixa voltagem e reduzem a amplitude da onda R nas deriva&#231;&#245;es V1 e V2, simulando &#225;rea inativa. O ECG na avalia&#231;&#227;o de dor tor&#225;cica utiliza os mesmos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos descritos para o sexo masculino, exceto para an&#225;lise de les&#227;o subepic&#225;rdica.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; O TE &#233; recomendado como m&#233;todo inicial de escolha na avalia&#231;&#227;o de mulheres sintom&#225;ticas de risco intermedi&#225;rio para DIC, com ECG de repouso normal e capazes de se exercitar. Al&#233;m das altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento ST, a capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, as respostas cronotr&#243;pica e da press&#227;o arterial (PA), a recupera&#231;&#227;o da FC e a avalia&#231;&#227;o do escore de Duke (ED) s&#227;o informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas que aumentam a acur&#225;cia do TE, especialmente nas mulheres. A capacidade funcional &#233; a vari&#225;vel progn&#243;stica mais importante para morbimortalidade por todas as causas em mulheres, incluindo as assintom&#225;ticas. A incapacidade de atingir 5 MET &#233; preditora independente de alto risco, com aumento de tr&#234;s vezes na mortalidade em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;quelas que atingem mais de 8 MET.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; O teste cardiopulmonar de exerc&#237;cio (TCPE) permite realizar diagn&#243;stico, progn&#243;stico, acompanhamento ap&#243;s interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica e prescri&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos na DIC. O TCPE apresenta maior acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica na DIC de mulheres do que o TE. Al&#233;m dos crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos, hemodin&#226;micos e eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos, o TCPE fornece a an&#225;lise do pulso de oxig&#234;nio (PO<sub>2</sub>), que permite inferir a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular isqu&#234;mica induzida pelo esfor&#231;o, cujo achado pode ser relevante no diagn&#243;stico da DIC macro e microvascular na mulher.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.5. Diagn&#243;stico por Imagem Cardiovascular N&#227;o Invasiva</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A ESE apresenta boa acur&#225;cia na investiga&#231;&#227;o de DIC nas mulheres, avalia a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE, permite o diagn&#243;stico diferencial, al&#233;m de oferecer seguran&#231;a pela aus&#234;ncia de radia&#231;&#227;o.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A ultrassonografia vascular (USV) &#233; &#250;til na detec&#231;&#227;o de placas carot&#237;deas como modificador de risco em mulheres de probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria e/ou FR n&#227;o tradicionais, no rastreamento de aneurisma de aorta abdominal em mulheres tabagistas ou ex-tabagistas entre 55 anos e 75 anos e na busca de doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica (DAP) silenciosa.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Angiotomografia coronariana (Angio-TC) apresenta boa acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica na avalia&#231;&#227;o de DIC em mulheres, caracterizando e quantificando as les&#245;es. Classicamente, mulheres apresentam les&#245;es menos calcificadas e n&#227;o obstrutivas em rela&#231;&#227;o a homens.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A RMC oferece maiores informa&#231;&#245;es na detec&#231;&#227;o da DIC na mulher: identifica isquemia por DIC obstrutiva e n&#227;o obstrutiva, MINOCA, avalia viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica, distingue a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica da inflamat&#243;ria e define diagn&#243;stico de Takotsubo.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A imagem nuclear avalia todo o espectro da DIC, desde doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva at&#233; disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, sem limita&#231;&#245;es quanto a fun&#231;&#227;o renal, arritmias, obesidade e dispositivos intracard&#237;acos.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.6. Arritmias na Cardiopatia Isqu&#234;mica</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; As mulheres t&#234;m mais taquicardia sinusal inapropriada e taquicardia por reentrada nodal e menos FA, arritmias ventriculares malignas, como TV e fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular (FV), e morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca do que os homens. A despeito da diferen&#231;a na preval&#234;ncia entre os sexos, as mulheres se beneficiam do tratamento das arritmias card&#237;acas.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; As mulheres com FA t&#234;m maior preval&#234;ncia de HAS, obesidade, depress&#227;o, ICFEp e doen&#231;a valvar como causa da arritmia. S&#227;o tamb&#233;m preditores de risco de FA nas mulheres a falta ou escassez de exerc&#237;cio, a monoterapia com estrog&#234;nio e a multiparidade. As mulheres com FA t&#234;m alto risco de acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), n&#227;o havendo diferen&#231;a significativa no risco de AVC ou de embolia sist&#234;mica e sangramento gastrointestinal entre mulheres e homens em uso de anticoagulantes. Foi demonstrada redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de hemorragia intracraniana e mortalidade por todas as causas nas mulheres com FA em uso de anticoagulantes de a&#231;&#227;o direta (DOACs). As mulheres com FA t&#234;m pior qualidade de vida do que os homens e s&#227;o menos submetidas a procedimentos, como a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter ou cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica (CVE).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; As mulheres t&#234;m menos CMI que os homens e aquelas com DIC e portadoras de cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel (CDI) apresentam menos epis&#243;dios de TV/FV e de tempestade el&#233;trica e ainda menos choques pelo CDI do que os homens. As mulheres t&#234;m menos CMI e menor carga de fibrose do que os homens submetidos &#224; terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca (TRC) e respondem melhor &#224; TRC do que os homens, com maiores intervalos de tempo at&#233; a primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e menor mortalidade. As terapias como CDI e TRC trazem benef&#237;cios na mortalidade. As mulheres representam em torno de 30% das popula&#231;&#245;es dos estudos com essas terapias.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; O percentual de mulheres contempladas nos estudos de abla&#231;&#227;o de TV na popula&#231;&#227;o com DIC &#233; baixo (7-13%). A menor indica&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos invasivos, a menor indu&#231;&#227;o de TV sustentada e o menor n&#250;mero de choques apropriados s&#227;o fatores que podem contribuir para esse percentual reduzido.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.7. Aterotrombose na Gravidez, Contracep&#231;&#227;o, Infertilidade, S&#237;ndrome Antifosfol&#237;pide</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A doen&#231;a aterotromb&#243;tica &#233; uma das causas mais frequentes de IAM durante a gravidez e o puerp&#233;rio.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A conduta diante da DIC aguda durante a gravidez deve priorizar a vida materna e seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A tr&#237;ade conjugada (tabagismo, idade acima de 35 anos e uso prolongado, &gt; 10 anos, de anticoncepcional combinado oral) &#233; considerada o fator determinante da manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da doen&#231;a aterotromb&#243;tica durante a gravidez e o puerp&#233;rio.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A queixa de dor tor&#225;cica durante a gravidez em mulheres que apresentam FR para a doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) n&#227;o deve ser subestimada e deve seguir protocolo convencional de investiga&#231;&#227;o para SCA.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Os contraceptivos n&#227;o est&#227;o isentos de efeitos aterotromb&#243;ticos, mas a n&#227;o prescri&#231;&#227;o incorre no risco de gravidez n&#227;o planejada, principalmente na adolesc&#234;ncia e em mulheres com comorbidades. A sele&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo de contracep&#231;&#227;o deve ser individualizada, atender &#224; prefer&#234;ncia e idade da paciente, assim como &#224; seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia do m&#233;todo.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A frequ&#234;ncia de dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos pr&#243;-ateroscler&#243;ticos, particularmente obesidade e aumento de colesterol total, LDL-colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos, &#233; maior entre as mulheres que sofrem de infertilidade.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A terap&#234;utica da infertilidade &#233; considerada um potencial FR para os dist&#250;rbios hipertensivos na gesta&#231;&#227;o subsequente. Contudo, ainda n&#227;o foi demonstrada correla&#231;&#227;o entre tratamento para fertiliza&#231;&#227;o e eventos cardiovasculares.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Diagn&#243;stico de s&#237;ndrome antifosfol&#237;pide (SAF) deve ser presumido diante da manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de trombose vascular e/ou complica&#231;&#245;es obst&#233;tricas recorrentes, sendo sua investiga&#231;&#227;o obrigat&#243;ria na presen&#231;a de AVC e IAM em mulheres jovens.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.8. Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A IC relacionada &#224; CMI &#233; uma importante causa de morbidade e mortalidade em mulheres, que tendem a desenvolv&#234;-la em idade mais avan&#231;ada que os homens.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A ICFEp &#233; mais comum em mulheres, mas a etiologia isqu&#234;mica tende a manifestar-se na forma dilatada e de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida, ainda que com menos fibrose endomioc&#225;rdica quando comparada com homens.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; As mulheres est&#227;o pouco representadas em ensaios cl&#237;nicos para IC. Apesar disso, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para terapias medicamentosas e avan&#231;adas nas diretrizes n&#227;o sugerem tratamento individualizado para as mulheres.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.9. Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; No procedimento intervencionista, estrat&#233;gias para redu&#231;&#227;o no risco de sangramento e de complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares devem ser adotadas, priorizando a via de acesso radial e a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos adjuntos em doses adequadas ao peso e &#224; fun&#231;&#227;o renal.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Avalia&#231;&#227;o funcional na doen&#231;a coronariana, atrav&#233;s da an&#225;lise da reserva de fluxo fracionada (FFR), &#233; de grande valia naquelas obstru&#231;&#245;es intermedi&#225;rias (40% a 70%), quando n&#227;o se tem isquemia comprovada por m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos. As mulheres parecem ter valores de FFR mais altos para doen&#231;a coronariana n&#227;o obstrutiva, ratificando ser ainda mais relevante medir a FFR em mulheres, al&#233;m de ser tamb&#233;m um preditor univariado significativo de progn&#243;stico para esse grupo.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Devem-se identificar perfis de alto risco para sangramento e perseguir a excel&#234;ncia nos resultados da interven&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o criteriosa e preparo adequado das les&#245;es, baixo limiar para utiliza&#231;&#227;o de guia de imagem intravascular, implante otimizado dos <italic>stents</italic> e estrat&#233;gia antiplaquet&#225;ria p&#243;s-interven&#231;&#227;o personalizada.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Devem-se utilizar estrat&#233;gias no laborat&#243;rio de hemodin&#226;mica para otimizar o diagn&#243;stico etiol&#243;gico nos casos de MINOCA.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Deve-se considerar o diagn&#243;stico de disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, mais frequente em mulheres, tanto em cen&#225;rios cr&#244;nicos como agudos, que pode ser corroborado por m&#233;todos fisiol&#243;gicos invasivos coronarianos.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.10. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica e Transplante Card&#237;aco</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; O uso de enxertos arteriais na revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (RVM) &#233; menor em mulheres.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Na evolu&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria, as mulheres apresentam maior taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica retardada tem impacto negativo nos resultados p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Atualmente 25% dos transplantados card&#237;acos s&#227;o realizados em mulheres, que apresentam maior taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es, principalmente rejei&#231;&#227;o, e t&#234;m melhor sobrevida do que os homens ap&#243;s o transplante card&#237;aco.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Mulheres evoluem com incid&#234;ncia menor de tumores malignos no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2.11. Reabilita&#231;&#227;o na Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; O encaminhamento &#224; reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca deve fazer parte da prescri&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica para mulheres com DIC, inclusive nos casos de DEAC e MINOCA.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; A avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial e a prescri&#231;&#227;o do programa de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca devem ser direcionadas pelas especificidades da mulher para que haja maior engajamento e menor desist&#234;ncia.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. Epidemiologia da Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o nas Mulheres</title>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O crescimento da popula&#231;&#227;o e o aumento da expectativa de vida geraram incremento do n&#250;mero total de mortes por DIC no mundo. As taxas de mortalidade por DIC padronizadas por idade em mulheres e homens diminu&#237;ram de forma gradual na maioria dos pa&#237;ses, provavelmente devido a melhorias no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento, ainda que tenha ocorrido um aumento relevante da obesidade, da eleva&#231;&#227;o da glicose s&#233;rica de jejum e da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A DIC mant&#233;m-se como a principal causa de morte em mulheres e homens no Brasil. A incid&#234;ncia e a preval&#234;ncia da DIC v&#234;m diminuindo no Brasil ao longo dos &#250;ltimos 20 anos em mulheres e homens, embora tenha ocorrido aumento na mortalidade precoce por essa causa, entre 18 anos e 55 anos, especialmente nas mulheres. A DIC tamb&#233;m foi a segunda maior causa de DALYs nas mulheres no Brasil no per&#237;odo de 1990 a 2019.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As mulheres apresentam maior impacto dos FRCV tradicionais e t&#234;m pior progn&#243;stico, apesar de a carga de risco por DIC e a carga aterotromb&#243;tica serem menores. As mulheres apresentam maior frequ&#234;ncia de FRCV n&#227;o tradicionais, como estresse mental e depress&#227;o, e sofrem maior consequ&#234;ncia das desvantagens sociais devidas a ra&#231;a, etnicidade e renda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A MINOCA predomina nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Os desfechos s&#227;o substancialmente piores em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens, al&#233;m disso as mulheres mais jovens (&lt; 55 anos) e os subgrupos de mulheres definidos por ra&#231;a, etnia, <italic>status</italic> socioecon&#244;mico e escolaridade apresentam disparidades ainda mais marcantes quanto a diagn&#243;stico, tratamento e progn&#243;stico da DIC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Este cap&#237;tulo tem como objetivo sumarizar os achados sobre a epidemiologia da DIC nas mulheres, especialmente as brasileiras.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.2. Mortalidade</title>
        <p>Dados recentes do projeto GBD de 2021 estimaram para a DCV no Brasil taxas padronizadas de 3.568,0 DALYs (um DALY representa a perda do equivalente a um ano de plena sa&#250;de) e 162,2 mortes por 100 mil habitantes, com uma taxa de preval&#234;ncia padronizada de 6.905,6 por 100 mil habitantes. Ainda segundo o GBD 2021, as taxas estimadas para a DIC na Am&#233;rica Latina Tropical (Brasil e Paraguai) em 2021 foram as seguintes: preval&#234;ncia de 1.989,5, mortalidade de 67,7 e 1.439,6 DALYs por 100 mil habitantes. Embora um progresso consider&#225;vel tenha sido feito na diminui&#231;&#227;o do n&#250;mero de mortes por DCV desde 1980 at&#233; o final de 2021, houve um aumento preocupante da taxa de mortalidade bruta e do n&#250;mero de DALYs nos &#250;ltimos anos por DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A DCV &#233; a principal causa de morte em mulheres no mundo e foi respons&#225;vel por aproximadamente um ter&#231;o do total de mortes em mulheres em 2021. A mortalidade por DCV diminuiu globalmente nos &#250;ltimos 30 anos, com decl&#237;nio mais significativo em pa&#237;ses com alto SDI (SDI = m&#233;dia composta pela renda per capita, n&#237;vel educacional m&#233;dio e taxa de fertilidade). No entanto, em regi&#245;es de alta renda, a tend&#234;ncia de redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade por DCV diminuiu e, em 2017, aumentou o n&#250;mero de mortes em mulheres de alguns pa&#237;ses, como Estados Unidos e Canad&#225;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na regi&#227;o das Am&#233;ricas, a taxa de mortalidade por DIC ajustada por idade diminuiu no per&#237;odo de 2000 a 2019 nos homens, passando de 149,08 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 138,23; 168,08) para 96,02 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 83,48; 117,19), com decr&#233;scimo percentual de -2,3 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -2,5; -2,1), e nas mulheres, passando de 92,36 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 81,35; 109,42) para 54,84 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 45,28; 71,76), com decr&#233;scimo percentual de -2,7 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -3,0; -2,5). Nesse mesmo per&#237;odo, as taxas de mortalidade diminu&#237;ram significativamente em 24 pa&#237;ses. Costa Rica, Canad&#225; e Chile tiveram os maiores decr&#233;scimos percentuais, enquanto aumento significativo ocorreu na Rep&#250;blica Dominicana e em Granada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No Brasil, de 1990 a 2019, observou-se um decl&#237;nio na taxa de mortalidade por DCV padronizada nas mulheres. Segundo o estudo GBD 2019, a DIC (definida como indiv&#237;duos com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio, angina est&#225;vel ou IC isqu&#234;mica) foi a principal respons&#225;vel pela morte de mulheres, seguida por DM tipo 2 e AVC, nessa ordem (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 2.1</xref>). Esse decl&#237;nio foi desigual nas unidades da federa&#231;&#227;o em ambos os sexos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2.2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2.3</xref>A), sendo relacionado com o envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o e o SDI de 2019.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 2.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Ranking das taxas de mortalidade (por 100 mil habitantes) de acordo com sexo, no Brasil, em 1990 e 2019.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Fonte: Estudo Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2.2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Ranking das taxas de mortalidade por doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o (por 100 mil habitantes) de acordo com as unidades da federa&#231;&#227;o e por sexo, no Brasil, em 1990 e 2019.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Fonte: Estudo Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2.3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o: taxas padronizadas de mortalidade (A), DALYs (B), preval&#234;ncia (C) e incid&#234;ncia (D), por 100 mil habitantes, de acordo com as unidades da federa&#231;&#227;o brasileira, nas mulheres, em 2019.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Fonte: Estudo Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019.<sup>31</sup></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Dados do GBD 2019 estimaram que, em 2019, as taxas de mortalidade padronizadas por idade por DIC foram 58 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 51; 63) e 96 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 88; 101) por 100 mil habitantes no Brasil nas mulheres e nos homens, respectivamente. Entre os anos de 1990 e 2019, houve diminui&#231;&#227;o mais pronunciada do percentual da taxa de mortalidade por DIC padronizada nas mulheres, -55,5 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -58,7; -52,3), do que nos homens, -49,5 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -52,5; -46,6) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 2.4</xref>A). Em todos os grupos et&#225;rios, as taxas de mortalidade por DIC foram maiores nos homens do que nas mulheres e aumentaram com o envelhecimento em ambos os sexos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2.1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 2.4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o: taxas padronizadas de mortalidade (A), DALYs (B), preval&#234;ncia (C) e incid&#234;ncia (D), por 100 mil habitantes, de acordo com o sexo, no Brasil, em 2019.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Fonte: Estudo Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 2.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; N&#250;meros de mortes, taxas de mortalidade, DALYs, preval&#234;ncia e incid&#234;ncia, por 100 mil habitantes, e varia&#231;&#245;es percentuais das taxas, devido a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o, por faixas et&#225;rias e sexo, Brasil, 1990 e 2019.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="17%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2">DOEN&#199;AS ISQU&#202;MICAS DO CORA&#199;&#195;O</th>
                  <th colspan="2">1990</th>
                  <th colspan="2">2019</th>
                  <th rowspan="2">Varia&#231;&#227;o Percentual da Taxa (II 95%)</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>N&#250;mero (II 95%)</th>
                  <th>Taxa (II 95%)</th>
                  <th>N&#250;mero (II 95%)</th>
                  <th>Taxa (II 95%)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>MORTE</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Mulheres</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>15-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3909,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(3741,1;4083)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>10</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(9,6;10,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3813,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(3539,1;4106,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>6,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(6,1;7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-35,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-40,4;-28,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>15601,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(14922,1;16385,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>191,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(182,8;200,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>20769</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(19331,1;22110,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>97</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(90,3;103,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-49,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-53,2;-44,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>30524,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(27413,3;32326,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1301,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1169;1378,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>50625,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(42567,4;55652)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>670,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(563,8;737)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-48,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-53,1;-44,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Padronizada por idade</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>50035,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(46474,1;52421,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>130,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(118,1;137,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>75207,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(66247,3;81307,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>57,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(51;62,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-55,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-58,7;-52,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Todas as idades</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>50035,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(46474,1;52421,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>66,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(61,7;69,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>75207,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(66247,3;81307,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>67,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(59,8;73,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-6,1;9,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Homens</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>15-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>9180,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(8829;9551,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>24,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(23,4;25,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>9018,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(8513,2;9574,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>15,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(14,9;16,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-35</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-39,3;-30,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>29205,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(28207,5;30291,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>388,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(374,8;402,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>39360,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(37264,7;41601,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>207,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(196,9;219,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-46,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-50;-42,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>28825,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(26903;30176,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1529,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1427,2;1600,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>47659,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(42457,3;51239)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>860,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(766,7;925,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-43,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-47,9;-40,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Padronizada por idade</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>67211,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(64502,5;69571)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>189,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(178,2;197)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>96038,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(89069,1;101545,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>95,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(87,7;101,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-49,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-52,5;-46,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Todas as idades</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>67211,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(64502,5;69571)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>91,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(87,7;94,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>96038,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(89069,1;101545,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>90,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(84,2;96)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-0,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-7,2;5,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>INCID&#202;NCIA</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Mulheres</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>15-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>7197</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(5499,8;9046,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>18,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(14,1;23,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>11635,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(9059,9;14317,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>19,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(15,5;24,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>7,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(0,9;15,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>16567,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(13251,3;20250,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>203</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(162,3;248,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>45832,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(37412,2;55078,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>214</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(174,7;257,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>5,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(0,8;11,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>16711,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(13816,2;20044,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>712,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(589,2;854,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>43920,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(37060,4;51680,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>581,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(490,8;684,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-18,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-21,7;-14,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Padronizada por idade</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>40475,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(35479;45761,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>88,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(77,7;99,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>101388,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(89389,1;114296,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>78,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(69;88,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-11,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-14,7;-8,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Todas as idades</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>40475,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(35479;45761,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>53,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(47,1;60,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>101388,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(89389,1;114296,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>91,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(80,6;103,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>70,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(64,3;76)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Homens</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>15-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>13927,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(11155;17134,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>36,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(29,6;45,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>22270</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(17691,1;27177,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>39,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(31;47,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>5,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(0,2;11,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>33048,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(27279,8;39599,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>439,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(362,5;526,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>84424,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(70604,7;101021)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>446</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(373;533,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-2,6;6,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>21875,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(18078,2;25972,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1160,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(959,1;1377,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>52578,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(44648;61725,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>949,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(806,2;1114,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-18,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-22,1;-14,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Padronizada por idade</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>68851</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(60766,7;77363,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>167,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(148;189)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>159273,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(140195,3;178778,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>148</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(130,4;166,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-11,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-14,7;-9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Todas as idades</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>68851</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(60766,7;77363,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>93,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(82,6;105,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>159273,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(140195,3;178778,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>150,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(132,5;169)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>60,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(55,6;66,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>PREVAL&#202;NCIA</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Mulheres</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>15-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>67405,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(56057,1;81268,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>173,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(144;208,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>124695,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(103531,2;149594,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>213,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(177;255,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>23,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(20;26,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>204529</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(170177,7;249197,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2505,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2084,9;3053)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>534224,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(445383,3;647280,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2494,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2079,8;3022,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-0,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-2,8;2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>212483,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(175519;255435,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>9060,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(7484,6;10892,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>694914,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(582274,2;826926,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>9203,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(7711,5;10951,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-1,7;5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Padronizada por idade</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>484418,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(417746,5;563544,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1071,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(925,1;1242,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1353835,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1172305,1;1562949,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1045,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(904,6;1208,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-2,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-4,2;-0,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Todas as idades</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>484418,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(417746,5;563544,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>643,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(555;748,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1353835,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1172305,1;1562949,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1221,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1057,4;1409,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>89,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(85,1;95,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Homens</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>15-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>147353,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(119423,1;180805,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>390,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(316,7;479,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>280252,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(227615,4;344765)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>491,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(399,3;604,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>25,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(21,9;29,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>477021,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(392697,1;589599,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>6339</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(5218,4;7835)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1231669,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1021223,9;1511754,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>6506,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(5395,1;7986,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(0,2;5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>371414,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(301282,3;450276,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>19703,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(15983;23887,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1138137,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(940499,4;1375886,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>20552,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(16983,4;24845,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1,6;7,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Padronizada por idade</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>995790,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(851258,4;1169649,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2498,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2137;2941,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2650060,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2275770;3115190,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2534</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2170,4;2975,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-0,4;3,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Todas as idades</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>995790,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(851258,4;1169649,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1353,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1157,1;1589,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2650060,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2275770;3115190,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2504,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2151;2944,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>85</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(80,7;89,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>DALY</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Mulheres</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>15-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>189243,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(181288,6;197784,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>486</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(465,6;508)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>182088,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(169104,9;195954)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>311,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(289,2;335,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-35,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-41,1;-29,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>453002,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(433556,6;475548,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>5549,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(5311,6;5826,1)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>607233,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(565939,9;646284,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2835,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2642,8;3018)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-48,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-52,8;-44,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>407987,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(373418,1;429318,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>17397,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(15923,6;18307,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>625969,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(538771,7;681196,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>8290,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(7135,3;9021,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-52,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-56,1;-49)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Padronizada por idade</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1050233,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(998139;1093952,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2303,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2162,5;2403,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1415291,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1291761,5;1506628,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1088,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(992,8;1158,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-52,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-56,1;-49,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Todas as idades</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1050233,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(998139;1093952,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1395,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1326,1;1453,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1415291,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1291761,5;1506628,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1276,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1165,2;1359)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-8,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-15,3;-1,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Homens</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>15-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>443883,8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(427008;461879,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1177,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1132,3;1224,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>437993</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(414351,3;464321,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>768,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(726,8;814,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-34,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-38,8;-30,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>873719,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(844632,7;906253,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>11610,6</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(11224,1;12042,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1188364,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1122117,2;1256445,4)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>6278,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(5928,1;6637,8)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-45,9</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-49,5;-42,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>425524,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(400309;444510,9)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>22574,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(21236,4;23581,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>679374,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(620110,3;725589)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>12268</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(11197,9;13102,6)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-45,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-49,2;-42,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Padronizada por idade</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1743127,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1681550;1801264,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4013,2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(3852,3;4150,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2305732,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2173570,4;2429437,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2116,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1989,9;2232,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-47,3</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-50,4;-44)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Todas as idades</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1743127,7</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(1681550;1801264,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2369,5</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2285,8;2448,5)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2305732,1</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2173570,4;2429437,7)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2179,4</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(2054,4;2296,3)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>-8</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>(-13,6;-2,2)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Estudo com dados do Brasil oriundos do Sistema de Informa&#231;&#227;o sobre Mortalidade (SIM) reportou que o coeficiente de morte relacionada &#224; DIC permaneceu est&#225;vel para mulheres nas regi&#245;es Norte e Centro-Oeste entre 1981 e 2001, enquanto diminuiu no Sul e Sudeste e aumentou no Nordeste. Para homens, houve tend&#234;ncia decrescente nos eventos nas regi&#245;es Sul e Sudeste.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudo que avaliou 166.514 procedimentos de angioplastia coronariana para tratamento de DIC realizados em 180 hospitais, entre 2005 e 2008, reportou mortalidade hospitalar m&#233;dia de 2,3% (m&#237;nimo 0%, m&#225;ximo 11,4%), que variou por regi&#227;o geogr&#225;fica, sendo menor no Sudeste (2,0%) e maior no Norte (3,6%). A taxa de mortalidade foi maior entre mulheres e nos pacientes acima de 65 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As mulheres submetidas a RVM t&#234;m maior mortalidade e mais complica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias, apesar de menor carga ateroscler&#243;tica. O aumento da mortalidade no momento da RVM &#233; maior em idades mais jovens do mais avan&#231;adas, estimando-se um risco tr&#234;s vezes maior de morte em mulheres com idade &lt; 50 anos, apesar do ajuste para os FR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudo realizado no per&#237;odo de 1996 a 2016 com dados do SIM corrigidos por <italic>garbage code</italic> [causas que n&#227;o devem ser consideradas como causa b&#225;sica de morte ou s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficas, sendo, portanto, consideradas insuficientes em termos de preven&#231;&#227;o, como, por exemplo, c&#243;digos I50 da CID-10 (insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca) e R96 (morte s&#250;bita), entre outras] e subnotifica&#231;&#227;o analisou as tend&#234;ncias da mortalidade por IAM de acordo com sexo, regi&#245;es do Brasil e resid&#234;ncia na capital <italic>versus</italic> n&#227;o capital. Os autores relataram que a taxa de mortalidade por IAM padronizada por idade diminuiu 44% no pa&#237;s, com diferen&#231;as regionais significativas (+5% no Norte, +11% no Nordeste, -35% no Centro-Oeste, -68% no Sudeste e -85% no Sul). As varia&#231;&#245;es temporais foram mais pronunciadas nas mulheres e nas capitais. A taxa padronizada por idade de mortalidade por IAM corrigida diminuiu 49% e 23% entre as mulheres que viviam nas capitais e em outras municipalidades, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro estudo realizado com dados do SIM observou um decl&#237;nio de aproximadamente 2,2% nos &#250;ltimos 20 anos para o IAM nas regi&#245;es geogr&#225;ficas com maior desenvolvimento (Sudeste, Sul e Centro-Oeste), estabiliza&#231;&#227;o na regi&#227;o Norte e aumento na regi&#227;o Nordeste. Os autores tamb&#233;m previram que essa tend&#234;ncia se prolongar&#225; at&#233; o ano 2030. Essas varia&#231;&#245;es foram provavelmente relacionadas &#224;s melhorias no desenvolvimento social, nos FRCV, no acesso ao sistema de sa&#250;de e sua cobertura e &#224; melhor discrimina&#231;&#227;o nas codifica&#231;&#245;es das declara&#231;&#245;es de &#243;bito nas regi&#245;es Norte e Nordeste.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No registro VICTIM, foram avaliados 878 pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de IAM com supradesnivelamento de segmento ST (IAMCSST) admitidos em quatro hospitais com capacidade para realizar angioplastia prim&#225;ria em Sergipe, sendo um p&#250;blico e tr&#234;s privados, no per&#237;odo de dezembro de 2014 a junho de 2018. Desses pacientes, 33,4% eram mulheres. Do total, apenas 53,3% dos pacientes foram submetidos &#224; reperfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (134 mulheres <italic>versus</italic> 334 homens). As mulheres apresentaram taxas significativamente menores de angioplastia prim&#225;ria (44% <italic>versus</italic> 54,5%; p = 0,003) e significativamente maiores de mortalidade hospitalar (16,1% <italic>versus</italic> 6,7%; p &lt; 0,001) do que os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro estudo unic&#234;ntrico prospectivo realizado em Recife com 709 pacientes consecutivos com IAMCSST (36% de mulheres; m&#233;dia de idade, 61 anos), no per&#237;odo de fevereiro de 2018 a fevereiro de 2019, observou que as mulheres eram mais velhas (63,13 anos <italic>versus</italic> 60,53 anos, p = 0,011), mais frequentemente apresentavam HAS (75,1% <italic>versus</italic>. 62,4%, p = 0,001), DM (42,2% <italic>versus</italic> 27,8%, p &lt; 0,001) e dislipidemia (34,1% <italic>versus</italic> 23,9%, p= 0,004), al&#233;m de serem menos submetidas &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea (ICP) por acesso radial (23,7% <italic>versus</italic> 46,1%, p &lt; 0,001) do que os homens. A taxa de mortalidade intra-hospitalar foi significativamente maior nas mulheres em compara&#231;&#227;o com os homens (13,2% <italic>versus</italic> 5,6%, p = 0,001) e sexo feminino mostrou-se um preditor independente de mortalidade intra-hospitalar (OR 2,79; IC 95%, 1,15 &#8211; 6,76; p = 0,023).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.3. Preval&#234;ncia e Incid&#234;ncia</title>
        <p>Segundo dados do estudo GBD 2019, a taxa de preval&#234;ncia de DIC padronizada por idade no Brasil foi de 1.046 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 905; 1.209) por 100 mil mulheres e 2.534 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 2.170; 2.975) por 100 mil homens (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2.1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup>Houve uma diferen&#231;a entre as regi&#245;es brasileiras na preval&#234;ncia padronizada por idade de DIC nas mulheres, que foi maior nas regi&#245;es Sudeste e Sul e menor na regi&#227;o Norte (Figura 2.3C).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Houve redu&#231;&#227;o do percentual da taxa padronizada de preval&#234;ncia de DIC por 100 mil habitantes nas mulheres entre os anos de 1990 e 2019, de -2,4 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -4,2; -0,5), mas discreto aumento nos homens, de 1,4 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -0,4; 3,3), nesse mesmo per&#237;odo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2.1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 2.4</xref>C).</p>
        <p>O estudo GBD 2019 estimou uma incid&#234;ncia de DIC de 260.661 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 230.100-293.617) eventos (principalmente infarto do mioc&#225;rdio) no Brasil em 2019. Em todos os grupos et&#225;rios, a DIC teve maior incid&#234;ncia nos homens do que nas mulheres (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2.1</xref>). Em 2019, a taxa de incid&#234;ncia de DIC padronizada por idade foi 78 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 69; 88) por 100 mil mulheres e 148 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 130; 166) por 100 mil homens. Houve uma diferen&#231;a entre as regi&#245;es brasileiras na incid&#234;ncia de DIC padronizada por idade nas mulheres, que foi maior nas regi&#245;es Sudeste e Sul e menor na regi&#227;o Norte (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2.3</xref>D).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Houve redu&#231;&#227;o do percentual da taxa padronizada de incid&#234;ncia de DIC por 100 mil habitantes entre os anos de 1990 e 2019 nas mulheres, -11,8 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -14,7; -8,5), e nos homens, -11,8 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -14,7; -9), nesse mesmo per&#237;odo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2.1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 2.4</xref>D).</p>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia do IAM em mulheres &#233; menor nas jovens do que em outras faixas et&#225;rias, mas existem tend&#234;ncias preocupantes nos &#250;ltimos anos, dado que a propor&#231;&#227;o atribu&#237;vel a pacientes jovens (35-54 anos) aumentou de 27% para 32% nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, com maior aumento de mulheres jovens (21% a 31%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia de MINOCA &#233; maior nas mulheres. O estudo VIRGO (<italic>Variation in Recovery: Role of Gender on Outcomes of Young AMI Patients</italic>), realizado entre 2008 e 2012, incluiu prospectivamente 2.690 pacientes com IAM e idades entre 18 anos e 55 anos em 103 hospitais, na propor&#231;&#227;o de mulheres para homens de 2:1. Nos 2.374 pacientes submetidos a estudo angiogr&#225;fico coronariano, as mulheres apresentaram cinco vezes mais chances de ter MINOCA do que os homens (14,9% <italic>versus</italic> 3,5%; OR 4,84; IC 95%, 3,29 &#8211; 7,13). As mulheres com obstru&#231;&#227;o coronariana significativa eram mais propensas a estar na menopausa (55,2% <italic>versus</italic> 41,2%; p &lt; 0,001) ou ter um hist&#243;rico de diabetes gestacional (16,8% <italic>versus</italic> 11,0%; p = 0,028). Cabe ressaltar que a mortalidade de 1 e 12 meses nos pacientes com MINOCA foi semelhante &#224; mortalidade por obstru&#231;&#227;o coronariana nos mesmos 1 e 12 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.4. Carga de Doen&#231;as</title>
        <p>O estudo do GBD 2019 estimou taxa padronizada de DALYs por DIC por 100 mil habitantes de 1.088,4 (992,8; 1.158,9) nas mulheres e de 2.116,5 (II<sub>95%</sub>, 1.989,9; 2.232,2) nos homens (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2.1</xref>). Em 2019, DIC foi a segunda causa mais comum de DALYs no Brasil em mulheres, ap&#243;s complica&#231;&#245;es neonatais, e homens, ap&#243;s viol&#234;ncia interpessoal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Essas taxas foram heterog&#234;neas nas regi&#245;es geogr&#225;ficas brasileiras e a tend&#234;ncia das taxas de DALYs padronizadas por idade de 1990 a 2019 nas mulheres assemelhou-se &#224; das taxas de mortalidade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2.3</xref>B). As unidades da federa&#231;&#227;o com maior n&#250;mero de DALYs perdidos por DIC por 100 mil habitantes nas mulheres em 2019 foram Rio de Janeiro, Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Sul, Para&#237;ba, Alagoas e S&#227;o Paulo, nessa ordem (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 2.5</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 2.5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Ranking das taxas de DALYs devidos a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o, por 100 mil habitantes, de acordo com as unidades da federa&#231;&#227;o e por sexo, no Brasil, em 1990 e 2019.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Fonte: Estudo Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Entre os anos de 1990 e 2019, houve maior redu&#231;&#227;o do percentual da taxa padronizada de DALYs por DIC por 100 mil habitantes nas mulheres, -52,7 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -56,1; -49,3), do que nos homens, -47,3 (II<sub>95%</sub>, -50,4; -44) (Tabela 1 e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 4B</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f08">
            <label>Figura 4.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fisiopatologia da cascata isqu&#234;mica de equivalentes anginosos.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.5. Fatores de Risco</title>
        <p>Os FR tradicionais, como HAS, hiperlipidemia, DM, tabagismo, dieta pouco saud&#225;vel e sedentarismo, s&#227;o prevalentes nas mulheres com DIC, mas caminham lado a lado com os FR emergentes nas mulheres, como dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos, dist&#250;rbios relacionados &#224; gravidez, dist&#250;rbios autoimunes, apneia do sono, doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, baixo n&#237;vel socioecon&#244;mico, <italic>burnout</italic> e fatores psicossociais, como depress&#227;o e ansiedade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No estudo PURE (<italic>Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiological Study</italic>), 202.072 indiv&#237;duos com idade entre 35 anos e 70 anos, de comunidades urbanas e rurais, em 27 pa&#237;ses, entre janeiro de 2005 e maio de 2019, foram acompanhados por uma m&#233;dia de 9,5 (IQR: 8,5&#8211;10,9) anos. As mulheres tiveram uma menor carga de FRCV usando dois escores de risco tradicionais diferentes (INTERHEART e Framingham). Estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria (estilo de vida saud&#225;vel e uso de medicamentos comprovados) foram mais frequentes em mulheres, que, por sua vez, apresentaram menor incid&#234;ncia de DCV. No entanto, tratamentos de preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria para DIC foram menos frequentes em mulheres do que em homens. As diferen&#231;as entre mulheres e homens em rela&#231;&#227;o a tratamentos e resultados foram mais marcantes em pa&#237;ses de baixa e m&#233;dia renda, com poucas diferen&#231;as em pa&#237;ses com alta renda, naqueles com ou sem DCV e DIC pr&#233;vias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os FR atribu&#237;veis a DIC podem ser vistos na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 2.6</xref>. A HAS e os riscos diet&#233;ticos lideram o <italic>ranking</italic> dos FR atribu&#237;veis a DIC, em ambos os sexos, mundialmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f06">
            <label>Figura 2.6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Ranking dos fatores de risco atribu&#237;veis a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o no mundo, em ambos os sexos, em 2021.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Fonte: Estudo Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019.<italic><sup>28</sup></italic></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf07.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>No estudo caso-controle derivado do estudo VIRGO, com 2.264 pacientes com IAM (18-55 anos) e 2.264 controles pareados, 3.122 (68,9%) eram mulheres, com mediana de idade de 48 (44-52) anos. Os seguintes sete FR representaram coletivamente a maior parte do risco total de IAM em mulheres (83,9%) e homens (85,1%): DM [OR 3,59 (IC 95%, 2,72-4,74) em mulheres <italic>versus</italic> 1,76 (1,19-2,60) em homens]; depress&#227;o [OR 3,09 (IC 95%, 2,37-4,04) em mulheres <italic>versus</italic> 1,77 (1,15-2,73) em homens]; HAS [OR 2,87 (IC 95%, 2,31-3,57) em mulheres <italic>versus</italic> 2,19 (1,65-2,90) em homens]; tabagismo atual [OR 3,28 (IC 95%, 2,65-4,07) em mulheres <italic>versus</italic> 3,28 (2,65-4,07) em homens]; hist&#243;ria familiar de infarto prematuro do mioc&#225;rdio [OR 1,48 (IC 95%, 1,17-1,88) em mulheres <italic>versus</italic> 2,42 (1,71-3,41) em homens]; baixa renda familiar [OR 1,79 (IC 95%, 1,28-2,50) em mulheres <italic>versus</italic> 1,35 (0,82-2,23) em homens]; hipercolesterolemia [OR 1,02 (IC 95%, 0,81-1,29) em mulheres <italic>versus</italic> 2,16 (1,49-3,15) em homens]. Houve diferen&#231;as significativas entre os sexos nas associa&#231;&#245;es de FR: HAS, depress&#227;o, DM, tabagismo atual e hist&#243;ria familiar de DM tiveram associa&#231;&#245;es mais fortes com IAM em mulheres jovens, enquanto a hipercolesterolemia teve uma associa&#231;&#227;o mais forte em homens jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudo com 10.112 pacientes (29% mulheres) com DIC recrutados na Europa, &#193;sia e Oriente M&#233;dio entre 2012 e 2013 relatou que, em compara&#231;&#227;o com os homens, as mulheres eram menos propensas a atingir as metas de colesterol total [OR 0,50 (IC 95%, 0,43-0,59)], colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade [OR 0,57 (IC 95%, 0,51-0,64)] e glicose [OR 0,78 (IC 95%, 0,70-0,87)], ou ser fisicamente ativas [OR 0,74 (IC 95%, 0,68-0,81)] ou n&#227;o obesas [OR 0,82 (IC 95%, 0,74-0,90)]. Em contraste, as mulheres tiveram melhor controle da PA [OR 1,31 (IC 95%, 1,20-1,44)] e eram mais propensas a n&#227;o fumar [OR 1,93 (IC 95%, 1,67-2,22)] do que os homens. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que o controle para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria dos FR relacionados com a DIC foi geralmente pior nas mulheres do que nos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.6. Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>A DIC contribui significativamente para a morbimortalidade das mulheres. Embora as taxas de mortalidade, DALYs, preval&#234;ncia e incid&#234;ncia de DIC tenham diminu&#237;do ao longo dos &#250;ltimos 20 anos, os dados indicam que a mortalidade por DIC nas mulheres jovens entre 35 anos e 54 anos est&#225; aumentando. O reconhecimento, a discuss&#227;o, a educa&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento apropriado da DIC nas mulheres s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para reduzir os <italic>gaps</italic> no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento, al&#233;m dos desfechos desfavor&#225;veis nas mulheres.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Bases Fisiopatol&#243;gicas da Doen&#231;a Aterotromb&#243;tica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>3.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O reconhecimento de FR tradicionais para a DCV ateroscler&#243;tica, bem como de FR emergentes e n&#227;o tradicionais &#250;nicos ou mais frequentes nas mulheres, e de seus diferentes impactos contribui para o novo entendimento dos mecanismos que levam aos piores desfechos nas mulheres (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figura 3.1</xref>). Maior detalhamento sobre a import&#226;ncia dos FR no sexo feminino pode ser visto no cap&#237;tulo subsequente.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f07">
            <label>Figura 3.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fatores de risco tradicionais e n&#227;o tradicionais para a doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica cardiovascular na mulher.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf08.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>As apresenta&#231;&#245;es podem ser agudas, como MINOCA, que representa 3% a 15% dos casos, ou estarem relacionadas a casos de INOCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> O crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico para MINOCA &#233; a presen&#231;a de IAM sem les&#245;es obstrutivas (&gt; 50%) em qualquer art&#233;ria epic&#225;rdica e aus&#234;ncia de diagn&#243;stico alternativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos envolvidos na MINOCA incluem ruptura de placa coronariana, DEAC, vasoespasmo, disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana e embolismo/trombose. Importante destacar s&#237;ndromes que mimetizam clinicamente MINOCA, como Takotsubo, miocardite e cardiomiopatia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.2. Ruptura de Placa</title>
        <p>&#201; considerado um termo amplo que envolve ruptura, eros&#227;o e n&#243;dulos calcificados nas art&#233;rias. A ruptura da placa com forma&#231;&#227;o tromb&#243;tica &#233; a manifesta&#231;&#227;o usual das SCA, mas pode n&#227;o obstruir a luz do vaso. A eros&#227;o &#233; a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo adjacente &#224; superf&#237;cie luminal, resultado de apoptose celular e recrutamento de neutr&#243;filos. Os n&#243;dulos calcificados usualmente s&#227;o identificados por imagem intravascular como protrus&#245;es na luz do vaso, podendo ocorrer fratura dos n&#243;dulos com ac&#250;mulo de fibrina na capa fibrosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> O sexo feminino e tabagismo est&#227;o associados &#224; maior incid&#234;ncia de eros&#227;o do que de ruptura da placa. As altera&#231;&#245;es intravasculares podem ser detectadas por ultrassom ou tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica (OCT). O Estudo HARP demonstrou que ruptura de placa foi a causa mais frequente de MINOCA, sendo evidenciada em 43% das mulheres com essa condi&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3. Dissec&#231;&#227;o Espont&#226;nea de Coron&#225;ria</title>
        <p>A DEAC resulta da forma&#231;&#227;o de um falso l&#250;men arterial na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica significativa. Existem dois mecanismos descritos, um envolvendo lacera&#231;&#227;o da camada &#237;ntima e resultando em falso l&#250;men (<italic>inside-out</italic>) e outro onde ocorre uma hemorragia intramural com ou sem ruptura da camada &#237;ntima (<italic>outside-in</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Os fatores predisponentes s&#227;o m&#250;ltiplos, como fatores gen&#233;ticos, sexo feminino, gesta&#231;&#227;o e terapia com estr&#243;genos, displasia fibromuscular, doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias sist&#234;micas, al&#233;m de fatores externos, como estresse emocional, atividade f&#237;sica intensa e uso de drogas estimulantes. Dados de registros internacionais apontam para DEAC como a principal causa de IAM no per&#237;odo perigestacional, ocorrendo mais no terceiro trimestre da gesta&#231;&#227;o e logo ap&#243;s o parto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        <p>De acordo com as caracter&#237;sticas angiogr&#225;ficas, quatro tipos de DEAC s&#227;o descritos: tipo 1: parede arterial evidente com m&#250;ltiplos l&#250;mens radiol&#250;cidos; tipo 2: um segmento com estreitamento difuso (normalmente &gt; 20mm) e segmento normal proximal e distalmente (tipo 2A) ou estreitamento difuso que se estende at&#233; a extremidade distal do vaso (tipo 2B); tipo 3: um segmento curto de estenose (&lt; 20mm) que mimetiza aterosclerose; tipo 4: caracterizado por dissec&#231;&#227;o com oclus&#227;o total abrupta de um segmento coronariano distal. De acordo com as diretrizes internacionais, a DEAC que resulta em obstru&#231;&#227;o tipo 4 n&#227;o configura MINOCA, sendo que os demais tipos com les&#245;es n&#227;o obstrutivas ou n&#227;o identificadas na angiografia s&#227;o inclu&#237;dos nessa classifica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.4. Espasmo Coronariano</title>
        <p>O espasmo coronariano como causa de isquemia &#233; diagnosticado quando h&#225; dor tor&#225;cica, com ou sem altera&#231;&#227;o isqu&#234;mica no ECG e vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o &gt; 90% na angiografia, espont&#226;nea ou induzida com acetilcolina ou ergonovina. O mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico &#233; uma hiper-reatividade da camada muscular tanto das art&#233;rias epic&#225;rdicas quanto da microcircula&#231;&#227;o, embora n&#227;o completamente elucidado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Alguns indiv&#237;duos t&#234;m gatilhos distintos que induzem espasmo, como estresse, hiperventila&#231;&#227;o, per&#237;odos diurnos e ciclos sazonais (<italic>clusters</italic>), sugerindo altera&#231;&#245;es intracelulares e p&#243;s-receptores relacionados com a hiper-reatividade. O tabagismo e a etnia asi&#225;tica s&#227;o descritos como fatores predisponentes, enquanto os demais FR tradicionais n&#227;o parecem relacionados a maior risco. Alguns estudos sugerem que as mulheres s&#227;o mais sens&#237;veis a espasmo induzido por acetilcolina que ergonovina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.5. Disfun&#231;&#227;o Microvascular Coronariana</title>
        <p>A circula&#231;&#227;o coronariana microvascular compreende vasos com calibre inferior a 0,5mm de di&#226;metro, n&#227;o visualizados na angiografia convencional, embora representem mais de 70% da resist&#234;ncia vascular coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup>A disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana &#233; definida como altera&#231;&#227;o dessa reserva de fluxo coronariano (RFC) ou o aumento da resist&#234;ncia intramioc&#225;rdica na aus&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o de art&#233;rias epic&#225;rdicas. A avali&#231;&#227;o da RFC pode ser feita atrav&#233;s de medidas n&#227;o invasivas, com doppler ou termodilui&#231;&#227;o. A RFC &#233; expressa como a raz&#227;o entre o fluxo em hiperemia m&#225;xima e o fluxo em repouso. Um valor &lt; 2,0 &#233; considerado alterado. O &#237;ndice de resist&#234;ncia m&#225;ximo &#233; calculado como o produto da press&#227;o coronariana distal em m&#225;xima hiperemia e o tempo do fluxo m&#233;dio, sendo um valor &#8805; 25 indicativo de disfun&#231;&#227;o da microcircula&#231;&#227;o. O diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a da microcircula&#231;&#227;o foi recentemente proposto pelo COVADIS (<italic>Coronary Vasomotor Disorders International Study</italic>) <italic>Group</italic>, levando em considera&#231;&#227;o achados de isquemia, aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a obstrutiva e evid&#234;ncia de fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular alterada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Do ponto de vista fisiopatog&#234;nico, as causas parecem ser diversas e complexas. Dois end&#243;tipos s&#227;o descritos: estrutural e funcional, que muitas vezes coexistem. No aspecto estrutural, existe disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, remodelamento arteriolar e rarefa&#231;&#227;o de capilares, o que leva a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o do incremento do fluxo coronariano em repouso e aumento da demanda durante esfor&#231;o. A manifesta&#231;&#227;o funcional est&#225; relacionada ao acoplamento card&#237;aco-coron&#225;rio ineficiente, resultado do aumento do t&#244;nus microvascular durante pico do exerc&#237;cio e durante o repouso, levando a uma maior demanda de oxig&#234;nio do mioc&#225;rdio no cen&#225;rio de reserva vasodilatadora esgotada saturada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
        <p>V&#225;rios estudos demonstraram diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao sexo na resposta aos testes funcionais, indicando que as mulheres apresentam mais disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana e vasoespasmo epic&#225;rdico em compara&#231;&#227;o com os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.6. Embolia e Trombose</title>
        <p>A emboliza&#231;&#227;o de art&#233;ria epic&#225;rdica sem substrato de aterosclerose &#233; uma causa incomum de MINOCA e, usualmente, um diagn&#243;stico de exclus&#227;o ou presuntivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> O <italic>National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Group</italic> classifica essa condi&#231;&#227;o como poss&#237;vel quando existe evid&#234;ncia de embolia/trombose em art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria sem aterosclerose, emboliza&#231;&#227;o concomitante para outras art&#233;rias ou m&#250;ltiplos locais e/ou na evid&#234;ncia de fatores predisponentes para forma&#231;&#227;o de &#234;mbolos. V&#225;rias causas s&#227;o descritas para fonte de &#234;mbolos, como diretas, paradoxais, iatrog&#234;nicas ou mesmo hipercoagulabilidade sist&#234;mica. As fontes diretas incluem trombos formados no ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo (AAE) na vig&#234;ncia de FA, no VE e nas v&#225;lvulas mitral e a&#243;rtica, bem como em segmentos coronarianos proximais. Os &#234;mbolos podem ter origem hematog&#234;nica ou de conte&#250;do tissular outro, como neoplasia e <italic>debris</italic> valvares. Indiv&#237;duos com <italic>shunts</italic> direito-esquerdo, como a presen&#231;a de comunica&#231;&#227;o atrial, forame oval patente, malforma&#231;&#245;es arteriovenosas, podem apresentar emboliza&#231;&#227;o paradoxal. O incremento de procedimentos invasivos coronarianos, valvares e de acesso sist&#234;mico tamb&#233;m tem sido relacionado com casos de emboliza&#231;&#227;o coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.7. S&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo</title>
        <p>A s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo &#233; uma entidade card&#237;aca aguda, com apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica semelhante &#224; de uma SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> V&#225;rias apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e fenot&#237;picas s&#227;o reconhecidas, sendo a t&#237;pica um perfil de anormalidade de contra&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda circunferencial (bi-) que se estende al&#233;m de um territ&#243;rio de suprimento da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria e parece seguir a inerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica card&#237;aca anat&#244;mica. A s&#237;ndrome afeta predominantemente mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa, sendo, em mais de 70% dos casos, precedida por estresse emocional ou f&#237;sico. H&#225; um desequil&#237;brio entre os sexos, com mulheres representando 90% dos casos de s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo, respons&#225;vel por at&#233; 10% das mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa com dor tor&#225;cica aguda. As diferen&#231;as de g&#234;nero na fisiopatologia permanecem pouco descritas e s&#227;o uma &#225;rea para pesquisas futuras. A patog&#234;nese da s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo &#233; indefinida. V&#225;rios mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos envolvendo isquemia mioc&#225;rdica (espasmo coronariano multiarterial, disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio abortado), obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE, toxicidade mioc&#225;rdica por catecolaminas transmitidas pelo sangue, mudan&#231;a induzida por epinefrina no tr&#225;fego de sinal e disfun&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA) foram propostos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.8. Miocardite</title>
        <p>A miocardite &#233; uma doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria do cora&#231;&#227;o que pode ser causada por infec&#231;&#227;o, ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema imune ou toxicidade, sendo a causa mais frequente a infecciosa. Uma das apresenta&#231;&#245;es comuns da miocardite &#233; a mimetiza&#231;&#227;o de quadro de IAM, com dor precordial e aumento de troponina, usualmente em homens jovens. Os aspectos fisiopatol&#243;gicos variam de acordo com o agente agressor e a etiologia, mas envolvem degenera&#231;&#227;o e necrose do cardiomi&#243;cito de origem n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica. Em uma s&#233;rie de casos de miocardite por parvov&#237;rus B19, a indu&#231;&#227;o de espasmo coronariano epic&#225;rdico reproduziu os sintomas, sugerindo que parte da sintomatologia pode ser de origem coronariana e estar relacionada a uma arterite induzida pelo v&#237;rus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Apresenta&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica, Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento Cl&#237;nico</title>
      <sec>
        <title>4.1. Dor Tor&#225;cica de Etiologia Isqu&#234;mica</title>
        <p>A dor tor&#225;cica &#233; a segunda queixa mais comum nos servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia, superada apenas pelas causas traum&#225;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Acomete entre 20% e 40% da popula&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> sendo mais frequente nas mulheres. &#201; preciso, entretanto, conhecer as diferen&#231;as na apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e no diagn&#243;stico e manejo da DIC entre mulheres e homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup>Apenas 5,1% dos pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na emerg&#234;ncia apresentam SCA e mais da metade mostra etiologia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        <p>At&#233; recentemente, as publica&#231;&#245;es raramente se voltavam para diferen&#231;as sexo-espec&#237;ficas nas DCV, nem compreend&#237;amos as diferen&#231;as fisiopatol&#243;gicas que afetam exclusivamente as mulheres<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 4.1</xref>). A falta de reconhecimento das diferen&#231;as biol&#243;gicas e socioculturais espec&#237;ficas do sexo na apresenta&#231;&#227;o da dor tor&#225;cica da DIC pode, em parte, explicar essas disparidades, o que leva a atrasos no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento. Os sintomas isqu&#234;micos das mulheres s&#227;o mais relacionados ao estresse emocional ou mental e menos frequentemente precipitados pela atividade f&#237;sica em compara&#231;&#227;o aos dos homens. Diferen&#231;as de sexo e g&#234;nero nos mecanismos de dor, incluindo suscetibilidade psicol&#243;gica, reatividade do SNA e inerva&#231;&#227;o visceral, provavelmente contribuem para as diferen&#231;as na apresenta&#231;&#227;o da dor tor&#225;cica. Portanto, escores de risco e caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de angina t&#237;pica/at&#237;pica n&#227;o parecem mais relevantes e n&#227;o devem ser usados uniformemente em mulheres e homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As diferen&#231;as entre os sexos na percep&#231;&#227;o da dor s&#227;o bem descritas, tendo o sexo feminino maior consci&#234;ncia som&#225;tica em compara&#231;&#227;o ao masculino. Isso potencialmente leva as mulheres a terem maior sensibilidade, mas menor especificidade para dor tor&#225;cica card&#237;aca. Mulheres mais jovens na pr&#233;-menopausa com n&#237;veis relativamente altos de estrog&#234;nio t&#234;m uma maior percep&#231;&#227;o da dor em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;s mais velhas na p&#243;s-menopausa com n&#237;veis mais baixos de estrog&#234;nio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma avalia&#231;&#227;o abrangente das diferen&#231;as de sexo e g&#234;nero na dor inclui contribui&#231;&#245;es de causa pr&#243;xima de experi&#234;ncia (abuso, trabalho de parto e parto), psicol&#243;gica (ansiedade, depress&#227;o, estresse p&#243;s-traum&#225;tico), gen&#233;tica (impress&#227;o do cromossomo X/cromossomo Y), neuroqu&#237;mica (adenosina, express&#227;o de citocinas), organizacional (a&#231;&#227;o de esteroides no desenvolvimento), ativacional (a&#231;&#227;o de esteroides na idade adulta), n&#237;vel de sistemas (conectividade cortical, modula&#231;&#227;o do nervo vago) e sociocultural (pap&#233;is de g&#234;nero, expectativas de pap&#233;is de g&#234;nero).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A isquemia desencadeada por estresse mental prediz mortalidade duas vezes maior e a resposta auton&#244;mica anormal ao estresse leva ao aumento da reatividade vascular coronariana.</p>
        <p>Na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica de dor tor&#225;cica em mulheres, &#233; fundamental incluir, al&#233;m das manifesta&#231;&#245;es de DCV, os FR cl&#225;ssicos, os FR espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino e os determinantes psicossociais da sa&#250;de, notadamente depress&#227;o e estresse. Em geral, a dor isqu&#234;mica mioc&#225;rdica localiza-se no t&#243;rax, por&#233;m pode ocorrer em qualquer regi&#227;o desde o epig&#225;strio at&#233; a mand&#237;bula ou os dentes, entre as omoplatas ou em qualquer dos bra&#231;os at&#233; o pulso e os dedos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As mulheres geralmente apresentam sintomas de dor semelhantes aos dos homens, por&#233;m t&#234;m maior preval&#234;ncia de outros sintomas, como palpita&#231;&#245;es, dispneia, dor maxilar, cervical e no dorso. Um subestudo do ensaio cl&#237;nico High-STEACS (troponina de alta sensibilidade na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com SCA com 1.941 pacientes, sendo 39% mulheres) avaliou a dor tor&#225;cica de forma prospectiva e com descritores de natureza t&#237;pica, presen&#231;a de radia&#231;&#227;o e de sintomas adicionais mais comuns em mulheres com suspeita da doen&#231;a. Em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens, as mulheres mais frequentemente relataram palpita&#231;&#245;es como sintoma inicial (11% <italic>versus</italic> 7%), irradia&#231;&#227;o da dor para o bra&#231;o esquerdo (36% <italic>versus</italic> 31%), dorso (31% <italic>versus</italic> 17%) ou pesco&#231;o/mand&#237;bula (28% <italic>versus</italic> 20%) e maior propens&#227;o a n&#225;usea (34% <italic>versus</italic> 22%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dispneia pode acompanhar a dor ou desconforto tor&#225;cico e sintomas menos espec&#237;ficos, como fadiga ou desmaio, n&#225;usea, queima&#231;&#227;o, inquieta&#231;&#227;o ou sensa&#231;&#227;o de morte iminente, podem ocorrer. A dura&#231;&#227;o do desconforto &#233; breve, em geral menos de dez minutos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Um aspecto peculiar de manifesta&#231;&#227;o da dor isqu&#234;mica na mulher seria a sensa&#231;&#227;o de desconforto tor&#225;cico, mesmo na SCA grave. Apesar da variabilidade individual, o sofrimento induzido pela isquemia mioc&#225;rdica costuma ser caracter&#237;stico e, portanto, fundamental para o diagn&#243;stico. Por isso, crit&#233;rios mais prov&#225;veis de serem associados &#224; isquemia foram descritos como &#8220;t&#237;picos&#8221;, mais comuns nos homens, e &#8220;at&#237;picos&#8221; (n&#225;useas, desconforto, epigastralgia), mais comuns nas mulheres. Por&#233;m, a denomina&#231;&#227;o de dor &#8220;at&#237;pica&#8221; como caracter&#237;stica mais feminina deve ser evitada, devendo-se pensar em padronizar a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica na mulher. Al&#233;m disso, &#8220;dor tor&#225;cica at&#237;pica&#8221; &#233; um termo problem&#225;tico, pois, embora tenha a inten&#231;&#227;o de indicar aus&#234;ncia de sintomas &#8220;t&#237;picos&#8221;, sugere origem n&#227;o card&#237;aca, devendo, assim, ser desencorajado o seu uso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma melhor compreens&#227;o dos sintomas femininos de angina e uma estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco mais adaptada &#224;s mulheres permitem o reconhecimento precoce, diagn&#243;stico correto e tratamento ideal, melhorando o progn&#243;stico e a evolu&#231;&#227;o da DIC nas mulheres.</p>
        <p>&#8220;Dor no peito&#8221; significa, al&#233;m disso, dor, press&#227;o, aperto ou desconforto no t&#243;rax, ombros, bra&#231;os, pesco&#231;o, costas, parte superior do abdome ou mand&#237;bula, bem como dispneia e fadiga, que devem ser considerados como equivalentes anginosos. Portanto, s&#227;o sintomas inespec&#237;ficos, descritos at&#233; mesmo como fraqueza, tontura, diaforese e dispepsia, podendo ocorrer como manifesta&#231;&#245;es de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup>A dor ou desconforto tor&#225;cico ocorre em mais de 80% de mulheres e homens com SCA, por&#233;m as mulheres atribuem mais esse sintoma a condi&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca, como refluxo, estresse ou ansiedade, o que pode prejudicar o diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup>Nas mulheres, ocorrem mais sintomas adicionais do que nos homens, sendo elas mais propensas a se apresentarem sem dor tor&#225;cica.</p>
        <p>Por terem as mulheres formas de apresenta&#231;&#227;o da SCA diferentes, elas correm maior risco de diagn&#243;stico incorreto e atraso no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento, o que pode levar a eventos catastr&#243;ficos, como parada card&#237;aca. Sabe-se que pacientes com dispneia de origem card&#237;aca como manifesta&#231;&#227;o &#250;nica t&#234;m risco duas vezes maior de morte s&#250;bita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Mulheres com SCA tendem a ser mais idosas e, portanto, t&#234;m mais comorbidades do que homens. Apresentam sintomas cont&#237;nuos, tentam automedica&#231;&#227;o em casa e informam sintomas semelhantes no passado.</p>
        <p>A idade jovem e a aus&#234;ncia de desconforto tor&#225;cico est&#227;o entre os preditores mais fortes de diagn&#243;stico err&#244;neo de SCA e de alta hospitalar de setores de emerg&#234;ncia de forma precoce ou inadequada. Mulheres que receberam alta com o diagn&#243;stico de dor tor&#225;cica inespec&#237;fica podem ter duas vezes mais eventos coronarianos subsequentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os escores de risco criados para estratificar pacientes n&#227;o s&#227;o perfeitos, notadamente em mulheres, onde fatores emergentes e espec&#237;ficos n&#227;o s&#227;o considerados. O escore HEART teve melhor desempenho do que os escores TIMI, GRACE e EDACS na previs&#227;o de eventos adversos em pacientes de emerg&#234;ncia que apresentaram dor tor&#225;cica ou equivalentes anginosos, mas 5,7% dos pacientes classificados como baixo risco apresentaram eventos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup>No escore HEART, as considera&#231;&#245;es cl&#225;ssicas para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o Hist&#243;ria, ECG, Idade (<italic>Age</italic>), Fatores de risco e Troponina, sendo a pontua&#231;&#227;o a soma dessas cinco vari&#225;veis. Como as mulheres t&#234;m apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica vari&#225;vel, altera&#231;&#245;es ao ECG muitas vezes d&#250;bias e FR espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino, aquele e muitos outros escores t&#234;m pot&#234;ncia reduzida para estratificar essas pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No &#226;mbito da cardiologia, conhecer os FR permite ao profissional de sa&#250;de exercer estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o que podem, a m&#233;dio ou longo prazo, alterar progn&#243;stico e desfecho da DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Diante das diverg&#234;ncias anat&#244;micas e metab&#243;licas entre os sexos, deve-se, ao estudar grupos de risco, considerar essa distin&#231;&#227;o. Existem, portanto, diferentes propor&#231;&#245;es na relev&#226;ncia dos FR, explicitando a import&#226;ncia de estud&#225;-los separadamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Relevante se faz abordar FR bem estabelecidos (modific&#225;veis e n&#227;o modific&#225;veis) e os espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino. Alguns fatores de impacto na sa&#250;de cardiovascular da mulher s&#227;o sub-reconhecidos, como depress&#227;o, viol&#234;ncia dom&#233;stica e fatores psicossociais, e merecem ser abordados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Em geral, os FR manifestam-se conjuntamente, sendo que, quanto mais FR a paciente apresentar, maior &#233; o seu RCV global.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.2. Fatores de Risco Estabelecidos e Modific&#225;veis</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Obesidade/Sobrepeso:</bold> A obesidade &#233; uma doen&#231;a e, para mulheres em idade reprodutiva, &#233; o fator modific&#225;vel que mais diretamente se associa &#224; presen&#231;a de HAS. A obesidade na gesta&#231;&#227;o promove maior risco de desenvolver doen&#231;a hipertensiva da gravidez e/ou diabetes gestacional, que exercem papel importante na mortalidade materno-fetal. No Framingham Heart Study, a obesidade aumentou o risco de doen&#231;a coronariana em 64% nas mulheres e em 46% nos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Sedentarismo:</bold> &#201; o FR que tem impacto direto na DCV desde a primeira inf&#226;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Desde os primeiros anos de vida, a mulher tem progressivamente menor participa&#231;&#227;o em atividade f&#237;sica, o que leva a uma cascata de altera&#231;&#245;es produzidas pela falta de condicionamento f&#237;sico, com grande relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica no processo de envelhecimento n&#227;o saud&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Em pa&#237;ses onde a mulher est&#225; sob limita&#231;&#245;es sociais/religiosas, h&#225; piora dos dados cardiovasculares, dificultando a promo&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de e promovendo maior preval&#234;ncia de outros FR, como obesidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Tabagismo:</bold> &#201; um h&#225;bito que se apresenta de forma epid&#234;mica. Sua preval&#234;ncia em homens &#233; maior que em mulheres; entretanto, estudos recentes demostram que o RCV associado ao tabagismo &#233; 25% maior em mulheres do que em homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Importante lembrar que o cigarro eletr&#244;nico tem se consolidado como pr&#225;tica popular, atingindo internacionalmente cada vez mais mulheres jovens, contribuindo para a forma&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es endoteliais. Em todas as faixas et&#225;rias, exceto dos 30-44 anos, as mulheres t&#234;m um risco 25% maior de DIC associada ao tabagismo em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Dislipidemia:</bold> &#201; um FR relacionado ao estilo de vida associado a fatores gen&#233;ticos, mas estudos mostram que h&#225; menor aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; sa&#250;de da mulher e &#224;s propostas terap&#234;uticas em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;s do homem. Fator agravante a ser considerado &#233; a menopausa, devido ao aumento relevante nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de colesterol total e LDL-colesterol e menor efeito protetor do HDL-colesterol, levando assim, a maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o a DCV. As estrat&#233;gias de tratamento s&#227;o as bem estabelecidas nas diretrizes, n&#227;o diferindo das estrat&#233;gias dos homens. Por&#233;m, cabe ressaltar que a regress&#227;o do ateroma e o benef&#237;cio da redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol parecem maiores em mulheres do que em homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Diabetes mellitus:</bold> Mulheres com DM possuem um risco de DIC fatal tr&#234;s vezes maior do que mulheres n&#227;o diab&#233;ticas. O infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ocorre mais cedo e existe maior mortalidade em mulheres do que em homens com DM. Mulheres diab&#233;ticas apresentam risco significativamente maior de desenvolver doen&#231;a arterial cr&#244;nica e/ou ICFEp do que homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Considerando o aumento mundial de DM, diretamente relacionado ao aumento da obesidade, mulheres com DM apresentam 44% maior incid&#234;ncia de DIC do que homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Estresse:</bold> Sa&#250;de mental &#233; tema de grande relev&#226;ncia, principalmente ap&#243;s a pandemia da COVID-19. Dados mostram que a rela&#231;&#227;o entre estresse e RCV &#233; bem estabelecida, onde ansiedade e depress&#227;o est&#227;o associadas ao aumento de morbimortalidade por DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup>A ocorr&#234;ncia de viol&#234;ncia dom&#233;stica, que atinge grande parte da popula&#231;&#227;o feminina, &#233; fator desencadeante de estresse cr&#244;nico importante, levando a sequelas que persistem mesmo ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino do abuso, ocasionando outros transtornos mentais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica:</bold> &#201; o FR de maior import&#226;ncia para as mulheres. Hipertensas apresentam maior risco de IAM comparado a homens hipertensos devido &#224; maior velocidade de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a, maior neglig&#234;ncia no diagn&#243;stico e menor ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Apesar de as diretrizes de HAS serem bem estabelecidas, recentemente tem-se discutido o impacto de se estabelecerem diferentes metas press&#243;ricas por sexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3. Fatores de Risco Estabelecidos e N&#227;o Modific&#225;veis</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Hist&#243;rico familiar:</bold> Mulheres com menos de 65 anos e hist&#243;ria materna de IAM apresentam risco quatro vezes maior de SCA que homens da mesma idade ou mulheres mais velhas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Idade:</bold> A idade propicia o desenvolvimento de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, que conceitualmente associa os principais FR, ou seja, DM, HAS, obesidade e dislipidemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> e leva ao aumento da resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e do estado pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio e pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tico, aumentando o risco de DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.4. Fatores de Risco Espec&#237;ficos da Mulher</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Menopausa:</bold> O estrog&#234;nio &#233; conhecido por seu efeito protetor do endot&#233;lio vascular. Na menopausa, a aus&#234;ncia da prote&#231;&#227;o estrog&#234;nica leva a efeitos negativos na fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular/metabolismo, tais como: altera&#231;&#227;o da gordura corporal, inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e maior resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Entretanto, a terapia hormonal da menopausa n&#227;o &#233; indicada para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria ou secund&#225;ria de DCV, sendo que seu uso se baseia na reposi&#231;&#227;o em caso de menopausa prematura. Quando existem sintomas vasomotores acentuados, que comprometem a qualidade de vida, a terapia hormonal tamb&#233;m pode ser usada, mas h&#225; necessidade de avalia&#231;&#227;o individual de forma interprofissional para seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia do tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Dist&#250;rbios relacionados &#224; gravidez:</bold> A mulher est&#225; sujeita a complica&#231;&#245;es como diabetes gestacional e doen&#231;a hipertensiva da gravidez, o que aumenta em tr&#234;s a quatro vezes o risco de SCA ao longo de toda a sua vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Sendo assim, sua hist&#243;ria obst&#233;trica deve ser investigada cuidadosamente e a presen&#231;a dessas comorbidades dita o acompanhamento cont&#237;nuo da mulher. Mulheres com pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia t&#234;m um risco 3,7 vezes maior de desenvolver HAS 14 anos mais tarde, 2,16 vezes maior de DIC em 12 anos, 1,8 vez de AVC em 10 anos e 1,78 vez de tromboembolismo venoso em 5 anos. O diabetes gestacional aumenta o risco de DM tipo 2 em sete vezes, o risco de AVC em duas vezes e de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio em quatro vezes, independentemente de a paciente se tornar ou n&#227;o diab&#233;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Anticoncepcionais hormonais orais:</bold> O uso de anticoncepcionais hormonais orais dobra o risco de SCA de etiologia aterotromb&#243;tica, sendo potencializado pelo tabagismo, HAS e DM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>S&#237;ndrome do ov&#225;rio polic&#237;stico:</bold> Esta, por promover excesso de andr&#243;genos e oligoanovula&#231;&#227;o, leva a maior probabilidade de desenvolver dislipidemia, HAS e DM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Dist&#250;rbios inflamat&#243;rios sist&#234;micos e autoimunes:</bold> A inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de patologias como l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico e artrite reumatoide leva a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o a DCV. As mulheres t&#234;m mais preval&#234;ncia de tais dist&#250;rbios em rela&#231;&#227;o aos homens. A raz&#227;o entre mulheres e homens para artrite reumatoide &#233; de 2,5:1 e para l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico &#233; de 9:1. O risco de IAM &#233; duas a tr&#234;s vezes maior e de AVC, 50% maior em mulheres com artrite reumatoide. Para l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico, o risco de IAM &#233; de 9-50 vezes o da popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Os escores de risco habituais subestimam o RCV nas mulheres com artrite reumatoide e l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico, sendo sugerido multiplicar por 1,5 o risco absoluto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; <bold>Radia&#231;&#227;o e Quimioterapia para Tratamento do C&#226;ncer de Mama:</bold> Radioterapia para tratamento do c&#226;ncer de mama envolve exposi&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante, aumentando o risco de DIC. Esse risco &#233; proporcional &#224; dose, come&#231;a poucos anos ap&#243;s a exposi&#231;&#227;o e continua por 20 anos. Existe associa&#231;&#227;o com a presen&#231;a de FR e &#233; pior na irradia&#231;&#227;o da mama esquerda comparada &#224; da direita. Pode se manifestar por valvopatias ou cardiomiopatias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Pelo menos 20% das mulheres apresentam evento coronariano sem FR para DCV bem estabelecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Importante avali&#225;-las de forma singular na identifica&#231;&#227;o e controle dos FR, tanto os estabelecidos como os espec&#237;ficos, cruciais no acompanhamento longitudinal da mulher para preven&#231;&#227;o de DCV e promo&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.5. Fatores de Risco Sub-reconhecidos</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; Alguns desses fatores, como os dist&#250;rbios de ansiedade/depress&#227;o e determinantes sociais de sa&#250;de, como abuso sexual e viol&#234;ncia, priva&#231;&#227;o socioecon&#244;mica e baixa escolaridade, s&#227;o considerados potencializadores de DCV, sendo importante sua investiga&#231;&#227;o na estratifica&#231;&#227;o das mulheres. Ademais, os determinantes sociais de sa&#250;de tamb&#233;m levam a desfechos negativos, como a inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular e a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, principalmente quando associados aos FR cl&#225;ssicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; Os dist&#250;rbios de ansiedade/depress&#227;o aumentam em duas vezes o risco de DIC, por alterarem o eixo hipot&#225;lamo-hipofis&#225;rio-adrenal e SNA, aumentando o estresse oxidativo e a resposta inflamat&#243;ria, com consequente disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, aterotrombose e DIC. Mulheres jovens t&#234;m maior risco de depress&#227;o e maior mortalidade ap&#243;s IAM do que homens, al&#233;m de apresentarem menor decl&#237;nio nas taxas de morte do que homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <sec>
          <title>4.5.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas dos fatores de risco cardiovasculares est&#227;o descritas no Posicionamento sobre Sa&#250;de Cardiovascular da Mulher.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.6. Tratamento Medicamentoso nas Diferentes Formas de Manifesta&#231;&#227;o Isqu&#234;mica</title>
      <p>Comparadas aos homens, as mulheres, incluindo as mais jovens, t&#234;m maior atraso no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da SCA. Por conseguinte, s&#227;o menos submetidas a coronariografia e tratamento cir&#250;rgico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> incluindo suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico no choque cardiog&#234;nico. Apresentam, portanto, maior probabilidade de &#243;bito intra-hospitalar.</p>
      <p>Parece que o menor &#237;ndice de tratamento cir&#250;rgico nas mulheres se deve &#224; presen&#231;a de MINOCA, art&#233;rias menos calibrosas e doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica menos grave. As mulheres apresentam maior preval&#234;ncia de outros mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos da DIC, como cardiomiopatia de Takotsubo (estresse-induzida), disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, embolia coronariana, vasoespasmo coronariano e DEAC. Por&#233;m, esse dado n&#227;o explica porque as mulheres s&#227;o menos submetidas a coronariografia e a suporte circulat&#243;rio no choque cardiog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A INOCA predomina em mulheres (&gt; 50% <italic>versus</italic> 7-17% em homens) e associa-se a risco de desfechos desfavor&#225;veis, como hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es recorrentes, interven&#231;&#245;es, pior qualidade de vida, maior mortalidade e cinco a dez vezes mais risco de desenvolver ICFEp. Portanto, seus diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico, assim como a conduta nos casos de INOCA, continuam sendo um desafio para os m&#233;dicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> Apesar de a INOCA se associar a risco de eventos maiores, menos de 50% das pacientes s&#227;o submetidas a tratamento medicamentoso adequado, al&#233;m de ser baixa a ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento prescrito e haver subutiliza&#231;&#227;o de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> Sugere-se que as mulheres s&#227;o menos submetidas &#224; terapia medicamentosa por n&#227;o haver evid&#234;ncias sobre seu tratamento, sobretudo quando existe disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana associada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Outro fator que limita o consenso sobre seu tratamento &#233; a presen&#231;a de diferentes fen&#243;tipos na doen&#231;a, ora predominando disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, ora vasoespasmo coronariano ou ambos. Portanto, as respostas terap&#234;uticas s&#227;o variadas e incertas.</p>
      <p>O tratamento da INOCA/MINOCA baseia-se em tr&#234;s alicerces, a saber:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Mudan&#231;a de estilo de vida</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Controle dos FR</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Tratamento antianginoso</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Mudan&#231;a de estilo de vida, controle dos FRCV, como HAS, DM e dislipidemia, e reabilita&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular s&#227;o medidas fundamentais na redu&#231;&#227;o de morbimortalidade na INOCA e MINOCA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> assim como na doen&#231;a coronariana.</p>
      <p>Estudos randomizados, como WISE e WARRIOR (em andamento), t&#234;m demonstrado a efic&#225;cia do inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina (IECA) na RFC e na melhora da angina. Portanto, pacientes hipertensas portadoras de INOCA/MINOCA podem se beneficiar com seu uso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As estatinas, por seu efeito inibit&#243;rio sobre o estresse oxidativo e propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias, atuam na RFC e na disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, melhorando a toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o e reduzindo isquemia esfor&#231;o-induzida, principalmente quando associada a diltiazem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Drogas antianginosas, como os nitratos, betabloqueadores (BB) e bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio (BCC), s&#227;o utilizadas na INOCA e MINOCA, por&#233;m sua efic&#225;cia varia de acordo com o fen&#243;tipo predominante, uma vez que podem predominar disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, vasoespasmo coronariano ou ambos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> Em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, os nitratos de longa a&#231;&#227;o podem piorar os sintomas, por poss&#237;vel efeito de roubo de fluxo, devendo-se dar prefer&#234;ncia aos BCC. Nitratos de curta dura&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m efic&#225;cia incerta e precisam ser usados repetidas vezes.</p>
      <p>Os BCC s&#227;o drogas de primeira escolha em caso de vasoespasmo coronariano, seguido dos nitratos. Em casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, RFC reduzida e/ou resist&#234;ncia microcirculat&#243;ria aumentada, sugerindo remodelamento arteriolar, s&#227;o usados inicialmente BB e, em casos refrat&#225;rios, os BCC. Drogas como a ranolazina e a trimetazidina podem ser consideradas no tratamento da DIC n&#227;o obstrutiva, principalmente no caso da angina refrat&#225;ria.</p>
      <p>O BB mais utilizado &#233; o nebivolol por sua a&#231;&#227;o B1 seletiva e efeito vasodilatador via produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico. Ele tem sido estudado em mulheres com disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, melhorando a angina e a toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico. Seu uso intracoron&#225;rio melhora a RFC e reduz o consumo de oxig&#234;nio (VO<sub>2</sub>) mioc&#225;rdico. Al&#233;m disso, melhora a press&#227;o de enchimento do VE e RFC em pacientes com HAS n&#227;o complicada, possivelmente pela a&#231;&#227;o do &#243;xido n&#237;trico na microcircula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Drogas promissoras foram estudadas na INOCA, como o nicorandil e a trimetazidina. O primeiro &#233; um ativador dos canais de pot&#225;ssio, levando a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o da microcircula&#231;&#227;o semelhante aos nitratos. A trimetazidina, droga que atua no metabolismo das c&#233;lulas musculares card&#237;acas inibindo a oxida&#231;&#227;o dos &#225;cidos graxos livres, leva &#224; maior utiliza&#231;&#227;o da glicose na produ&#231;&#227;o de fosfatos de alta energia. A trimetazidina em monoterapia ou em combina&#231;&#227;o a drogas antianginosas melhorou a toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o na angina est&#225;vel e em pacientes com INOCA. &#201; tamb&#233;m descrita melhora na perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, provavelmente devido &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo. Uma dose &#250;nica de trimetazidina aumenta a dura&#231;&#227;o do exerc&#237;cio e melhora os sinais e sintomas de isquemia no ECG de esfor&#231;o. Estudos recentes mostram evid&#234;ncia de cardioprote&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica na angina est&#225;vel e SCA em pacientes ap&#243;s angioplastia percut&#226;nea com a trimetazidina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A ranolazina atua na inibi&#231;&#227;o dos canais tardios de c&#225;lcio reduzindo sua concentra&#231;&#227;o intracelular nos cardiomi&#243;citos, melhorando assim a fun&#231;&#227;o de relaxamento e microcircula&#231;&#227;o. Parece ter uma a&#231;&#227;o favor&#225;vel em mulheres com INOCA e pacientes com RFC reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Como as mulheres apresentam o estresse mental ou emocional como deflagrador de dor isqu&#234;mica, maior suscetibilidade psicol&#243;gica e maior reatividade do SNA, baixas doses de antidepressivos tric&#237;clicos podem ajudar na redu&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Concluindo, as mulheres devem ser abordadas com olhar diferenciado do ponto de vista cardiovascular, atentando-se para as peculiaridades das manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da DIC por diferentes mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos, o que dificulta o diagn&#243;stico e, consequentemente, a abordagem terap&#234;utica. Sendo assim, esses fatores podem trazer consequ&#234;ncias muitas vezes delet&#233;rias &#224; sua sa&#250;de. A an&#225;lise dos FR deve ser ampla, buscando-se fatores potencializadores de risco, al&#233;m dos FR espec&#237;ficos das mulheres e os sub-reconhecidos.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>4.6.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>O tratamento da INOCA/MINOCA baseia-se na mudan&#231;a de estilo de vida, controle dos FR e tratamento antianginoso. Nas hipertensas deve-se dar prefer&#234;ncia aos IECA/bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina (BRA). As estatinas atuam na RFC e na disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular, melhorando a toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o e reduzindo isquemia esfor&#231;o-induzida. Como drogas antianginosas, podem-se usar nitratos, BB e BCC; por&#233;m, em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, os nitratos de longa a&#231;&#227;o podem piorar os sintomas, por poss&#237;vel efeito de roubo de fluxo, devendo-se dar prefer&#234;ncia aos BCC. Os BCC s&#227;o drogas de primeira escolha no vasoespasmo coronariano. Em casos de remodelamento arteriolar (disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, RFC reduzida e/ou resist&#234;ncia microcirculat&#243;ria aumentada), usar inicialmente BB (o mais utilizado &#233; o Nebivolol &#8211; a&#231;&#227;o B1 seletiva e vasodilata&#231;&#227;o via produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico) e, em casos refrat&#225;rios, os BCC. Ranolazina e trimetazidina podem ser consideradas na angina refrat&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Baixas doses de antidepressivos tric&#237;clicos podem ajudar na redu&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas em mulheres com estresse mental ou emocional como deflagrador de dor isqu&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Diagn&#243;stico por Avalia&#231;&#227;o Funcional Gr&#225;fica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>5.1. Eletrocardiograma de Repouso</title>
        <p>O ECG das mulheres apresenta diferen&#231;as quando comparado ao dos homens, como FC em repouso mais elevada, menor amplitude e maior dura&#231;&#227;o do QRS, maiores intervalos QT e desvios do segmento ST.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Para avalia&#231;&#227;o da DIC, a posi&#231;&#227;o correta dos eletrodos &#233; fundamental para evitar diagn&#243;stico equivocado. Mamas volumosas ou pr&#243;teses mam&#225;rias geram complexos de baixa voltagem e reduzem a amplitude da onda R nas deriva&#231;&#245;es V1 e V2, simulando &#225;rea inativa. Em contrapartida, mulheres mastectomizadas geram QRS maiores, simulando hipertrofia ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ECG na avalia&#231;&#227;o de dor tor&#225;cica em mulheres mant&#233;m os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos descritos para o sexo masculino, exceto para les&#227;o subepic&#225;rdica. Nas mulheres, s&#227;o considerados patol&#243;gicos valores de eleva&#231;&#227;o do ponto J e segmento ST &#8805; 1,5 mm nas deriva&#231;&#245;es precordiais V1 a V3.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> Outras vari&#225;veis, como maior &#226;ngulo QRS-T e maior dura&#231;&#227;o do QRS, podem ser consideradas preditores independentes de morte, IC e IAM n&#227;o fatal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup>As anormalidades da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular na menopausa podem ser preditoras importantes de eventos coronarianos e mortalidade por DIC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Teste Ergom&#233;trico</title>
        <p>O TE &#233; um exame funcional acess&#237;vel, seguro, reprodut&#237;vel, de baixo custo, sem radia&#231;&#227;o, capaz de analisar a resposta cardiovascular ao esfor&#231;o, propiciando informa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, hemodin&#226;micas, metab&#243;licas, auton&#244;micas e eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas que auxiliam no diagn&#243;stico, estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, avalia&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica e prescri&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A vis&#227;o multifatorial do TE ampliou sua interpreta&#231;&#227;o ao incluir vari&#225;veis progn&#243;sticas, sobretudo nas mulheres. &#201; recomendado como m&#233;todo inicial de escolha na avalia&#231;&#227;o de mulheres sintom&#225;ticas de risco intermedi&#225;rio para DIC, com ECG de repouso normal e capazes de se exercitar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em meta-an&#225;lise de 19 estudos, a sensibilidade m&#233;dia do TE foi menor nas mulheres em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens (61% <italic>versus</italic> 70%), assim como a especificidade (72% <italic>versus</italic> 77%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Em mulheres sintom&#225;ticas, o valor preditivo positivo da depress&#227;o do segmento ST &#233; menor do que nos homens (47% <italic>versus</italic> 77%, p &lt; 0,05); no entanto, o valor preditivo negativo &#233; similar (78% <italic>versus</italic> 81%). Um TE m&#225;ximo e negativo &#233; &#250;til para afastar a presen&#231;a de DIC obstrutiva significativa e prever excelente sobrevida livre de eventos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nas mulheres, existe maior preval&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas sem correspond&#234;ncia de DIC obstrutiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> Os fatores que mais contribuem para menor acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica incluem: menor preval&#234;ncia de DIC multiarterial; maior preval&#234;ncia de DIC n&#227;o obstrutiva, prolapso valvar mitral, angina vasoesp&#225;stica e microvascular; ECG com baixa voltagem e altera&#231;&#245;es da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular; sintomas predominantemente at&#237;picos; fatores hormonais na pr&#233;- e p&#243;s-menopausa; menores toler&#226;ncia ao esfor&#231;o e FC atingida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento ST com morfologia ascendente lenta ou convexa, principalmente restritas &#224;s deriva&#231;&#245;es inferiores, que surgem em FC alta, maior carga de trabalho e r&#225;pida normaliza&#231;&#227;o na recupera&#231;&#227;o (dentro do 1&#186; minuto) tendem a n&#227;o se correlacionar com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana obstrutiva significativa, ao contr&#225;rio das altera&#231;&#245;es &#8805; 2,0mm, morfologia horizontal ou descendente, em baixas carga e FC, persistentes por v&#225;rios minutos na recupera&#231;&#227;o, sobretudo se acompanhadas de sintomatologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> Al&#233;m das altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento ST, o TE contribui com importantes informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas por meio da an&#225;lise de par&#226;metros, como capacidade funcional, respostas cronotr&#243;pica e da PA, recupera&#231;&#227;o da FC e avalia&#231;&#227;o de escores.</p>
        <p>A capacidade funcional &#233; o maior preditor independente de morte em mulheres, incluindo as assintom&#225;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup>A capacidade de atingir &#8805; 10 MET &#233; indicador de preval&#234;ncia muito baixa de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica significativa, independentemente do g&#234;nero.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup>Entretanto, quando &lt; 7 MET s&#227;o alcan&#231;ados, a probabilidade de isquemia &#233; significativamente maior (0,4% <italic>versus</italic> 7,1%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> A incapacidade de atingir 5 MET &#233; preditora independente de alto risco, com aumento de tr&#234;s vezes na mortalidade em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;s mulheres que atingiram &gt; 8 MET.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A incapacidade de alcan&#231;ar 85% da FC m&#225;xima prevista para a idade &#233; preditiva de risco aumentado de mortalidade e DIC obstrutiva em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de incompet&#234;ncia cronotr&#243;pica aumentou em 30% o risco de mortalidade por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> A diminui&#231;&#227;o da FC no primeiro minuto da recupera&#231;&#227;o &lt; 12 bpm &#233; outro importante marcador progn&#243;stico, sendo preditor independente de mortalidade por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O incremento da PA &#233; menor, principalmente nas mulheres mais jovens, e a n&#227;o eleva&#231;&#227;o (&#8220;plat&#244;&#8221;) &#233; achado frequente, em geral n&#227;o relacionado &#224; doen&#231;a card&#237;aca, diferentemente do sexo masculino. Sua interpreta&#231;&#227;o deve ser associada &#224;s demais vari&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os escores podem ser &#250;teis para aperfei&#231;oar o diagn&#243;stico de DIC, sendo o Escore de Duke o mais utilizado, com valor diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico, e calculado pelo tempo de exerc&#237;cio (protocolo Bruce) &#8211; 5x (desn&#237;vel do segmento ST) &#8211; 4x (angina, sendo: 0 = angina ausente, 1 = dor n&#227;o limitante, 2 = dor limitante).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup>As categorias s&#227;o: baixo risco (ED &#8805; 5), risco moderado (ED de &#8722;10 a 4) e alto risco (ED &#8804; &#8722;11).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> Quando baixo, o ED est&#225; associado a taxa de mortalidade anual de &#8776;0,25%, em contraste com &#8776; 5% no alto risco, sendo as taxas de mortalidade mais baixas em mulheres. Em coorte de 976 mulheres sintom&#225;ticas com TE e angiografia, estenose coronariana &#8805; 75% esteve presente em 19%, 35% e 89% daquelas com ED de baixo, moderado e alto risco, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Mulheres com ED intermedi&#225;rio devem ser encaminhadas para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco adicional com imagem sob estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Essa &#233; uma ferramenta valiosa para prever o risco de eventos (morte card&#237;aca, IAM n&#227;o fatal e revasculariza&#231;&#227;o tardia) entre as mulheres, mas pode ser menos eficaz naquelas &#8805; 75 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 5.1</xref> apresenta os indicadores de alto risco no TE em mulheres.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Tabela 5.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Vari&#225;veis indicadoras de alto risco que merecem ser valorizadas e relatadas no teste ergom&#233;trico em mulheres.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                  <th>Indicativos de alto risco</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Capacidade de exerc&#237;cio</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 5 METs</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento ST</td>
                  <td align="center">Infradesnivelamento &#8805; 2mm Infradesnivelamento &#8805; 1mm com &lt; 5 MET ou &gt; 5 min da recupera&#231;&#227;o. Supradesnivelamento &#8805; 2mm (em deriva&#231;&#245;es sem ondas Q ou aVR)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Queda da FC no 1&#186; min da recupera&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8804; 12 bpm</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Escore Duke</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8804; -11</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Resposta da PA</td>
                  <td align="center">Diminui&#231;&#227;o &gt; 10mmHg em rela&#231;&#227;o ao repouso</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Arritmias ventriculares</td>
                  <td align="center">TV persistente/fibrila&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>
                  <italic>Adaptado de Mieres et al.</italic>
                  <sup>79</sup>
                  <italic>FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; PA: press&#227;o arterial; TV: taquicardia ventricular.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Em situa&#231;&#245;es com maior probabilidade de DCV, doen&#231;as ortop&#233;dicas, obesidade e sedentarismo, a associa&#231;&#227;o com cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (CPM) pode ser &#250;til quando comparada com resultados de testes n&#227;o conclusivos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o individualizada e as terapias anti-isqu&#234;micas direcionadas ap&#243;s o TE devem ter por base a carga alcan&#231;ada, os sintomas e o grau de anormalidade do exame.</p>
          <p>A escolha do m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico deve ser baseada no perfil cl&#237;nico da paciente, na probabilidade pr&#233;-teste de DCV, nos sintomas, no ECG de repouso e na presen&#231;a/aus&#234;ncia de condi&#231;&#245;es adequadas para realiza&#231;&#227;o de um TE com boa qualidade t&#233;cnica. A an&#225;lise deve ser multifatorial para otimizar a abordagem cl&#237;nica e terap&#234;utica.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5.3. Teste Cardiopulmonar de Exerc&#237;cio</title>
      <p>O TCPE permite avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva dos sistemas cardiovascular, respirat&#243;rio e perif&#233;rico de maneira integrada ao esfor&#231;o. Embora esteja bem estabelecido na avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de pacientes com IC, sua indica&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o est&#225; bem consolidada pelas diretrizes na investiga&#231;&#227;o da DIC. Em artigo de revis&#227;o sobre aplicabilidade do TCPE na DIC, estabeleceram-se as seguintes indica&#231;&#245;es:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup></p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Moderada a alta probabilidade pr&#233;-teste para DIC</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Acr&#233;scimo na acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica da DIC, quando alguma altera&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica ou eletrocardiogr&#225;fica estiver presente, dificultando o diagn&#243;stico pelo TE</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>&#193;rea isqu&#234;mica mioc&#225;rdica de grande magnitude, comprometendo a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o evolutiva ap&#243;s RVM mec&#226;nica ou cir&#250;rgica.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Al&#233;m da avalia&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos, hemodin&#226;micos e eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos, o TCPE gera informa&#231;&#245;es adicionais dos par&#226;metros ventilat&#243;rios na an&#225;lise da isquemia, quantifica a capacidade funcional com precis&#227;o e estratifica o progn&#243;stico. A baixa capacidade funcional [VO<sub>2</sub> &lt; 60% do predito para idade e sexo] e sinais e sintomas de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica em baixa carga (VO<sub>2</sub> &lt; 15 ml.kg<sup>-1</sup>.min<sup>-1</sup>) estratificam os pacientes como de alto risco para eventos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em pacientes com DIC macrovascular e defeitos de perfus&#227;o revers&#237;veis na imagem de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, a avalia&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis do TCPE aumentou, em compara&#231;&#227;o ao TE, a sensibilidade de 46% para 87% e a especificidade de 66% para 74%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O TCPE identifica o in&#237;cio da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda induzida por isquemia durante o esfor&#231;o e, pode assim, melhorar a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica, principalmente no sexo feminino, reduzindo a taxa de TE falso positivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> Isso &#233; particularmente importante, pois, na cascata isqu&#234;mica mioc&#225;rdica, as altera&#231;&#245;es das fun&#231;&#245;es diast&#243;lica e sist&#243;lica do VE ocorrem antes das altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas ao ECG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As principais vari&#225;veis obtidas durante o TCPE que retratam a disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE desencadeada pela DIC s&#227;o: o tipo de curva e a ascens&#227;o do VO<sub>2</sub>, pulso de oxig&#234;nio (PO<sub>2</sub>) e taxa de trabalho (varia&#231;&#227;o VO<sub>2</sub>/varia&#231;&#227;o carga em <italic>Watt</italic>), essa &#250;ltima exclusivamente em cicloerg&#244;metro. Espera-se aumento linear no VO<sub>2</sub> paralelamente &#224; carga de trabalho de cerca de 10 ml/min/<italic>watt</italic> sob condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise do PO<sub>2</sub> melhora a acur&#225;cia do diagn&#243;stico da DIC. Avalia-se tanto o valor atingido no pico do esfor&#231;o em rela&#231;&#227;o ao predito quanto o formato da curva em fun&#231;&#227;o do tempo, a qual deve apresentar uma tend&#234;ncia crescente, mais comumente em formato de par&#225;bola (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figura 5.1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> Na presen&#231;a de DIC obstrutiva, o volume sist&#243;lico reduzido provoca aumento compensat&#243;rio da FC, que impacta tanto a taxa de trabalho card&#237;aco como o PO<sub>2</sub>. Notam-se redu&#231;&#227;o da progress&#227;o da curva de VO<sub>2</sub>/carga e queda ou aus&#234;ncia de aumento progressivo do PO<sub>2</sub> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figuras 5.2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">5.3</xref>). Na presen&#231;a de plat&#244; precoce ou, principalmente, decl&#237;nio do PO<sub>2</sub> durante o esfor&#231;o, a prescri&#231;&#227;o da intensidade do exerc&#237;cio pode ser limitada &#224;s cargas abaixo desse limiar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f09">
          <label>Figura 5.1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Comportamento ascendente da curva do pulso de oxig&#234;nio em fun&#231;&#227;o do tempo. FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; LA: limiar anaer&#243;bico; PCR: ponto de compensa&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf09.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f10">
          <label>Figura 5.2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Comportamento descendente da curva do pulso de oxig&#234;nio em fun&#231;&#227;o do tempo. FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; LA: limiar anaer&#243;bico; PCR: ponto de compensa&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf10.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f11">
          <label>Figura 5.3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Comportamento em plat&#244; da curva do curva do pulso de oxig&#234;nio em fun&#231;&#227;o do tempo. FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; LA: limiar anaer&#243;bico; PCR: ponto de compensa&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf11.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>O subestudo do ORBITA-Trial analisou os par&#226;metros do TCPE em rela&#231;&#227;o a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e sintomas anginosos nos pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana cr&#244;nica. O plat&#244; do PO<sub>2</sub> foi a &#250;nica vari&#225;vel capaz de detectar a gravidade da isquemia e predizer a efic&#225;cia da ICP na DIC grave de &#250;nico vaso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Trabalhos recentes avaliaram o papel do TCPE na disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, particularmente em mulheres, onde o TE tem menor acur&#225;cia. Estudo em mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa, com angina t&#237;pica e sem doen&#231;a arterial coronariana obstrutiva &#224; angiografia, demonstrou que a isquemia &#224; cintilografia estava associada a disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE ap&#243;s o estresse, sugerindo DIC microvascular. Dado o potencial do TCPE para inferir disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE de forma n&#227;o invasiva e custo-eficaz, a implementa&#231;&#227;o desse exame na investiga&#231;&#227;o da DIC microvascular aumenta o potencial diagn&#243;stico em rela&#231;&#227;o ao TE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> O TCPE pode ser tamb&#233;m uma ferramenta importante na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com bloqueio de ramo esquerdo (BRE) em virtude da limita&#231;&#227;o do TE nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Curvas normais de VO<sub>2</sub> e PO<sub>2</sub> poderiam descartar estenose coronariana significativa como causa do BRE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup></p>
      <p>&#201; importante conhecer algumas limita&#231;&#245;es do TCPE, como restri&#231;&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o da taxa de trabalho somente em cicloerg&#244;metro, menor sensibilidade na doen&#231;a arterial coronariana uniarterial, condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas associadas que podem interferir no VO<sub>2</sub> (anemia, doen&#231;a pulmonar, IC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> O TCPE apresenta-se como uma ferramenta valiosa na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria, mas futuras investiga&#231;&#245;es devem ser direcionadas para avalia&#231;&#227;o mais precisa do seu papel no diagn&#243;stico, progn&#243;stico e avalia&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia do tratamento da DIC, sobretudo, nas mulheres.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. Diagn&#243;stico por Imagem Cardiovascular N&#227;o Invasiva</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Os m&#233;todos de imagem n&#227;o invasivos desempenham papel fundamental no diagn&#243;stico e manejo da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana. Nas mulheres, especialmente, existem particularidades quanto &#224; etiologia da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica envolvendo a DIC obstrutiva e a disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> Neste cap&#237;tulo, as diversas modalidades de imagem cardiovascular ser&#227;o abordadas, com informa&#231;&#245;es importantes quanto &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica nas mulheres, definindo desempenho diagn&#243;stico, peculiaridades relacionadas ao sexo feminino, assim como vantagens e limita&#231;&#245;es de cada m&#233;todo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 6.1</xref>). Os valores de sensibilidade e especificidade dos principais m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos para mulheres e homens, de acordo com uma revis&#227;o recentemente publicada, est&#227;o demonstrados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 6.1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f12">
            <label>Figura 6.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Import&#226;ncia dos m&#233;todos de imagem n&#227;o invasivos na doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica card&#237;aca na mulher. Angio-TC: angiotomografia computadorizada de coron&#225;rias; CAC: escore de c&#225;lcio; DIC: doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica card&#237;aca; ESE: ecocardiograma sob estresse; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; FR: fator de risco; INOCA: isquemia na aus&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o arterial coronariana; MINOCA: infarto do mioc&#225;rdio na aus&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o arterial coron&#225;ria; MN: medicina nuclear; PET: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; SPECT: tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico; USV: ultrassom vascular (car&#243;tidas); VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf12.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tabela 6.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Sensibilidade e especificidade de acordo com o sexo, para os principais m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="14%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Modalidade</th>
                  <th>TE</th>
                  <th>ESE</th>
                  <th>SPECT-CPM</th>
                  <th>PET-CPM</th>
                  <th>Angio-TC</th>
                  <th>RMC</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sensibilidade</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mulheres</td>
                  <td align="center">43-71%</td>
                  <td align="center">70-96%</td>
                  <td align="center">84-91%</td>
                  <td align="center">81-100%</td>
                  <td align="center">90-98%</td>
                  <td align="center">84-91%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Homens</td>
                  <td align="center">68-80 %</td>
                  <td align="center">70-80%</td>
                  <td align="center">85-94%</td>
                  <td align="center">81-92%</td>
                  <td align="center">90-97%</td>
                  <td align="center">90-91%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Especificidade</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mulheres</td>
                  <td align="center">64-85%</td>
                  <td align="center">79-92%</td>
                  <td align="center">58-91%</td>
                  <td align="center">86%</td>
                  <td align="center">84%</td>
                  <td align="center">81-88%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Homens</td>
                  <td align="center">74-83%</td>
                  <td align="center">84-93%</td>
                  <td align="center">62-89%</td>
                  <td align="center">85-89%</td>
                  <td align="center">83%</td>
                  <td align="center">74-94%</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>
                  <italic>Angio-TC: angiotomografia de art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias; CPM: cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica; ESE: ecocardiografia sob estresse; PET: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; SPECT: tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico; TE: teste ergom&#233;trico.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2. Ecocardiograma de Repouso e sob Estresse</title>
        <p>O ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico (ETT) de repouso ou com o emprego das diversas modalidades de estresse (seja exerc&#237;cio, administra&#231;&#227;o de inotr&#243;pico ou vasodilatador) tem grande utilidade na detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> A t&#233;cnica &#233; particularmente atraente pela aus&#234;ncia de radia&#231;&#227;o em tecido mam&#225;rio, em especial nas mais jovens, considerando a expectativa de exposi&#231;&#227;o cumulativa ao longo da vida, quando estudos seriados podem ser necess&#225;rios. Soma-se a isso a boa acur&#225;cia do m&#233;todo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es encontradas compat&#237;veis com isquemia mioc&#225;rdica incluem: anormalidades da contra&#231;&#227;o segmentar das paredes do VE em repouso, resposta contr&#225;til alterada durante o estresse, perfus&#227;o microvascular reduzida avaliada com emprego de contraste ecocardiogr&#225;fico e/ou comprometimento do fluxo das art&#233;rias epic&#225;rdicas analisado atrav&#233;s do Doppler.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o ETT &#233; &#250;til na identifica&#231;&#227;o de outras causas de dor tor&#225;cica, como pericardite, dissec&#231;&#227;o da aorta e embolia pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recomenda-se o ETT em repouso para todas as pacientes com suspeita de DIC visando avaliar a contra&#231;&#227;o segmentar, assim como a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica global do VE, atrav&#233;s da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE (FEVE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de anormalidades contr&#225;teis regionais pode ser cr&#244;nica ou aguda, quest&#227;o melhor resolvida se estudos anteriores estiverem dispon&#237;veis para a compara&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> &#201; importante ressaltar que os segmentos com altera&#231;&#227;o por DIC devem ser cont&#237;guos e corresponder aos territ&#243;rios das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, pois altera&#231;&#245;es segmentares podem ser causadas por uma variedade de outras condi&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o relacionadas &#224; DIC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A contra&#231;&#227;o segmentar do VE &#233; avaliada visualmente pelo espessamento das paredes durante a s&#237;stole. M&#233;todos quantitativos mais recentes v&#234;m sendo aplicados, como a an&#225;lise da deforma&#231;&#227;o (<italic>strain</italic>) mioc&#225;rdica longitudinal global do VE (SLGVE). As fibras musculares subendoc&#225;rdicas, orientadas longitudinalmente, s&#227;o mais vulner&#225;veis &#224; isquemia, sendo que a avalia&#231;&#227;o da SLGVE em repouso demonstrou ser mais sens&#237;vel para a detec&#231;&#227;o de anormalidades segmentares quando comparada &#224; an&#225;lise da contratilidade da parede na SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A modalidade preferencial para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia utilizando-se a ESE &#233; o esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, especialmente a bicicleta supina. Al&#233;m de fornecer dados adicionais progn&#243;sticos, como a capacidade funcional, esse m&#233;todo trabalha com dados mais fisiol&#243;gicos na pesquisa da isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Quando comparada ao TE, a ESE apresenta melhor sensibilidade e especificidade em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Uma meta-an&#225;lise de 14 estudos, que avaliou a sensibilidade e a especificidade da ESE com estresse f&#237;sico para detec&#231;&#227;o de DIC em mulheres, reportou valores de 79% (IC 95%, 74%&#8211;83%) e 83% (IC 95%, 74%&#8211;89%), respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A ESE com estresse farmacol&#243;gico utilizando dobutamina &#233; indicada, preferencialmente, para pacientes que n&#227;o conseguem se exercitar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Os vasodilatadores, como dipiridamol ou adenosina, apresentam sensibilidade discretamente menor nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup> Em uma compara&#231;&#227;o entre a ESE com dobutamina e o TE para a detec&#231;&#227;o de DIC em mulheres sintom&#225;ticas, a primeira demonstrou maior acur&#225;cia em mulheres com dor no peito, com sensibilidade de 70,4% <italic>versus</italic> 53,7% e especificidade de 94,6% <italic>versus</italic> 73,6% para detec&#231;&#227;o de estenose coronariana &gt; 50%. A maior acur&#225;cia da ESE foi mantida ap&#243;s a exclus&#227;o das pacientes que conseguiram atingir FC maior do que 85% da prevista para a idade antes da indu&#231;&#227;o da isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup> Os resultados s&#227;o divergentes quando se compara o desempenho diagn&#243;stico da ESE entre homens e mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A literatura mostra que o desempenho nas mulheres &#233; semelhante ou inferior ao nos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup> Quando comparada &#224; SPECT na pesquisa de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, a ESE tem maior capacidade de especificidade, uma vez que n&#227;o apresenta falsos positivos por atenua&#231;&#227;o mam&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A ESE pode ser limitada por impossibilidade na obten&#231;&#227;o de janelas ac&#250;sticas adequadas no pico de estresse,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> particularmente em mulheres, em virtude do tecido mam&#225;rio. O uso de agentes de realce ecocardiogr&#225;fico tornou-se uma ferramenta importante para a visualiza&#231;&#227;o adequada do endoc&#225;rdio de todos os segmentos do VE. Assim, na presen&#231;a de dois ou mais segmentos cont&#237;guos com limitada qualidade t&#233;cnica, indica-se o emprego desses agentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na gesta&#231;&#227;o, a ESE com esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico ou sob estresse farmacol&#243;gico &#233; considerada segura e evita exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o; dobutamina e dipiridamol s&#227;o considerados categoria B.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3. Ultrassonografia Vascular</title>
        <p>A aterotrombose &#233; uma doen&#231;a arterial sist&#234;mica que envolve principalmente a &#237;ntima das art&#233;rias de grande e m&#233;dio calibre (car&#243;tidas, aorta, coron&#225;rias e art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas). A USV &#233; um excelente m&#233;todo para avalia&#231;&#227;o morfol&#243;gica e classifica&#231;&#227;o da gravidade da doen&#231;a obstrutiva carot&#237;dea, aneurisma de aorta abdominal e DAP, sendo importante ferramenta no diagn&#243;stico da aterotrombose em outros territ&#243;rios arteriais acometidos simultaneamente ao territ&#243;rio coronariano e particularmente atraente pelo baixo custo, alta disponibilidade e car&#225;ter n&#227;o invasivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a subcl&#237;nica e as informa&#231;&#245;es sobre as caracter&#237;sticas da placa e da carga ateroscler&#243;tica mostram-se &#250;teis em alguns cen&#225;rios peculiares da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica da mulher. A presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de placa pode reestratificar pacientes al&#233;m dos FR tradicionais e a quantifica&#231;&#227;o da carga ateroscler&#243;tica pode personalizar ainda mais essa avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> A identifica&#231;&#227;o da placa e a medida da carga ateroscler&#243;tica em territ&#243;rio carot&#237;deo e/ou arterial perif&#233;rico podem ser &#250;teis para reclassifica&#231;&#227;o do risco, como demonstrado por estudos recentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup> A an&#225;lise das caracter&#237;sticas e do volume da placa pelo 3D parece melhorar significativamente a estimativa da carga ateroscler&#243;tica e a identifica&#231;&#227;o de placas mais vulner&#225;veis, tendo papel potencial na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de mulheres, cuja carga ateroscler&#243;tica parece ser maior que a de homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> O uso dos agentes de realce de USV &#233; tamb&#233;m uma ferramenta atraente para pesquisar neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o de placas carot&#237;deas, pois mulheres apresentam mais sinais de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A DAP &#233; prevalente tanto em homens quanto em mulheres, sendo sua forma subcl&#237;nica mais comum em mulheres. Pacientes com passado de pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia, hipertens&#227;o gestacional e insufici&#234;ncia placent&#225;ria tem tr&#234;s vezes mais chance de desenvolver DAP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> Recentemente, sugeriu-se que a avalia&#231;&#227;o da aterosclerose carot&#237;dea e femoral melhore a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce da doen&#231;a, sendo que a presen&#231;a da placa femoral &#233; mais indicativa de DIC do que a carot&#237;dea. Em mulheres, as &#225;reas de placa femoral e carot&#237;dea combinadas t&#234;m maior sensibilidade, podendo auxiliar na identifica&#231;&#227;o de testes de estresse falsos positivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Mulheres t&#234;m menor preval&#234;ncia de aneurisma de aorta abdominal e apresentam a doen&#231;a em idade mais avan&#231;ada. Entretanto, t&#234;m quatro vezes maior probabilidade de sofrer ruptura em compara&#231;&#227;o a homens da mesma idade e resultados piores ap&#243;s cirurgia de emerg&#234;ncia. A sensibilidade do exame f&#237;sico &#233; de 29% no aneurisma de aorta abdominal com di&#226;metro de 3-3,9cm; 50% naquele com di&#226;metro de 4-4,9cm; e 75% naquele com di&#226;metro acima de 5 cm, justificando grande parte do diagn&#243;stico ser incidental. Assim, em mulheres selecionadas, indica-se o rastreamento: idade entre 55 e 75 anos, hist&#243;ria familiar de aneurisma de aorta abdominal, tabagistas pesadas e/ou hist&#243;rico de AVC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4. Tomografia Computadorizada</title>
        <p>Particularidades da DIC nas mulheres tornam a estratifica&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva uma etapa importante no manejo dessas pacientes. Os achados nos exames das mulheres diferem daqueles dos homens com rela&#231;&#227;o a anatomia, distribui&#231;&#227;o e extens&#227;o das les&#245;es, bem como repercuss&#227;o cl&#237;nica. Nesse cen&#225;rio, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da calcifica&#231;&#227;o coronariana e do grau de obstru&#231;&#227;o das les&#245;es pela angio-TC torna-se importante para defini&#231;&#227;o de tratamento e seguimento das pacientes.</p>
        <p>Anatomicamente, observa-se que as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas nas mulheres s&#227;o menores quando comparadas &#224;s dos homens, mesmo com ajuste para idade, massa corporal e &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie corporal. Al&#233;m disso, o t&#244;nus vasomotor dessas art&#233;rias tamb&#233;m &#233; menor, determinando maior fluxo coronariano, que, associado ao tamanho reduzido das art&#233;rias, potencialmente resulta nos diferentes fen&#243;tipos da DIC entre os sexos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar das diferen&#231;as anat&#244;micas, o potencial diagn&#243;stico de DIC pela angio-TC &#233; semelhante entre os sexos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup> tendo a angio-TC excelente acur&#225;cia na detec&#231;&#227;o de DIC obstrutiva e caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de placa quando comparada a m&#233;todos invasivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> Os valores de sensibilidade e especificidade s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 6.1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O padr&#227;o da apresenta&#231;&#227;o da DIC em mulheres &#233; predominantemente n&#227;o obstrutivo e a carga ateroscler&#243;tica da DIC n&#227;o obstrutiva (definida como estenose &lt;50%) acomete de modo mais acentuado as mulheres,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup> com risco elevado de eventos coronarianos em compara&#231;&#227;o com a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, particularmente maior em mulheres &lt; 75 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> An&#225;lises do registro CONFIRM, que avaliou 24.775 pacientes, sendo 12.128 mulheres, demonstraram risco aumentado de mortalidade em pacientes com DIC obstrutiva e n&#227;o obstrutiva. Em mulheres, notou-se ainda que o risco era mais acentuado para aquelas com maior extens&#227;o da DIC (acometimento de tr&#234;s vasos) (HR: 4,21; IC 95%, 2,47-7,18; p &lt; 0,0001 <italic>versus</italic> HR: 3,27; IC 95%, 1,96-5,45; p &lt; 0,0001) em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas com alto risco tromb&#243;tico (baixa atenua&#231;&#227;o, calcifica&#231;&#227;o puntiforme e sinal de <italic>napkin ring)</italic> &#233; preditora de eventos card&#237;acos em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref></sup> A calcifica&#231;&#227;o coronariana avaliada pelo escore de c&#225;lcio (CAC) tamb&#233;m difere entre os sexos. Para pacientes com mesma ra&#231;a e idade, a quantifica&#231;&#227;o do CAC &#233; menor em mulheres. Os dados mostram consistentemente que a preval&#234;ncia e a gravidade da calcifica&#231;&#227;o coronariana aumentam com a idade e o sexo masculino, tendo as mulheres demonstrado menor preval&#234;ncia e gravidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Novas tecnologias incorporam a avalia&#231;&#227;o funcional &#224; angio-TC, o que permite conciliar a avali&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica &#224; pesquisa de isquemia. A FFR por tomografia computadorizada tem o potencial de elevar a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica na detec&#231;&#227;o de DIC obstrutiva quando comparada &#224; angio-TC isoladamente. Apesar de promissora, a aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica da FFR ainda &#233; reservada a poucos centros que det&#234;m a tecnologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A DEAC &#233; bem avaliada pela angio-TC, sendo uma complica&#231;&#227;o mais frequente em mulheres que em homens. Pacientes gestantes t&#234;m mortalidade elevada associada a DEAC. A indica&#231;&#227;o de angio-TC nessas pacientes deve ser individualizada, considerando-se o contexto cl&#237;nico, mas, de modo geral, a estrat&#233;gia invasiva pode ser necess&#225;ria quando a suspeita cl&#237;nica &#233; muito relevante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.5. Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Card&#237;aca</title>
        <p>A RMC vem contribuindo para uma melhor compreens&#227;o dos fen&#244;menos fisiopatol&#243;gicos, altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais, diagn&#243;stico e avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica da DCV na mulher.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup> A RMC &#233; um m&#233;todo de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial que permite avalia&#231;&#227;o da morfologia, fun&#231;&#227;o, isquemia e caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual com elevada acur&#225;cia. O fato de n&#227;o apresentar limita&#231;&#227;o do campo de vis&#227;o por interposi&#231;&#227;o do tecido mam&#225;rio, obesidade, doen&#231;a pulmonar ou eventuais pr&#243;teses mam&#225;rias, permite uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais detalhada do cora&#231;&#227;o feminino. Al&#233;m disso, por ser um m&#233;todo que n&#227;o utiliza radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante, coloca-se como uma op&#231;&#227;o inofensiva para o tecido mam&#225;rio feminino, sendo uma alternativa interessante, sobretudo em mulheres mais jovens. O cora&#231;&#227;o da mulher possui caracter&#237;sticas morfol&#243;gicas espec&#237;ficas, sendo relativamente menor que o masculino, com volume, massa e espessura parietal de menores dimens&#245;es, podendo ser avaliado com maior precis&#227;o pela RMC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pela primeira passagem do gadol&#237;nio sob estresse farmacol&#243;gico apresenta elevada sensibilidade e est&#225; bem estabelecida em ambos os sexos, desde que estudos, como MR-Impact, MR-Impact II e CE-MARC, demonstraram elevada sensibilidade na detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; SPECT, sendo recomendada sobretudo para a popula&#231;&#227;o feminina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nas mulheres, a disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana &#233; um mecanismo respons&#225;vel pela presen&#231;a de INOCA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> e a RMC &#233; &#250;til na identifica&#231;&#227;o de defeito perfusional subendoc&#225;rdico sob estresse farmacol&#243;gico nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual atrav&#233;s do realce tardio e mapas T1 e T2 permite fornecer uma melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o das consequ&#234;ncias dos eventos cardiovasculares sobre o mioc&#225;rdio, mais especificamente da doen&#231;a aterotromb&#243;tica. Desse modo, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, MINOCA, Takotsubo e miocardite por agress&#227;o viral ou autoimune podem ser bem definidos por essa metodologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A t&#233;cnica do realce tardio est&#225; estabelecida como a melhor forma de identificar a fibrose <italic>in vivo</italic> e pode diferenciar a inj&#250;ria de etiologia isqu&#234;mica da n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, permitindo o diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre infarto do mioc&#225;rdico e quadros inflamat&#243;rios. A quantifica&#231;&#227;o do envolvimento da espessura transmural do segmento por fibrose &#233; um determinante na avalia&#231;&#227;o do grau de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica e na avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As contraindica&#231;&#245;es para uso da RMC est&#227;o restritas a situa&#231;&#245;es incompat&#237;veis com o campo magn&#233;tico e devem ser consideradas as limita&#231;&#245;es ao uso do gadol&#237;nio em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal (<italic>clearance</italic> de creatinina abaixo de 30 ml/min/SC) pelo risco de fibrose sist&#234;mica nefrog&#234;nica e em gestantes pelo risco de exposi&#231;&#227;o para o feto ao agente paramagn&#233;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A possibilidade de diferencia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica dos eventos cardiovasculares causadores de sintomatologia anginosa e isquemia na mulher coloca a RMC como um m&#233;todo funcional preferencial nesse grupo de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> O avan&#231;o das novas sequ&#234;ncias de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, softwares de avalia&#231;&#227;o de perfus&#227;o quantitativa, t&#233;cnicas de corre&#231;&#227;o de movimento e maior disponibilidade dos mapas param&#233;tricos s&#227;o perspectivas que contribuem para a crescente utiliza&#231;&#227;o dessa metodologia. A RMC apresenta, portanto, um papel promissor &#250;nico de avalia&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o da mulher, agregando maior quantidade de informa&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas e progn&#243;sticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6. Medicina Nuclear</title>
        <p>A imagem nuclear consegue avaliar todo o espectro da DIC, desde DIC epic&#225;rdica obstrutiva at&#233; disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup> Diretrizes nacionais e internacionais enfatizam, na avalia&#231;&#227;o da DIC, o uso da CPM, que pode ser realizada em todos os pacientes, independentemente de fun&#231;&#227;o renal, presen&#231;a de arritmias, obesidade ou dispositivos intracard&#237;acos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup> As t&#233;cnicas empregadas s&#227;o SPECT e PET.</p>
        <p>H&#225; mais de tr&#234;s d&#233;cadas a CPM pela t&#233;cnica SPECT &#233; usada extensivamente na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica devido &#224; sua ampla disponibilidade e extensa literatura que respalda seu valor no diagn&#243;stico e na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco da DIC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup>&#201; o estudo de imagem n&#227;o invasivo mais comumente empregado na avalia&#231;&#227;o de mulheres com risco intermedi&#225;rio-alto de DIC e sintomas isqu&#234;micos est&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um mesmo exame traz informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a extens&#227;o e a gravidade das anormalidades de perfus&#227;o, a motilidade das paredes mioc&#225;rdicas, a FEVE e o sincronismo intraventricular em repouso e ap&#243;s estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> O d&#233;ficit perfusional total e a extens&#227;o dos defeitos de perfus&#227;o podem ser calculados, sendo par&#226;metros objetivos da carga isqu&#234;mica e do mioc&#225;rdio em risco, que facilitam a defini&#231;&#227;o de conduta e o acompanhamento terap&#234;utico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O TE deve ser a t&#233;cnica de escolha para a fase de estresse, quando a paciente &#233; capaz de se exercitar adequadamente (atingir &#8805; 5MET), por fornecer importantes informa&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas e progn&#243;sticas adicionais. Nas pacientes incapazes de se exercitar adequadamente, devemos optar pelo estresse farmacol&#243;gico com um vasodilatador (dipiridamol, adenosina ou regadenoson). Outra op&#231;&#227;o &#233; o estresse com um f&#225;rmaco inotr&#243;pico positivo, como a dobutamina, sensibilizado ou n&#227;o com atropina. Mulheres com BRE e dispositivos intracard&#237;acos devem ser sempre submetidas ao estresse farmacol&#243;gico com um vasodilatador, independentemente da sua capacidade funcional, para se evitar artefatos na imagem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O valor progn&#243;stico de uma CPM normal nas mulheres &#233; excelente, incluindo mulheres idosas e de diversos subconjuntos raciais e &#233;tnicos, com 99% de sobrevida livre de eventos, sendo semelhante &#224; dos homens, como demonstrado em uma grande meta-an&#225;lise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A maior desvantagem da CPM &#233; a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o, embora tecnologias mais recentes, como novas gama-c&#226;maras de detectores de estado s&#243;lido (CZT), melhorias nos radiof&#225;rmacos, protocolos e doses de tra&#231;ador individualizadas, tenham reduzido essa exposi&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> Falsos positivos podem ocorrer devido a artefato por atenua&#231;&#227;o mam&#225;ria na parede anterior do VE, al&#233;m de poder haver menor acur&#225;cia em mulheres com cora&#231;&#245;es pequenos.</p>
        <p>Embora menos dispon&#237;vel, a CPM pela PET tem excelente desempenho diagn&#243;stico, com sensibilidade de 90-92% e especificidade de 81-88% para detectar estenoses angiograficamente significativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da maior acur&#225;cia, a PET permite quantificar o fluxo sangu&#237;neo mioc&#225;rdico em mililitros por minuto por grama de tecido, al&#233;m de calcular a RFC, um importante marcador progn&#243;stico de RCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> Com isso, a PET melhora a detec&#231;&#227;o de DIC obstrutiva multiarterial grave com padr&#227;o de isquemia balanceada e de disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, que podem ser dif&#237;ceis de identificar com SPECT devido &#224;s suas limita&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup> Outra vantagem da PET &#233; a menor exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o (dose efetiva de 2-3mSv <italic>versus</italic> 9-12mSv com SPECT), por utilizar radiof&#225;rmacos de curta dura&#231;&#227;o, o que a torna particularmente &#250;til em mulheres em idade reprodutiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Estudos com PET mostraram que a disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana &#233; prevalente em mulheres e homens (54% e 51%, respectivamente) e, independentemente do sexo, a RFC mostrou ser um poderoso preditor incremental de eventos, tend&#234;ncia mantida mesmo em pacientes sem calcifica&#231;&#245;es coronarianas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup>As novas gama-c&#226;maras CZT tamb&#233;m t&#234;m mostrado resultados promissores na avalia&#231;&#227;o de RFC pela t&#233;cnica SPECT, sendo uma promessa para maior disponibilidade da avalia&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana em regi&#245;es onde a t&#233;cnica PET n&#227;o est&#225; dispon&#237;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A RFC anormal est&#225; tamb&#233;m associada &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. Um estudo recente com 64,7% de mulheres sem DIC obstrutiva mostrou uma associa&#231;&#227;o independente de redu&#231;&#227;o da RFC (definida como &lt; 2) e disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, bem como aumento de eventos cardiovasculares ou ICFEp. Esses achados sugerem uma liga&#231;&#227;o fisiopatol&#243;gica entre disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana e ICFEp.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Protocolos de imagem com equipamentos h&#237;bridos (PET/CT ou SPECT/CT) adicionam a capacidade de avaliar altera&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas com quantifica&#231;&#227;o do CAC, aumentando assim a sensibilidade do teste para o diagn&#243;stico de DIC com um &#250;nico exame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7. Arritmias na Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>7.1. Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial e Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A incid&#234;ncia ajustada para idade de FA &#233; de uma vez e meia a duas vezes maior em homens, mas o risco de FA ao longo da vida &#233; semelhante em ambos os sexos devido &#224; maior expectativa de vida no sexo feminino; aos 85 anos, as diferen&#231;as na preval&#234;ncia s&#227;o discretas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> As mulheres s&#227;o mais sintom&#225;ticas e apresentam pior qualidade de vida quando comparadas aos homens. Os mecanismos associados &#224;s diferen&#231;as entres os sexos na FA s&#227;o in&#250;meros, mas &#233; importante ressaltar que a DIC, mais observada no sexo masculino, pode contribuir para a maior incid&#234;ncia de FA nesse grupo.</p>
        <p>Quando se analisa a estrat&#233;gia de controle do ritmo com o uso de DAA, as mulheres apresentam maior ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos adversos. O aumento no intervalo QT basal pode afetar a toler&#226;ncia ao uso de DAA, especialmente da classe III, exigindo uma monitoriza&#231;&#227;o mais cuidadosa nesse grupo de pacientes. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos resultados da abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter no sexo feminino, estudos observacionais demonstram que as mulheres s&#227;o submetidas menos frequente e mais tardiamente a abla&#231;&#227;o, em geral com evolu&#231;&#227;o pior ap&#243;s o procedimento, quando comparadas com os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In&#250;meros estudos demonstraram que o tratamento da FA baseado no <italic>&#8220;Atrial Fibrillation Better Care (ABC) pathway&#8221;</italic> determina redu&#231;&#245;es significantes no risco de AVC, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade, n&#227;o havendo diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao sexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> Essa estrat&#233;gia (ABC) utiliza tr&#234;s condutas fundamentais: &#8216;A&#8217; - evitar o AVC; &#8216;B&#8217; - oferecer melhor controle dos sintomas com foco no paciente; e &#8216;C&#8217; - prevenir e/ou tratar os FRCV e comorbidades que contribuem para o aparecimento da FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No que diz respeito ao &#8216;C&#8217;, mulheres com FA t&#234;m maior preval&#234;ncia de HAS, obesidade, depress&#227;o, ICFEp e doen&#231;a valvar como causa da FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> A atividade f&#237;sica &#233; outro preditor importante nas mulheres: quanto maior a intensidade do exerc&#237;cio, menor ser&#225; a incid&#234;ncia de FA. Mulheres que praticam atividade f&#237;sica vigorosa tem 28% de redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref></sup> Em um estudo prospectivo de larga escala com 30.034 mulheres, a menopausa n&#227;o foi significativamente relacionada &#224; incid&#234;ncia de FA, enquanto o uso de monoterapia com estrog&#234;nio foi associado ao aumento do seu risco, sugerindo uma liga&#231;&#227;o fisiopatol&#243;gica entre a exposi&#231;&#227;o ao estrog&#234;nio e a arritmia em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref></sup> Em compara&#231;&#227;o com nul&#237;paras, multiparidade foi associada a um aumento linear no risco de FA em uma grande coorte de mulheres inicialmente saud&#225;veis. A exposi&#231;&#227;o repetitiva a mudan&#231;as hormonais, metab&#243;licas e fisiol&#243;gicas durante a gravidez pode predispor a FA mais tarde na vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quanto ao &#8216;A&#8217;, mulheres com FA t&#234;m maior incid&#234;ncia de AVC que homens, sendo nelas o AVC mais grave e determinando maior incapacidade permanente, raz&#227;o pela qual a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, embasada em escores de risco, &#233; essencial em ambos os sexos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> A terapia antitromb&#243;tica com anticoagulantes orais encontra-se indicada para portadoras de FA com CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc maior ou igual a 2, mas a decis&#227;o deve ser individualizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Em pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o do uso cont&#237;nuo de anticoagulantes, &#233; necess&#225;ria a avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de sangramento causado por esses medicamentos, antes de se iniciar a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o. Um risco de sangramento alto n&#227;o contraindica a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e norteia a necessidade de maior controle desses fatores. Existem in&#250;meros escores que podem ser utilizados com essa finalidade, sendo o escore HAS-BLED recomendado nas &#250;ltimas diretrizes de FA. S&#227;o considerados de maior risco de sangramento indiv&#237;duos com pontua&#231;&#227;o &#8805; 3.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Estudos cl&#237;nicos sobre anticoagula&#231;&#227;o na FA t&#234;m demonstrado maior seguran&#231;a na utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos DOACs - dabigatrana, rivaroxabana, apixabana, edoxabana - em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; varfarina. A oclus&#227;o percut&#226;nea do AAE tem sido indicada quando h&#225; contraindica&#231;&#227;o absoluta &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o de anticoagulantes, como ocorre no sangramento intracraniano de causa irrevers&#237;vel. A oclus&#227;o cir&#250;rgica ou exclus&#227;o do AAE pode ser considerada quando o paciente com FA tem indica&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A respeito do &#8216;B&#8217;, mulheres com FA s&#227;o mais sintom&#225;ticas, t&#234;m pior qualidade de vida e maior mortalidade, o que justifica a necessidade de uma abordagem adequada e precoce quanto ao controle da FC com DAA ou abla&#231;&#227;o do n&#243;dulo atrioventricular e, quando poss&#237;vel, &#224; revers&#227;o ao ritmo sinusal com CVE, cardiovers&#227;o qu&#237;mica ou abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter por meio do isolamento el&#233;trico das veias pulmonares est&#225; atualmente indicada para o tratamento da FA parox&#237;stica/persistente em pacientes sem doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto, naqueles com taquicardiomiopatia induzida pela FA, bem como naqueles com doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto e IC para reduzir hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre FA e CMI &#233; menos frequente em mulheres do que em homens, mas os elevados riscos dessa associa&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o apresentam diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao sexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup> Em pacientes com SCA, a incid&#234;ncia de FA varia entre 2% e 23% e est&#225; associada a maior mortalidade hospitalar no primeiro m&#234;s e no primeiro ano, bem como a maior frequ&#234;ncia de AVC, sem evid&#234;ncias de que existem diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao sexo. Os desfechos acima s&#227;o mais frequentes nos indiv&#237;duos que desenvolvem FA durante a interna&#231;&#227;o por SCA, quando comparados aos que j&#225; apresentavam FA anterior ao evento isqu&#234;mico agudo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B154">154</xref></sup> A instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica atribu&#237;da &#224; FA na vig&#234;ncia da SCA deve ser tratada com CVE sincronizada. Em pacientes est&#225;veis, o controle da FC pode ser obtido com o uso de BB ou BCC endovenosos. A administra&#231;&#227;o de amiodarona &#233; uma alternativa apropriada para o controle da frequ&#234;ncia ventricular, bem como pode favorecer a revers&#227;o ao ritmo sinusal. A propafenona n&#227;o deve ser utilizada em pacientes com FA e SCA para revers&#227;o ao ritmo sinusal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudos recentes sobre revasculariza&#231;&#227;o em mulheres e homens com FA e SCA ou s&#237;ndrome coronariana cr&#244;nica submetidos a angioplastia e implante de s<italic>tent</italic> demonstram que, nos pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o pela FA, h&#225; recomenda&#231;&#227;o para utiliza&#231;&#227;o de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (&#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico e um inibidor do receptor P2Y12 - clopidogrel, prasugrel, ticagrelor) por pelo menos uma semana, naqueles com menor risco de trombose e/ou maior risco de sangramento, podendo chegar a quatro semanas, com suspens&#227;o do &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico ap&#243;s esse per&#237;odo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref></sup> A terapia dupla (anticoagulante + antiagregante) deve ser mantida por pelo menos 6 meses em pacientes com FA e s&#237;ndrome coronariana cr&#244;nica e por 12 meses naqueles com FA e SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na CMI aguda ou cr&#244;nica associada &#224; FA, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia de que estrat&#233;gias de investiga&#231;&#227;o ou de tratamento devam ser diferentes em mulheres e homens; portanto, essas estrat&#233;gias precisam ser igualmente oferecidas para a preven&#231;&#227;o das in&#250;meras e graves complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas a essas doen&#231;as.</p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 7.1</xref> resume as indica&#231;&#245;es do tratamento atual para FA, bem como aponta as particularidades e perspectivas relacionadas ao sexo feminino.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t7">
            <label>Tabela 7.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Tratamento da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial: indica&#231;&#245;es, particularidades e perspectivas relacionadas ao sexo feminino.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">ESTRAT&#201;GIAS DE TRATAMENTO</th>
                  <th>INDICA&#199;&#213;ES</th>
                  <th>PARTICULARIDADES</th>
                  <th>PERSPECTIVAS</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>CONTROLE DA FC</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Controle dos sintomas;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Estrat&#233;gias: drogas isoladas ou em associa&#231;&#227;o para todos os pacientes com FA;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. Meta: FC &lt; 110 bpm.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. S&#227;o mais sintom&#225;ticas;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. S&#227;o menos recrutadas para ensaios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Maior valoriza&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas para estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Maior recrutamento de mulheres nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>BB</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Bloqueador de canais de Ca (diltiazem, verapamil)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Digoxina</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Abla&#231;&#227;o do n&#243;dulo atrioventricular</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. BB: primeira escolha para qualquer FEVE;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Diltiazem/verapamil: pacientes com FEVE &gt; 40%;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. Digoxina: pacientes com FEVE &lt;40%;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4. Baixa dose de digoxina associada a menor risco;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>5. Amiodarona e abla&#231;&#227;o: quando h&#225; falha nos demais.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Recebem prescri&#231;&#227;o mais frequente de digoxina;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. T&#234;m indica&#231;&#227;o mais frequente de abla&#231;&#227;o do n&#243;dulo atrioventricular (em detrimento da revers&#227;o para sinusal)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Prescri&#231;&#227;o adequada e limitada no tempo da digoxina;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Monitoramento adequado dos eletr&#243;litos.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CONTROLE DO RITMO</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Restaurar e manter o ritmo sinusal para controle de sintomas e melhora da qualidade de vida;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Estrat&#233;gias: CVE, cardiovers&#227;o qu&#237;mica e/ou abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter (associados a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, controle da frequ&#234;ncia e tratamento dos fatores de risco para FA).</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. S&#227;o mais sintom&#225;ticas e t&#234;m pior qualidade de vida;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. S&#227;o menos recrutadas para ensaios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Maior valoriza&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas para estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Investiga&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da qualidade de vida;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. Indica&#231;&#227;o precoce e adequada de estrat&#233;gias, incluindo a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4. Maior recrutamento de mulheres nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>CVE</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Drogas classe I</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Drogas classe III</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Cirurgia de Maze</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. CVE para pacientes com FA e instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, inclusive na vig&#234;ncia de SCA;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Drogas classe I em pacientes sem cardiopatia estrutural (incluindo isqu&#234;mica);</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. Abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter (isolamento el&#233;trico completo das veias pulmonares) indicada para FA parox&#237;stica/persistente em pacientes sem doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto, com taquicardiomiopatia induzida pela FA e naqueles com doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto para reduzir hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4. Cirurgia de Maze tem indica&#231;&#227;o concomitante &#224; cirurgia mitral ou de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Recebem menos indica&#231;&#227;o de CVE;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. S&#227;o encaminhadas mais tardiamente para estrat&#233;gias de revers&#227;o ao ritmo sinusal incluindo abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. H&#225; relatos de mais complica&#231;&#245;es em mulheres submetidas &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4. Maior frequ&#234;ncia de eventos adversos relacionados ao uso de antiarr&#237;tmicos (s&#237;ndrome do QT longo adquirido; doen&#231;a do n&#243; sinusal);</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Monitoramento dos eletr&#243;litos e do ECG quando em uso de antiarr&#237;tmicos;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Desenho adequado de cateteres para abla&#231;&#227;o em mulheres.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ANTICOAGULA&#199;&#195;O</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Reduzir a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos e prevenir o AVC em pacientes com CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc &#8805; 3 (mulheres) e com baixo risco de sangramento (HAS-BLED &lt;3).</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. T&#234;m maior frequ&#234;ncia de AVC, que pode ser mais grave e com maior limita&#231;&#227;o permanente e maior mortalidade;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. S&#227;o menos recrutadas para ensaios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Estratifica&#231;&#227;o peri&#243;dica dos escores de trombose e de sangramento, para adequa&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Maior indica&#231;&#227;o, em doses adequadas, de DOACs;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. Controle adequado do INR ao longo do tempo, quando em uso de varfarina;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4. Maior recrutamento de mulheres nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>DOACs</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Varfarina</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Oclus&#227;o do AAE</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. DOACs s&#227;o prefer&#237;veis &#224; varfarina, exceto quando FA &#233; associada a estenose valvar mitral moderada/grave ou a pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Oclus&#227;o do AAE est&#225; indicada quando h&#225; contraindica&#231;&#227;o ao uso de anticoagulantes orais;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. Reavalia&#231;&#245;es peri&#243;dicas de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>Vasc e HAS-BLED;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4. No uso de varfarina: INR alvo = 2,0-3,0, com tempo na faixa terap&#234;utica &gt;70%.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>5. Em mulheres com FA e SCA h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o de uso de anticoagulantes orais quando CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>Vasc &#8805; 2.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1. Recebem doses menores de anticoagulantes;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Em uso de varfarina permanecem menos tempo na faixa terap&#234;utica de RNI e mant&#234;m maior risco residual de AVC;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. Apresentam menor risco de sangramento em uso de DOACs.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>
                  <italic>AAE: ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo; AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; BB: betabloqueador; CVE: cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica; DOACs: anticoagulantes de a&#231;&#227;o direta; FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; INR: international normalized ratio; SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.2. Arritmias Ventriculares: Morte S&#250;bita, Preven&#231;&#227;o e Tratamento</title>
        <p>A representatividade das mulheres em ensaios cl&#237;nicos tem aumentado nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, mas &#233; ainda muito baixa, principalmente na cardiologia, inclusive em estudos sobre arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup> A despeito de todos os avan&#231;os m&#233;dicos, a morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca permanece a maior causa de morte cardiovascular nos pacientes com CMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, encontra-se a DIC aguda e cr&#244;nica, com suas caracter&#237;sticas e arritmias ventriculares distintas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma recente revis&#227;o sobre arritmias ventriculares na isquemia mioc&#225;rdica aguda, com foco no papel da idade e do sexo, concluiu que h&#225; falta de entendimento dos mecanismos respons&#225;veis pelas diferen&#231;as sexo-dependentes na susceptibilidade para arritmias ventriculares malignas durante a isquemia aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Esse dado, associado &#224; baixa representatividade das mulheres em ensaios cl&#237;nicos, contribui para a falta de evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas suficientes para desenvolver m&#233;todos sexo-dependentes de preven&#231;&#227;o de morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca. A despeito da pobreza de dados em rela&#231;&#227;o aos mecanismos de arritmias em mulheres, indica-se que par&#226;metros que promovem as arritmias ventriculares, como fibrose, hipertrofia card&#237;aca, anormalidades na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio e altera&#231;&#245;es eletrofisiol&#243;gicas, apresentam-se de forma diferente no que diz respeito a idade e sexo, ressaltando-se a necessidade de pesquisas adicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Nos principais estudos de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, o percentual de mulheres submetidas ao implante de CDI variou de 8% a 29%, denotando a baixa representatividade das mulheres, o que torna dif&#237;cil a avalia&#231;&#227;o do real benef&#237;cio do procedimento nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Ademais, as an&#225;lises individuais desses estudos sobre o benef&#237;cio de mortalidade n&#227;o s&#227;o adequadas, uma vez que os estudos n&#227;o foram desenhados com poder estat&#237;stico para responder &#224; quest&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A preven&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento das arritmias ventriculares de todas as etiologias envolvem, sem distin&#231;&#227;o de sexo, o controle dos FR modific&#225;veis, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de DAA, a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter e o emprego do CDI, esse &#250;ltimo como preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria ou secund&#225;ria.</p>
        <p>A realiza&#231;&#227;o do implante de CDI em pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o &#233; outro ponto importante. Em 2007, Hernandes <italic>et al.</italic> avaliaram mais de 13.000 pacientes do programa da sociedade americana GWTG-HF (<italic>American Heart Association&#8217;s Get With the Guidelines&#8211;Heart Failure</italic>) e conclu&#237;ram que havia disparidade nas taxas de implantes de CDI em homens afrodescendentes, mulheres afrodescendentes e mulheres brancas, que foram 27%, 38% e 44% menores do que a taxa de implantes em homens brancos, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref></sup> A an&#225;lise do programa GWTG-HF em 2012 demonstrou melhora das taxas e t&#233;rmino da disparidade, alertando sobre a necessidade de se manter a aten&#231;&#227;o e a educa&#231;&#227;o continuada em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> No entanto, ainda h&#225; uma enorme diferen&#231;a entre os pacientes que necessitam, conforme as diretrizes, e os que recebem o CDI, especialmente mulheres.</p>
        <p>Nos portadores de CDI, existem diferen&#231;as entre mulheres e homens relacionadas a outros desfechos al&#233;m da mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref></sup> Uma suban&#225;lise do estudo MADIT-CRT concluiu que as mulheres apresentam incid&#234;ncia menor de TV/FV, sugerindo que nelas a morte s&#250;bita n&#227;o arr&#237;tmica seja maior do que nos homens. Al&#233;m disso, a presen&#231;a de terapia de choque apropriado pelo CDI foi um preditor de morte, principalmente nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup> Em 2022, foi realizado um estudo de avalia&#231;&#227;o de arritmias ventriculares em mulheres (<italic>propensity score-matched analysis</italic>) nos portadores de CDI. Ap&#243;s pareamento para as principais comorbidades, indica&#231;&#245;es, terapia concomitante e dados demogr&#225;ficos, as mulheres permaneciam com menor perfil de risco para arritmia ventricular sustentada do que os homens, exceto no subgrupo de portadoras de TRC e naquelas com FEVE &lt; 30%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter &#233; uma terapia efetiva no controle das arritmias ventriculares e recomendada em diversos cen&#225;rios nas diretrizes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup> No entanto, o percentual de mulheres contempladas nos estudos de abla&#231;&#227;o de TV na popula&#231;&#227;o com DIC &#233; baixo (7-13%). A menor indica&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos invasivos, a menor indu&#231;&#227;o de TV sustentada e o menor n&#250;mero de choques apropriados s&#227;o fatores que podem contribuir para esse percentual reduzido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.3. Terapia de Ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca</title>
        <p>Estudos cl&#237;nicos como MIRACLE, COMPANION, CARE-HF, MADIT-CRT, RAFT, REVERSE e MIRACLE demonstram que a TRC melhora desfechos em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com FEVE reduzida e dura&#231;&#227;o prolongada do QRS. Embora nesses estudos o percentual de mulheres tenha variado de 17% a 33%, um benef&#237;cio ainda maior foi demonstrado em mulheres em compara&#231;&#227;o com homens (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 7.2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup>Tais estudos foram realizados em pacientes isqu&#234;micos e n&#227;o isqu&#234;micos, sendo que a isquemia esteve presente em 36% a 69% dos pacientes estudados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Tabela 7.2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Resultados dos estudos cl&#237;nicos com terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca de acordo com o g&#234;nero.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Estudo</th>
                  <th>N de pacientes</th>
                  <th>Crit&#233;rio inclus&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Randomiza&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>HR por eventos (95%; valor de p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>COMPANION<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: 1.025 (67%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: 495 (33%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NYHA III-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>QRS &#8805; 120ms</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">TMO vs TMO + TRC-D</td>
                  <td align="center">HR para morte - homem: 0,63 (0,4-0,9) mulher: 0,58 (0,25-1,13)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CARE-HF<sup>3</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: 597 (73%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: 216 (27%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NYHA III-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>QRS &#8805; 130ms</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>VDVE &#8805; 300ms</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">TMO vs TMO + TRC</td>
                  <td align="center">HR para morte ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca - homem: 0,62 (0,49-0,79) mulher: 0,64 (0,42-0,97)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MADIT CRT<sup>4</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: 1.367 (75%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: 453 (25%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 30%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NYHA II-III</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>QRS &#8805; 120ms</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">CDI vs TRC-D</td>
                  <td align="center">HR para evento IC ou morte - homem: 0,76 (0,59-0,97) mulher: 0,37 (0,22-0,61)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>RAFT<sup>5</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: 1.490 (83%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: 308 (17%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 30%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NYHA II-III</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>QRS &#8805; 130ms</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">CDI vs TRC-D</td>
                  <td align="center">HR para morte ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC - homem: 0,82 (0,7-0,95) mulher: 0,52 (0,35-0,85)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>REVERSE<sup>6</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: 479 (78,5%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: 131 (21,5%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 40%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NYHA I-II</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>QRS &gt; 120ms</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">TRC-on vs TRC-off</td>
                  <td align="center">HR desfecho cl&#237;nico composto - homem: 0,69 (0,43-1,11) mulher: 0,75 (0,26-2,19)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MIRACLE<sup>7</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: 216 (67%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: 107 (33%)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NYHA III-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>QRS &gt; 130ms</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">TRC-on vs TRC-off</td>
                  <td align="center">NYHA, qualidade de vida, capacidade exerc&#237;cio, mulheres, mas homens com TRC n&#227;o, experimentaram tempos mais longos para a primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC ou morte (p = 0,157)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <p>
                  <italic>CDI: cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; HR: hazard ratio; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; NYHA: classe funcional da New York Heart Association; TMO: terapia medicamentosa otimizada; vs: versus; TRC: terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca; TRC-D: terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca com desfibrilador; VDVE: volume diast&#243;lico final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; on: ligada, off: desligada.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O estudo MIRACLE avaliou 453 pacientes com IC em classe funcional III ou IV da NYHA, com FEVE &#8804; 35% e dura&#231;&#227;o do QRS &#8805; 130ms, comparando TRC ligada <italic>versus</italic> desligada, sendo 33% dos pacientes mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup> Woo <italic>et al</italic>. analisaram 8 subgrupos pr&#233;-especificados no estudo MIRACLE e, quando avaliada a resposta de acordo com o sexo, observaram que as mulheres submetidas a TRC apresentaram tempos maiores para primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o ou morte comparadas com o grupo controle, mostrando um benef&#237;cio na TRC nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No MADIT-CRT foram avaliados 1.820 pacientes com IC (25% eram mulheres) em classe funcional I ou II da NYHA, FEVE &#8804; 30% e dura&#231;&#227;o do QRS &#8805; 130ms. O estudo RAFT avaliou 1.798 pacientes com IC (17% eram mulheres) em classe funcional II ou III da NYHA, FEVE &#8804; 30% e dura&#231;&#227;o do QRS &#8805; 120ms ou &#8805; 200ms quando estimulados por marca-passo pr&#233;vio. Ambos os estudos compararam a terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca com desfibrilador (TRC-D) <italic>versus</italic> CDI e demonstraram curva de sobrevida livre de IC favor&#225;vel ao grupo da TRC-D, com redu&#231;&#227;o no desfecho combinado de evento de IC e morte de 34% e 25%, respectivamente. Na an&#225;lise multivariada em ambos os estudos para o desfecho morte e IC, observou-se um benef&#237;cio pronunciado nas mulheres. No MADIT-CRT, mulheres que receberam TRC-D tiveram curva de sobrevida mais favor&#225;vel que mulheres e homens que receberam CDI ou mesmo homens que receberam TRC-D. Houve redu&#231;&#227;o de 72% de risco de morte quando comparadas mulheres com TRC-D <italic>versus</italic> CDI, mas n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na curva de sobrevida entre os homens com TRC-D <italic>versus</italic> CDI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma meta-an&#225;lise do MADIT-CRT, RAFT e REVERSE com 4.076 pacientes, 22% dos quais do sexo feminino, demonstrou, na an&#225;lise de desfecho IC e morte, curvas favor&#225;veis a TRC nas mulheres. Tamb&#233;m para o desfecho morte, foram encontrados os mesmos resultados com curva favor&#225;vel a TRC <italic>versus</italic> CDI nas mulheres e sem diferen&#231;a entre os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um estudo avaliou 741 pacientes com idade de 66&#177;11 anos, 33% mulheres, 78% brancas, FEVE 28&#177;9%, 58% com CMI, 75% com BRE e volume sist&#243;lico final do VE de 65&#177;30 ml/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, submetidos a implante de TRC-D, randomizados para intervalo atrioventricular fixo de 120ms ou programado de acordo com ecocardiograma ou com o algoritmo SmartDelay. O desfecho foi composto por morte e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC e redu&#231;&#227;o &gt;15% no di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico final em 6 meses. A resposta de ambos os sexos &#224; TRC foi semelhante, sendo a disparidade nos resultados da TRC atribu&#237;da ao sexo explicada pelas diferen&#231;as que as mulheres apresentam no substrato, no tratamento e nas comorbidades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Beela <italic>et al</italic>. investigaram at&#233; que ponto melhores resultados da TRC n&#227;o poderiam ser explicados pelas caracter&#237;sticas basais dos sexos. Avaliaram 1.058 pacientes (24% mulheres) submetidos a TRC com desfecho prim&#225;rio de mortalidade por todas as causas. As mulheres tinham menos CMI e menos fibrose, mais BRE e mais dissincronia mec&#226;nica. Levando-se em considera&#231;&#227;o as caracter&#237;sticas basais, a resposta de sobrevida foi similar entre os sexos. Nesse grupo, o melhor resultado encontrado nas mulheres foi devido &#224; menor taxa de CMI e &#224; menor carga de fibrose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A presen&#231;a do BRE &#233; fator determinante de melhor resposta &#224; TRC e o mesmo benef&#237;cio n&#227;o &#233; observado quando o BRE n&#227;o est&#225; presente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Estudo com 75.079 pacientes com IC em classe funcional III ou IV da NYHA, FEVE reduzida (&#8804; 35%) e dura&#231;&#227;o do QRS &#8805;120ms, comparando a TRC entre mulheres e homens, mostrou benef&#237;cio em ambos os sexos. O mesmo ocorreu na presen&#231;a do BRE, embora tenha sido observada uma curva de mortalidade mais atenuada nas mulheres. No grupo sem BRE, as mulheres apresentaram melhor curva de mortalidade que os homens para QRS ainda mais largos (150-159ms).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref></sup> As mulheres com BRE respondem melhor que os homens com QRS mais estreitos e uma poss&#237;vel raz&#227;o para isso &#233; que elas t&#234;m menor massa ventricular esquerda e QRS mais estreitos do que os homens (aproximadamente 10ms a menos). Portanto, qualquer prolongamento absoluto no QRS das mulheres pode corresponder a um maior grau de dissincronia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181">181</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As mulheres t&#234;m o dobro de complica&#231;&#245;es maiores relacionadas aos procedimentos de TRC. Essa diferen&#231;a tamb&#233;m pode ser observada de forma significativa entre mulheres e homens submetidos a implante de ressincronizadores, sendo a complica&#231;&#227;o mais encontrada o pneumot&#243;rax/hemot&#243;rax. Infec&#231;&#227;o com necessidade de reopera&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m foi mais frequente nas mulheres. O maior preditor de complica&#231;&#245;es nas mulheres foi o menor &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B182">182</xref></sup> As principais diferen&#231;as entre mulheres e homens submetidos a TRC est&#227;o listadas no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Quadro 7.1</xref> </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t9">
            <label>Quadro 7.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Principais diferen&#231;as entre mulheres e homens submetidos a terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">1. Mulheres representam cerca de 30% ou menos das popula&#231;&#245;es dos estudos</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2. Comparadas com homens, mulheres t&#234;m mais:</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#10003; Cardiomiopatia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#10003; Bloqueio de ramo esquerdo e QRS mais estreito</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#10003; Complica&#231;&#245;es no procedimento</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#10003; Idade</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#10003; Hipertens&#227;o e diabetes</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3. Comparadas com homens, mulheres t&#234;m menos:</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#10003; Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#10003; Cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#10003; Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Embora terapias como o CDI e a TRC tragam benef&#237;cios em termos de mortalidade, as mulheres recebem menos dispositivos que os homens (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 7.1</xref>). Essa despropor&#231;&#227;o sugere que ou as mulheres n&#227;o preenchem os crit&#233;rios para TRC, ou n&#227;o s&#227;o selecionadas nem mantidas de forma adequada nos estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f13">
            <label>Figura 7.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Adaptado de Chen-Scarabelli et al.183 <italic>Distribui&#231;&#227;o de dispositivos card&#237;acos eletr&#244;nicos implant&#225;veis por tipo e por g&#234;nero. Adaptado de apresenta&#231;&#227;o ACC 2015 Ellenbogen KA.</italic>183 <italic>MP: marca-passo; CDI: cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel; TRC-D: terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o com desfibrilador; TRC-P: terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o com marca-passo.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf13.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.4. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>Para acessar o risco de AVC &#233; recomendado o escore de risco CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc para identificar pacientes de baixo risco (pontua&#231;&#227;o do escore de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc =0 para homens e 1 para mulher), os quais n&#227;o devem receber anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral. A terapia antitromb&#243;tica com anticoagulantes orais encontra-se indicada para portadoras de FA com CHA2DS2VASc maior ou igual a 2, mas a decis&#227;o deve ser individualizada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es em rela&#231;&#227;o a condutas nas arritmias s&#227;o as mesmas para ambos os sexos.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8. Aterotrombose na Gravidez, Contracep&#231;&#227;o, Infertilidade, S&#237;ndrome Antifosfol&#237;pide</title>
      <sec>
        <title>8.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Circunst&#226;ncias espec&#237;ficas do ciclo biol&#243;gico da mulher acrescentam riscos que contribuem para a diversidade da evolu&#231;&#227;o da aterosclerose e doen&#231;a tromb&#243;tica e ainda permanecem sob ampla investiga&#231;&#227;o. Apresentamos neste cap&#237;tulo t&#243;picos espec&#237;ficos da idade reprodutiva, tais como gravidez, contracep&#231;&#227;o, infertilidade e SAF. Essa &#250;ltima, prevalente no sexo feminino, &#233; considerada um potencial deflagrador da doen&#231;a aterotromb&#243;tica na mulher.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.2. Per&#237;odo da Gravidez</title>
        <p>A DIC &#233; pouco comum durante a gravidez. De acordo com dados da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de, a taxa de IAM &#233; de 3,34 eventos por 100 mil gesta&#231;&#245;es, sendo o IAM sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST (IAMSSST) o mais frequente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 8.1</xref> mostra os principais FR para DIC durante a gravidez, al&#233;m dos FR adicionais, delineados em anamnese minuciosa e exame f&#237;sico completo.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f14">
            <label>Figura 8.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Principais fatores de risco para doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o na gravidez e fatores de risco adicionais. DIC: doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf14.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Idade materna acima dos 40 anos &#233; um FR progressivo, de modo que, para cada ano de vida da mulher, h&#225; aumento de 20% de risco para infarto do mioc&#225;rdio na gesta&#231;&#227;o. Em uma revis&#227;o contempor&#226;nea,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref></sup> foram observados os mecanismos mais frequentes relacionados ao infarto do mioc&#225;rdio durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o e o puerp&#233;rio (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 8.2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f15">
            <label>Figura 8.2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio durante a gravidez e o puerp&#233;rio.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf15.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A DEAC corresponde a quase metade das causas de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, com preval&#234;ncia de cerca de 1,81 evento por 100 mil gesta&#231;&#245;es, sendo mais frequente no &#250;ltimo trimestre. Os resultados da DEAC associada &#224; gesta&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m pior progn&#243;stico quando comparados aos da popula&#231;&#227;o geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A conduta no infarto do mioc&#225;rdio devido &#224; doen&#231;a aterotromb&#243;tica durante a gravidez e ap&#243;s o parto n&#227;o difere daquela para a popula&#231;&#227;o geral, at&#233; mesmo em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s t&#233;cnicas de RVM percut&#226;nea ou cir&#250;rgica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup> No que diz respeito &#224; terap&#234;utica farmacol&#243;gica, o &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico em baixas doses &#233; seguro para a gravidez e o feto,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup> assim como o clopidogrel, devendo ser suspensos 7 dias antes da data programada do parto.</p>
        <p>Nos casos de DEAC, geralmente o tratamento cl&#237;nico tem sido o mais indicado, incluindo o uso de BB, que, &#224; exce&#231;&#227;o do atenolol, podem ser utilizados durante todos os trimestres gestacionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref></sup> A aus&#234;ncia de isquemia residual ou disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular permite a libera&#231;&#227;o para &#8220;nova&#8221; gesta&#231;&#227;o com indica&#231;&#227;o individualizada.</p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t15">Tabela 8.1</xref> sumariza os achados da DIC na gravidez e puerp&#233;rio.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t15">
            <label>Tabela 8.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Resumo sobre defini&#231;&#227;o, etiologia, fisiopatologia, apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e preven&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o na gravidez e no puerp&#233;rio.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="17%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>DEAC</th>
                  <th>ATEROSCLEROSE</th>
                  <th>VASOESPASMO</th>
                  <th>TROMBOSE CORON&#193;RIA</th>
                  <th>DOEN&#199;A DE MICROCIRCULA&#199;&#195;O</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>DEFINI&#199;&#195;O</td>
                  <td align="center">Ruptura espont&#226;nea da camada &#237;ntima arterial coron&#225;ria e ac&#250;mulo de hematomas intramurais na &#8220;falsa luz&#8221; arterial</td>
                  <td align="center">Relacionada aos fatores de risco tradicionais e emergentes para doen&#231;a cardiovascular</td>
                  <td align="center">Vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o difusa ou focal revers&#237;vel da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria</td>
                  <td align="center">Aus&#234;ncia de aterosclerose; poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o com dist&#250;rbios de coagula&#231;&#227;o e hiperocoagulabilidade da gesta&#231;&#227;o e puerp&#233;rio; emboliza&#231;&#227;o paradoxal</td>
                  <td align="center">Mecanismos ainda n&#227;o estabelecidos, incluindo espasmos transit&#243;rios</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ETIOLOGIA &amp; FISOPATOLOGIA</td>
                  <td align="center">Desarranjo e enfraquecimento da parede das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias relacionadas aos horm&#244;nios da gravidez</td>
                  <td align="center">Doen&#231;a hipertensiva da gesta&#231;&#227;o, diabetes gestacional, tabagismo, uso prolongado de anticoncepcionais anterior &#224; gesta&#231;&#227;o, idade acima de 35 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, estresse oxidativo e hiper-reatividade do m&#250;sculo liso</td>
                  <td align="center">hipercoagulabilidade da gesta&#231;&#227;o e fatores gen&#233;ticos predisponentes</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento da reatividade vascular, uso de derivados da ergotamina</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>APRESENTA&#199;&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</td>
                  <td align="center">Diversa: desde dor tor&#225;cica leve &#224; morte subita. Sintomas de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda na gravidez e p&#243;s-parto</td>
                  <td align="center">Dor tor&#225;cica, mandibula, pesco&#231;o, fadiga e n&#225;useas</td>
                  <td align="center">Diversa: desde assintomatica at&#233; morte s&#250;bita, angina e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>PREVEN&#199;&#195;O</td>
                  <td align="center">Evitar estresse emocional, terapia hormonal e nova gravidez</td>
                  <td align="center">Tratar os fatores de risco da doen&#231;a cardiovascular e conscientiza&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico precoce</td>
                  <td align="center">Evitar drogas il&#237;citas, anfetamina e &#225;lcool</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN5">
                <p>
                  <italic>DEAC: dissec&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea de art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.3. Contracep&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A contracep&#231;&#227;o hormonal tem reconhecida efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a em mulheres saud&#225;veis, ainda que exista escassez de evid&#234;ncias quanto aos seus efeitos em portadoras de comorbidades, destacando-se HAS e doen&#231;as cerebrovasculares, ou com hist&#243;ria de eventos isqu&#234;micos, como trombose venosa profunda (TVP) e tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP), independentemente da composi&#231;&#227;o ou das vias de administra&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, verifica-se um crescente n&#250;mero de mulheres jovens com doen&#231;as card&#237;acas, corroborando registros americanos que mostram uma preval&#234;ncia de 11,5% de DCV entre mulheres na faixa et&#225;ria de 20-29 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup> Adolescentes ou mulheres jovens frequentemente se deparam com a gravidez sem nunca terem recebido aconselhamento sobre planejamento da concep&#231;&#227;o. A gravidez, quer seja programada ou n&#227;o, &#233; uma &#8220;janela de oportunidade&#8221; para se propiciar a contracep&#231;&#227;o, tanto para mulheres saud&#225;veis como para aquelas que apresentam algum tipo de comorbidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nesse cen&#225;rio, vale mencionar que cerca de 0,69% da popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira identifica-se como transg&#234;nero.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> Essa faixa da popula&#231;&#227;o, apesar de ser designada feminina ao nascer, n&#227;o recebe aconselhamento reprodutivo ao longo da vida, ainda que o uso do contraceptivo possa resultar em benef&#237;cios nos sintomas relacionados ao ciclo ovulat&#243;rio e reduzir a gravidez indesejada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os contraceptivos hormonais s&#227;o classificados em contraceptivos hormonais combinados (CHC - estr&#243;geno e progesterona) orais e adesivos, contraceptivos progest&#225;genos puros (CPP) e contraceptivos de longa dura&#231;&#227;o (implante subcut&#226;neo de etonogestrel, endoceptivo tratado com levonorgestrel). Entre os n&#227;o hormonais, h&#225; o dispositivo intrauterino de cobre. O &#237;ndice de falhas e efic&#225;cia pode ser calculado pelo &#237;ndice de Pearl, que se baseia no n&#250;mero de gesta&#231;&#245;es/100 mulheres/ano<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 8.3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f16">
            <label>Figura 8.3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; &#205;ndice de Pearl dos principais m&#233;todos contraceptivos. DIU, dispositivo intrauterino. Fonte: adaptado de Curtis et al.<italic><sup>193</sup></italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf16.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Os contraceptivos em geral e os CHC, em particular, podem estar associados &#224; doen&#231;a aterotromb&#243;tica. Uma meta-an&#225;lise demonstrou que o uso de CHC representa um risco 1,7 vez maior de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e de AVC isqu&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup> O efeito deve-se &#224; a&#231;&#227;o do estrog&#234;nio ao passar pelo f&#237;gado e promover altera&#231;&#245;es dos fatores hemost&#225;ticos que conduzem a um estado pr&#243;-coagulante e pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tico. O mesmo n&#227;o ocorre com contraceptivos CPP, exceto o acetato de medroxiprogesterona, que altera o perfil glic&#237;dico e lip&#237;dico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Ressalta-se que a presen&#231;a dos FR para DCV (tabagismo &gt; 15 cigarros/dia, idade &gt; 35 anos, obesidade, HAS &gt; 160/100mmHg, doen&#231;a vascular, trombofilia, hist&#243;ria de TVP/TEP, imobiliza&#231;&#227;o prolongada, AVC e isquemia mioc&#225;rdica) eleva significativamente o risco de tromboembolismo em usu&#225;rias de contraceptivos hormonais. De acordo com os crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade WHO-MEC 2015, nessas situa&#231;&#245;es, est&#227;o contraindicados os CHC, os adesivos com contraceptivos combinados, o anel com contraceptivo combinado e o contraceptivo combinado injet&#225;vel, podendo-se indicar os CPP, o implante subcut&#226;neo de etonogestrel e o endoceptivo tratado com levonorgestrel<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t16">Quadro 8.1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t16">
            <label>Quadro 8.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Uso de contraceptivos na doen&#231;a tromb&#243;tica e aterotromb&#243;tica.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="13%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="8">Contraceptivos: Introdu&#231;&#227;o e Continua&#231;&#227;o segundo Doen&#231;a Tromb&#243;tica e Aterotromb&#243;tica</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">CONDI&#199;&#195;O</th>
                  <th>SUB-CONDI&#199;&#195;O</th>
                  <th align="left">DIU-Cu</th>
                  <th align="left">LNG</th>
                  <th align="left">Implante</th>
                  <th align="left">AMPD</th>
                  <th align="left">CPP</th>
                  <th align="left">CHC</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #cdcdcd">DIC</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Recente ou pregressa</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #cdcdcd">Muta&#231;&#227;o trombog&#234;nica diagnosticada</td>
                  <td style="background-color: #b2b2b2"> </td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #cdcdcd">FRCV</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Idade avan&#231;ada, tabagismo, DM, HAS, dislipidemia</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #cdcdcd">AVC isqu&#234;mico</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Hist&#243;ria de AVC</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #cdcdcd">DCV</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">N&#227;o complicada Complicada (hipertens&#227;o pulmonar, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e endocardite)</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="12" style="background-color: #cdcdcd">TVP /TEP</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Hist&#243;ria de TVP/TEP sem anticoagula&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Alto risco de recorr&#234;ncia</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Baixo risco de recorr&#234;ncia</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">TVP/TEP agudo</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color: #b2b2b2">
                  <td align="center">TVP/TEP anticoagulado por pelo menos 3 meses</td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Alto risco de recorr&#234;ncia</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Baixo risco de recorr&#234;ncia</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Hist&#243;ria familiar</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color: #b2b2b2">
                  <td align="center">Grande cirurgia</td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Com imobiliza&#231;&#227;o prolongada</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Sem imobiliza&#231;&#227;o prolongada</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Pequena cirurgia sem imobiliza&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <p>
                  <italic>Categorias: 1= sem restri&#231;&#227;o de uso; 2= benef&#237;cio se sobrep&#245;e ao risco potencial; 3= risco se sobrep&#245;e ao benef&#237;cio; 4= risco inaceit&#225;vel. AMPD: acetato de medroxiprogesterona de dep&#243;sito; AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; CHC: contraceptivo hormonal combinado; CPP: contraceptivo progest&#225;geno puro; DCV: doen&#231;a cardiovascular; DIC: doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica card&#237;aca; DIU-Cu: dispositivo intrauterino de cobre; DM: diabetes mellitus; FRCV: fatores de risco cardiovascular; HAS: hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica; LNG: Levonorgestrel; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; TVP: trombose venosa profunda. Fonte: adaptado de Curtis et al.</italic>
                  <sup>193</sup>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Concluindo, embora os CHC sejam os mais utilizados em todo o mundo, destacamos que os implantes subcut&#226;neos e os endoceptivos compostos por progest&#225;genos puros apresentam menor impacto na doen&#231;a aterotromb&#243;tica. Vale refor&#231;ar que a sele&#231;&#227;o da contracep&#231;&#227;o deve considerar os fatores intr&#237;nsecos da paciente, a seguran&#231;a e a efic&#225;cia dos contraceptivos, al&#233;m de envolver uma abordagem multidisciplinar ao longo da fase reprodutiva da mulher.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>8.3.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>O uso de contraceptivos na doen&#231;a tromb&#243;tica e aterotromb&#243;tica deve ser direcionado segundo a presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de FR para DCV, sendo nessas situa&#231;&#245;es contraindicados os CHC, os adesivos com contraceptivos combinados, o anel com contraceptivo combinado e o contraceptivo combinado injet&#225;vel. Nessas situa&#231;&#245;es, podem-se indicar os CPP, o implante subcut&#226;neo de etonogestrel e o endoceptivo tratado com levonorgestrel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8.4. Infertilidade</title>
      <p>A infertilidade &#233; uma doen&#231;a caracterizada pela incapacidade de se estabelecer uma gravidez cl&#237;nica ap&#243;s 12 meses de rela&#231;&#245;es sexuais regulares e desprotegidas. Estima-se que afete entre 8% e 12% dos casais em idade reprodutiva em todo o mundo. A causa secund&#225;ria &#233; a forma mais comum de infertilidade feminina, muitas vezes devida a infec&#231;&#245;es do trato reprodutivo. Os tr&#234;s principais fatores que influenciam na probabilidade espont&#226;nea de concep&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o o tempo de conceber uma gravidez programada, a idade da parceira e as causas relacionadas &#224;s doen&#231;as.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os fatores que afetam a fertilidade de ambos os sexos s&#227;o hipogonadismo hipogonadotr&#243;fico, hiperprolactinemia, dist&#250;rbios da fun&#231;&#227;o ciliar, fibrose c&#237;stica, infec&#231;&#245;es, doen&#231;as sist&#234;micas e fatores relacionados ao estilo de vida, enquanto a insufici&#234;ncia ovariana prematura, s&#237;ndrome do ov&#225;rio polic&#237;stico (SOP), endometriose, miomas uterinos e p&#243;lipos endometriais desempenham papel importante como causas da infertilidade feminina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Afora essas comorbidades, a infertilidade est&#225; frequentemente associada a dist&#250;rbios mentais, como depress&#227;o e transtornos de ansiedade, e tem forte rela&#231;&#227;o com DCV pelo impacto dos horm&#244;nios androg&#234;nicos nos FR da DCV e na s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200">200</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Uma meta-an&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B201">201</xref></sup> que comparou grupos de mulheres da mesma faixa et&#225;ria, com ou sem infertilidade, mostrou maior frequ&#234;ncia de dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos pr&#243;-ateroscler&#243;ticos, particularmente obesidade e aumento do colesterol total, LDL-colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos entre as mulheres que sofriam infertilidade. Nessa meta-an&#225;lise, um estudo isolado<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref></sup> mostrou um aumento de DIC, AVC e IC nas mulheres com infertilidade no seguimento de pelo menos 5 anos em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;s saud&#225;veis (HR 1,35; 1,16&#8211;1,57; p &lt; 0,0001).</p>
      <p>As mulheres com SOP apresentam maior risco de obesidade, HAS, intoler&#226;ncia a glicose, dislipidemia e apneia obstrutiva do sono. Dentre as altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas, a obesidade est&#225; presente em cerca de 50% dos casos. A resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina presente em 60% a 95% dos casos gera intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose em 31% a 35% e DM tipo 2 em 7,5% a 20% dessas mulheres. Contudo, as altera&#231;&#245;es do perfil lip&#237;dico caracterizadas pelos baixos n&#237;veis de HDL-colesterol, altos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de triglic&#233;rides e aumento do LDL-colesterol s&#227;o a anormalidade metab&#243;lica mais frequente na SOP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203">203</xref></sup></p>
      <p>No decurso do 20&#186; ano do estudo prospectivo CARDIA, a an&#225;lise das imagens de calcifica&#231;&#227;o de art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias e das medidas da espessura da camada m&#233;dio-intimal (EMI) carot&#237;dea demonstrou risco elevado de DCV subcl&#237;nica (OR 2,70; IC 95%, 1,31 &#8211; 5,60) quando hiperandrogenismo e anovula&#231;&#227;o estiveram presentes na SOP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup> Esses dados foram refor&#231;ados na meta-an&#225;lise de Zhang <italic>et al.</italic>, que verificaram aumento de risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, DIC e AVC (OR 1,66; IC 95%, 1,32 &#8211; 2,08) nas portadoras de SOP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B205">205</xref></sup></p>
      <p>De igual import&#226;ncia, outra causa de infertilidade &#233; a endometriose, com preval&#234;ncia de quase 10% na popula&#231;&#227;o e que, por sua vez, est&#225; associada com doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, como asma e doen&#231;as autoimunes, c&#226;nceres ginecol&#243;gicos e DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> Na endometriose, ocorre um processo inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico mediado por subst&#226;ncias, como mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular (ICAM-1), interleucina 1 e 6 (IL-1 e IL-6), fator de necrose tumoral (TNF-a) e fator de crescimento do endot&#233;lio vascular (VEGF), que induzem aumento do estresse oxidativo e do LDL-colesterol, com subsequente efeito aterog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Tem-se demonstrado que a endometriose est&#225; associada a FR bem estabelecidos para a DCV, como HAS e dislipidemia, com perfil aterog&#234;nico maior e aumento do risco de tromboembolismo venoso, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, IC e AVC. O estudo que considerou como desfecho prim&#225;rio a composi&#231;&#227;o de DIC, IC e doen&#231;a cerebrovascular estabeleceu a associa&#231;&#227;o positiva desses eventos com endometriose (OR 1,24; 95% IC, 1,13 &#8211; 1,37), colocando-a como FR para DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup> Essas observa&#231;&#245;es foram concordantes com um estudo prospectivo que mostrou a associa&#231;&#227;o de endometriose com aumento do risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio/isquemia coronariana e RVM cir&#250;rgica e percut&#226;nea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A terapia de fertiliza&#231;&#227;o &#233; considerada como um potencial FR para os dist&#250;rbios hipertensivos na gesta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref></sup> Contudo, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica que agrupou SCA, AVC, tromboembolismo venoso, HAS e DM em mulheres que se submeteram a tratamento de fertiliza&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o demonstrou aumento dos eventos combinados. As s&#233;rias limita&#231;&#245;es dessa an&#225;lise, com apenas seis estudos muito heterog&#234;neos, n&#227;o atenderam crit&#233;rio estat&#237;stico para nos dar uma evid&#234;ncia mais robusta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em conclus&#227;o, a faixa et&#225;ria reprodutiva &#233; um momento oportuno para a estimativa do RCV ao longo da vida das mulheres. Nessa fase do ciclo biol&#243;gico feminino, &#233; importante a aten&#231;&#227;o para os norteadores de riscos e interven&#231;&#245;es em patologias cl&#237;nicas que n&#227;o s&#227;o inclu&#237;das nos escores de RCV tradicionais, estratificando essas mulheres de forma diferente para preven&#231;&#227;o efetiva da DCV.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8.5. S&#237;ndrome Antifosfol&#237;pide</title>
      <p>A SAF &#233; uma doen&#231;a tromb&#243;tica autoimune que acomete preferencialmente mulheres jovens em uma propor&#231;&#227;o de 5:1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B212">212</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico &#233; feito na suspeita cl&#237;nica de trombose em qualquer leito vascular e/ou diante de complica&#231;&#245;es obst&#233;tricas recorrentes, tais como abortos espont&#226;neos, partos prematuros e pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia/ecl&#226;mpsia. A SAF causa insufici&#234;ncia placent&#225;ria e restri&#231;&#227;o do crescimento intrauterino associadas &#224; presen&#231;a persistente de anticorpos antifosfolip&#237;deos (aPL): anticardiolipina (aCL), anti-beta2-glicoprote&#237;na 1 e/ou l&#250;pus anticoagulante (LAC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os aPL est&#227;o fortemente associados ao AVC em mulheres com idade abaixo de 50 anos. A presen&#231;a de aCL e/ou LAC em pacientes jovens que sofreram AVC isqu&#234;mico ou ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio, sem diagn&#243;stico concomitante de l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico, &#233; frequente. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com aPL e isquemia cerebral t&#234;m maior frequ&#234;ncia de eventos m&#250;ltiplos do que pacientes sem esses anticorpos. Um estado pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tico associado a aPL pode ser um fator determinante de isquemia recorrente em mulheres com aterosclerose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A SAF est&#225; associada a infarto do mioc&#225;rdio em aproximadamente 2,8% de pacientes acometidos pela doen&#231;a. O mecanismo de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica na SAF &#233; considerado trombose aguda das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, que requer anticoagula&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica, em contraste com a ruptura da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, que &#233; efetivamente tratada com antiplaquet&#225;rios e <italic>stent.</italic> Dada a forma diferente de tratamento, a distin&#231;&#227;o entre as pacientes que apresentam a SAF n&#227;o diagnosticada &#233; fundamental para o sucesso terap&#234;utico e o progn&#243;stico. Embora incomum, a SAF deve ser considerada em mulheres jovens com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, especialmente se forem identificadas tromboses pr&#233;vias n&#227;o provocadas, contagens de plaquetas mais baixas, tempo parcial de tromboplastina elevado e art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias normais ou trombose coron&#225;ria. A anticoagula&#231;&#227;o deve ser mantida por toda a vida, mesmo no primeiro epis&#243;dio. O papel do <italic>stent</italic> coron&#225;rio nessas pacientes requer mais estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A evid&#234;ncia de t&#237;tulos significativamente elevados de diferentes aPL na fase inicial do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio sugere que esses anticorpos est&#227;o presentes antes do evento e n&#227;o s&#227;o secund&#225;rios a ele. O desaparecimento de aPL elevado ap&#243;s 3 meses do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pode ser devido a um efeito de absor&#231;&#227;o ou possivelmente a um fen&#244;meno c&#237;clico semelhante ao encontrado em outras doen&#231;as autoimunes. Os aPL podem ser FR adicional para infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e devem ser considerados especialmente em pacientes de faixa et&#225;ria mais jovem sem FRCV aparentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos e laboratoriais para o diagn&#243;stico da SAF devem estar presentes de forma concomitante em uma janela inferior a 5 anos. O progresso nos conhecimentos sobre as bases moleculares do envolvimento vascular permite considerar que a SAF seja uma doen&#231;a de origem multifatorial que se desenvolve em indiv&#237;duos geneticamente predispostos. Diversos mecanismos contribuem para o desenvolvimento de trombose nos pacientes com SAF, destacando-se o efeito sin&#233;rgico de autoanticorpos com mol&#233;culas pr&#243;-tromb&#243;ticas, receptores de ades&#227;o, mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, estresse oxidativo e mol&#233;culas de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A presen&#231;a dos aPL induz um estado pr&#243;-aterotromb&#243;tico atrav&#233;s da express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas pr&#243;-tromb&#243;ticas e pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, incluindo fator tecidual e VEGF, al&#233;m de indu&#231;&#227;o de estresse oxidativo e disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial em mon&#243;citos e neutr&#243;filos, juntamente com aumento da forma&#231;&#227;o de &#8220;nichos&#8221; extracelulares de neutr&#243;filos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica tem sido demostrada nas associa&#231;&#245;es do ant&#237;geno leucocit&#225;rio humano (HLA) com a doen&#231;a e a ocorr&#234;ncia de aPL nos pacientes com SAF. Os genes do complexo principal de histocompatibilidade parecem influenciar n&#227;o apenas na produ&#231;&#227;o de autoanticorpos, mas tamb&#233;m na pr&#243;pria express&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup> Polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos tamb&#233;m foram associados a trombose em pacientes com SAF, incluindo variantes de fatores de coagula&#231;&#227;o, mol&#233;culas antitromb&#243;ticas e mediadores inflamat&#243;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup> Os aPL induzem altera&#231;&#245;es gen&#244;micas e epigen&#233;ticas que sustentam um estado pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tico.</p>
      <p>A epigen&#233;tica, definida como mudan&#231;as ou modifica&#231;&#245;es no DNA que influenciam o fen&#243;tipo sem alterar o gen&#243;tipo, representa um mecanismo novo de regula&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica. Mecanismos regulat&#243;rios epigen&#233;ticos e p&#243;s-transcricionais est&#227;o alterados nas doen&#231;as autoimunes e cardiovasculares, como modifica&#231;&#245;es na metila&#231;&#227;o do DNA, nas histonas e nas atividades de microRNAs, alterando a express&#227;o de genes e prote&#237;nas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup> Os microRNAs afetam o sistema imunol&#243;gico e t&#234;m um papel importante na patog&#234;nese de condi&#231;&#245;es autoimunes e inflamat&#243;rias, atuam como principais reguladores de v&#225;rios alvos g&#234;nicos envolvidos nas caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas da SAF, como resposta imune, aterosclerose e trombose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref></sup> &#201; sabido que dois microRNAs (miR-19b/miR-20a) funcionam como potenciais moduladores do fator tecidual, o principal receptor envolvido no desenvolvimento da trombose na SAF. Assim, uma assinatura espec&#237;fica de circula&#231;&#227;o de microRNAs foi recentemente identificada em pacientes com SAF como potenciais biomarcadores<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221">221</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 8.4</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f17">
          <label>Figura 8.4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Fatores de risco gen&#244;micos de aterotrombose na s&#237;ndrome antifosfol&#237;pide (SAF).<italic><sup>217</sup></italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf17.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Uma vez que a paciente tenha tido um evento tromb&#243;tico, independentemente de ser venoso ou arterial, a terapia de escolha &#233; a varfarina, com alvo de INR (<italic>International Normalized Ratio</italic>) entre 2 e 3. A heparina, administrada de forma aguda no momento do evento tromb&#243;tico, pode ter dois benef&#237;cios: primeiro, bloqueando a ativa&#231;&#227;o do complemento (mesmo que apenas uma dose profil&#225;tica), e segundo, como anticoagulante. Dado o alto risco de recorr&#234;ncia na SAF, a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o &#233; recomendada a longo prazo, porque o risco de recorr&#234;ncia chegou a 24% quando a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o foi interrompida, particularmente no caso de l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O cont&#237;nuo progresso no conhecimento das bases gen&#244;micas e dos biomarcadores epigen&#233;ticos impulsiona a farmacologia cl&#237;nica e proporciona maior seguran&#231;a da terap&#234;utica da SAF. Assim, embora estudos mais amplos sejam necess&#225;rios, as novas descobertas permitem melhor entendimento sobre a possibilidade de novos modelos direcionados para op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas na preven&#231;&#227;o de trombose da SAF.</p>
      <p>A menopausa representa uma transi&#231;&#227;o significativa na vida da mulher e caracteriza-se pela cessa&#231;&#227;o do ciclo menstrual e subsequente diminui&#231;&#227;o dram&#225;tica nos n&#237;veis de horm&#244;nios sexuais, estrog&#234;nio e progesterona. Embora a testosterona tamb&#233;m diminua em mulheres p&#243;s-menop&#225;usicas, essa diminui&#231;&#227;o &#233; mais gradual e os efeitos dos andr&#243;genos na sa&#250;de da mulher ap&#243;s a transi&#231;&#227;o da menopausa n&#227;o s&#227;o totalmente compreendidos. A terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal &#233; um m&#233;todo pelo qual as mulheres podem controlar os sintomas da menopausa durante e ap&#243;s essa transi&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, n&#227;o h&#225; compreens&#227;o suficiente dos efeitos precisos que diferentes formas de terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal t&#234;m na fisiologia da mulher e particularmente no contexto do risco de DCV. A intera&#231;&#227;o de idade avan&#231;ada e sexo feminino com DCV em conjunto com os pap&#233;is de terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal e menopausa na progress&#227;o da DCV leva a quest&#245;es futuras para abordar essas lacunas na compreens&#227;o atual da sa&#250;de de mulheres idosas em risco de DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B222">222</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>8.5.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>A SAF deve ser considerada em mulheres jovens com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, em situa&#231;&#245;es de tromboses pr&#233;vias n&#227;o provocadas, contagens de plaquetas mais baixas, tempo parcial de tromboplastina elevado e art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias normais ou trombose coron&#225;ria. A anticoagula&#231;&#227;o deve ser mantida por toda a vida, mesmo no primeiro epis&#243;dio, particularmente no l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>9. Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica na Mulher</title>
      <sec>
        <title>9.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em pesquisa envolvendo portadores de CMI submetidos a transplante card&#237;aco, a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos cora&#231;&#245;es explantados apresentava aumento da massa do VE, do volume dos mi&#243;citos e do comprimento celular nos homens. Essa diferen&#231;a n&#227;o foi vista na cardiomiopatia idiop&#225;tica, sugerindo que o g&#234;nero possa influenciar na adapta&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica local &#224; les&#227;o isqu&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B223">223</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A evolu&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s IAM entre mulheres &#233; mais grave. Maiores &#237;ndices de reinterna&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade s&#227;o registrados nas mulheres quando comparadas aos homens, persistindo mais altos com 1 (26% x 19%) e 5 anos (47% x 36%) ap&#243;s o quadro agudo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup> J&#225; a IC sintom&#225;tica ap&#243;s IAM &#233; mais incidente no sexo feminino, especialmente nas mulheres mais velhas. O aumento do risco se prolonga al&#233;m do epis&#243;dio inicial do IAM. O sexo feminino &#233; um preditor independente para choque cardiog&#234;nico, mesmo no IAM com menor extens&#227;o de DIC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar de melhor FEVE e menor carga de DIC obstrutiva, mulheres com DIC e CMI apresentam menor capacidade funcional e qualidade de vida, mas mortalidade semelhante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Maior riqueza de informa&#231;&#245;es na CMI diz respeito aos homens, possivelmente pela maior frequ&#234;ncia. A HAS e o DM contribuem mais para o risco de IC nas mulheres, com padr&#227;o fenot&#237;pico distinto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Mesmo com debate ampliado na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada sobre a desigualdade na aten&#231;&#227;o &#224;s DCV entre g&#234;neros, especialmente no tratamento do IAM, a menor inclus&#227;o de mulheres em ensaios cl&#237;nicos e a menor otimiza&#231;&#227;o de seu tratamento persistem na atualidade. Os homens s&#227;o mais prontamente atendidos e encaminhados para tratamento assim como recebem a terapia orientada por diretrizes com maior frequ&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Provavelmente, de alguma forma, essa limita&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica-terap&#234;utica esteja influenciando nos desfechos desfavor&#225;veis entre as mulheres.</p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao remodelamento em vig&#234;ncia de DIC, as diferen&#231;as parecem ter rela&#231;&#227;o com horm&#244;nios sexuais, al&#233;m do impacto de cromossomos sexuais e epigen&#233;tica. Foi demonstrado que v&#225;rios genes relacionados a processos adversos de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, como ativa&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos, apoptose e metabolismo lip&#237;dico, est&#227;o localizados no cromossomo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B225">225</xref></sup></p>
        <p>H&#225; relatos ainda de que as mitoc&#244;ndrias femininas toleram melhor a priva&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio e o dano oxidativo do que as masculinas, al&#233;m de as mulheres parecerem estar mais bem protegidas da apoptose induzida por isquemia/reperfus&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> N&#237;veis elevados de c&#225;lcio aumentam a les&#227;o de isquemia-reperfus&#227;o e o estrog&#234;nio pode diminuir os n&#237;veis de c&#225;lcio antes da isquemia, levando a menos les&#245;es em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B227">227</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em modelos animais de infarto e fibrose por apoptose maci&#231;a, a necrose na &#225;rea infartada &#233; mais extensa com mais conte&#250;do de col&#225;geno em camundongos machos em compara&#231;&#227;o com f&#234;meas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref></sup> Esse dado foi confirmado em ensaios com humanos, onde a apoptose ap&#243;s infarto do mioc&#225;rdio segue o mesmo padr&#227;o, sendo mais prevalente em homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B229">229</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dessa forma, ainda que n&#227;o pare&#231;am melhorar mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es, os estrog&#234;nios podem proteger contra o estresse oxidativo, modular a apoptose e, em especial, o estradiol pode reduzir fibrose ao regular negativamente a s&#237;ntese de col&#225;geno, ainda que a mortalidade permane&#231;a alta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na CMI, os dados sugerem que a obesidade seja mais frequente na popula&#231;&#227;o feminina, correlacionando-se com pior progn&#243;stico em compara&#231;&#227;o com os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quanto aos sintomas de IC, as mulheres tendem a se apresentar mais sintom&#225;ticas, com queixas de dispneia e ortopneia ao longo de todo o espectro de classe funcional quando comparadas com os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Diversos m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para o diagn&#243;stico da CMI na mulher e, em muitos casos, podem auxiliar n&#227;o apenas no diagn&#243;stico, como tamb&#233;m na avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica e nas defini&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas. A escolha da melhor modalidade deve levar em conta o desempenho diagn&#243;stico, as peculiaridades relacionadas ao g&#234;nero e, em alguns casos, a presen&#231;a de situa&#231;&#245;es especiais, como gesta&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>A angio-TC tem alta sensibilidade e performance similar em mulheres e homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B231">231</xref></sup> A adi&#231;&#227;o de tecnologias para avalia&#231;&#227;o funcional permite a identifica&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es hemodinamicamente significativas e auxilia nas defini&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas. Al&#233;m disso, ajuda no diagn&#243;stico de DEAC, que afeta principalmente mulheres. A RMC tem elevada acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica tanto em mulheres como em homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B232">232</xref></sup> Ademais, na cardiomiopatia, diferentes padr&#245;es de realce tardio e altera&#231;&#245;es teciduais podem auxiliar na identifica&#231;&#227;o de etiologias n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas.</p>
        <p>Em suma, diversas modalidades n&#227;o invasivas est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para avalia&#231;&#227;o de CMI. Conhecer as vantagens e desvantagens de cada uma auxilia na escolha do m&#233;todo a ser utilizado e na interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos resultados. &#201; importante lembrar, entretanto, que a avalia&#231;&#227;o invasiva com coronariografia pode ser necess&#225;ria e n&#227;o deve ser retardada quando restar d&#250;vidas. Ainda, quanto maior a gravidade da cardiomiopatia e da apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, bem como na presen&#231;a de caracter&#237;sticas que aumentem a probabilidade de etiologia isqu&#234;mica, seja pela presen&#231;a de sintomas anginosos ou de altera&#231;&#245;es segmentares, avalia&#231;&#245;es definitivas que excluam ou identifiquem a presen&#231;a da etiologia isqu&#234;mica devem ser consideradas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.2. Tratamento Cl&#237;nico</title>
        <p>Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, avan&#231;os no tratamento da IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (ICFEr) foram observados em diferentes ensaios cl&#237;nicos. Assim, as principais diretrizes recomendam o uso da terapia qu&#225;drupla, com IECA/BRA ou inibidores da neprilisina/bloqueadores de angiotensina (ARNI) + BB + antagonista da aldosterona + inibidores da SGLT2, para o tratamento de pacientes com ICFEr por apresentar impacto sobre mortalidade geral e cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Para os pacientes que persistem sintom&#225;ticos, outras classes de medicamentos, como hidralazina-nitrato, ivabradina, digoxina e, mais recentemente, estimuladores da guanilato ciclase, al&#233;m de TRC, podem ser acrescidas. Vale ressaltar que, na maioria desses estudos cl&#237;nicos, a etiologia isqu&#234;mica foi a mais frequente, variando de 50% a 70% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Tabela 9.1</xref>). Ainda como tratamento com impacto em redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade est&#225; indicado o uso de CDI, especialmente em pacientes com CMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t17">
            <label>Tabela 9.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Estudos empregados na terapia da cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="11%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Estudos</th>
                  <th>Medicamento</th>
                  <th>Mulheres</th>
                  <th>Isqu&#234;micos</th>
                  <th>Popula&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Desfecho prim&#225;rio</th>
                  <th>Resultado</th>
                  <th>Intera&#231;&#227;o Homem/Mulher</th>
                  <th>P intera&#231;&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>&#193;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria</td>
                  <td align="center">16 ensaios cl&#237;nicos de preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria</td>
                  <td align="center">----</td>
                  <td align="center">Todos</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>17.000 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Alto risco cardiovascular</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Evento vascular s&#233;rio</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,81 (0,75&#8211;0,87)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR 19%</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,81 (0,73&#8211;0,90)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,81 (0,64&#8211;1,02)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>BB</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="8"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CIBIS II</td>
                  <td align="center">Bisoprolol* 10mg/d</td>
                  <td align="center">20%</td>
                  <td align="center">50%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2.647 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF III-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 16m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte geral</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,66 (0,54-0,81)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 34%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 18</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,53 (0,42&#8211;0,67)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,37 (0,19&#8211;0,89)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MERIT HF</td>
                  <td align="center">Succinato de metoprolol* 200mg/d</td>
                  <td align="center">22%</td>
                  <td align="center">65%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3.991 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF II-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 40%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 12m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte geral</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,66 (0,53&#8211;0,81)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 34%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 27</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Em mulheres n&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o de morte geral (7,5% x 6,9%)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,05</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>COPERNICUS</td>
                  <td align="center">Carvedilol* 25mg 2xd</td>
                  <td align="center">20%</td>
                  <td align="center">67%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2.289 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 25%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 11m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte geral</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 15</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Sem diferen&#231;a significativa</td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>CIBIS II</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>MERIT HF</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>COPERNICUS</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte geral (dados agrupados)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,66 (0,58 to 0,75)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,69 (0,51 to 0,93)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>IECA/BRAS</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SOLVD</td>
                  <td align="center">Enalapril* 10mg 2xd</td>
                  <td align="center">20%</td>
                  <td align="center">70%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2.569 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF II-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 37m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte geral</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,84 (0,74-0,95)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 16%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 22</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Em mulheres n&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o de morte geral</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,05</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CHARM</td>
                  <td align="center">Candesartana* 32mg/d</td>
                  <td align="center">32%</td>
                  <td align="center">67%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2.028 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF II-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 40%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 33m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte CV ou HIC</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,77 (0,67&#8211;0,89)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 27%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 14</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Sem diferen&#231;a significativa</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="7">
                    <bold>Antagonista de Aldosterona</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>RALES</td>
                  <td align="center">Espironolactona* 25-50mg/d</td>
                  <td align="center">27%</td>
                  <td align="center">54%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1.663 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF III-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 24m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte geral</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,69 (0,58-0,82)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 31%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 10</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,71 (0,60&#8211;0,82)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,72 (0,57&#8211;0,97)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>EMPHASIS</td>
                  <td align="center">Eplerenone* 25-50mg/d</td>
                  <td align="center">22%</td>
                  <td align="center">68%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>2.737 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF II</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &#8804; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 21m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte CV ou HIC</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,66 (0,56&#8211;0,78)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 37%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 13</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Sem diferen&#231;a significativa</td>
                  <td align="center">0,36 (NS)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>ARNI</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>PARADIGM-HF</td>
                  <td align="center">Sacubitril-Valsartana<sup>&#8224;</sup> 200mg 2xd</td>
                  <td align="center">21%</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>8.442 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF II-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 40% / FEVE &#8804; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 27m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte CV ou HIC</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,80 (0,73&#8211;0,87)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 20%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 21</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,80 (0,73&#8211;0,87)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,79 (0,66&#8211;0,94)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>ISGLT2</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>DAPA-HF</td>
                  <td align="center">Dapagliflozina* 10mg/dia</td>
                  <td align="center">23%</td>
                  <td align="center">55%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>4.744 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF II-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 40%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 18m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte CV ou HIC</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,75 (0,65&#8211;0,85)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 26%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 21</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,73 (0,63&#8211;0,85)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,79 (0,59&#8211;1,06)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>EMPEROR-Reduced</td>
                  <td align="center">Empagliflozina* 10mg/dia</td>
                  <td align="center">24%</td>
                  <td align="center">51%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>3.730 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF II-IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 40%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 16m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte CV ou HIC</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,75 (0,65&#8211;0,86)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 25%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 19</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,80 (0,68&#8211;0,93)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,59 (0,44&#8211;0,80)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Vasodilatadores diretos</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>A-HeFT</td>
                  <td align="center">Hidralazina 225mg/d + Dinitrato de Isossorbida* 120mg/d</td>
                  <td align="center">36%</td>
                  <td align="center">23%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1.050 negros</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF III/ IV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FE &#8804; 35%, ou FE &lt; 45% se DDVE &gt; 6,5cm ou &gt; 2,9cm/m<sup>2</sup></p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 18m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Escore composto prim&#225;rio (1&#170;. HIC, qualidade de vida e sobrevida livre de eventos)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 43%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 25</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,67 (0,49&#8211;0,92)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,58 (0,39&#8211;0,86)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NS</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>p = 0,806</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Inibidores If</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SHIFT</td>
                  <td align="center">Ivabradina* 5 &#8211; 7,5mg 2xd</td>
                  <td align="center">23%</td>
                  <td align="center">67%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>6.558 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 35%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Ritmo sinusal / FC &gt; 70</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 23m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte CV ou HIC</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,82 (0,75&#8211;0,90)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>RRR = 18%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>NNT = 26</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,84 (0,76&#8211;0,94)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,74 (0,60&#8211;0,91)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">NS</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Digit&#225;licos</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>DIG</td>
                  <td align="center">Digoxina* 0,25mg/d</td>
                  <td align="center">22%</td>
                  <td align="center">65%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>6.800 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE &lt; 45%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF II-III</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 37m</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Morte geral</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Aus&#234;ncia de redu&#231;&#227;o</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento do risco de morte em mulheres se n&#237;vel &gt; 1,2 mg/mL</td>
                  <td align="center">---</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="9">
                    <bold>Terapia de Ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MADIT-CRT</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>TRC-D versus</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>CDI isolado</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">25%</td>
                  <td align="center">50%</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1.820 pacientes</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>FEVE <underline>&lt;</underline> 30%</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>IC NYHA CF I-II</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>QRS &gt; 30ms</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Seguimento: 4,5 a</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Morte geral ou evento IC n&#227;o fatal</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>HR 0,66 (0,52&#8211;0,84)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Maior benef&#237;cio em mulheres</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Homens: HR 0,76 (0,59&#8211;0,97)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mulheres: HR 0,37 (0,22&#8211;0,61)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">p = 0,01</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN7">
                <p>
                  <italic>ARNI: inibidores da neprilisina e bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina; BB: betabloqueadores; BRA: bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina II; CDI: cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel; CF: classe funcional; CV: cardiovascular; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda; HIC: hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC; HR: hazard ratio; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; IECA: inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina; iSGLT2: inibidores do cotransporte de s&#243;dio e glicose 2; NNT: definido para desfecho prim&#225;rio / morte por todas as causas no tempo total de seguimento; NS: n&#227;o significativo; NYHA: New York Heart Association; RRR: redu&#231;&#227;o de risco relativo; TRC: terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca; TRC-D: terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca associada a desfibrilador.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os recentes, h&#225; desafios no tratamento de mulheres com CMI. O primeiro deles refere-se &#224; sub-representa&#231;&#227;o delas nos principais ensaios cl&#237;nicos de ICFEr. Enquanto as mulheres representam aproximadamente 50% dos pacientes com ICFEp, na ICFEr, a representa&#231;&#227;o delas varia de 20% a 30% apenas. Dessa forma, as diferen&#231;as g&#234;nero-espec&#237;ficas s&#227;o limitadas, baseiam-se em an&#225;lises de subgrupos e, por esse motivo, devem ser interpretadas com cautela.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A terap&#234;utica da CMI e os seus principais estudos balizadores s&#227;o apresentados a seguir:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Betabloqueadores:</bold> meta-an&#225;lise envolvendo os principais estudos de BB em ICFEr revelou que a redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade ocorre de forma semelhante em mulheres e homens. Suban&#225;lises revelam que bisoprolol melhorou a sobrevida de 515 mulheres estudadas no CIBIS-II (HR 0,37; IC95%, 0,19 &#8211; 0,69), assim como carvedilol reduziu desfecho combinado de morte e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em 469 mulheres com FEVE &lt; 25% no subestudo do COPERNICUS (HR 0,23; IC95%, 0,07&#8211;0,69) e succinato de metoprolol reduziu tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC em mulheres com FEVE &lt; 25% (p = 0,004), por&#233;m n&#227;o reduziu mortalidade isoladamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B236">236</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B238">238</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Inibidores da ECA:</bold> estudos com IECA, como SOLVD e CONSENSUS, demonstraram impacto na redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade em pacientes com ICFEr em classe funcional II/III e IV da NYHA, respectivamente; por&#233;m, quando as mulheres foram avaliadas isoladamente, tal benef&#237;cio n&#227;o foi observado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B239">239</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina II:</bold> dados de suban&#225;lise dos estudos CHARM (candesartana) mostraram que n&#227;o h&#225; diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao sexo quanto ao desfecho prim&#225;rio do estudo de morte cardiovascular e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B240">240</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Antagonista dos receptores de angiotensina-inibidores da neprilisina:</bold> an&#225;lise de subgrupos do estudo PARADIGM-HF sugere n&#227;o haver diferen&#231;a entre mulheres e homens em rela&#231;&#227;o ao desfecho prim&#225;rio de morte cardiovascular ou hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC. Recentemente, um estudo de vida real envolveu 427 pacientes, sendo 29% mulheres, e demonstrou tolerabilidade ao uso de ARNI semelhante em mulheres e homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B241">241</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Antagonistas de aldosterona:</bold> a an&#225;lise de subgrupos de estudos envolvendo espironolactona (RALES) e eplerenone (EMPHASIS) revelou que o impacto sobre morte geral e morte cardiovascular/hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC, respectivamente, ocorre tanto em mulheres quanto em homens, n&#227;o havendo diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Inibidores de SGLT2:</bold> os estudos que avaliaram dapagliflozina (DAPA-HF) ou empagliflozina (EMPEROR-Reduced) em pacientes com ICFEr demonstraram que a adi&#231;&#227;o dessa nova classe de medica&#231;&#245;es &#224; terapia tripla gera redu&#231;&#227;o de desfecho combinado de morte cardiovascular e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC e tal benef&#237;cio ocorre de forma semelhante em mulheres e homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B242">242</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B243">243</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Tabela 9.1</xref>).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s terapias adicionais, a suban&#225;lise dos estudos A-HeFT, que investigou a associa&#231;&#227;o hidralazina-nitrato, e SHIFT, que avaliou ivabradina em pacientes com ICFEr, revelou redu&#231;&#227;o de desfecho prim&#225;rio tanto em mulheres quanto em homens. Quanto ao uso de digoxina, n&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade no estudo DIG na popula&#231;&#227;o total, mas &#233; importante ressaltar que, no subgrupo de mulheres que apresentavam digoxinemia fora da faixa terap&#234;utica, ou seja, maior do que 1,2 mg/ml, houve maior taxa de mortalidade. Portanto, sugere-se o uso de doses mais baixas e controle rigoroso de n&#237;vel s&#233;rico em mulheres quando indicado o uso dessa medica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B244">244</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B246">246</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Conforme descrito anteriormente, a maioria dos ensaios cl&#237;nicos em ICFEr revelou efici&#234;ncia equivalente &#224; do tratamento medicamentoso em mulheres e homens, devendo-se utilizar as medica&#231;&#245;es que s&#227;o modificadoras de progn&#243;stico em ambos os sexos. No entanto, vale destacar que tais observa&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o resultantes de an&#225;lises de subgrupos de estudos e, portanto, devem ser analisadas com cautela.</p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Tabela 9.1</xref> resume os dados dos principais ensaios cl&#237;nicos em CMI e seus resultados comparando mulheres e homens.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.3. Dispositivos e Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Avan&#231;ada</title>
        <p>Os avan&#231;os em dispositivos el&#233;tricos e mec&#226;nicos continuaram com benef&#237;cios substanciais para os sintomas, hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e resultados dos pacientes, com fortes evid&#234;ncias em ambos os sexos.</p>
        <p>A gama de dispositivos inclui CDI, TRC e desfibriladores de TRC. No entanto, dados recentes mostram que as mulheres s&#227;o menos propensas a receber CDI e, quando o fazem, t&#234;m taxas mais altas de complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; implanta&#231;&#227;o, como pneumot&#243;rax e infec&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.4. Cardiodesfibrilador Implant&#225;vel</title>
        <p>Como j&#225; mencionado, as mulheres menos frequentemente t&#234;m como etiologia a DIC e, como resposta de remodelamento, menos fibrose e uma taxa mais baixa de arritmias ventriculares, resultando em menos morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca. Uma meta-an&#225;lise avaliando estudos que envolveram pacientes (n = 7.229) com cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica (74%) e n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, sendo 22% mulheres, mostrou que o benef&#237;cio foi significativamente maior em homens (HR 0,67; IC 95%, 0,58-0,78, p &lt; 0,001) do que em mulheres (HR 0,78; IC 95%, 0,57-1,05, p = 0,1).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B247">247</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No entanto, mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste para idade e comorbidades, o sexo feminino tem menor probabilidade de receber um CDI quando comparado com o masculino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B248">248</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Ainda importante levar em conta que as mulheres t&#234;m taxas mais altas de complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao implante de dispositivo, como pneumot&#243;rax, infec&#231;&#227;o, sangramento e tamponamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B249">249</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Por outro lado, pelo perfil menos fibr&#243;tico e at&#233; mesmo por caracter&#237;sticas estruturais e anat&#244;micas, os estudos sugerem que as mulheres respondam mais favoravelmente &#224; TRC, resultando em melhoria dos sintomas, qualidade de vida, FEVE e mortalidade. Dados do estudo MADIT-CRT, que comparou TRC-D ao implante de CDI isolado, revelaram maior benef&#237;cio em mulheres conforme a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Tabela 9.1</xref> (p = 0,01).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.5. Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Avan&#231;ada</title>
        <p>Dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular j&#225; est&#227;o bem implementados na pr&#225;tica dos servi&#231;os de IC avan&#231;ada como ponte ou destino. As mulheres s&#227;o mais propensas a hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC avan&#231;ada, mas menos a receber um dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular. Em estudo recente analisando o registro EUROMACS, 966 pacientes (151 mulheres) foram inclu&#237;dos. Caracteristicamente, &#224; &#233;poca do implante, as mulheres apresentavam-se em piores perfis INTERMACS 1 e 2 (51,7% <italic>versus</italic> 41,6% nos homens) e experimentaram mais complica&#231;&#245;es, como sangramento maior (p = 0,001), arritmias (p = 0,02) e insufici&#234;ncia ventricular direita (p &lt; 0,001), com pior sobrevida em 1 ano (75,5% <italic>versus</italic> 83,2%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O transplante card&#237;aco continua sendo o padr&#227;o-ouro para o tratamento da IC avan&#231;ada, com apenas 25% dos receptores do sexo feminino, em geral pela dificuldade de <italic>match</italic> entre altura, peso, tipo sangu&#237;neo e painel imunol&#243;gico. As mulheres tamb&#233;m apresentam &#237;ndices maiores de complica&#231;&#245;es ap&#243;s transplante card&#237;aco, incluindo rejei&#231;&#227;o mediada por anticorpos e vasculopatia do enxerto.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.6. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <sec>
          <title>9.6.1. Manejo Cl&#237;nico e Indica&#231;&#245;es de Terapias Avan&#231;adas</title>
          <p><bold>Classe I/B -</bold> Pacientes femininas com CMI e IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida devem receber tratamento medicamentoso guiado por diretrizes de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
          <p><bold>Classe I/B -</bold> Pacientes femininas com CMI e IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o melhorada devem receber tratamento medicamentoso guiado por diretrizes de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
          <p><bold>Classe I/B -</bold> Pacientes femininas com CMI e IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada (FEVE &gt; 50%) devem receber tratamento medicamentoso guiado por diretrizes de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
          <p><bold>Classe I/C -</bold> Pacientes femininas com CMI e IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida, refrat&#225;rias a tratamento medicamentoso guiado por diretrizes de IC devem ser encaminhadas &#224; ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
          <p><bold>Classe I/C &#8211;</bold> Pacientes do sexo feminino com CMI e IC avan&#231;ada, refrat&#225;rias a terapia medicamentosa e n&#227;o medicamentosa guiada por diretrizes devem ser consideradas para transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10. Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea</title>
      <sec>
        <title>10.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Estudos recentes relatam um aumento significativo nas taxas de mortalidade nos casos de doen&#231;a coronariana aguda em mulheres jovens (&lt; 55 anos de idade).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B250">250</xref></sup> Apesar das crescentes evid&#234;ncias demonstrando diferen&#231;as entre os sexos quanto aos FR basais, anatomia e fun&#231;&#227;o coronariana, apresenta&#231;&#227;o de sintomas, comorbidades, efic&#225;cia do tratamento e desfechos nas SCA, os mecanismos por tr&#225;s dessas diferen&#231;as s&#227;o em parte desconhecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Essas lacunas de conhecimento decorrem da sub-representa&#231;&#227;o de mulheres na pesquisa cl&#237;nica, devendo-se encorajar esfor&#231;os da comunidade cient&#237;fica para a mudan&#231;a desse paradigma.</p>
        <p>Apesar do benef&#237;cio geral da RVM, o sexo feminino tem sido consistentemente associado a um risco aumentado de sangramento e a complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares associadas &#224; ICP, evidenciando a necessidade de se considerarem as principais diferen&#231;as biol&#243;gicas, como o tamanho dos vasos dos acessos percut&#226;neos e a preval&#234;ncia de DIC n&#227;o obstrutiva nas mulheres, al&#233;m da necessidade de se aplicarem os cuidados orientados pelas diretrizes vigentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B251">251</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens, as mulheres submetidas a ICP s&#227;o mais velhas e t&#234;m maior preval&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia renal, anemia e DM. As mulheres com SCA apresentam maior mortalidade e menor uso de terapias recomendadas, como estrat&#233;gia invasiva precoce, e de terapia antitromb&#243;tica do que os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B252">252</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Fatores cl&#237;nicos, como idade avan&#231;ada, insufici&#234;ncia renal, choque cardiog&#234;nico e uso de introdutores maiores, foram especificamente identificados como preditores de risco de sangramento em mulheres. No entanto, a propens&#227;o feminina para sangramento persiste al&#233;m desses FR. Mecanismos espec&#237;ficos do sexo referentes a IMC, anatomia do s&#237;tio de pun&#231;&#227;o, biologia plaquet&#225;ria e farmacoterapia relacionada &#224; ICP podem desempenhar um papel importante.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.2. Acesso Vascular para o Cateterismo Card&#237;aco e Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea em Mulheres</title>
        <p>Mason Sones realizou a primeira coronariografia seletiva em 1958 atrav&#233;s de dissec&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria braquial. Em 1967, Judkins e Amplatz desenvolveram a t&#233;cnica da pun&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria femoral e os cateteres apropriados para essa t&#233;cnica, que ainda hoje &#233; bastante utilizada por ser excelente via em casos de angioplastias complexas que requerem introdutores maiores e em estudos de pontes e enxertos de pacientes com RVM cir&#250;rgica pr&#233;via.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A via radial, descrita em 1989 por Campeau, &#233; uma t&#233;cnica mais complexa e exige maior habilidade e experi&#234;ncia, assim como maior curva de aprendizagem. As mulheres apresentam, em maior propor&#231;&#227;o, art&#233;rias radiais de menor calibre e com mais tortuosidades, quando comparadas aos homens. Pacientes com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, DM, baixo IMC e idosos apresentam maior taxa de insucesso do acesso radial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B254">254</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B255">255</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O acesso por meio da art&#233;ria femoral predominou por d&#233;cadas, devido &#224;s suas significativas viabilidade e reprodutibilidade. O acesso por meio da art&#233;ria radial, por sua vez, tem-se mostrado eficiente na redu&#231;&#227;o de sangramentos e outras complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares, especialmente em pacientes com SCA e, por isso, vem se tornando a via de acesso de escolha nos &#250;ltimos anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O uso de acesso radial tamb&#233;m pode estar associado a melhor qualidade de vida e menores custos em compara&#231;&#227;o ao acesso femoral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B255">255</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B256">256</xref></sup> Entretanto, a magnitude do benef&#237;cio associado ao acesso radial pode variar amplamente entre os pacientes, dependendo principalmente do risco do paciente de complica&#231;&#245;es do acesso femoral. Portanto, &#233; fundamental garantir que o acesso radial seja usado preferencialmente em pacientes com maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es do acesso vascular, como as mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B256">256</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.3. Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.1. Angiografia Coron&#225;ria</title>
          <p>As mulheres t&#234;m art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas significativamente menores do que os homens, mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste para idade, estrutura corporal e massa ventricular esquerda. A discrep&#226;ncia no tamanho dos vasos coron&#225;rios entre mulheres e homens &#233; considerada uma base importante para as diferen&#231;as entre os sexos nos desfechos da DIC, apesar do menor volume de placa ateroscler&#243;tica nas mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A implica&#231;&#227;o importante do tamanho menor do vaso &#233; que a carga comparativamente menor de placa ateroscler&#243;tica e trombo pode resultar em doen&#231;a obstrutiva. Essa pode ser uma raz&#227;o potencial para maior incid&#234;ncia de morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca em mulheres mais jovens, apesar de menor carga de placa. Ademais, vasos menores podem representar um risco maior de reestenose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Al&#233;m disso, o fluxo sangu&#237;neo mioc&#225;rdico basal e hiper&#234;mico, conforme avaliado pela PET, &#233; tipicamente maior em mulheres em compara&#231;&#227;o com homens. Sugere-se, portanto, que o di&#226;metro menor das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas femininas, juntamente com seu fluxo sangu&#237;neo mioc&#225;rdico basal mais alto, resulte em um aumento significativo nas condi&#231;&#245;es de estresse de cisalhamento endotelial em mulheres, podendo explicar algumas diferen&#231;as sexuais na suscetibilidade &#224; DIC<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18">Figura 10.1</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f18">
              <label>Figura 10.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o. Cria&#231;&#227;o dos autores. USIC, ultrassom intracoronariano; OCT, tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf18.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.2. Imagem Intravascular</title>
          <p>As caracter&#237;sticas da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, a resposta vascular ao implante de <italic>stents</italic> coronarianos e o endot&#233;lio vascular podem ser avaliados com estreita correla&#231;&#227;o com os achados histopatol&#243;gicos por meio dos m&#233;todos de imagem intravascular realizados durante o cateterismo card&#237;aco. As tecnologias atuais de imagem intracoron&#225;ria incluem principalmente o ultrassom intracoronariano (USIC), a OCT e a espectroscopia de infravermelho pr&#243;ximo (NIRS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O USIC permite a quantifica&#231;&#227;o precisa da carga de placa ateroscler&#243;tica com resolu&#231;&#227;o axial de 70-200 mm e penetra&#231;&#227;o &gt; 5mm. Por esse m&#233;todo, o estudo PROSPECT (<italic>Providing Regional Observations to Study Predictors of Events in the Coronary Tree</italic>) conseguiu avaliar o efeito do sexo na extens&#227;o e nas caracter&#237;sticas da DIC e comprovar diferen&#231;as significativas entre os sexos. As mulheres apresentam DIC menos extensa. A morfologia e a composi&#231;&#227;o da placa na mulher apresentam menor n&#250;cleo necr&#243;tico e calcifica&#231;&#227;o, com similar carga ateroscler&#243;tica de placa, por&#233;m menor &#225;rea luminal m&#237;nima e mais les&#245;es com &#225;rea luminal m&#237;nima &lt; 4,0mm<sup>2</sup>, comparada ao homem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B257">257</xref></sup></p>
          <p>J&#225; a OCT tem uma resolu&#231;&#227;o lateral de 10-20mm e permite a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de placas e trombos, mas com pouca penetra&#231;&#227;o, impedindo a avalia&#231;&#227;o precisa da carga de placa ateroscler&#243;tica. No entanto, sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o deve-se &#224; sua alta resolu&#231;&#227;o e ao seu poder de detec&#231;&#227;o da morfologia da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, ajudando na identifica&#231;&#227;o das placas vulner&#225;veis ou fibroateromas de capa fina. Al&#233;m disso, a OCT permite o esclarecimento de alguns mecanismos de agudiza&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a coronariana n&#227;o obstrutiva, como a dissec&#231;&#227;o, e corrobora achados que permitem diferenciar a doen&#231;a coronariana entre os sexos<italic>.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B258">258</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B259">259</xref></sup> O NIRS usa um cateter de fibra &#243;ptica com um padr&#227;o de absor&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fico para lip&#237;dios e outros componentes da placa, que consegue melhorar a acur&#225;cia da identifica&#231;&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica vulner&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Juntos, esses tr&#234;s m&#233;todos de imagem intravascular nos permitiram conhecer algumas diferen&#231;as nas caracter&#237;sticas da aterosclerose e da DIC entre os sexos. Mulheres t&#234;m menor carga de placa, a eros&#227;o &#233; mais prevalente que a ruptura como mecanismo de agudiza&#231;&#227;o da DIC e observou-se maior concentra&#231;&#227;o de cristais de colesterol e calcifica&#231;&#227;o nas placas ateroscler&#243;ticas rotas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B259">259</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.3. Testes Invasivos com Guia de Medi&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>A rotina diagn&#243;stica e terap&#234;utica tem se concentrado na estenose das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias epic&#225;rdicas, embora as evid&#234;ncias nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas tenham estabelecido o conceito de que a estenose epic&#225;rdica obstrutiva n&#227;o &#233; condi&#231;&#227;o obrigat&#243;ria para causar sintomas isqu&#234;micos de doen&#231;a coronariana est&#225;vel. In&#250;meras publica&#231;&#245;es evidenciam que mulheres sintom&#225;ticas s&#227;o mais propensas do que homens a apresentar DIC n&#227;o obstrutiva e disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana, perfazendo at&#233; cerca de 40% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B260">260</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <bold>10.3.3.1. Reserva de Fluxo Fracionada</bold>
          </p>
          <p>A medi&#231;&#227;o da FFR consiste no uso de fios-guia de angioplastia com ponta de sensor que foram desenvolvidos para medir a press&#227;o e o fluxo atrav&#233;s de uma estenose coron&#225;ria no laborat&#243;rio de cateterismo. A FFR mede as press&#245;es proximal (press&#227;o a&#243;rtica) e distal (press&#227;o do fio-guia) nas les&#245;es esten&#243;ticas no fluxo m&#225;ximo e cria uma rela&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o, representando a propor&#231;&#227;o do fluxo atrav&#233;s dessa estenose. Para medi&#231;&#245;es precisas de FFR, s&#227;o necess&#225;rias press&#245;es obtidas durante hiperemia. O fluxo sangu&#237;neo m&#225;ximo (hiperemia) &#233; mais comumente induzido por adenosina intravenosa (140mcg/kg/min) ou intracoron&#225;ria (art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria direita 50-100mcg, art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda 100-200mcg em <italic>bolus</italic>). A raz&#227;o entre a press&#227;o coron&#225;ria distal e a press&#227;o a&#243;rtica (conforme registrada no cateter-guia) durante a hiperemia m&#225;xima &#233; chamada de FFR. Um valor normal &#233; 1, enquanto valores &lt; 0,80 est&#227;o associados a isquemia provoc&#225;vel com uma precis&#227;o maior que 90%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B261">261</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Para graus determinados de estenose, a FFR em pacientes do sexo feminino tende a ser muito maior do que naqueles do sexo masculino. Considerando que pacientes do sexo feminino correm maior risco de mortalidade intra-hospitalar e resultados adversos ap&#243;s ICP, o papel da medida do FFR deve ser enfatizado especialmente em mulheres para evitar ICP desnecess&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B262">262</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <bold>10.3.3.2. Raz&#227;o de Press&#227;o Instant&#226;nea Livre de Onda</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Um &#237;ndice derivado da press&#227;o de repouso, independente da adenosina, foi desenvolvido e testado como substituto da FFR. Usando an&#225;lise de intensidade de onda, determinou-se que o per&#237;odo de di&#225;stole em que o equil&#237;brio entre as ondas de press&#227;o da aorta e a reflex&#227;o microcirculat&#243;ria distal era o &#8220;per&#237;odo livre de ondas&#8221; atendeu aos requisitos da FFR para ter um m&#237;nimo de resist&#234;ncia constante. A press&#227;o diast&#243;lica/press&#227;o na aorta (Pd/Pa) durante o per&#237;odo sem onda (75% na di&#225;stole terminando 5 ms antes da onda R) &#233; chamada de raz&#227;o de press&#227;o instant&#226;nea livre de onda (iFR). Foi demonstrado que, em pontos de corte de iFR &gt; 0,93 ou &lt; 0,86, houve uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o com valores normais e anormais de FFR (usando 0,80 como ponto de corte de FFR). No estudo ADVISE II, a iFR foi comparada &#224; FFR em 690 estenoses intermedi&#225;rias. Comparado &#224; FFR (&lt; 0,80), o corte da iFR de 0,89 classificou corretamente 83% das estenoses. A iFR classificou corretamente essas estenoses fora da zona cinza de iFR igual a 0,85 a 0,94 com 92% de concord&#226;ncia. Assim, a abordagem h&#237;brida iFR-FFR para estenose intermedi&#225;ria pode ser avaliada sem a necessidade de est&#237;mulo hiper&#234;mico em 65% dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B262">262</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B263">263</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.4. Testes Funcionais</title>
          <p>A vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o microvascular coron&#225;ria tamb&#233;m pode ser avaliada atrav&#233;s de testes funcionais, usando-se a acetilcolina intracoron&#225;ria, produzindo vasodilata&#231;&#227;o coronariana na presen&#231;a de endot&#233;lio saud&#225;vel e vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o paradoxal na presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Doses incrementais s&#227;o administradas durante 3 minutos at&#233; que a resposta seja produzida ou a dose-alvo seja atingida.</p>
          <p>A resposta positiva para espasmo coron&#225;rio epic&#225;rdico &#233; redu&#231;&#227;o focal ou difusa do di&#226;metro da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria &gt; 90% (em compara&#231;&#227;o com o estado relaxado). Os pacientes apresentam reprodu&#231;&#227;o da angina e altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas no ECG. Esses pacientes ser&#227;o considerados como tendo angina vasoesp&#225;stica.</p>
          <p>A resposta positiva para a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o microvascular &#233; a aus&#234;ncia de espasmo coronariano epic&#225;rdico (nenhuma redu&#231;&#227;o do di&#226;metro ou redu&#231;&#227;o &lt; 90%). Os pacientes t&#234;m reprodu&#231;&#227;o da angina e altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas do ECG (infradesnivelamento ou eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST).</p>
          <p>A resposta negativa ao teste de acetilcolina &#233; a aus&#234;ncia de espasmo coronariano epic&#225;rdico (nenhuma redu&#231;&#227;o do di&#226;metro ou redu&#231;&#227;o &lt; 90%), sem angina e sem altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas no ECG (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figura 10.2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f19">
              <label>Figura 10.2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Manuseio da INOCA. Baseada no Consenso EAPCI sobre INOCA.77 <italic>PDF: press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final.</italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf19.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Em sendo o teste com acetilcolina negativo, tem-se ainda a op&#231;&#227;o de teste com adenosina intracoron&#225;ria. A RFC &#233; calculada a partir de velocidade de fluxo coronariano (CFV), que &#233; a raz&#227;o entre a CFV de pico e a CFV da linha de base. A RFC &lt; 2,0 indica disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana independente do endot&#233;lio. Esses pacientes com RFC anormal tamb&#233;m ser&#227;o considerados como tendo altera&#231;&#227;o na microcircula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B260">260</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10.4. Tratamento Percut&#226;neo da Doen&#231;a Aterotromb&#243;tica Coron&#225;ria em Mulheres</title>
      <sec>
        <title>10.4.1. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o para S&#237;ndromes Coronarianas Cr&#244;nicas</title>
        <p>O objetivo da RVM nas s&#237;ndromes coronarianas cr&#244;nicas &#233; o al&#237;vio da angina e n&#227;o a melhora da mortalidade. Portanto, ao considerar as op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento m&#233;dico ou ICP, deve-se levar em considera&#231;&#227;o a maior incid&#234;ncia e frequ&#234;ncia de angina nas mulheres. Em uma suban&#225;lise do estudo COURAGE, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as significativas no efeito do tratamento nos principais resultados entre mulheres e homens. No entanto, as mulheres designadas para ICP demonstraram maior benef&#237;cio em rela&#231;&#227;o aos homens, com redu&#231;&#227;o da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC e da necessidade de RVM futura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B264">264</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ensaio cl&#237;nico ISCHEMIA mostrou que as mulheres apresentaram maior carga de sintomas de angina do que os homens, apesar de terem doen&#231;a coronariana menos extensa e isquemia menos grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B265">265</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <bold>10.4.1.1. Doen&#231;a do Tronco de Coron&#225;ria Esquerda</bold>
        </p>
        <p>At&#233; anos recentes, a cirurgia de RVM era o tratamento recomendado para a doen&#231;a do tronco da coron&#225;ria esquerda (TCE), mas a ICP tem sido cada vez mais adotada no tratamento da doen&#231;a do TCE.</p>
        <p>No ensaio EXCEL,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B266">266</xref></sup> as mulheres submetidas a ICP do TCE desprotegido apresentaram tend&#234;ncia a piores desfechos, achado relacionado a comorbidades associadas e aumento das complica&#231;&#245;es periprocedimento. No entanto, o sexo n&#227;o foi um preditor independente de desfechos adversos ap&#243;s a RVM, conclus&#227;o encontrada tamb&#233;m no estudo NOBLE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B267">267</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <bold>10.4.1.2. Oclus&#227;o Total Cr&#244;nica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>As oclus&#245;es totais cr&#244;nicas representam um subgrupo importante de les&#245;es coron&#225;rias e s&#227;o encontradas em at&#233; 18% das angiografias diagn&#243;sticas.</p>
        <p>&#201; conhecido que a ICP com oclus&#227;o total cr&#244;nica bem-sucedida est&#225; associada ao al&#237;vio sintom&#225;tico da angina, melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e da qualidade de vida e redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade. Contudo, v&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m mostrado que, na mulher, a ICP com oclus&#227;o total cr&#244;nica bem-sucedida n&#227;o foi associada a risco reduzido de mortalidade cardiovascular ou de eventos coronarianos adversos maiores (MACE) em compara&#231;&#227;o com o tratamento cl&#237;nico isoladamente, o que difere dos homens, que apresentam redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na taxa de MACE ap&#243;s ICP com oclus&#227;o total cr&#244;nica bem-sucedida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B268">268</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.4.2. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o para Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio sem Supradesnivelamento do Segmento ST</title>
        <p>Em pacientes com IAMSSST, a abordagem invasiva inicial est&#225; associada a melhores resultados e a uma taxa mais baixa de desfecho combinado de morte, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ou angina refrat&#225;ria em 4 a 6 meses de acompanhamento, especialmente em pacientes de alto risco; contudo, as mulheres s&#227;o submetidas a ICP com menor frequ&#234;ncia, especialmente as mais jovens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref></sup> Os benef&#237;cios de uma abordagem invasiva s&#227;o mais pronunciados entre pacientes com biomarcadores elevados ou outros achados de alto risco, independentemente do sexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B270">270</xref></sup>Um fluxograma resume a escolha da estrat&#233;gia e o momento da avalia&#231;&#227;o invasiva (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figura 10.3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f20">
            <label>Figura 10.3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Avalia&#231;&#227;o invasiva no infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio sem supra do segmento ST. Baseado na Diretrizes da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia sobre Angina Inst&#225;vel e Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio sem Supradesn&#237;vel do Segmento ST &#8211; 2021.<italic><sup>65</sup></italic> CRVM: cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio; DM: diabetes mellitus; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; IAMSSST: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; ICC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva; ICP: interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea; PCR: parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf20.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.4.3. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o para Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio Com Supradesnivelamento do Segmento ST</title>
        <p>O sexo feminino tem sido associado a demora na apresenta&#231;&#227;o hospitalar desde o in&#237;cio dos sintomas e a atrasos na ICP prim&#225;ria, o que tem sido atribu&#237;do, em parte, a sintomas at&#237;picos em mulheres. Al&#233;m disso, as mulheres s&#227;o menos propensas a receber terapias invasivas para o IAMCSST, possivelmente devido a mais comorbidades e fragilidade na admiss&#227;o e a menos doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva na angiografia. Juntos, esses atrasos e disparidades no atendimento contribuem para uma pior mortalidade hospitalar em mulheres com IAMCSST. Uma vez iniciado o tratamento, as taxas de sucesso do procedimento, fluxo epic&#225;rdico p&#243;s-procedimento, perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e resolu&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST s&#227;o semelhantes em ambos os sexos ap&#243;s ICP prim&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figura 10.4</xref> apresenta a sele&#231;&#227;o da estrat&#233;gia de reperfus&#227;o com os tempos que devem ser buscados para a melhora dos resultados no atendimento do IAMCSST.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B271">271</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f21">
            <label>Figura 10.4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Sele&#231;&#227;o da estrat&#233;gia de reperfus&#227;o. Baseada na 2018 ESC/EACTS Guidelines on Myocardial Revascularization.271 <italic>IAMSSST: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST; ICP: interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf21.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <bold>10.4.3.1. Estrat&#233;gias na Abordagem da Doen&#231;a Coronariana M&#250;ltipla</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Os pacientes que mais se beneficiam da revasculariza&#231;&#227;o de art&#233;rias n&#227;o infartadas incluem aqueles com grande &#225;rea de mioc&#225;rdio em risco e aqueles sem comorbidades significativas que aumentariam o risco de RVM. Os dados do estudo COMPLETE apoiam a RVM completa e o tratamento das les&#245;es n&#227;o culpadas no momento da ICP prim&#225;ria para IAMCSST ou como um procedimento estagiado. No entanto, as an&#225;lises de subgrupos desse estudo demonstraram uma tend&#234;ncia de modifica&#231;&#227;o do efeito por sexo (p intera&#231;&#227;o = 0,08), com as mulheres n&#227;o apresentando nenhum benef&#237;cio de mortalidade card&#237;aca com a RVM completa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B272">272</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <bold>10.4.3.2. Choque Cardiog&#234;nico</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Choque cardiog&#234;nico, IC e infarto do ventr&#237;culo direito ocorrem com mais frequ&#234;ncia em mulheres com IAMCSST do que em homens. As mulheres tamb&#233;m t&#234;m PA e d&#233;bito card&#237;aco mais baixos em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens em situa&#231;&#227;o de choque cardiog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup>Contudo, v&#225;rios estudos, incluindo o CULPRIT-SHOCK, mostraram que o sexo n&#227;o influenciou a mortalidade de acordo com as diferentes estrat&#233;gias de RVM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B273">273</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.4.4. Considera&#231;&#245;es sobre o Dispositivo durante a Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o Percut&#226;nea</title>
        <p>
          <bold>10.4.4.1. Stents Farmacol&#243;gicos</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Nas &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas, houve importante evolu&#231;&#227;o na tecnologia dos <italic>stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos, incluindo a otimiza&#231;&#227;o de drogas, pol&#237;meros e desenho dos <italic>stents</italic>, o que deu suporte &#224; seguran&#231;a e &#224; efic&#225;cia dos <italic>stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos mais recentes. Estudos angiogr&#225;ficos de <italic>stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos avaliando a perda tardia do l&#250;men demonstraram graus semelhantes de hiperplasia neointimal em mulheres e homens, sugerindo que os perfis de elui&#231;&#227;o de drogas s&#227;o eficazes em ambos os sexos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B274">274</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <bold>10.4.4.2. Bal&#227;o Farmacol&#243;gico</bold>
        </p>
        <p>A ICP com <italic>stent</italic> farmacol&#243;gico &#233; o modo mais comum de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o para DIC. No entanto, a reestenose intra-<italic>stent</italic> e vasos finos s&#227;o limita&#231;&#245;es conhecidas. O bal&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico consiste em um bal&#227;o revestido com agentes antiproliferativos encapsulados em uma matriz polim&#233;rica, que s&#227;o liberados na parede durante a insufla&#231;&#227;o e contato com a &#237;ntima. O fato de n&#227;o deixar metal no vaso tratado traz benef&#237;cios para vasos finos, reestenose intra-<italic>stent</italic> e vasos m&#233;dios e distais, onde <italic>stents</italic> distais podem ser uma desvantagem para futuras RVM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B275">275</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B277">277</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <bold>10.4.4.3. Aterectomia Rotacional e Litotripsia Intravascular</bold>
        </p>
        <p>A aterectomia rotacional e a litotripsia intravascular est&#227;o indicadas em les&#245;es calcificadas para prevenir a subexpans&#227;o do <italic>stent</italic>, que &#233; associada a taxas mais altas de reestenose. Nas mulheres, a aterectomia rotacional est&#225; associada a maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es periprocedimento, mas com taxas de sobrevida global ajustadas a longo prazo livre de MACE semelhantes &#224;s dos homens. No entanto, a litotripsia intravascular apresenta complica&#231;&#245;es angiogr&#225;ficas, seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia semelhantes em mulheres e homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B278">278</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10.5. Terapia Farmacol&#243;gica Adjunta</title>
      <p>Embora estudos randomizados sugiram benef&#237;cios semelhantes da terapia antitromb&#243;tica adjunta para doen&#231;a coronariana em ambos os sexos, mulheres recebem menos frequentemente o tratamento proposto nas diretrizes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B279">279</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B280">280</xref></sup> Vulnerabilidade para sangramento &#233; uma das raz&#245;es. Mulheres, particularmente idosas e de baixo peso, apresentam maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas, que podem estar relacionadas a menor volume de distribui&#231;&#227;o corporal, menores taxas de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular e diferen&#231;as nas atividades das enzimas hep&#225;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref></sup> No sentido de mitigar esse risco, al&#233;m do acesso radial, &#233; importante atentar para o ajuste nas doses de anticoagulantes e de antiplaquet&#225;rios para peso e fun&#231;&#227;o renal, sempre que pertinente, al&#233;m de monitorar o tempo de coagula&#231;&#227;o ativado a cada 30-60 minutos durante a interven&#231;&#227;o, administrando doses suplementares de heparina, se necess&#225;rio, para assegurar n&#237;veis de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o adequados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B281">281</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Quanto &#224; terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria oral, a dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria com &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico e um inibidor P2Y12 (clopidogrel, prasugrel ou ticagrelor) &#233; recomendada para preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromb&#243;ticos p&#243;s-interven&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> Apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, risco de sangramento, risco isqu&#234;mico e comorbidades devem orientar a sele&#231;&#227;o do tipo de inibidor P2Y12, o momento ideal para administrar sua dose de ataque, bem como a dura&#231;&#227;o da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, independentemente de sexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B281">281</xref></sup> Mulheres, entretanto, apresentam risco mais elevado de sangramento com qualquer dos inibidores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B282">282</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B283">283</xref></sup> Estrat&#233;gias para minimizar esse risco incluem: encurtar a dura&#231;&#227;o da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria; descontinuar o &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico, mantendo monoterapia com inibidor P2Y12 ap&#243;s curto per&#237;odo de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria; ou descalonar o inibidor P2Y12, de prasugrel ou ticagrelor para clopidogrel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B284">284</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B285">285</xref></sup> A suspens&#227;o do &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico ap&#243;s curto per&#237;odo peri-interven&#231;&#227;o (na alta ou ap&#243;s uma semana) mostrou-se efetiva para reduzir sangramentos em portadores de FA com necessidade de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral, submetidos a ICP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B286">286</xref></sup> An&#225;lises sexo-espec&#237;ficas da seguran&#231;a e efetividade dessas estrat&#233;gias poder&#227;o auxiliar na sele&#231;&#227;o ou personaliza&#231;&#227;o do regime antiplaquet&#225;rio ideal para mulheres.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10.6. <italic>Gaps</italic> no Conhecimento</title>
      <list list-type="simple">
        <list-item>
          <p>Preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva e n&#227;o obstrutiva no sexo feminino, em diferentes cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos, agudo e cr&#244;nico.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Valida&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de limites de refer&#234;ncia para os testes de avalia&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica invasiva coronariana (hiper&#234;micos e n&#227;o hiper&#234;micos) espec&#237;ficos para as mulheres, frente a diferen&#231;as em calibre coron&#225;rio, massa mioc&#225;rdica e resist&#234;ncia microvascular entre os sexos.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Impacto diferencial da utiliza&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo de imagem intravascular em mulheres, considerando seu papel diagn&#243;stico nos casos de MINOCA e seu valor para otimiza&#231;&#227;o da ICP no sexo feminino, que tipicamente envolve vasos de menor calibre e risco mais elevado de sangramento.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Sele&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo ideal de RVM (percut&#226;neo <italic>versus</italic> cir&#250;rgico) em mulheres com les&#227;o de TCE ou multiarterial, reavaliando a influ&#234;ncia do sexo nos desfechos terap&#234;uticos no cen&#225;rio atual.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Otimiza&#231;&#227;o das estrat&#233;gias diagn&#243;sticas e de tratamento para as diferentes etiologias de MINOCA (e diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais), avan&#231;ando na compreens&#227;o fisiopatol&#243;gica, identifica&#231;&#227;o de FR sexo-espec&#237;ficos e de preditores de recorr&#234;ncia para DEAC e cardiomiopatia de Takotsubo.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Particularidades da ICP nas mulheres em cen&#225;rios complexos como choque cardiog&#234;nico, les&#245;es calcificadas, bifurca&#231;&#245;es e oclus&#245;es coron&#225;rias cr&#244;nicas.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10.7. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela</label>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>N&#236;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                <th>Refer&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes que necessitam de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana, as decis&#245;es de tratamento devem ser baseadas na indica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, independentemente de sexo, ra&#231;a ou etnia</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
                <td align="center">155</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes com SCA submetidos a ICP, a abordagem radial &#233; indicada preferencialmente &#224; abordagem femoral para reduzir o risco de morte, complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares ou sangramento</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">A</td>
                <td align="center">155</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Em pacientes com doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica est&#225;vel submetidos a ICP, a abordagem radial &#233; recomendada para reduzir o sangramento no local de acesso e as complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">A</td>
                <td align="center">155</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ICP guiada por FFR deve ser considerada nos pacientes com doen&#231;a multiarterial submetido a ICP</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
                <td align="center">271</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>A estrat&#233;gia invasiva urgente/imediata est&#225; indicada em pacientes com SCASSST com angina refrat&#225;ria e/ou instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica e/ou el&#233;trica (sem comorbidades graves ou contraindica&#231;&#245;es para esses procedimentos).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">A</td>
                <td align="center">65</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>No IAMCSST a terapia de reperfus&#227;o &#233; indicada em todos os pacientes com in&#237;cio dos sintomas &lt;12 h de dura&#231;&#227;o e eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente do segmento ST</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">A</td>
                <td align="center">271</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Todos os pacientes devem ser estratificados e classificados em risco alto, intermedi&#225;rio ou baixo de sangramento.</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
                <td align="center">65</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>11. Interven&#231;&#227;o Cir&#250;rgica, Transplante Card&#237;aco</title>
      <sec>
        <title>11.1. Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do Mioc&#225;rdio</title>
        <p>Diversos fatores, sejam de ordem epidemiol&#243;gica, anat&#244;mica e/ou relacionados &#224; t&#233;cnica operat&#243;ria, fazem com que os resultados da cirurgia de RVM em mulheres sejam menos favor&#225;veis do que em homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B287">287</xref></sup>Diversas s&#233;ries demonstraram que, no momento da indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, as mulheres tendem a apresentar perfil cl&#237;nico de maior risco operat&#243;rio, com maior incid&#234;ncia de comorbidades associadas, tais como HAS, DM, IC, SCA, al&#233;m de maior grau de comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B288">288</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O&#8217;Connor <italic>et al</italic>. demonstraram que as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias s&#227;o diretamente proporcionais &#224; superf&#237;cie corp&#243;rea dos indiv&#237;duos e, em consequ&#234;ncia, nas mulheres elas s&#227;o habitualmente menores do que nos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B292">292</xref></sup>Desde a d&#233;cada de 80, as an&#225;lises do <italic>Coronary Artery Surgery Study</italic> (CASS) demonstraram que o di&#226;metro das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias tinha influ&#234;ncia direta nos resultados imediatos da cirurgia de RVM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quando estratificados por grupos, a mortalidade em pacientes com coron&#225;rias calibrosas (2,5 - 3,5mm) foi de 1,5%, aumentando para 4,6% naqueles com di&#226;metro intermedi&#225;rio (1,5 - 2,0mm) e chegando a 15,8% naqueles cujas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias tinham di&#226;metro m&#233;dio de 1mm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B292">292</xref></sup> Al&#233;m do menor di&#226;metro das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, a qualidade, a delicadeza e a fragilidade dos enxertos influenciam na decis&#227;o da t&#225;tica operat&#243;ria a ser empregada e aumentam a complexidade t&#233;cnica das opera&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B294">294</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar de as diretrizes americanas de 2021 recomendarem o uso preferencial de enxertos arteriais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> v&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m demonstrado a subutiliza&#231;&#227;o desses enxertos em pacientes do sexo feminino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B296">296</xref></sup> Em decorr&#234;ncia do menor calibre das art&#233;rias mam&#225;rias e dos enxertos de art&#233;ria radial, existe uma menor utiliza&#231;&#227;o de enxertos arteriais, que poderiam aumentar a propor&#231;&#227;o de vasos revascularizados com enxertos de maior perviabilidade tardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B297">297</xref></sup> As caracter&#237;sticas menos favor&#225;veis dos enxertos, tanto arteriais como venosos, nas mulheres podem levar a maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o a trombose precoce e tend&#234;ncia a espasmos, aumentando a chance de resultados desfavor&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B292">292</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B298">298</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, apesar de a import&#226;ncia da RVM completa em pacientes com les&#245;es multiarteriais ser bem estabelecida, diversos estudos demonstraram que as mulheres acabam por receber menor n&#250;mero de enxertos e, portanto, ser incompletamente revascularizadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B299">299</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os benef&#237;cios da cirurgia de RVM sem a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea (CEC) ainda s&#227;o bastante controversos. Alguns estudos demonstram mortalidade semelhante entre os sexos e outros n&#227;o confirmam esses achados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B300">300</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B301">301</xref></sup> Por&#233;m, admite-se que, em pacientes com doen&#231;a cerebrovascular mais avan&#231;ada, disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e/ou respirat&#243;ria, essa t&#233;cnica possa ser mais segura. Entretanto, pelos aspectos anat&#244;micos e t&#233;cnicos j&#225; mencionados, a cirurgia de RVM sem CEC em mulheres &#233; frequentemente mais desafiadora e problem&#225;tica do que em homens.</p>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, houve um aumento significativo no n&#250;mero de mulheres submetidas &#224; cirurgia de RVM. No entanto, na maior parte dos estudos existentes, ainda se observa o predom&#237;nio do sexo masculino nas amostras analisadas. Por dados de literatura previamente conhecidos, sabe-se que, quando comparadas aos homens, as mulheres apresentam piores desfechos e progn&#243;stico ap&#243;s a cirurgia de RVM. De acordo com Attia <italic>et al.</italic>, a sobrevida a longo prazo ap&#243;s a cirurgia de RVM &#233; pior em mulheres do que em homens, mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste para diferen&#231;as nos FR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B288">288</xref></sup></p>
        <p>An&#225;lises pr&#233;vias identificaram o sexo feminino como um FR independente de mortalidade tanto operat&#243;ria como de longo prazo ap&#243;s cirurgia de RVM, mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste de vari&#225;veis, como idade mais avan&#231;ada e aumento da preval&#234;ncia de comorbidades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B290">290</xref></sup> Tanto no estudo EXCEL quanto no estudo NOBLE<italic>,</italic> observou-se que as mulheres tinham maior preval&#234;ncia de FR como DM, HAS e dislipidemia. No entanto, a complexidade anat&#244;mica de suas les&#245;es coronarianas era menor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Vaccarino <italic>et al</italic>. realizaram uma meta-an&#225;lise dos estudos relacionados com diversos aspectos da cirurgia de RVM: <italic>ART TRIAL, CORONARY TRIAL, GOPCABE TRIAL</italic> e <italic>PREVENT TRIAL</italic>. As pacientes ap&#243;s os primeiros 5 anos da cirurgia apresentaram piores desfechos card&#237;acos e cerebrovasculares, por&#233;m com mortalidade semelhante quando comparadas aos homens. Essas diferen&#231;as n&#227;o s&#227;o evidentes ap&#243;s os 75 anos de idade (a diferen&#231;a desses resultados entre os sexos est&#225; inversamente associada &#224; idade). Os estudos registraram que as mulheres apresentam uma recupera&#231;&#227;o mais dif&#237;cil do que os homens no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia de RVM. Em 6 a 8 semanas de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, as mulheres reportaram mais queixas f&#237;sicas e efeitos colaterais do que os homens no mesmo per&#237;odo. Al&#233;m disso, apresentavam mais baixa capacidade funcional, mais sintomas depressivos e foram duas vezes mais propensas a readmiss&#227;o hospitalar. Essas diferen&#231;as permaneceram substanciais e estatisticamente significativas mesmo ap&#243;s a an&#225;lise multivariada. Nesse estudo ainda foi observado que a cirurgia de RVM tem impacto muito maior no humor das mulheres do que no dos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B303">303</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar das diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao g&#234;nero, as indica&#231;&#245;es para cirurgia de RVM est&#227;o bem estabelecidas em recomenda&#231;&#245;es e diretrizes atuais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> Cabe aos provedores de sa&#250;de conhecer as particularidades relacionadas ao sexo feminino, a fim de promover estrat&#233;gias de cuidado diferenciadas, melhorando a assist&#234;ncia &#224;s mulheres submetidas a cirurgia de RVM.</p>
        <p>Historicamente, mulheres apresentam pior evolu&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens na cirurgia de RVM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B304">304</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B305">305</xref></sup> V&#225;rios aspectos t&#234;m sido analisados na tentativa de identifica&#231;&#227;o de fatores que impactam nos desfechos negativos. Dentre as diferen&#231;as n&#227;o modific&#225;veis, a menor superf&#237;cie corp&#243;rea mais frequentemente encontrada no sexo feminino foi estudada e considerada como fator que pudesse contribuir de forma negativa nos resultados p&#243;s-cir&#250;rgicos, sem que houvesse defini&#231;&#227;o conclusiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup> Uma caracter&#237;stica anat&#244;mica importante refere-se aos aspectos pr&#243;prios da circula&#231;&#227;o coronariana no sexo feminino, em que se observam art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias mais finas e de menor calibre, conferindo maior complexidade t&#233;cnica na confec&#231;&#227;o de anastomoses e maior risco de oclus&#227;o precoce de enxertos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B307">307</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em fun&#231;&#227;o do calibre, um n&#250;mero menor de art&#233;rias recebe enxertos, de forma que &#225;reas mioc&#225;rdicas permanecem desprotegidas, elevando o risco tanto de recorr&#234;ncia de eventos isqu&#234;micos, quanto de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e IC no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio a m&#233;dio e longo prazo. O risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio peroperat&#243;rio e de oclus&#227;o precoce de enxertos contribui para mortalidade intra-hospitalar notadamente maior do que a observada nos homens, comprometendo tamb&#233;m resultados tardios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B305">305</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro dado importante relacionado &#224; evolu&#231;&#227;o desfavor&#225;vel p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria diz respeito &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o de enxertos arteriais. Constata-se menor uso desses condutos em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B307">307</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B308">308</xref></sup> Mesmo a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria tor&#225;cica interna esquerda isolada para revascularizar a art&#233;ria descendente anterior, considerada padr&#227;o-ouro na cirurgia de RVM, ocorre com menor frequ&#234;ncia em pacientes do sexo feminino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B305">305</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup> O benef&#237;cio potencial dos enxertos arteriais pode ser perdido em pacientes de maior risco, hip&#243;tese que explicaria porque as mulheres que apresentam pior perfil de risco basal n&#227;o receberiam tantos enxertos arteriais quanto os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pacientes do sexo feminino encaminhadas para tratamento cir&#250;rgico t&#234;m propens&#227;o a serem mais idosas, apresentarem comorbidades significativamente maiores, incluindo HAS, DM, hiperlipidemia, doen&#231;a arterial e venosa perif&#233;rica, e <italic>status</italic> cl&#237;nico de doen&#231;a coronariana mais avan&#231;ada com angina inst&#225;vel, angina p&#243;s-infarto, IC e indica&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia de RVM em car&#225;ter de urg&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B309">309</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Sendo assim, o diagn&#243;stico da insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, a indica&#231;&#227;o e o encaminhamento para tratamento cir&#250;rgico ocorrem mais tardiamente em mulheres, com consequentes impactos negativos nos resultados p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B310">310</xref></sup> As mulheres evoluem com complica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias imediatas mais frequentemente que os homens. Apenas as taxas de reopera&#231;&#227;o por sangramento s&#227;o menores em pacientes do sexo feminino<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B311">311</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22">Figura 11.1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f22">
            <label>Figura 11.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; M&#250;ltiplos fatores que influenciam os resultados p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios de mulheres e homens. DM: Diabetes mellitus; HAS: hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf22.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o a aspectos t&#233;cnicos, Puskas <italic>et al.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B300">300</xref></sup> descreveram que, na cirurgia de RVM sem CEC, os resultados p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios eram semelhantes em mulheres e homens, considerando que essa estrat&#233;gia equiparava os desfechos entre os sexos. Observou que, especialmente em pacientes de maior risco, o sexo feminino n&#227;o mostrou ser FR independente de mortalidade em pacientes submetidos a cirurgia de RVM sem CEC.</p>
        <p>No entanto, de acordo com meta-an&#225;lise de Gaudino <italic>et al</italic>.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref></sup> varia&#231;&#245;es na t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica utilizada nos procedimentos com o uso de CEC n&#227;o melhoraram os resultados em mulheres, n&#227;o havendo redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade, considerando a diferen&#231;a entre os sexos na cirurgia de RVM sem CEC.</p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s t&#233;cnicas cir&#250;rgicas utilizadas na cirurgia de RVM, as diretrizes internacionais recomendam fortemente o uso da art&#233;ria tor&#225;cica interna esquerda para art&#233;ria descendente anterior esquerda, maior n&#250;mero de enxertos arteriais na doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica coronariana multiarterial e a cirurgia de RVM completa para a obten&#231;&#227;o de melhores resultados p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios no curto e longo prazos ap&#243;s a cirurgia de RVM. N&#227;o obstante, mesmo em conformidade com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es das diretrizes, as mulheres ainda est&#227;o sujeitas a chances menores, de 14% a 22%, de serem submetidas a cirurgia de RVM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B312">312</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>11.1.1. Cirurgia de Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do Mioc&#225;rdio em Mulheres - Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3">
              <label>Tabela</label>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="25%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th>Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                    <th>Refer&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o completa com m&#237;nima manipula&#231;&#227;o da aorta</td>
                    <td align="center">I</td>
                    <td align="center">B</td>
                    <td align="center">314,315</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Utiliza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria mam&#225;ria esquerda para a art&#233;ria descendente anterior</td>
                    <td align="center">I</td>
                    <td align="center">B</td>
                    <td align="center">316</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Utiliza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria radial como segunda op&#231;&#227;o para territ&#243;rios com obstru&#231;&#245;es arteriais &gt;80%</td>
                    <td align="center">I</td>
                    <td align="center">B</td>
                    <td align="center">313</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Esqueletoniza&#231;&#227;o na dissec&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria mam&#225;ria para preven&#231;&#227;o de infec&#231;&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center">I</td>
                    <td align="center">B</td>
                    <td align="center">317</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>11.2. Transplante Card&#237;aco</title>
      <p>V&#225;rios s&#227;o os fatores considerados para escolha do doador, como a concord&#226;ncia entre os sexos, tamanho e altura doador-receptor, IMC, hipertens&#227;o pulmonar e, mais recentemente, avalia&#231;&#227;o da massa card&#237;aca predita (pHM). &#201; razo&#225;vel usar o c&#225;lculo da pHM para ajudar na correspond&#234;ncia entre doador e receptor. Uma rela&#231;&#227;o pHM doador/receptor de 0,86 ou superior prediz um bom progn&#243;stico, entre 0,86 e 0,7 pode ser considerada para casos individuais, mas uma rela&#231;&#227;o pHM inferior a 0,7 pode estar associada a resultados adversos p&#243;s-transplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B318">318</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> A correspond&#234;ncia de sexo doador-receptor atraiu consider&#225;vel interesse recentemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B320">320</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B321">321</xref></sup> Ao longo dos anos, houve um ligeiro aumento nos transplantes de mulheres para mulheres e um decl&#237;nio correspondente nos transplantes de mulheres para homens, talvez devido &#224; sobrevida inferior observada ap&#243;s transplantes n&#227;o concordantes por sexo. Isso pode ser explicado por diferen&#231;as imunol&#243;gicas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup> ou pela correspond&#234;ncia de tamanho do doador e do receptor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B320">320</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A distribui&#231;&#227;o por sexo dos receptores de transplante card&#237;aco vem mudando ao longo do tempo, com um aumento na propor&#231;&#227;o de receptores do sexo feminino de 19,3% de 1992 a 2000, para 22,4% de 2001 a 2009 e para 25,6% de 2010 a 2018. N&#227;o s&#227;o claramente identific&#225;veis os fatores pelos quais as mulheres t&#234;m reduzida representatividade entre os receptores de transplante card&#237;aco; um deles seria o desenvolvimento dos quadros de IC e consequente indica&#231;&#227;o de transplante em faixa et&#225;ria mais avan&#231;ada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B321">321</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B323">323</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As mulheres correm maior risco de sensibiliza&#231;&#227;o, sendo um dos principais FR a gravidez. Transfus&#245;es, dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular e transplante pr&#233;vio s&#227;o outros FR. Os anticorpos pr&#233;-formados podem causar rejei&#231;&#227;o hiperaguda e aumentar o risco de rejei&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o transplante, al&#233;m de predisporem as pacientes ao desenvolvimento de vasculopatia do enxerto card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B324">324</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B325">325</xref></sup> Precisamos detectar anticorpos anti-HLA para diminuir o risco de rejei&#231;&#227;o hiperaguda. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o do <italic>crossmatch</italic> virtual na avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-transplante, a partir de um banco de dados, substitui o <italic>crossmatch</italic> prospectivo e permite aumentar o <italic>pool</italic> de doadores e diminuir o tempo de teste, assim como decidir quais pacientes sensibilizados requerem tratamento antes do procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B324">324</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B326">326</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O painel de reatividade de anticorpos deve ser realizado em todos os candidatos a transplante. Quando o painel de reatividade de anticorpos est&#225; elevado (&#8805; 10%), uma avalia&#231;&#227;o adicional &#233; recomendada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> Pode ser feita a dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o dos receptores previamente ao transplante, com infus&#227;o venosa de imunoglobulina, plasmaf&#233;rese isolada ou combinada, rituximabe e, em casos muito selecionados, esplenectomia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> Tendo como alvo os componentes da resposta humoral, a dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o pode ser usada como uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica para aumentar o n&#250;mero de doadores e permitir maior chance do transplante em pacientes sensibilizados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f23">Figura 11.2</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f23">
          <label>Figura 11.2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas para dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o e aumento do n&#250;mero de doadores. Fonte: Adaptado de Bacal F. 3&#170; Diretriz Brasileira de Transplante Card&#237;aco.<italic><sup>327</sup></italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf23.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>O tratamento da rejei&#231;&#227;o hiperaguda deve ser iniciado imediatamente ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico, mesmo se ainda na sala de cirurgia. Os tratamentos considerados incluem, de acordo com as diretrizes atuais da <italic>International Society for the Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT</italic>):<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> (1) suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico; (2) alta dose venosa de corticosteroides; (3) plasmaf&#233;rese; (4) imunoglobulinas venosas; (5) rituximabe (6) terapia imunossupressora citol&#237;tica; (7) eculizumabe; (8) ciclosporina, tacrolimus com n&#237;veis-alvo aumentados e inibidores do ciclo metab&#243;lico (micofenolato); (9) inotr&#243;picos e vasopressores venosos; (10) heparina.</p>
      <p>A doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto permanece altamente prevalente e uma das principais causas de morte tardia ap&#243;s o transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> Rejei&#231;&#227;o celular aguda grave (ISHLT 3R) diagnosticada por bi&#243;psia de endomioc&#225;rdio deve ser tratada mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de sintomas ou evid&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o do aloenxerto card&#237;aco. Os FR significativos para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto incluem morte do doador devido a AVC e diagn&#243;sticos do receptor de CMI e retransplante. Foi observado que o sexo feminino, tanto do doador quanto do receptor, representou um risco reduzido para desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B328">328</xref></sup> Estudos anteriores discordaram e mostraram uma maior incid&#234;ncia de desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto em doadoras e receptoras do sexo feminino ou nenhuma diferen&#231;a baseada no sexo para desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B329">329</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B331">331</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Transplante card&#237;aco para miocardite periparto permanece relativamente infrequente. Alguns estudos demonstram que tardiamente a incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto &#233; semelhante &#224; dos transplantes realizados em mulheres por outras etiologias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B332">332</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A malignidade ap&#243;s o transplante card&#237;aco continua sendo uma causa significativa de morbidade e mortalidade em receptores. Os dados do registro da <italic>ISHLT</italic> demonstram uma preval&#234;ncia cumulativa de todos os tipos de malignidade ap&#243;s transplante card&#237;aco em adultos de 16% em 5 anos e 28% em 10 anos. O c&#226;ncer de pele continua sendo a malignidade p&#243;s-transplante mais comum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B328">328</xref></sup> Rudasill <italic>et al.</italic>, em recente an&#225;lise do registro <italic>United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS),</italic> n&#227;o mostraram associa&#231;&#227;o de malignidade do doador com a sobrevida do receptor em 10 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B333">333</xref></sup> No entanto, um hist&#243;rico de malignidade pr&#233;-transplante no receptor foi associado a um risco aumentado de malignidade p&#243;s-transplante, especialmente de neoplasias cut&#226;neas. Houve, no entanto, incid&#234;ncia menor nas mulheres. Deve-se ter rigorosa vigil&#226;ncia relativa ao rastreamento de c&#226;ncer de pele, mama na popula&#231;&#227;o feminina e col&#243;n na popula&#231;&#227;o geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B334">334</xref></sup></p>
      <p>De acordo com o relat&#243;rio de Transplante de Cora&#231;&#227;o em Adultos da ISHLT de 2021, doadores-receptores do sexo feminino aumentaram a mortalidade em 1 ano em compara&#231;&#227;o com a combina&#231;&#227;o doador-receptor do sexo masculino (HR 1,16). Quando h&#225; discord&#226;ncia masculino /feminino h&#225; aumento da mortalidade em 5 anos (HR 1,1). Em contraste, a combina&#231;&#227;o doadora-receptora do sexo feminino est&#225; associada a um risco menor (HR 0,90) em compara&#231;&#227;o ao masculino/masculino em 5 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B323">323</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da incompatibilidade de tamanho, essas diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao sexo na sobrevida sugerem que as influ&#234;ncias hormonais na resposta imunol&#243;gica tamb&#233;m possam estar associadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica e a cardiopatia cong&#234;nita foram associadas ao aumento da mortalidade em 1 ano. Outras vari&#225;veis associadas ao aumento da mortalidade em 5 anos, condicionada &#224; sobrevida de 1 ano, incluem cardiomiopatia restritiva, isqu&#234;mica e retransplante.</p>
      <p>De maneira indistinta entre os g&#234;neros, painel de reatividade de anticorpos do receptor e tempo de isquemia est&#227;o associados a mortalidade em 1 ano, enquanto as caracter&#237;sticas cr&#244;nicas do receptor est&#227;o associadas a mortalidade em 5 anos. Portanto, sequelas cr&#244;nicas do DM, doen&#231;a vascular e doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica podem afetar os resultados p&#243;s-transplante de longo prazo. Outras vari&#225;veis associadas &#224; mortalidade em 5 anos, condicionadas &#224; sobrevida em 1 ano, incluem idade do receptor, IMC, resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar, fun&#231;&#227;o renal, idade do doador e volume de cirurgias do centro de transplante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B323">323</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O g&#234;nero feminino &#233; um forte preditor de mortalidade em lista de espera para transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B326">326</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B335">335</xref></sup> No entanto, sexo n&#227;o foi demonstrado como uma vari&#225;vel significativa ou importante associada &#224; mortalidade p&#243;s-transplante, com poucas intera&#231;&#245;es do g&#234;nero como preditor de mortalidade, apesar de as mulheres viverem mais que os homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B336">336</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Apesar do aumento do n&#250;mero de mulheres submetidas a transplante card&#237;aco, elas continuam sub-representadas. Receptores do sexo feminino t&#234;m caracter&#237;sticas basais diferentes quando comparados com os do sexo masculino destinat&#225;rios, e a sobrevida p&#243;s-transplante &#233; equivalente entre mulheres e homens ap&#243;s ajuste para destinat&#225;rio e caracter&#237;sticas do doador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B321">321</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As mulheres tendem a ter melhor sobrevida em longo prazo do que os homens ap&#243;s o transplante card&#237;aco, com menor risco de desenvolver doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria ou vasculopatia do enxerto e aparecimento de tumores malignos, mas com maior risco de rejei&#231;&#227;o mediada por anticorpos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B330">330</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A mortalidade p&#243;s-transplante precoce (&lt; 1 ano) deve-se principalmente &#224; falha do enxerto, infec&#231;&#227;o e fal&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os, enquanto a mortalidade p&#243;s-transplante tardia (&gt; 5 anos) deve-se principalmente a malignidade, falha do enxerto e doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B330">330</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A sobrevida global &#233; enfatizada como um desfecho prim&#225;rio na evolu&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s transplante card&#237;aco. Entretanto, a qualidade de vida relacionada &#224; sa&#250;de &#233; um ponto importante nos transplantados card&#237;acos. Pesquisa recente utilizando o formul&#225;rio resumido de 36 itens (SF-36) para avalia&#231;&#227;o da qualidade de vida, em concord&#226;ncia com a Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de, demonstrou que 22% dos pacientes sobreviventes exerciam atividade laborativa ap&#243;s 1 ano e quase 33% trabalhavam ap&#243;s 2 anos. As complica&#231;&#245;es neurol&#243;gicas e nefrol&#243;gicas t&#234;m impacto negativo e s&#227;o importantes preditores da qualidade de vida ap&#243;s o transplante card&#237;aco. O g&#234;nero &#233; um dos fatores relacionados aos determinantes sociais da sa&#250;de, assim como ra&#231;a e etnia, condi&#231;&#227;o socioecon&#244;mica e n&#237;vel educacional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B337">337</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B339">339</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Na coorte do estudo para desenvolver e validar modelos de <italic>&#8220;machine learning&#8221;</italic> para aumentar a precis&#227;o preditiva da mortalidade ap&#243;s transplante card&#237;aco, que compreendeu 18.625 pacientes, os modelos demonstraram boa precis&#227;o preditiva dos resultados ap&#243;s o transplante card&#237;aco, sendo um desses modelos o escore do <italic>Index for Mortality Prediction after Cardiac Transplantation</italic> (IMPACT). Entretanto, somente 27% dos pacientes eram do g&#234;nero feminino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B340">340</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A rejei&#231;&#227;o humoral cr&#244;nica e a doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto s&#227;o as principais causas de morbimortalidade tardia de pacientes submetidos a transplante card&#237;aco, tendo o diagn&#243;stico por m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos baixa sensibilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B327">327</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>11.2.1. Transplante Card&#237;aco em Mulheres &#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es para transplante n&#227;o diferem entre os sexos, devendo-se seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da diretriz para transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B327">327</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>12. Reabilita&#231;&#227;o na Cardiomiopatia Isqu&#234;mica das Mulheres</title>
      <p>&#201; consenso entre diretrizes internacionais<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B341">341</xref></sup> e nacionais<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> a indica&#231;&#227;o de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca na DIC. Ap&#243;s SCA, RVM percut&#226;nea ou cir&#250;rgica e na angina est&#225;vel, o encaminhamento para reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca deve fazer parte da prescri&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica. Est&#225; bem estabelecida efic&#225;cia na melhora da qualidade de vida, redu&#231;&#227;o dos FR modific&#225;veis e mortalidade, al&#233;m da preven&#231;&#227;o em readmiss&#245;es por novos eventos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B342">342</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Estudos mostram que mulheres s&#227;o menos aderentes que homens. Em amostra de 44% de mulheres, apenas 14,3% participaram da reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ap&#243;s IAM, comparado a 22,1% dos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B343">343</xref></sup> O encaminhamento para reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca na alta hospitalar tem se relacionado com menor mortalidade, especialmente em mulheres e minorias &#233;tnicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B344">344</xref></sup> Mulheres apresentam mais chances de &#243;bito, IC ou AVC do que homens dentro dos 5 anos ap&#243;s IAM, independentemente da idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B345">345</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Uma das principais barreiras para participa&#231;&#227;o em reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; a aus&#234;ncia de encaminhamento m&#233;dico. Em mulheres, o encaminhamento e refor&#231;o pelo m&#233;dico sobre a import&#226;ncia da reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca como parte do tratamento &#233; forte preditor da admiss&#227;o nos programas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B346">346</xref></sup> Outras importantes barreiras s&#227;o suporte social, baixa capacidade funcional, desemprego, idade mais avan&#231;ada e medo de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, responsabilidades concorrentes de cuidados com a fam&#237;lia, m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades, aus&#234;ncia de reembolso para as sess&#245;es, limitada acessibilidade e diversidade nos programas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B344">344</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B347">347</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Durante avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial para admiss&#227;o no programa de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; necess&#225;rio que sejam interrogadas quest&#245;es espec&#237;ficas da mulher e que est&#227;o relacionadas com DCV nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia, DM e hipertens&#227;o durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o, nascimento pr&#233;-termo e menopausa precoce s&#227;o alguns dos FR adicionais importantes de serem abordados, assim como sintomas de menopausa, presen&#231;a de incontin&#234;ncia urin&#225;ria, quest&#245;es musculoesquel&#233;ticas e percep&#231;&#227;o de fadiga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B348">348</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Para maior individualiza&#231;&#227;o e otimiza&#231;&#227;o da prescri&#231;&#227;o do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico aer&#243;bico indica-se, idealmente, o TCPE, com a detec&#231;&#227;o dos limiares ventilat&#243;rios sendo os limites de intensidade a serem utilizados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f24">Figura 12.1</xref>), na aus&#234;ncia de isquemia e/ou altera&#231;&#245;es de outros indicadores, como plat&#244; precoce ou queda do PO<sub>2</sub>. Quando essas vari&#225;veis e altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento ST estiverem presentes, dever&#227;o ser consideradas na prescri&#231;&#227;o, que dever&#225; se manter abaixo do limiar isqu&#234;mico. Caso n&#227;o haja disponibilidade do TCPE, percentuais da FC pico preditos ou medidos por TE, teste de fala (<italic>talk test</italic>) e percep&#231;&#227;o subjetiva de esfor&#231;o podem auxiliar na prescri&#231;&#227;o da intensidade do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t18">Tabela 12.1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B349">349</xref></sup> Objetiva-se em linhas gerais a intensidade moderada com impacto em mortalidade e qualidade de vida, mas a prescri&#231;&#227;o ser&#225; sempre individualizada (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t19">Tabela 12.2</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f24">
          <label>Figura 12.1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Prescri&#231;&#227;o dos exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos aer&#243;bicos baseada nos limiares ventilat&#243;rios 1 e 2 do TCPE. LA: limiar anaer&#243;bico; PCR: ponto de compensa&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf24.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t18">
          <label>Tabela 12.1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; M&#233;todos alternativos de prescri&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos aer&#243;bicos.</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">M&#201;TODO</th>
                <th>DESCRI&#199;&#195;O</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Sensa&#231;&#227;o subjetiva de esfor&#231;o (Escala de Borg)</td>
                <td align="center">Exerc&#237;cios com autopercep&#231;&#227;o de esfor&#231;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Teste de fala (<italic>Talk test</italic>)</td>
                <td align="center">Execu&#231;&#227;o dos exerc&#237;cios na intensidade em que a respira&#231;&#227;o seja ofegante, por&#233;m controlada, de modo que se consiga completar uma frase sem pausas (intensidade moderada)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Percentuais da FCMprev</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Exerc&#237;cios baseados no percentual da FCMprev</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <inline-formula>
                          <mml:math>
                            <mml:mrow>
                              <mml:mi>F</mml:mi>
                              <mml:mi>C</mml:mi>
                            </mml:mrow>
                            <mml:mtext> alvo </mml:mtext>
                            <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
                            <mml:mtext> percentual </mml:mtext>
                            <mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo>
                            <mml:mtext> FCMprev </mml:mtext>
                          </mml:math>
                        </inline-formula>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>
                        <inline-formula>
                          <mml:math>
                            <mml:mi>FCMprev</mml:mi>
                            <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
                            <mml:mn>208</mml:mn>
                            <mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo>
                            <mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
                            <mml:mn>0.7</mml:mn>
                            <mml:mi>x</mml:mi>
                            <mml:mtext> idade </mml:mtext>
                            <mml:msup>
                              <mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
                              <mml:mo>&#8727;</mml:mo>
                            </mml:msup>
                            <mml:mtext> ou </mml:mtext>
                            <mml:mn>220</mml:mn>
                            <mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo>
                            <mml:msup>
                              <mml:mtext> idade </mml:mtext>
                              <mml:mrow>
                                <mml:mo>&#8727;</mml:mo>
                                <mml:mo>&#8727;</mml:mo>
                              </mml:mrow>
                            </mml:msup>
                          </mml:math>
                        </inline-formula>
                      </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de reserva (<italic>Karvonen</italic>)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <inline-formula>
                    <mml:math>
                      <mml:mrow>
                        <mml:mi>F</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mi>C</mml:mi>
                      </mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mtext> alvo </mml:mtext>
                      <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
                      <mml:mrow>
                        <mml:mi>F</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mi>C</mml:mi>
                      </mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mtext> repouso </mml:mtext>
                      <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                      <mml:mi>%</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo>
                      <mml:mtext> (FCpico </mml:mtext>
                      <mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo>
                      <mml:mtext> FCrepouso </mml:mtext>
                      <mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
                    </mml:math>
                  </inline-formula>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN8">
              <p>
                <italic>FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; FCMprev: FC m&#225;xima prevista; FCR: FC de reserva; *F&#243;rmula de Tanaka, **F&#243;rmula de Karvonen.<sup><italic>349</italic></sup></italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t19">
          <label>Tabela 12.2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; N&#237;veis de intensidade de exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos.</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="17%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Intensidade</th>
                <th>%VO<sub><bold>2</bold></sub> m&#225;x</th>
                <th>%FCMprev</th>
                <th>%FCR</th>
                <th>MET<sup><bold>*</bold></sup> (absoluto)</th>
                <th>Escala de Borg</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Muito leve</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 37</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 57</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 2</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leve</td>
                <td align="center">37-45</td>
                <td align="center">57-64</td>
                <td align="center">30-40</td>
                <td align="center">2-3,9</td>
                <td align="center">9-11</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Moderado</td>
                <td align="center">46-64</td>
                <td align="center">65-76</td>
                <td align="center">40-60</td>
                <td align="center">4-6</td>
                <td align="center">12-13</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Intenso</td>
                <td align="center">65-91</td>
                <td align="center">76-96</td>
                <td align="center">60-90</td>
                <td align="center">6,1-8,8</td>
                <td align="center">14-17</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Muito intenso</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 91</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 96</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 90</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 8,9</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 17</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN9">
              <p>
                <italic>Modificado de ACSM.10 *MET: unidade metab&#243;lica basal; %VO2 m&#225;x: valores percentuais do consumo m&#225;ximo de oxig&#234;nio; %FCM prev: valores percentuais da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#225;xima prevista para a idade; %FCR: valores percentuais da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de reserva; Escala de Borg: escala linear de percep&#231;&#227;o do esfor&#231;o, gradua&#231;&#227;o de 6 a 20.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Particularmente, as mulheres t&#234;m ganhos menores na capacidade funcional ap&#243;s programas de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, independentemente de menor capacidade funcional inicial. Ajustes na prescri&#231;&#227;o se fazem, ent&#227;o, necess&#225;rios no decorrer do programa, j&#225; que a melhora da capacidade funcional &#233; fator primordial para efetividade do programa em rela&#231;&#227;o aos seus benef&#237;cios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B347">347</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Paralelamente &#224; capacidade funcional, existe associa&#231;&#227;o da redu&#231;&#227;o da for&#231;a muscular com aumento da DCV e mortalidade. Mulheres apresentam menor for&#231;a pelo teste de preens&#227;o palmar. Khadanga <italic>et al</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B347">347</xref></sup> refor&#231;am que &#233; importante foco adicional na prescri&#231;&#227;o de treino resistido, com intensidade de at&#233; 80% de 1 repeti&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima e objetivo de melhora da for&#231;a de membros inferiores, capacidade de caminhada e ganho para o alcance das demandas de atividades da vida di&#225;ria. Sugerem, ainda, inclus&#227;o de treinos aer&#243;bicos intervalados de alta intensidade (90-95% da FCpico) baseado em pequeno estudo randomizado de seu grupo, onde, comparado ao treino moderado (70-85% da FCpico), o VO<sub>2</sub> apresentou maior aumento (23% <italic>versus</italic> 7%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B348">348</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B350">350</xref></sup> Entretanto, mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios nessa &#225;rea para confirmar esses achados. Mulheres s&#227;o mais propensas a dor musculoesquel&#233;tica e fadiga. Tra&#231;ar um programa com objetivos compartilhados e oferecer m&#233;todos de exerc&#237;cios complementares como Yoga, dan&#231;a, Tai-Chi podem evitar a desist&#234;ncia dos programas. Contudo, estudos precisam ser realizados para comprovar a efetividade desses m&#233;todos na redu&#231;&#227;o de RCV, morbidade e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B348">348</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outras situa&#231;&#245;es mais prevalentes na popula&#231;&#227;o feminina precisam ser citadas quando abordamos a reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e o seu papel na DIC:</p>
      <p><bold>Dissec&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea coronariana</bold>: A aus&#234;ncia de consenso sobre exerc&#237;cio ap&#243;s essa condi&#231;&#227;o e sua poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o com esfor&#231;os intensos causa inseguran&#231;a entre profissionais de sa&#250;de e pacientes para o retorno &#224;s atividades f&#237;sicas. Entretanto, em registro da <italic>Mayo Clinic</italic> com 354 pacientes com DEAC, onde 96% da popula&#231;&#227;o era composta por mulheres, benef&#237;cios da participa&#231;&#227;o em reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca foram confirmados, sem complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B351">351</xref></sup> Programa direcionado para DEAC foi desenvolvido no <italic>Vancouver General Hospital,</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B352">352</xref></sup> com melhora na capacidade funcional, no estresse psicol&#243;gico e na redu&#231;&#227;o da necessidade de RVM durante o acompanhamento. Portanto, o encaminhamento a centros de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca deve ser incentivado, inclusive para reduzir o medo do exerc&#237;cio que muitas pacientes apresentam ap&#243;s epis&#243;dio de DEAC.</p>
      <p><bold>MINOCA</bold>: Diferentemente do consenso inequ&#237;voco do papel da reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca na doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva, dados de efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a na disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular coronariana s&#227;o escassos. Entretanto, estudos na &#225;rea realizados em mulheres com angina microvascular j&#225; foram capazes de demonstrar melhora na capacidade funcional, em vari&#225;veis metab&#243;licas, qualidade de vida e perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, ap&#243;s diferentes per&#237;odos de um programa de reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e devem ser estimulados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B353">353</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B354">354</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label/>
        <p><bold>Realiza&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Departamento de Cardiologia da Mulher (DCM), Departamento de Ergometria, Exerc&#237;cio, Cardiologia Nuclear e Reabilita&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular (DERC), Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular (DIC), Departamento de Aterosclerose (DA) e Departamento de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (DEIC) da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia; Sociedade Brasileira de Cirurgia Cardiovascular (SBCCV); Sociedade Brasileira de Arritmias Card&#237;acas (SOBRAC); Sociedade Brasileira de Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista (SBHCI)</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label/>
        <p><bold>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes respons&#225;vel:</bold> Carisi Anne Polanczyk (Coordenadora), Humberto Graner Moreira, M&#225;rio de Seixas Rocha, Jose Airton de Arruda, Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva &#8211; Gest&#227;o 2022-2024</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label/>
        <p><bold>Este posicionamento dever&#225; ser citado como:</bold> Oliveira GMM, Almeida MCC, Rassi DC, Bragan&#231;a EOV, Moura LZ, Arrais M, et al. Posicionamento sobre Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; A Mulher no Centro do Cuidado &#8211; 2023. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2023;120(7):e20230303</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label/>
        <p><bold>Nota:</bold> Estes posicionamentos se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <title>Lista de Siglas/Abreviaturas</title>
      <fn fn-type="abbr">
        <p>AAE &#8211; Ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo</p>
        <p>aCL &#8211; Anticorpos anticardiolipina</p>
        <p>Angio-TC &#8211; Angiotomografia de art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias</p>
        <p>aPL &#8211; Anticorpos antifosfolip&#237;deos</p>
        <p>ARNI &#8211; Inibidores da neprilisina/bloqueadores de angiotensina (em ingl&#234;s, <italic>angiotensin receptor/neprilysin inhibitor</italic>)</p>
        <p>AVC &#8211; Acidente Vascular Cerebral</p>
        <p>BB &#8211; Betabloqueadores</p>
        <p>BCC &#8211; Bloqueadores de canais de c&#225;lcio</p>
        <p>BRA &#8211; Bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina</p>
        <p>BRE &#8211; Bloqueio de ramo esquerdo</p>
        <p>CAC &#8211; Escore de c&#225;lcio coronariano</p>
        <p>CDI &#8211; Cardiodesfibrilador Implant&#225;vel</p>
        <p>CEC &#8211; Circula&#231;&#227;o Extracorp&#243;rea</p>
        <p>CFV &#8211; Velocidade de fluxo coronariano</p>
        <p>CHC &#8211; Contraceptivos hormonais combinados</p>
        <p>CMI &#8211; Cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica</p>
        <p>CPM &#8211; Cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica</p>
        <p>CPP &#8211; Contraceptivos progest&#225;genos puros</p>
        <p>CVE &#8211; Cardiovers&#227;o El&#233;trica</p>
        <p>DAA &#8211; Drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas</p>
        <p>DALYs &#8211; Anos de vida ajustados por incapacidade (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>Disability-Adjusted Life Years</italic>) &#8211; 1 DALY representa a perda do equivalente a 1 ano de sa&#250;de completa</p>
        <p>DAP &#8211; Doen&#231;a Arterial Perif&#233;rica</p>
        <p>DCV &#8211; Doen&#231;a Cardiovascular</p>
        <p>DEAC &#8211; Dissec&#231;&#227;o Espont&#226;nea de Art&#233;ria Coron&#225;ria</p>
        <p>DIC &#8211; Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica do Cora&#231;&#227;o</p>
        <p>DM &#8211; Diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic></p>
        <p>DOACs &#8211; Anticoagulantes de a&#231;&#227;o direta</p>
        <p>ECG &#8211; Eletrocardiograma</p>
        <p>ED &#8211; Escore de Duke</p>
        <p>EMI &#8211; Espessura da camada m&#233;dio-intimal</p>
        <p>ESE &#8211; Ecocardiografia sob estresse</p>
        <p>ETT &#8211; Ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico</p>
        <p>FA &#8211; Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial</p>
        <p>FC &#8211; Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</p>
        <p>FEVE &#8211; Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</p>
        <p>FFR &#8211; Reserva de fluxo fracionada</p>
        <p>FR &#8211; Fatores de Risco</p>
        <p>FRCV &#8211; Fatores de Risco Cardiovascular</p>
        <p>FV &#8211; Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Ventricular</p>
        <p>GBD &#8211; <italic>Global Burden of Diseases</italic></p>
        <p>HAS &#8211; Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Sist&#234;mica</p>
        <p>HLA &#8211; ant&#237;geno leucocit&#225;rio humano (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>human leukocyte antigen</italic>)</p>
        <p>IAM &#8211; Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio</p>
        <p>IAMCSST &#8211; Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio Com Supradesnivelamento do Segmento ST</p>
        <p>IAMSSST &#8211; Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio Sem Supradesnivelamento do Segmento ST</p>
        <p>IC &#8211; Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</p>
        <p>ICAM-1 &#8211; mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular</p>
        <p>ICFEp &#8211; Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Preservada</p>
        <p>ICFEr &#8211; Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Reduzida</p>
        <p>ICP &#8211; Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea</p>
        <p>IECA &#8211; Inibidor da Enzima Conversora da Angiotensina</p>
        <p>iFR &#8211; Raz&#227;o de press&#227;o instant&#226;nea livre de onda</p>
        <p>IL &#8211; Interleucina</p>
        <p>IMC &#8211; &#205;ndice de Massa Corporal</p>
        <p>INOCA &#8211; Isquemia na aus&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o arterial coronariana (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>ischemia with nonobstructive coronary arteries</italic>)</p>
        <p>INR &#8211; <italic>International Normalized Ratio</italic></p>
        <p>iSGLT2 &#8211; inibidores do cotransporte de s&#243;dio e glicose 2</p>
        <p>LAC &#8211; Anticorpos l&#250;pus anticoagulante</p>
        <p>MACE &#8211; eventos coronarianos adversos maiores (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>major adverse coronary events</italic>)</p>
        <p>MINOCA &#8211; Infarto do mioc&#225;rdio na aus&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o arterial coron&#225;ria (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>myocardial infarction with nonobstructive coronary arteries</italic>)</p>
        <p>NIRS &#8211; Espectroscopia de infravermelho pr&#243;ximo</p>
        <p>NYHA &#8211; <italic>New York Heart Association</italic></p>
        <p>OCT &#8211; Tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica</p>
        <p>PA &#8211; Press&#227;o Arterial</p>
        <p>PET &#8211; Tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>positron emission tomography</italic>)</p>
        <p>pHM &#8211; massa card&#237;aca predita</p>
        <p>PO<sub>2</sub> &#8211; pulso de oxig&#234;nio</p>
        <p>RCV &#8211; Risco Cardiovascular</p>
        <p>RFC &#8211; Reserva de fluxo coronariano</p>
        <p>RMC &#8211; Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Card&#237;aca</p>
        <p>RVM &#8211; Revasculariza&#231;&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica</p>
        <p>SAF &#8211; S&#237;ndrome antifosfol&#237;pide</p>
        <p>SCA &#8211; S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda</p>
        <p>SDI &#8211; &#205;ndice Sociodemogr&#225;fico (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>Sociodemographic Index</italic>)</p>
        <p>SIM &#8211; Sistema de Informa&#231;&#227;o sobre Mortalidade</p>
        <p>SLGVE &#8211; <italic>Strain</italic> Longitudinal Global do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</p>
        <p>SNA &#8211; Sistema Nervoso Aut&#244;nomo</p>
        <p>SOP &#8211; S&#237;ndrome do Ov&#225;rio Polic&#237;stico</p>
        <p>SPECT &#8211; Tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>single photon emission computed tomography</italic>)</p>
        <p>TCE &#8211; tronco da coron&#225;ria esquerda</p>
        <p>TCPE &#8211; Teste Cardiopulmonar de Exerc&#237;cio</p>
        <p>TE &#8211; Teste Ergom&#233;trico</p>
        <p>TEP &#8211; Tromboembolismo pulmonar</p>
        <p>TNF-a &#8211; fator de necrose tumoral</p>
        <p>TRC &#8211; Terapia de Ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca</p>
        <p>TRC-D &#8211; Terapia de Ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca com Desfibrilador</p>
        <p>TV &#8211; Taquicardia Ventricular</p>
        <p>TVP &#8211; Trombose venosa profunda</p>
        <p>USIC &#8211; Ultrassom intracoronariano</p>
        <p>USV &#8211; Ultrassonografia Vascular</p>
        <p>VE &#8211; Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</p>
        <p>VEGF &#8211; Fator de crescimento do endot&#233;lio vascular</p>
        <p>VO<sub>2</sub> &#8211; Consumo de oxig&#234;nio</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Statement</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Position Statement on Ischemic Heart Disease &#8211; Women-Centered Health Care &#8211; 2023</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8471-5745</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina Costa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9131-0439</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rassi</surname>
            <given-names>Daniela do Carmo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9168-5513</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bragan&#231;a</surname>
            <given-names>&#201;rika Olivier Vilela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4741-322X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moura</surname>
            <given-names>Lidia Zytynski</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7417-5426</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Arrais</surname>
            <given-names>Magaly</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4254-1609</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Milena dos Santos Barros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0732-9920</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lemke</surname>
            <given-names>Viviana Guzzo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5686-7058</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Avila</surname>
            <given-names>Walkiria Samuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2455-5612</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lucena</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Jorge Gomes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10001">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1777-477X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233; Luiz Cerqueira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7040-396X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;a Araujo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12001">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2834-736X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea Dumsch de Aragon</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13001">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8579-4158</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Biolo</surname>
            <given-names>Andreia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14001">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3453-8488</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Macedo</surname>
            <given-names>Ariane Vieira Scarlatelli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15001">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4228-3451</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Falc&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Breno de Alencar Araripe</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16001">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2447-2577</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi Anne</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17001">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9826-9152</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lantieri</surname>
            <given-names>Carla Janice Baister</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2406-8184</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marques-Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Celi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19001">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20001">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1222-7734</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Freire</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia Maria Vilas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21001">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4207-5364</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pellegrini</surname>
            <given-names>Denise</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22001">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5210-2848</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alexandre</surname>
            <given-names>Elizabeth Regina Giunco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiana Goulart Marcondes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7448-3741</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiana Michelle Feitosa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23001">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3361-7061</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cintra</surname>
            <given-names>Fatima Dumas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24001">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1418-9361</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25001">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9227-8832</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; S&#233;rgio Nascimento</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26001">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2908-2807</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Carreira</surname>
            <given-names>Lara Terra F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27001">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28001">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2881-7402</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Lucelia Batista Neves Cunha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29001">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9852-3293</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Matos</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana Diniz Nagem Janot de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30001">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6501-1139</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Assad</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Heitor Vieira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31001">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9663-2966</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Marcia M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff32001">
            <sup>32</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6514-7183</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Marconi Gomes da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff33001">
            <sup>33</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3322-0459</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rivera</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Alayde Mendon&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff34001">
            <sup>34</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5738-2623</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24001">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1336-6517</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Elizabeth Navegantes Caetano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff35001">
            <sup>35</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6457-3217</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Sanali Moura de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff36001">
            <sup>36</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9938-8425</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Castro</surname>
            <given-names>Marildes Luiza de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff37001">
            <sup>37</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7302-7448</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Uellendahl</surname>
            <given-names>Marly</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24001">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff38001">
            <sup>38</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9413-3792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Mucio Tavares de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8722-7504</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Olga Ferreira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff39001">
            <sup>39</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo Alves da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff40001">
            <sup>40</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1000-821X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Coutinho</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo Quental</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41001">
            <sup>41</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff42001">
            <sup>42</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6839-1541</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Sheyla Cristina Tonheiro Ferro da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff43001">
            <sup>43</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3093-9743</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>S&#237;lvia Marinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26001">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9899-1612</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Simone Cristina Soares</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff44001">
            <sup>44</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7823-3507</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Buglia</surname>
            <given-names>Susimeire</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff40001">
            <sup>40</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1372-9282</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiana Maia Jorge de Ulh&#244;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff45001">
            <sup>45</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff46001">
            <sup>46</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1063-3787</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Nascimento</surname>
            <given-names>Thais Aguiar do</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff47001">
            <sup>47</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Thais</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19001">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff48001">
            <sup>48</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff49001">
            <sup>49</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0257-4185</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Campagnucci</surname>
            <given-names>Valqu&#237;ria Pelisser</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff50001">
            <sup>50</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4455-6740</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Chagas</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos Palandri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ),Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio de Belo Horizonte, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG), Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">RitmoCheck, S&#227;o Jos&#233; dos Campos, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225; (PUC-PR), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (HCor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Sergipe, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardiocare &#8211; Cl&#237;nica Cardiol&#243;gica Ltda., Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMUSP) S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10001">
        <label>10</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Agamenon Magalh&#227;es, Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11001">
        <label>11</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12001">
        <label>12</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13001">
        <label>13</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Neuro e Cardiologia de Curitiba (INC), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14001">
        <label>14</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15001">
        <label>15</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16001">
        <label>16</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Messejana, Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17001">
        <label>17</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18001">
        <label>18</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio Faculdade de Medicina ABC, Santo Andr&#233;, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19001">
        <label>19</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Tiradentes (UNIT), Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20001">
        <label>20</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Lucas Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luis, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21001">
        <label>21</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares (EBSERH), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22001">
        <label>22</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#227;o Lucas da Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUC-RS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff23001">
        <label>23</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff24001">
        <label>24</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff25001">
        <label>25</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff26001">
        <label>26</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco da Universidade de Pernambuco (PROCAPE/UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff27001">
        <label>27</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardiologia Nuclear de Curitiba, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff28001">
        <label>28</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Pilar, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff29001">
        <label>29</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff30001">
        <label>30</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff31001">
        <label>31</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia (INC), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff32001">
        <label>32</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Socor, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff33001">
        <label>33</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">SPORTIF &#8211; Cl&#237;nica do Exerc&#237;cio e do Esporte, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff34001">
        <label>34</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Alagoas (UFAL), Macei&#243;, AL &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff35001">
        <label>35</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio do Estado Par&#225; (CESUPA), Bel&#233;m, PA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff36001">
        <label>36</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">INTERVE, Natal, RN &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff37001">
        <label>37</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade IPEMED de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff38001">
        <label>38</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">DASA &#8211; Diagn&#243;sticos da Am&#233;rica S/A, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff39001">
        <label>39</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff40001">
        <label>40</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff41001">
        <label>41</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas da Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff42001">
        <label>42</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Osvaldo Cruz da Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff43001">
        <label>43</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">CEMISE Oncocl&#237;nicas, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff44001">
        <label>44</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff45001">
        <label>45</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">CARDIOCENTRO Cirurgia Cardiovascular, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff46001">
        <label>46</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff47001">
        <label>47</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardio Ritmo Servi&#231;os M&#233;dicos, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff48001">
        <label>48</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff49001">
        <label>49</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio da Universidade Federal de Sergipe (UFS), Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff50001">
        <label>50</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Irmandade da Santa Casa de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Correspondence:</bold> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil &#8211; Posta Code 20020-907. E-mail: diretrizes@cardiol.br </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <author-notes>
        <fn fn-type="equal">
          <p>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira and Maria Cristina Costa de Almeida contributed equally to the manuscrip.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1001">
          <label>Position Statement on Ischemic Heart Disease &#8211; Women-Centered Health &#8211; 2023</label>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2">Position Statement on Ischemic Heart Disease &#8211; Women-Centered Health &#8211; 2023</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2">The report below lists declarations of interest as reported to the SBC by the experts during the period of the development of these statement, 2022/2023.</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Expert</th>
                <th align="left">Type of relationship with industry</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Alexandre Jorge Gomes de Lucena</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Cardiopapers; Afya.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Andr&#233; Luiz Cerqueira de Almeida</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Boston Scientific: Speaker on Prosthesis.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Andr&#233;a Araujo Brand&#227;o</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Servier: Triplixan; Daiichi Sankyo: Benicar; Libbs: Venzer. B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Servier: Hypertension. Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Servier: Hypertension.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Andrea Dumsch de Aragon Ferreira</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Andreia Biolo</td>
                <td>Financial declaration B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Alnylam Pharmaceuticals: Amyloidosis.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Antonio Carlos Palandri Chagas</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novo Nordisk; Viatris; Instituto Vita Nova. Outros relacionamentos Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novo Nordisk.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ariane Vieira Scarlatelli Macedo</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Bayer: Anticoagulation and heart failure; Pfizer: Anticoagulation and Amyloidosis; Jannsen: Leukemia. Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Bayer: Heart failure.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Breno de Alencar Araripe Falc&#227;o</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Edwards Lifescience: TAVI and TMVR proctor; Medtronic: TAVI proctor; Boston Scientific: CTO PCI proctor.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carisi Anne Polanczyk</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carla Janice Baister Lantieri</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Celi Marques-Santos</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Claudia Maria Vilas Freire</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Daniela do Carmo Rassi</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Denise Pellegrini</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Elizabeth Regina Giunco Alexandre</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Lilly: Trulicity, Jardiance, Glyxambi. Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novo Nordisk: Ozempic.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#201;rika Olivier Vilela Bragan&#231;a</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fabiana Goulart Marcondes Braga</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novartis: Lectures; AstraZeneca: Lectures and Advisory Board; Boehringer: Advisory Board.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fabiana Michelle Feitosa de Oliveira</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fatima Dumas Cintra</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Isabela Bispo Santos da Silva Costa</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Jos&#233; S&#233;rgio Nascimento Silva</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lara Terra F. Carreira</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lidia Zytynski Moura</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Forxiga; Boehringer: Jardiance; Bayer: Vericiguat; Vifor: Ferrinject. B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Bayer: Vericiguat.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lucelia Batista Neves Cunha Magalh&#227;es</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luciana Diniz Nagem Janot de Matos</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Magaly Arrais</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Edwards / Boston: Transcatheter valve implantation; Medtronic: Implant.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcelo Heitor Vieira Assad</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida; AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina; BI: Empagliflozina; GSK: Shingrix; Biolab: Evolucumabe; Daiichi Sankyo: Benicar Triplo; Novartis: Dyslipidemia. B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Amgen: LP(A). Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novo Nordisk: Semaglutina; BI: Empagliglozina.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcia M. Barbosa</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marconi Gomes da Silva</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Maria Alayde Mendon&#231;a Rivera</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Maria Cristina Costa de Almeida</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Maria Cristina de Oliveira Izar</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Amgen: Repatha; Amryt Pharma: Lojuxta; AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina; Ach&#233;: Trezor, Trezete; Biolab: Livalo; Abbott: Lipidil; EMS: Rosuvastatina; Eurofarma: Rosuvastatina; Sanofi: Praluent, Zympass, Zympass Eze, Efluelda; Libbs: Plenance, Plenance Eze; Novo Nordisk: Ozempic, Victoza; Servier: Acertamlo, Alertalix; PTCBio: Waylivra. B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - PTCBio: Waylivra; Amgen: Repatha; Novartis: Inclisiran, Pelacarsen; NovoNordisk: Ziltivekimab. Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novo Nordisk: Diabetes.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Maria Elizabeth Navegantes Caetano Costa</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Libbs: Plenance Enze; Servier: Vastarel. Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Libbs; Servier: Congress participation.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Maria Sanali Moura de Oliveira Paiva</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marildes Luiza de Castro</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - AstraZeneca: Forxiga/Heart failure; Servier: Acertil/Hypertension.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marly Uellendahl</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - GE/Healthcare: Lectures and training in the field of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Milena dos Santos Barros Campos</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mucio Tavares de Oliveira Junior</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Sanofi/Pasteur: Vaccines; AstraZeneca / Boehringer Ingelheim / Merck: Lectures; Novo Nordisk: Advisory board.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Olga Ferreira de Souza</td>
                <td>Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Daiichi Sankyo.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ricardo Alves da Costa</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ricardo Quental Coutinho</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sheyla Cristina Tonheiro Ferro da Silva</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Palestras para Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Forxiga/ Xigduo; alia&#231;a Boeringher-Lilly: Jardiance; Servier: Acertil, Acertalix, triplixan; Novo Nordisk: Saxenda, Ozempic, Rybelsus; Libbis: Naprix; Vifor: Ferinject. Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Alian&#231;a Boeringher-Lilly: Jardiance; Novonordisk: Ozempic, Rybelsus, Saxenda; Servier: Acertil, Acertalix, Triplixan.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>S&#237;lvia Marinho Martins</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Simone Cristina Soares Brand&#227;o</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Susimeire Buglia</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tatiana Maia Jorge de Ulh&#244;a Barbosa</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Thais Aguiar do Nascimento</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Abbott: Consultancy.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Thais Vieira</td>
                <td>Other relationships Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Boehringer / AstraZeneca / Torrent / Novo Nordisk: Speaker.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Valqu&#237;ria Pelisser Campagnucci</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Viviana Guzzo Lemke</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Walkiria Samuel Avila</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Table of contents</p>
      <p>1. Introduction/Highlights 11</p>
      <p>1.1. Introduction 11</p>
      <p>1.2. Highlights of this Position Statement 12</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.1. Epidemiology</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.2. Pathophysiological Bases of Atherothrombotic Disease</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.3. Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Clinical Treatment</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.4. Diagnosis by use of Graphic Functional Assessment</bold> 13</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.5. Diagnosis by use of Noninvasive Cardiovascular Imaging</bold> 13</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.6. Arrhythmias in Ischemic Heart Disease</bold> 13</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.7. Atherothrombosis in Pregnancy, Contraception, Infertility, Antiphospholipid Syndrome</bold> 13</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.8. Ischemic Cardiomyopathy</bold> 14</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.9. Percutaneous Coronary Intervention</bold> 14</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.10. Myocardial Revascularization and Cardiac Transplantation</bold> 14</p>
      <p><bold>1.2.11. Rehabilitation in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy</bold> 14</p>
      <p>2. Epidemiology of Ischemic Heart Disease in Women 14</p>
      <p>2.1. Introduction 14</p>
      <p>2.2. Mortality 15</p>
      <p>2.3. Prevalence and Incidence 20</p>
      <p>2.4. Burden of Diseases 20</p>
      <p>2.5. Risk Factors 21</p>
      <p>2.6. Conclusion 22</p>
      <p>3. Pathophysiological Bases of Atherothrombotic Disease 22</p>
      <p>3.1. Introduction 22</p>
      <p>3.2. Plaque Rupture 22</p>
      <p>3.3. Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection 22</p>
      <p>3.4. Coronary Artery Spasm 23</p>
      <p>3.5. Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction 23</p>
      <p>3.6. Embolism and Thrombosis 24</p>
      <p>3.7. Takotsubo Syndrome 24</p>
      <p>3.8. Myocarditis 24</p>
      <p>4. Ischemic Heart Disease Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Clinical Treatment 24</p>
      <p>4.1. Chest Pain of Ischemic Etiology 24</p>
      <p>4.2. Established and Modifiable Risk Factors 26</p>
      <p>4.3. Established and Non-Modifiable Risk Factors 26</p>
      <p>4.4. Women-Specific Risk Factors 27</p>
      <p>4.5. Underrecognized Risk Factors 27</p>
      <p><bold>4.5.1. Recommendations</bold> 27</p>
      <p>4.6. Drug Treatment in the Different Forms of Ischemia Manifestation 27</p>
      <p><bold>4.6.1. Recommendations</bold> 28</p>
      <p>5. Diagnosis through Graphic Functional Assessment 29</p>
      <p>5.1. Electrocardiogram at Rest 29</p>
      <p>5.2. Exercise Testing 29</p>
      <p><bold>5.2.1. Recommendations</bold> 30</p>
      <p>5.3. Cardiopulmonary Exercise Test 30</p>
      <p>6. Diagnosis by Use of Ergometric-Functional Evaluation 31</p>
      <p>6.1. Introduction 31</p>
      <p>6.2. Echocardiography at Rest and Under Stress 31</p>
      <p>6.3. Vascular Ultrasound 33</p>
      <p>6.4. Computed Tomography 33</p>
      <p>6.5. Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging 34</p>
      <p>6.6. Nuclear Medicine 34</p>
      <p>7. Arrhythmias in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy 35</p>
      <p>7.1. Atrial Fibrillation and Ischemic Heart Disease 35</p>
      <p>7.2. Ventricular Arrhythmias: Sudden Death, Prevention, and Treatment 36</p>
      <p>7.3. Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy 38</p>
      <p>7.4. Recommendations 40</p>
      <p>8. Atherothrombosis in Pregnancy, Contraception, Infertility, Antiphospholipid Syndrome 40</p>
      <p>8.1. Introduction 40</p>
      <p>8.2. Pregnancy 40</p>
      <p>8.3. Contraception 41</p>
      <p><bold>8.3.1. Recommendations</bold> 42</p>
      <p>8.4. Infertility 42</p>
      <p>8.5. Antiphospholipid Syndrome 44</p>
      <p><bold>8.5.1. Recommendations</bold> 46</p>
      <p>9. Ischemic Cardiomyopathy in Women 46</p>
      <p>9.1. Introduction 46</p>
      <p>9.2. Clinical Treatment 47</p>
      <p>9.3. Devices and Advanced Heart Failure 47</p>
      <p>9.4. Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator 50</p>
      <p>9.5. Advanced Heart Failure 50</p>
      <p>9.6. Recommendations 50</p>
      <p><bold>9.6.1. Clinical Management and Indications for Advanced Therapies</bold> 50</p>
      <p>10. Percutaneous Coronary Intervention 50</p>
      <p>10.1. Introduction 50</p>
      <p>10.2. Vascular Access to Cardiac Catheterization and Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in Women 50</p>
      <p>10.3. Diagnosis 51</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.1. Coronary Angiography</bold> 51</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.2. Intravascular Imaging</bold> 51</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.3. Invasive Tests with Measuring Guide</bold> 51</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.3.3.1. Fractional Flow Reserve</bold></italic> 51</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.3.3.2. Instantaneous Wave-free Pressure Ratio</bold></italic> 52</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.4. Functional Tests</bold> 52</p>
      <p>10.4. Percutaneous Treatment of Coronary Atherothrombotic Disease in Women 52</p>
      <p><bold>10.4.1. Revascularization for Chronic Coronary Syndromes</bold> 52</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.4.1.1. Disease of the Left Main Coronary Artery</bold></italic> 53</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.4.1.2. Total Chronic Occlusion</bold></italic> 54</p>
      <p><bold>10.4.2. Revascularization for Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction</bold> 54</p>
      <p><bold>10.4.3. Revascularization for ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction</bold> 54</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.4.3.1. Strategies to Approach Multivessel Coronary Artery Disease</bold></italic> 55</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.4.3.2. Cardiogenic Shock</bold></italic> 55</p>
      <p><bold>10.4.4. Considerations on Device During Percutaneous Revascularization</bold> 55</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.4.4.1. Drug-eluting Stents</bold></italic> 55</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.4.4.2. Drug-Coated Balloon</bold></italic> 55</p>
      <p><italic><bold>10.4.4.3. Rotational Atherectomy and Intravascular Lithotripsy</bold></italic> 56</p>
      <p>10.5. Adjunct Pharmacological Therapy 56</p>
      <p>10.6. Knowledge Gaps 56</p>
      <p>10.7. Recommendations 56</p>
      <p>11. Surgical Intervention, Heart Transplantation 57</p>
      <p>11.1. Myocardial Revascularization 57</p>
      <p><bold>11.1.1. Surgical Myocardial Revascularization in Women &#8211; Recommendations</bold> 58</p>
      <p>11.2. Heart Transplantation 58</p>
      <p><bold>11.2.1. Heart Transplant in Women &#8211; Recommendations</bold> 60</p>
      <p>12. Rehabilitation in Women&#8217;s Ischemic Cardiomyopathy 60</p>
      <p>References 62</p>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>1. Introduction/Highlights</title>
        <sec>
          <title>1.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>The differences between sexes go beyond the chromosomal differences between men (XY) and women (XX). Different social values, perceptions, and behaviors determine patterns and create different roles in society, which can generate differences in lifestyle and behavior that might influence epidemiology, clinical manifestation, and treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is worth noting that, from the clinical viewpoint, ischemic heart disease (IHD) occurs earlier in men. However, its incidence and prevalence in women increase markedly after menopause. In addition, a higher proportion of women with anginal symptoms and acute coronary syndrome (ACS) have nonobstructive IHD.</p>
          <p>In women, IHD includes classic coronary atherosclerosis, and its pathophysiology is varied, consisting of coronary microvascular dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, vasomotor abnormalities, and spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding anatomy, women&#8217;s epicardial coronary arteries are smaller than those of men, even when adjusted for body surface and left ventricular (LV) mass. However, as compared to men, women have a lower prevalence of obstructive coronary atherosclerosis and different plaque characteristics even for comparable ischemia levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Women with obstructive IHD are usually older than men, have more cardiovascular comorbidities and a higher incidence of adverse cardiovascular outcomes, such as mortality after acute myocardial infarction (AMI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In women, as compared to men, plaque rupture occurs less often, and culprit-artery revascularization can be more challenging because of access site bleeding and smaller and more tortuous coronary arteries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Chest pain is the most prevalent symptom of AMI in both sexes. However, women more often have atypical symptoms, such as pain in the upper back and neck, fatigue, nauseas, and vomiting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Most women with AMI have prodromal symptoms, such as shortness of breath, uncommon fatigue or discomfort that spreads to the arm/jaw in the previous weeks. Stable angina is the most frequent clinical presentation in women with IHD as opposed to AMI or sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A recently published review summarizes some gender-related aspects of the major diagnostic methods, such as their advantages and disadvantages, as well as sensitivity and specificity values.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The lower sensitivity of the exercise test (ET) to detect obstructive coronary disease in women limits its use in the context of ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICM).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> The diagnostic accuracy of exercise or dobutamine stress echocardiography (SEC) is higher than that of ET, although inferior to that of other methods, with studies showing similar or inferior performance in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The addition of tissue doppler assessment has enabled quantitative analysis of viability. The diagnostic accuracy of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) myocardial perfusion imaging in women is good, mainly regarding sensitivity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Some limitations in women are related to false-positive results due to breast attenuation and lower accuracy in small hearts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Positron emission tomography (PET) is better that SPECT to assess myocardial stress regarding imaging quality and accuracy for both women and men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup>Additional data characterize plaque inflammation and vulnerability, adverse events, and potential benefit of revascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Both ET and SEC are considered safe for use during pregnancy, because they involve no exposure to radiation, and dobutamine and dipyridamole are considered category B. The SPECT and PET-CT techniques should be avoided, while cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) is a good option in pregnancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In past decades, differences in cardiovascular physiology and pathophysiology between women and men have been documented. These differences include the electrophysiological properties of cardiac cells, which can influence the occurrence of different clinical arrhythmias between the sexes. These differences might have a multifactorial origin. However, hormonal action and autonomic influence are important factors in the different electrophysiological behaviors between women and men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The mean heart rate (HR) of women is approximately 3-5 beats/minute higher than that of men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> In addition, women have been shown to have a shorter sinus node recovery time, shorter HV interval, higher ventricular conduction velocity, and increased QT interval.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The prevalence of inappropriate sinus tachycardia is much higher in women. A study of 321 patients with inappropriate sinus tachycardia has shown that 92% of them were of the female sex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Approximately 60% of the narrow-QRS tachycardias observed in clinical practice are secondary to nodal reentrant tachycardia, and their prevalence is twice higher in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> The refractory period of the slow pathway is shorter in the female sex, which can enlarge the arrhythmia induction window and justify the larger number of cases in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> However, it is worth noting that this characteristic does not interfere with the success of the ablation treatment, which corresponds to 95% of the cases in both sexes. In contrast, atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia predominates in the male sex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Men most frequently have a manifest accessory pathway, located on the left side. Women, however, have almost three-times more pathways on the right side.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The age-adjusted incidence of atrial fibrillation (AF) is 1.5- to 2-times higher in men. However, the risk of AF throughout life is similar in both sexes because of the longer life expectancy of the female sex. In women, there is a disproportionate increase in AF as age advances, thus, at the age of 85 years, the differences in prevalence are discrete between sexes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> In addition, women are more symptomatic and have worse quality of life as compared to men. There are several mechanisms associated with the differences between sexes in AF; however, it is worth noting that IHD, more reported in the male sex, can contribute to the higher incidence of AF in the group. Regarding treatment with antiarrhythmic drugs (AADs), women have more adverse effects. The increase in the baseline QT interval can affect the tolerance to AADs, especially the class III ones, requiring more careful monitoring in that group of patients. Regarding ablation outcomes, observational studies have shown that women are less often and belatedly submitted to ablation, usually with worse postprocedural results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The epidemiological characteristics of ventricular arrhythmias in patients with normal heart vary between sexes. Ventricular tachycardia (VT) originating from the right ventricular outflow tract is more frequent in women, while arrhythmias with a fascicular origin are more frequent in men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Prepubescent male patients with type I long QT syndrome and prepubescent female patients with type II long QT syndrome are at higher risk for ventricular arrhythmia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> The occurrence of sudden cardiac death in women is almost half that in men, even after adjusting for predisposing factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Women with heart failure (HF) are usually older than men and have higher prevalence of HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). In addition, they more often have nonischemic heart disease, diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic> (DM), and systemic arterial hypertension (SAH). Several factors contribute to the lower inclusion of women in trials on IHD. The factors related to the patient&#8217;s conditions are as follows: (1) need to travel and miss work; (2) high burden of family responsibilities; (3) need for high level of commitment, (4) socioeconomic, psychological, cultural, and health barriers. The factors related to trials are as follows: (1) low referral rates and eligibility screening; (2) lack of sex-related eligibility criterion; (3) heterogeneous leadership of the trials, mainly represented by men; (4) exclusion of the elderly. Future actions are important for a higher inclusion of women with IHD in large studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>This position statement, through a joint action of cardiology specialties with expertise in women&#8217;s health, is mainly aimed at disseminating information on IHD for the better understanding of its particularities, better management of patients, and consequent reduction in IHD morbidity and mortality.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2. Highlights of this Position Statement</title>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.1. Epidemiology</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; IHD remains the major cause of death in women and men in Brazil. From 1990 to 2019, there was a more marked percent reduction in the standardized IHD mortality rate in women, -55.5 (95% UI, -58.7; -52.3), than in men, -49.5 (95% UI, -52.5; -46.6). That decline differed in the Federative Units in both sexes, being related to population aging and the 2019 Sociodemographic Index (SDI).</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The IHD incidence and prevalence decreased in Brazil in the past 20 years in women and men, despite the increase in early mortality due to IHD between the ages of 18 years and 55 years, especially in women. The age-standardized IHD incidence in women differed in the Brazilian regions, with the Southern and Southeastern regions showing the highest and the Northern region, the lowest rates.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Women have significantly lower primary angioplasty rates and significantly higher in-hospital mortality rates. The prevalence of MINOCA (myocardial infarction with nonobstructive coronary arteries) is higher in women, with mortality similar to that of obstructive IHD, associated with the risk for major events.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The 2019 Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) study estimated standardized rates of DALYs (Disability-Adjusted Life Years) due to IHD per 100 000 inhabitants of 1088.4 (992.8; 1158.9) in women and of 2116.5 (95% UI, 1989.9; 2232.2) in men. In 2019, IHD was the second cause of DALYs in women (after neonatal disorders) and in men (after interpersonal violence) in Brazil. Those rates differed in the different Brazilian geographic regions, and the trend of the age-standardized DALYs rates in women from 1990 to 2019 was similar to that of the mortality rates.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Women are most often exposed to nontraditional cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF), such as mental stress and depression, and more affected by the consequences of social disadvantages due to race, ethnicity, and income. In addition, they are exposed to sex-specific risk factors (RFs), such as pregnancy, menopause, and menarche.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.2. Pathophysiological Bases of Atherothrombotic Disease</title>
            <p>Obstructive coronary disease, characterized by the presence of atherosclerotic plaques in coronary artery walls, is the most frequent substrate of IHD in women. However, nonobstructive coronary disease with evidence of damage to the cardiac muscle or other signs of coronary illness is known to disproportionately affect more women.</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The pathophysiological mechanisms involved in MINOCA include coronary plaque rupture, SCAD, coronary vasospasm, coronary microvascular dysfunction, and embolism/thrombosis. The syndromes that clinically mimic MINOCA, such as Takotsubo, myocarditis, and nonischemic cardiomyopathy, are worth noting.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.3. Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Clinical Treatment</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Female sex-specific biological and sociocultural differences in the IHD&#8217;s chest pain presentation can explain the differences in its clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management, leading to management delays and, thus, unfavorable outcomes.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Women&#8217;s ischemic symptoms are more often related to emotional or mental stress and less often precipitated by physical activity as compared to men&#8217;s. Global risk score and characterization of angina should not be used uniformly in women and men, because of the different impact of RFs and the different clinical manifestations between sexes.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The relevance of the RFs, such as SAH, obesity, DM, and smoking, differs between sexes. Female-specific RFs are important in risk stratification, and preeclampsia and gestational diabetes increase cardiovascular risk (CVR) throughout a woman&#8217;s life.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Women less often undergo coronary angiography and surgical treatment, including mechanical circulatory support in cardiogenic shock. However, they have higher mortality and more postoperative complications, despite their lower atherosclerotic burden.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Less than 50% of female patients undergo appropriate drug treatment; in addition, adhesion to treatment is low, and cardiac rehabilitation is underused.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The treatment of MINOCA and INOCA (ischemia with nonobstructive coronary arteries) is based on lifestyle change, control of RFs, and antianginal treatment.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.4. Diagnosis by use of Graphic Functional Assessment</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Misplacement of the electrocardiogram (ECG) electrodes can lead to misdiagnosis in women. Large breasts or breast prostheses can generate low-voltage complexes and reduce the R wave amplitude in V1 and V2 leads, simulating an inactive area. For chest pain assessment, the same diagnostic ECG criteria are used for women and men, except for the analysis of a subepicardial lesion.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The ET is recommended as the initial method to assess symptomatic women at intermediate risk for IHD, with normal ECG at rest, and who can exercise. In addition to the ST-segment changes, the ability to exercise, the chronotropic and blood pressure (BP) responses, the HR recovery, and the Duke treadmill score (DTS) assessment are prognostic information that increase ET accuracy, especially in women. Physical functioning is the most important prognostic variable for morbidity and all-cause mortality in women, including the asymptomatic ones. The inability to reach 5 MET is an independent predictor of high risk, with a three-fold increase in mortality as compared to those who exceed 8 MET.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) allows the diagnosis, prognosis, follow-up after therapeutic intervention, and the prescription of aerobic exercises in IHD. The CPET has higher diagnostic accuracy in women&#8217;s IHD as compared to the ET. In addition to clinical, hemodynamic, and electrocardiographic criteria, CPET provides the analysis of oxygen pulse, which enables the inference of exertion-induced ischemic ventricular dysfunction, whose finding can be relevant to the diagnosis of macro- and microvascular IHD in women.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.5. Diagnosis by use of Noninvasive Cardiovascular Imaging</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Stress echocardiography has good accuracy to investigate women&#8217;s IHD, assesses LV systolic function, enables differential diagnosis, and is safe because it involves no radiation.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Vascular ultrasound (VUS) is useful to detect carotid plaques as a risk modifier in women with intermediate probability and/or nontraditional RFs, to screen abdominal aortic aneurysm in female smokers or former smokers aged 55-75 years, and to search for silent peripheral arterial disease (PAD).</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) has good diagnostic and prognostic accuracy to assess women&#8217;s IHD, characterizing and quantifying lesions. Classically, women have less calcified and nonobstructive lesions as compared to men.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; CMRI provides more information to detect women&#8217;s IHD: identifies ischemia due to obstructive and nonobstructive IHD, MINOCA, assesses myocardial viability, differentiates ischemic from inflammatory disease, and defines the Takotsubo diagnosis.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Nuclear imaging assesses the entire IHD spectrum, from obstructive coronary disease to coronary microvascular dysfunction, with no limitation regarding kidney function, arrhythmias, obesity, and intracardiac devices.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.6. Arrhythmias in Ischemic Heart Disease</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; As compared to men, women more often have inappropriate sinus tachycardia and nodal reentrant tachycardia and less often have AF, malignant ventricular arrhythmias, such as VT and ventricular fibrillation (VF), and sudden cardiac death. Despite the differences in prevalence between sexes, women benefit from the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Women with AF have a higher prevalence of SAH, obesity, depression, HFpEF, and valvular heart disease as the cause of arrhythmia. Other risk predictors of AF in women are the lack or scarcity of physical exercise practice, estrogen monotherapy, and multiparity. Women with AF are at a high risk for stroke, with no significant difference in the risk for stroke or systemic embolism and gastrointestinal bleeding between women and men on anticoagulants. A significant reduction in intracranial hemorrhage and all-cause mortality in women with AF on direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) was observed. Women with AF have worse quality of life than men and are less often submitted to procedures, such as catheter ablation or electric cardioversion (ECV).</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Women less often have ICM as compared to men; in addition, women with IHD and implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) have fewer episodes of VT/VF and of electric storm, and fewer ICD shocks. Women less often have ICM and a smaller fibrosis load than men submitted to cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) and respond better to CRT than men, with longer time intervals until the first hospitalization and lower mortality. Therapies, such as ICD and CRT, yield benefits regarding mortality. Women represent 30% of the studies&#8217; population samples with those therapies.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The percentage of women in studies on VT ablation in individuals with IHD is low (7-13%). The smaller number of indications for invasive procedures, of sustained VT induction, and of appropriate shocks is a factor that might contribute to that reduced percentage.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.7. Atherothrombosis in Pregnancy, Contraception, Infertility, Antiphospholipid Syndrome</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Atherothrombotic disease is one of the most frequent causes of AMI during pregnancy and puerperium.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The management of acute IHD during pregnancy should prioritize maternal life and follow the recommendations for the general population.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The triad (smoking, age over 35 years, and prolonged use, &gt; 10 years, of oral combined contraceptive) is considered the determinant factor of the clinical manifestation of atherothrombotic disease during pregnancy and puerperium.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The complaint of chest pain during pregnancy in women with RF for cardiovascular disease (CVD) should not be underestimated and follow the conventional protocol of ACS investigation.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Contraceptives are not free from atherothrombotic effects, but, when not prescribed, there is the risk of unplanned pregnancy, mainly of adolescents and women with comorbidities. The contraceptive method selection should be individualized, considering the patient&#8217;s preference and age, as well as the method&#8217;s safety and efficacy.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The frequency of proatherosclerotic metabolic disorders, particularly obesity and increased total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and triglycerides, is higher among infertile women.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The treatment of infertility is considered a potential RF for hypertensive disorders in the subsequent pregnancy. However, a correlation between fertilization treatment and cardiovascular events has not yet been demonstrated.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) should be considered when clinical manifestations of vascular thrombosis and/or recurrent obstetrical complications are present, and its investigation is mandatory when stroke and AMI occur in young women.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.8. Ischemic Cardiomyopathy</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Heart failure related to ICM is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in women, who tend to develop the condition at a more advanced age than men.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The HFpEF is more common in women, but the ischemic etiology tends to manifest in the dilated form and reduced ejection fraction, although with less endomyocardial fibrosis as compared to men.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Women are less represented in clinical trials of HF. Nevertheless, the guideline recommendations on pharmacological and advanced treatment do not suggest individualized treatment for women.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.9. Percutaneous Coronary Intervention</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; For the interventional procedure, strategies to reduce the risk of bleeding and vascular complications should be adopted, prioritizing the radial access and use of auxiliary drugs at doses appropriate to weight and kidney function.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Functional assessment in coronary disease, by analyzing the fractional flow reserve (FFR), is highly useful in intermediate obstructions (40% to 70%), when ischemia cannot be confirmed by use of noninvasive methods. Women seem to have higher FFR values in nonobstructive coronary disease, confirming the importance of measuring FFR in women, which is a significant univariate predictor of prognosis in the group.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Profiles of high risk for bleeding should be identified and excellence in the intervention outcomes should be sought by use of careful selection and proper preparation of lesions, low threshold for the use of intravascular imaging guidance, optimized stent implantation, and personalized post-intervention antiplatelet strategy.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; In cases of MINOCA, strategies should be used in the catheterization laboratory to optimize the etiological diagnosis.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The diagnosis of microvascular dysfunction, most frequent in women, should be considered in both the chronic and acute scenarios, and that diagnosis can be confirmed by invasive coronary physiological methods.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.10. Myocardial Revascularization and Cardiac Transplantation</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The use of arterial grafts in myocardial revascularization (MRV) is less frequent in women.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; In the postoperative period, women have a higher rate of complications.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; A delay in surgical indication has a negative impact on the postoperative results.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Currently women correspond to 25% of heart transplantation recipients, have a higher rate of complications, mainly rejection, and better survival than men after cardiac transplantation.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Women have a lower incidence of malignant tumors postoperatively.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>1.2.11. Rehabilitation in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy</title>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; Referral to cardiac rehabilitation should be part of the medical prescription for women with IHD, including those with SCAD and MINOCA.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>&#8226; The initial assessment and cardiac rehabilitation program prescription should be directed to the women&#8217;s specificities, aimed at better adherence and lower abandonment rates.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. Epidemiology of Ischemic Heart Disease in Women</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>The population growth and extended life expectancy have contributed to increase the total number of deaths due to IHD around the world. The age-standardized mortality rates due to IHD in women and men have gradually decreased in most countries, probably because of the improvement in diagnosis and treatment, despite the significant increase in obesity, fasting serum glucose elevation, and metabolic syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In Brazil, IHD remains the major cause of death in women and men. The IHD incidence and prevalence have decreased in Brazil over the past 20 years in women and men, despite the increase in early mortality due to IHD between the ages of 18 years and 55 years, especially in women. In addition, IHD was the second major cause of DALYs in women in Brazil from 1990 to 2019.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Women suffer a greater impact from traditional CVRFs and have worse prognosis, although their IHD risk and atherothrombotic burdens are lower. Women more frequently have nontraditional CVRFs, such as mental stress and depression, and suffer from social disadvantages due to race, ethnicity, and income.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>MINOCA predominates in women,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> whose outcomes are substantially worse as compared to those of men. In addition, younger women (&lt;55 years) and the subgroups of women defined by race, ethnicity, socioeconomic <italic>status</italic>, and schooling have even more marked disparities regarding IHD diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>This chapter is aimed at summarizing the findings on IHD epidemiology in women, especially the Brazilian ones.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2. Mortality</title>
          <p>Recent data from the GBD 2021 project have estimated for CVD in Brazil standardized rates of 3568.0 DALYs (1 DALY represents the loss of the equivalent of 1 year of full health) and of 162.2 deaths per 100 000 inhabitants, with a standardized prevalence rate of 6905.6 per 100 000 inhabitants. In addition, according to the GBD 2021, the estimated rates for IHD in Tropical Latin America (Brazil and Paraguay), in 2021, were as follows: prevalence of 1989.5, mortality of 67.7, and 1439.6 DALYs per 100 000 inhabitants. Despite the significant progress in decreasing the number of deaths from CVD from 1980 to the end of 2021, there has been a worrisome increase in the crude mortality rate and number of DALYs from CVD in recent years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cardiovascular disease is the major cause of death in women worldwide and, in 2021, CVD was responsible for approximately one third of all female deaths. Mortality from CVD decreased globally in the past 30 years, with a more significant decline in countries with high SDI (SDI = mean composed by per capita income, mean education level, and fertility rate). However, in high-income regions, the CVD mortality reduction trend has decreased, and, in 2017, the number of female deaths increased in some countries, such as the United States and Canada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the region of the Americas, the age-adjusted IHD mortality rate decreased from 2000 to 2019 in men, passing from 149.08 (95% UI, 138.23; 168.08) to 96.02 (95% UI, 83.48; 117.19), with a percent change of -2.3 (95% UI, -2.5; -2.1), and in women, passing from 92.36 (95% UI, 81.35; 109.42) to 54.84 (95% UI, 45.28; 71.76), with a percent change of -2.7 (95% UI, -3.0; -2.5). In that same period, the mortality rates decreased significantly in 24 countries. Costa Rica, Canada, and Chile had the highest percent reductions, while a significant increase occurred in the Dominican Republic and Grenada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In Brazil, from 1990 to 2019, a decline in standardized CVD mortality rate was observed in women. According to the GBD 2019 study, IHD (defined as individuals with previous myocardial infarction, s angina, or ischemic HF) was the major responsible for death in women, followed by type 2 DM and stroke, in that order (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 2.1</xref>). That decline was different in the Brazilian Federative Units in both sexes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2.2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2.3</xref>A), being related to population aging and the 2019 SDI.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 2.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Ranking of the ischemic heart disease mortality rates (per 100 000 inhabitants) according to sex, in Brazil, in 1990 and 2019. COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Source: Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019 Study.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2.2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Ranking of the ischemic heart disease mortality rates (per 100 000 inhabitants) according to the Federative Units and sex, in Brazil, in 1990 and 2019.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Source: Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019 Study.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2.3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Ischemic heart disease in women: standardized rates of mortality (A), DALYs (B), prevalence (C), and incidence (D), per 100 000 inhabitants, according to the Federative Units, in Brazil, in 2019.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Source: Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019 Study.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Data from the GBD 2019 estimated that, in 2019, the age-standardized IHD mortality rates were 58 (95% UI, 51; 63) and 96 (95% UI, 88; 101) per 100 000 inhabitants in Brazil, in women and men, respectively. From 1990 to 2019, there was a more marked percent reduction in the standardized IHD mortality rate in women, -55.5 (95% UI, -58.7; -52.3), than in men, -49.5 (95% UI, -52.5; -46.6) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 2.4</xref>A). In all age groups, the IHD mortality rates were higher in men than in women and increased with aging in both sexes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 2.1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 2.4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Ischemic heart disease: standardized rates of mortality (A), DALYs (B), prevalence (C), and incidence (D), per 100 000 inhabitants, according to sex, in Brazil, in 2019.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Source: Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019 Study.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t4001">
              <label>Table 2.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Ischemic heart disease: numbers of death, rates of mortality, DALYs, prevalence, and incidence, and percent changes of the rates, per 100 000 inhabitants, according to age group and sex, Brazil, 1990 and 2019. Source: Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019 Study.31</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="17%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" rowspan="2">ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASES</th>
                    <th colspan="2">1990</th>
                    <th colspan="2">2019</th>
                    <th rowspan="2">Percent Change for rate (UI 95%)</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Number (UI 95%)</th>
                    <th>Rate (UI 95%)</th>
                    <th>Number (UI 95%)</th>
                    <th>Rate (UI 95%)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>DEATH</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Female</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>15-49 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3909.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(3741.1;4083)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>10</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(9.6;10.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3813.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(3539.1;4106.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>6.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(6.1;7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-35.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-40.4;-28.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>50-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>15601.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(14922.1;16385.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>191.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(182.8;200.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>20769</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(19331.1;22110.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>97</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(90.3;103.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-49.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-53.2;-44.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70+ years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>30524.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(27413.3;32326.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1301.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1169;1378.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>50625.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(42567.4;55652)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>670.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(563.8;737)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-48.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-53.1;-44.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age-standardized</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>50035.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(46474.1;52421.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>130.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(118.1;137.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>75207.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(66247.3;81307.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>57.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(51;62.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-55.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-58.7;-52.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>All Ages</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>50035.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(46474.1;52421.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>66.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(61.7;69.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>75207.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(66247.3;81307.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>67.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(59.8;73.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-6.1;9.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Male</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>15-49 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>9180.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(8829;9551.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>24.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(23.4;25.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>9018.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(8513.2;9574.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>15.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(14.9;16.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-35</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-39.3;-30.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>50-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>29205.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(28207.5;30291.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>388.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(374.8;402.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>39360.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(37264.7;41601.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>207.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(196.9;219.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-46.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-50;-42.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70+ years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>28825.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(26903;30176.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1529.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1427.2;1600.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>47659.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(42457.3;51239)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>860.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(766.7;925.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-43.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-47.9;-40.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age-standardized</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>67211.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(64502.5;69571)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>189.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(178.2;197)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>96038.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(89069.1;101545.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>95.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(87.7;101.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-49.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-52.5;-46.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>All Ages</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>67211.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(64502.5;69571)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>91.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(87.7;94.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>96038.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(89069.1;101545.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>90.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(84.2;96)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-0.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-7.2;5.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>INCIDENCE</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Female</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>15-49 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>7197</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(5499.8;9046.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>18.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(14.1;23.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>11635.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(9059.9;14317.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>19.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(15.5;24.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>7.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(0.9;15.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>50-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>16567.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(13251.3;20250.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>203</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(162.3;248.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>45832.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(37412.2;55078.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>214</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(174.7;257.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>5.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(0.8;11.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70+ years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>16711.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(13816.2;20044.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>712.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(589.2;854.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>43920.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(37060.4;51680.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>581.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(490.8;684.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-18.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-21.7;-14.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age-standardized</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>40475.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(35479;45761.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>88.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(77.7;99.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>101388.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(89389.1;114296.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>78.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(69;88.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-11.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-14.7;-8.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>All Ages</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>40475.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(35479;45761.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>53.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(47.1;60.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>101388.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(89389.1;114296.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>91.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(80.6;103.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>70.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(64.3;76)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Male</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>15-49 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>13927.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(11155;17134.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>36.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(29.6;45.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>22270</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(17691.1;27177.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>39.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(31;47.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>5.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(0.2;11.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>50-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>33048.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(27279.8;39599.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>439.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(362.5;526.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>84424.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(70604.7;101021)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>446</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(373;533.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-2.6;6.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70+ years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>21875.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(18078.2;25972.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1160.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(959.1;1377.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>52578.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(44648;61725.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>949.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(806.2;1114.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-18.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-22.1;-14.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age-standardized</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>68851</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(60766.7;77363.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>167.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(148;189)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>159273.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(140195.3;178778.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>148</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(130.4;166.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-11.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-14.7;-9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>All Ages</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>68851</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(60766.7;77363.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>93.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(82.6;105.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>159273.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(140195.3;178778.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>150.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(132.5;169)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>60.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(55.6;66.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>PREVALENCE</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Female</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>15-49 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>67405.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(56057.1;81268.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>173.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(144;208.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>124695.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(103531.2;149594.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>213.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(177;255.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>23.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(20;26.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>50-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>204529</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(170177.7;249197.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2505.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2084.9;3053)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>534224.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(445383.3;647280.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2494.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2079.8;3022.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-0.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-2.8;2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70+ years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>212483.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(175519;255435.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>9060.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(7484.6;10892.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>694914.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(582274.2;826926.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>9203.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(7711.5;10951.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-1.7;5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age-standardized</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>484418.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(417746.5;563544.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1071.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(925.1;1242.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1353835.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1172305.1;1562949.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1045.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(904.6;1208.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-2.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-4.2;-0.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>All Ages</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>484418.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(417746.5;563544.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>643.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(555;748.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1353835.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1172305.1;1562949.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1221.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1057.4;1409.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>89.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(85.1;95.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Male</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>15-49 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>147353.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(119423.1;180805.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>390.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(316.7;479.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>280252.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(227615.4;344765)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>491.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(399.3;604.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>25.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(21.9;29.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>50-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>477021.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(392697.1;589599.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>6339</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(5218.4;7835)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1231669.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1021223.9;1511754.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>6506.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(5395.1;7986.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(0.2;5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70+ years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>371414.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(301282.3;450276.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>19703.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(15983;23887.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1138137.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(940499.4;1375886.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>20552.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(16983.4;24845.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1.6;7.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age-standardized</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>995790.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(851258.4;1169649.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2498.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2137;2941.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2650060.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2275770;3115190.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2534</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2170.4;2975.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-0.4;3.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>All Ages</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>995790.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(851258.4;1169649.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1353.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1157.1;1589.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2650060.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2275770;3115190.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2504.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2151;2944.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>85</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(80.7;89.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>DALY</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Female</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>15-49 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>189243.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(181288.6;197784.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>486</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(465.6;508)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>182088.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(169104.9;195954)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>311.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(289.2;335.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-35.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-41.1;-29.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>50-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>453002.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(433556.6;475548.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>5549.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(5311.6;5826.1)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>607233.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(565939.9;646284.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2835.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2642.8;3018)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-48.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-52.8;-44.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70+ years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>407987.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(373418.1;429318.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>17397.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(15923.6;18307.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>625969.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(538771.7;681196.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>8290.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(7135.3;9021.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-52.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-56.1;-49)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age-standardized</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1050233.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(998139;1093952.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2303.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2162.5;2403.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1415291.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1291761.5;1506628.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1088.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(992.8;1158.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-52.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-56.1;-49.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>All Ages</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1050233.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(998139;1093952.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1395.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1326.1;1453.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1415291.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1291761.5;1506628.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1276.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1165.2;1359)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-8.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-15.3;-1.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Male</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>15-49 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>443883.8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(427008;461879.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1177.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1132.3;1224.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>437993</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(414351.3;464321.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>768.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(726.8;814.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-34.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-38.8;-30.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>50-69 years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>873719.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(844632.7;906253.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>11610.6</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(11224.1;12042.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1188364.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1122117.2;1256445.4)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>6278.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(5928.1;6637.8)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-45.9</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-49.5;-42.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70+ years</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>425524.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(400309;444510.9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>22574.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(21236.4;23581.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>679374.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(620110.3;725589)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>12268</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(11197.9;13102.6)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-45.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-49.2;-42.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age-standardized</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1743127.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1681550;1801264.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4013.2</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(3852.3;4150.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2305732.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2173570.4;2429437.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2116.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1989.9;2232.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-47.3</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-50.4;-44)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>All Ages</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1743127.7</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(1681550;1801264.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2369.5</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2285.8;2448.5)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2305732.1</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2173570.4;2429437.7)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2179.4</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(2054.4;2296.3)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>-8</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>(-13.6;-2.2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>A study with Brazilian data from the Brazilian Mortality Information System (SIM) has reported that, between 1981 and 2001, the coefficient of death related to IHD remained stable for women in the Northern and West-Central regions, while decreased in the Southern and Southeastern regions and increased in the Northeastern region. For men, there was a decreasing trend in the events in the Southern and Southeastern regions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A study assessing 166 514 coronary angioplasty procedures to treat IHD performed in 180 hospitals between 2005 and 2008 has reported mean in-hospital mortality of 2.3% (minimum of 0%, maximum of 11.4%), which varied according to the geographic region, being lowest in the Southeastern (2.0%) and highest in the Northern region (3.6%). The mortality rate was higher in women and in patients over the age of 65 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Women undergoing MRV have higher mortality and more postoperative complications, despite their smaller atherosclerotic burden. The increase in mortality at the time of MRV is higher at younger ages than at more advanced ages, and a three-fold higher risk of death is estimated in women aged &lt; 50 years, despite adjustment for RFs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A study performed from 1996 to 2016 with data from the SIM corrected for underreporting and garbage code [causes of death that should not be considered as underlying causes of death or are nonspecific, being, thus, considered insufficient in terms of prevention, such as ICD-10 codes I50 (heart failure) and R96 (sudden death)] analyzed the trends of AMI mortality according to sex, Brazilian geographical regions, and place of residence (capital <italic>versus</italic> noncapital cities). The authors have reported that the age-standardized AMI mortality rate decreased 44% in Brazil, with significant regional differences (+5%, North; +11%, Northeast; -35%, West-Central; -68%, Southeast; and -85%, South). The temporal variations were more significant in women and in the capital cities. The corrected age-standardized AMI mortality rates decreased 49% and 23% among women living in the capital cities and other municipalities, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Another study performed with data from the SIM has reported an approximately 2.2% decline in AMI over the past 20 years in the most developed geographical regions (Southeastern, Southern, and West-Central), stabilization in the Northern region, and increase in the Northeastern region. The authors have predicted that the trend will persist up to 2030. Those variations might have been related to improvements in social development, in CVRFs, and in access to the health system and its coverage, as well as to the better coding discrimination in the certificates of death in the Northern and Northeastern regions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The VICTIM registry has assessed 878 patients diagnosed with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) admitted to one public and three private hospitals performing primary angioplasty in the Sergipe state from December 2014 to June 2018. Of those patients, 33.4% were women. Of the total, only 53.3% underwent myocardial reperfusion (134 women <italic>versus</italic> 334 men). Women had significantly lower primary angioplasty rates (44% <italic>versus</italic> 54.5%; p = 0.003) and significantly higher in-hospital mortality rates (16.1% <italic>versus</italic> 6.7%; p &lt; 0.001) than men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Another prospective single-center study conducted in the city of Recife, Pernambuco state, on 709 consecutive patients with STEMI (women, 36%; mean age, 61 years) from February 2018 to February 2019 has reported that women were older (63.13 years <italic>versus</italic> 60.53 years, p = 0.011), most frequently had SAH (75.1% <italic>versus</italic>. 62.4%, p = 0.001), DM (42.2% <italic>versus</italic> 27.8%, p &lt; 0.001), and dyslipidemia (34.1% <italic>versus</italic> 23.9%, p = 0.004), and less frequently underwent percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) through the radial access (23.7% <italic>versus</italic> 46.1%, p &lt; 0.001) than men. The in-hospital mortality rate was significantly higher in women as compared to men (13.2% <italic>versus</italic> 5.6%, p = 0.001), and the female sex was an independent predictor of in-hospital mortality (OR 2.79; 95% CI, 1.15 &#8211; 6.76; p = 0.023).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3. Prevalence and Incidence</title>
          <p>According to data from the GBD 2019 study, the age-standardized IHD prevalence rates in Brazil were 1046 (95% UI, 905; 1209) per 100 000 women and 2534 (95% UI, 2170; 2975) per 100 000 men (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 2.1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup>The age-standardized IHD prevalence in women differed in the Brazilian regions, being higher in the Southeastern and Southern regions and lower in the Northern region (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2.3</xref>C).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> The standardized IHD prevalence rate per 100 000 inhabitants from 1990 to 2019 had a percent reduction in women, -2.4 (95% UI, -4.2; -0.5), but a slight increase in men, 1.4 (95% UI, -0.4; 3.3) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 2.1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 2.4</xref>C).</p>
          <p>The GBD 2019 study estimated an IHD incidence of 260 661 (95% UI, 230 100-293 617) events (mainly myocardial infarction) in Brazil in 2019. In all age groups, the IHD incidence was higher in men than in women (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 2.1</xref>). In 2019, the age-standardized IHD incidence rates were 78 (95% UI, 69; 88) per 100 000 women and 148 (95% UI, 130; 166) per 100 000 men. The age-standardized IHD incidence in women differed in the Brazilian geographic regions, being higher in the Southeastern and Southern regions and lower in the Northern region (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2.3</xref>D).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> The standardized IHD incidence rate per 100 000 inhabitants from 1990 to 2019 had a percent reduction in women, -11.8 (95% UI, -14.7; -8.5), and in men, -11.8 (95% UI, -14.7; -9) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 2.1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 2.4</xref>D).</p>
          <p>The AMI prevalence in women is lower in the younger than in the older age groups, but there has been a worrisome trend in recent years, considering that the proportion attributable to young patients (35-54 years) increased from 27% to 32% in the past two decades, and that increase was higher among young women (21% to 31%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The prevalence of MINOCA is higher in women. The VIRGO (<italic>Variation in Recovery: Role of Gender on Outcomes of Young AMI Patients</italic>) study, performed from 2008 to 2012, included prospectively 2690 patients with AMI, aged 18-55 years, from 103 hospitals, at the proportion of 2 women to 1 man. Of the 2374 patients submitted to coronary angiography, women were 5-fold more likely to have MINOCA than men (14.9% <italic>versus</italic> 3.5%; OR 4.84; 95% CI, 3.29 &#8211; 7.13). Women with significant coronary obstruction more often were menopausal (55.2% <italic>versus</italic> 41.2%; p &lt; 0.001) or had a gestational diabetes history (16.8% <italic>versus</italic> 11.0%; p = 0.028). It is worth noting that mortalities from MINOCA at 1 and 12 months were similar to those from coronary obstruction at the same times.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4. Burden of Diseases</title>
          <p>The GBD 2019 study estimated standardized DALYs rates due to IHD per 100 000 inhabitants of 1088.4 (992.8; 1158.9) in women and of 2116.5 (95% UI, 1989.9; 2232.2) in men (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 2.1</xref>). The second most common cause of DALYs in Brazil was IHD among women, following neonatal complications, and among men, following interpersonal violence, in 2019.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Those rates differed in the different Brazilian geographic regions, and the trend of the age-standardized DALYs rates from 1990 to 2019 in women was similar to that of the mortality rates (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2.3</xref>B). The Federative Units with the highest numbers of DALYs due to IHD per 100 000 inhabitants in women in 2019 were Rio de Janeiro, Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Sul, Para&#237;ba, Alagoas, and S&#227;o Paulo, in that order (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 2.5</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 2.5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Ranking of the ischemic heart disease DALYs rates (per 100 000 inhabitants) according to the Federative Units and sex, in Brazil, in 1990 and 2019.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Source: Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019 Study.<italic><sup>31</sup></italic></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>From 1990 to 2019, there was a higher percent reduction in the standardized DALYs rate due to IHD per 100 000 inhabitants in women, -52.7 (95% UI, -56.1; -49.3), than in men, -47.3 (95% UI, -50.4; -44) (Table 1 and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">4B</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f08001">
              <label>Figure 4.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Pathophysiology of the ischemic cascade of anginal equivalents.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf06-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.5. Risk Factors</title>
          <p>The traditional RFs, such as SAH, hyperlipidemia, DM, smoking, poor eating habits, and sedentary lifestyle, are prevalent among women with IHD and they go along with the emerging RFs, such as metabolic, pregnancy-related, and autoimmune disorders, in addition to sleep apnea, chronic diseases, low socioeconomic level, burnout, and psychosocial factors, such as depression and anxiety.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the PURE (<italic>Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiological</italic>) Study, 202 072 individuals aged 35-70 years, from urban and rural communities in 27 countries, from January 2005 to May 2019, were followed up for a mean of 9.5 (IQR: 8.5&#8211;10.9) years. Women had a lower CVRF burden according to two different traditional risk scores (INTERHEART and Framingham). Primary prevention strategies (healthy lifestyle and use of approved medications) were most frequent in women, whose incidence of CVD was lower. However, secondary prevention treatments for IHD were less frequent in women than in men. The differences between women and men with or without previous CVD and IHD regarding treatments and results were more significant in low/middle-income countries, with few differences in high-income countries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The IHD attributable RFs are shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figure 2.6</xref>. Dietary risks and SAH are number one in the ranking of IHD attributable RFs in both sexes, worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f06001">
              <label>Figure 2.6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Ranking of the risk factors attributable to ischemic heart disease worldwide in both sexes, in 2021.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Source: Global Burden of Diseases (GBD) 2019 Study.<italic><sup>28</sup></italic></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf07-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>In the case-control study derived from the VIRGO study, with 2264 patients with AMI (18-55 years) and 2264 paired controls, 3122 (68.9%) were women, with a median age of 48 (44-52) years. The following seven RFs represent collectively the larger part of the total risk of AMI in women (83.9%) and men (85.1%): DM [OR 3.59 (95% CI, 2.72-4.74) in women <italic>versus</italic> 1.76 (1.19-2.60) in men]; depression [OR 3.09 (95% CI, 2.37-4.04) in women <italic>versus</italic> 1.77 (1.15-2.73) in men]; SAH [OR 2.87 (95% CI, 2.31-3.57) in women <italic>versus</italic> 2.19 (1.65-2.90) in men]; current smoking [OR 3.28 (95% CI, 2.65-4.07) in women <italic>versus</italic> 3.28 (2.65-4.07) in men]; family history of early myocardial infarction [OR 1.48 (95% CI, 1.17-1.88) in women <italic>versus</italic> 2.42 (1.71-3.41) in men]; low family-income [OR 1.79 (95% CI, 1.28-2.50) in women <italic>versus</italic> 1.35 (0.82-2.23) in men]; hypercholesterolemia [OR 1.02 (95% CI, 0.81-1.29) in women <italic>versus</italic> 2.16 (1.49-3.15) in men]. There were significant differences between the sexes in RF associations: SAH, depression, DM, current smoking, and family history of DM showed stronger associations with AMI in young women, while hypercholesterolemia showed a stronger association in young men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A study with 10 112 patients (29% women) with IHD recruited in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East between 2012 and 2013 has reported that, as compared to men, women were less likely to achieve targets for total cholesterol [OR 0.50 (95% CI, 0.43-0.59)], LDL-cholesterol [OR 0.57 (95% CI, 0.51-0.64)], and glucose [OR 0.78 (95% CI, 0.70-0.87)], or to be physically active [OR 0.74 (95% CI, 0.68-0.81)] or non-obese [OR 0.82 (95% CI, 0.74-0.90)]. However, women showed better BP control [OR 1.31 (95% CI, 1.20-1.44)] and were more likely to not smoke [OR 1.93 (95% CI, 1.67-2.22)] than men. The authors have concluded that control for secondary prevention of RFs related to IHD was usually worse in women than in men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.6. Conclusion</title>
          <p>Ischemic heart disease contributes significantly to women&#8217;s morbidity and mortality. Although the IHD mortality, DALYs, prevalence and incidence rates have decreased over the past 20 years, data indicate that mortality from IHD in women aged 35-54 years is increasing. Women&#8217;s IHD recognition, discussion, education, and appropriate treatment are necessary to reduce the IHD diagnosis and treatment gaps, and the unfavorable IHD outcomes in women.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Pathophysiological Bases of Atherothrombotic Disease</title>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>The recognition of traditional RFs for atherosclerotic CVD, as well as emerging and nontraditional RFs that are specific to or more frequent in women, in addition to their different impacts contribute to the new understanding of the mechanisms that lead to worse outcomes in women (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07001">Figure 3.1</xref>). More details on the importance of RFs in women can be seem in the subsequent chapter.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f07001">
              <label>Figure 3.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Traditional and nontraditional risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in women.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf08-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>The presentations of atherosclerotic CVD can be acute, such as MINOCA, which represents 3% to 15% of the cases, or can be related to cases of INOCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> The diagnostic criterion for MINOCA is the presence of AMI with no obstructive lesion (&gt; 50%) in any epicardial artery and lack of alternative diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The pathophysiological mechanisms involved in MINOCA include coronary plaque rupture, SCAD, vasospasm, coronary microvascular dysfunction, and embolism/thrombosis. The syndromes that clinically mimic MINOCA, such as Takotsubo, myocarditis, and nonischemic cardiomyopathy are worth mentioning.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2. Plaque Rupture</title>
          <p>Plaque rupture is a comprehensive term that comprises rupture, erosion, and calcified nodules in the coronary arteries. Plaque rupture with thrombus formation is the usual manifestation of ACS, but it might not obstruct the vessel lumen. Erosion is the formation of a thrombus adjacent to the luminal surface, resulting from cell apoptosis and recruitment of neutrophiles. The calcified nodules are usually identified by use of intravascular imaging as protrusions into the coronary lumen, and they can undergo fracture with fibrin accumulation in the fibrous cap.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Female sex and smoking are associated with a higher incidence of erosion than that of plaque rupture. The intravascular changes can be detected by use of ultrasound or optic coherence tomography (OCT). The HARP Study has shown that plaque rupture is the most frequent cause of MINOCA, evidenced in 43% of the women with that condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3. Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection</title>
          <p>Spontaneous coronary artery dissection results from the formation of a false arterial lumen in the absence of significant atherosclerotic disease. Two mechanisms have been described, one involving laceration of the intimal layer and resulting in false lumen (<italic>inside-out</italic>), while the other involves intramural hemorrhage with or without rupture of the intimal layer (<italic>outside-in</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> There are multiple predisposing factors, such as genetic factors, female sex, pregnancy and estrogen therapy, fibromuscular dysplasia, systemic inflammatory diseases, in addition to external factors, such as emotional stress, intense physical activity, and use of stimulant drugs. Data from international registries point to SCAD as the major cause of AMI in the perigestational period, occurring more frequently in the third gestational trimester and right after delivery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
          <p>According to angiographic characteristics, four types of SCAD have been described: type 1: evident arterial wall with multiple radiolucent lumens; type 2: one segment with diffuse narrowing (normally &gt; 20mm) and normal proximal and distal segments (type 2A) or diffuse narrowing extending to the distal extremity of the vessel (type 2B); type 3: short segment of stenosis (&lt; 20mm) that mimics atherosclerosis; type 4: characterized by dissection with total abrupt occlusion of a distal coronary segment. According to international guidelines, type 4 SCAD does not constitute MINOCA, while the other types with nonobstructive lesions or lesions not identified on angiography are included in that classification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4. Coronary Artery Spasm</title>
          <p>Coronary artery spasm as a cause of ischemia is diagnosed in the presence of chest pain with or without ischemic change on ECG and vasoconstriction &gt; 90% on angiography. It can occur spontaneously or be induced by acetylcholine or ergonovine. The pathophysiological mechanism is hyperreactivity of the muscle layer of epicardial arteries and microcirculation, but still not completely clarified.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Some individuals have distinct vasospasm triggers, such as stress, hyperventilation, daily periods and seasonal cycles (clusters), suggesting intracellular and post-receptor changes related to hyperreactivity. Smoking and Asian ethnicity are reported as predisposing factors, while the other traditional RFs seem not related to an increased risk. Some studies have suggested that women are more susceptible to spasms induced by acetylcholine than by ergonovine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5. Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction</title>
          <p>The coronary microvascular circulation comprises vessels with diameter &lt; 0.5mm, not visualized on conventional angiography, although they represent more than 70% of the coronary vascular resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup>Coronary microvascular dysfunction is defined as a change in the coronary flow reserve (CFR) or an increase in intramyocardial resistance in the absence of obstruction of epicardial coronary arteries. The CFR can be assessed by using noninvasive measures, with doppler or thermodilution techniques. The CFR is expressed as the ratio between coronary flows at maximal hyperemia and at baseline condition, and a value &lt;2.0 is considered abnormal. The maximum index of microcirculatory resistance is calculated by multiplying the distal coronary pressure during maximal hyperemia by the mean hyperemic transit time, and a value &#8805; 25 indicates dysfunction of the microcirculation. The diagnosis of microvascular angina has been recently proposed by the COVADIS (<italic>Coronary Vasomotor Disorders International Study</italic>) Group in the presence of suggestive findings of ischemia, absence of obstructive coronary disease, and evidence of microvascular dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
          <p>From the pathophysiological viewpoint, the causes seem diverse and complex. Two endotypes have been described, structural and functional, and they often coexist. In the structural aspect, there is endothelial dysfunction, arteriolar remodeling, and capillary rarefaction, which lead to a reduction in the increment of coronary flow at rest and an increase in demand during exertion. The functional manifestation relates to the inefficient cardiac-coronary coupling, resulting from the increased microvascular tonus during peak exercise and at rest, leading to a higher myocardial oxygen demand in the scenario of exhausted coronary vasodilator reserve.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Several studies have shown sex-related differences in response to functional tests, indicating that women more often have coronary microvascular dysfunction and epicardial vasospasm as compared to men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.6. Embolism and Thrombosis</title>
          <p>Epicardial coronary artery embolism without atherosclerotic substrate is an uncommon cause of MINOCA, usually diagnosed by exclusion or presumptively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup>The National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Group classifies this condition as possible when there is evidence of embolism/thrombosis in a coronary artery without atherosclerosis, concomitant embolism to other arteries or multiple sites, and/or in the presence of predisposing factors to embolism. Several causes of embolism, such as direct, paradoxical, and iatrogenic sources, or even systemic hypercoagulability, have been described. The direct sources include thrombi formed in the left atrial appendage (LAA), when AF is present, and in the left ventricle, mitral and aortic valves, and proximal coronary segments. The emboli can have an hematogenic origin or originate from any other tissue content, such as neoplasms and valvular debris. Individuals with right-left shunts, such as atrial communication, patent <italic>foramen ovale</italic>, and arteriovenous malformations, can have paradoxical embolism. In addition, the increased number of invasive coronary and valvular procedures, as well as of those with systemic access, has been related to cases of coronary embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.7. Takotsubo Syndrome</title>
          <p>Takotsubo syndrome is an acute cardiac entity, with clinical presentation similar to that of ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup>Several clinical and phenotypic presentations are known, the typical one being a circumferential left (bi-) ventricular contraction abnormality profile that extends beyond a coronary artery supply territory and seems to follow the anatomical cardiac sympathetic innervation. The syndrome affects predominantly postmenopausal women, being preceded, in more than 70% of the cases, by emotional or physical stress. Regarding incidence, there is an imbalance between sexes, with women representing 90% of the cases of Takotsubo syndrome, responsible for up to 10% of the postmenopausal women with acute chest pain. The gender differences in the pathophysiology of the syndrome remain underreported, thus requiring further investigation. The Takotsubo syndrome pathogenesis remains undefined. Several pathophysiological mechanisms have been proposed, such as myocardial ischemia (multivessel coronary vasospasm, microvascular dysfunction, aborted myocardial infarction), LV outflow tract obstruction, blood-borne catecholamine myocardial toxicity, epinephrine-induced switch in signal trafficking, and autonomic nervous system (ANS) dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.8. Myocarditis</title>
          <p>Myocarditis is an inflammatory heart disease that can be caused by an infection, most frequently, or by immune system activation or toxicity. One common presentation of myocarditis is mimicking AMI findings, such as chest pain and increased troponin levels, usually in young men. The pathophysiological aspects vary according to the causing agent and etiology but involve nonischemic degeneration and necrosis of the cardiomyocyte. In a series of cases of myocarditis due to parvovirus B19, the induction of epicardial coronary spasm reproduced the symptoms, suggesting that part of the symptoms can have a coronary origin and be related to a virus-induced arteritis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Ischemic Heart Disease Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Clinical Treatment</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1. Chest Pain of Ischemic Etiology</title>
          <p>Chest pain is the second most common complaint in emergency services, after traumatic causes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> It affects 20% to 40% of the population,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> being more frequent in women. Thus, the differences in IHD clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management between men and women should be known.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup>Only 5.1% of the patients with chest pain in emergency services have ACS, and more than half of those patients have chest pain of noncardiac etiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Until recently, the publications have only rarely reported on sex-specific differences in CVD, and the pathophysiological differences exclusively related to women were not understood<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 4.1</xref>). The lack of knowledge about the sex-specific biological and sociocultural differences in IHD chest pain presentation can partially explain those disparities, which lead to diagnosis and treatment delays. The women&#8217;s ischemic symptoms are more often related to emotional or mental stress and less frequently precipitated by physical activity as compared to those of men. Sex and gender differences in the pain mechanisms, including psychological susceptibility, ANS reactivity, and visceral innervation, might contribute to differences in chest pain presentation. Thus, risk scores and typical/atypical angina characterization do not seem more relevant and should not be used uniformly in women and men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Differences in chest pain perception between sexes have been described, the female sex having higher somatic awareness as compared to the male sex. This might lead to women&#8217;s higher sensitivity, but lower specificity for cardiac chest pain. Premenopausal younger women with relatively high estrogen levels have a higher perception of pain as compared to postmenopausal older women with lower estrogen levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A comprehensive assessment of sex and gender differences in pain includes proximate cause contributions of experiential (abuse, labor, and delivery), psychological (anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress), genetic (X chromosome imprinting/Y chromosome), neurochemical (adenosine, cytokine expression), organizational (steroid action in development), activational (steroid action in adulthood), systems level (cortical connectivity, vagal nerve modulation), and sociocultural (gender roles, gender role expectations) aspects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Ischemia triggered by mental stress predicts a twice higher mortality, and an abnormal autonomic response to stress leads to an increase in coronary vascular reactivity.</p>
          <p>In addition to the CVD manifestations, the clinical history of chest pain in women should include the classic RFs, the female sex-specific RFs, and the psychosocial determinants of health, notably depression and stress. Usually, the myocardial ischemic pain is reported in the chest, but can occur in any region from the epigastrium to the jaw or teeth, between the scapulae, or in an arm radiating to the wrist or fingers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Women usually have pain characteristics similar to those of men, but have a higher prevalence of other symptoms, such as palpitations, dyspnea, maxillary, cervical, and dorsal pain. A substudy of the High-STEACS clinical trial (high-sensitivity troponin in the assessment of patients with ACS; 1941 patients, 39% of whom women) has assessed chest pain prospectively and with descriptors of typical nature, presence of radiation, and additional symptoms more common in women with suspected ACS. As compared to men, women more frequently reported palpitations as the initial symptom (11% <italic>versus</italic> 7%), pain radiation to the left arm (36% <italic>versus</italic> 31%), dorsum (31% <italic>versus</italic> 17%) or neck/jaw (28% <italic>versus</italic> 20%), and higher propensity to nausea (34% <italic>versus</italic> 22%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Dyspnea can accompany pain or chest discomfort, and less specific symptoms, such as fatigue or fainting, nausea, burning, restlessness, or imminent death sensation, can occur. The discomfort duration is short, usually less than 10 minutes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> A peculiar aspect of the ischemic pain manifestation in women is the sensation of chest discomfort, even in severe ACS. Despite individual variability, the suffering induced by myocardial ischemia is usually characteristic, and, thus, fundamental to the diagnosis. The most likely criteria to be associated with ischemia have been described as &#8220;typical&#8221;, more common in men, and as &#8220;atypical&#8221; (nauseas, discomfort, epigastralgia), more common in women. However, the denomination &#8220;atypical&#8221; pain as a female characteristic should be avoided, and the assessment of women&#8217;s myocardial ischemia symptoms should be standardized. In addition, &#8220;atypical chest pain&#8221; is a questionable term because, despite the intention to indicate absence of &#8220;typical&#8221; symptoms, it suggests a noncardiac origin, and, thus, its use is discouraged.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A better understanding of the female anginal symptoms and a more appropriate risk stratification for women enable early recognition, correct diagnosis, and ideal treatment, improving the IHD prognosis and course in women.</p>
          <p>In addition, &#8220;chest pain&#8221; means pain, pressure, crushing or discomfort in the thorax, shoulders, arms, neck, dorsum, upper part of the abdomen, jaw, as well as dyspnea and fatigue, which should be considered anginal equivalents. Thus, these are unspecific symptoms, even described as weakness, dizziness, perspiration, and dyspepsia, and can be manifestations of myocardial ischemia in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup>Chest pain or discomfort occurs in more than 80% of women and men with ACS; women, however, more often attribute this symptom to noncardiac conditions, such as reflow, stress, or anxiety, hindering the diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup>Women have more additional symptoms than men do, and are more likely to present without chest pain.</p>
          <p>The ACS presentation forms are different in women, who, thus, are at a higher risk for misdiagnosis, as well as for diagnosis and treatment delays, which can lead to catastrophic events, such as cardiac arrest. Patients with dyspnea of cardiac origin as the single manifestation are known to be at a twice higher risk for sudden death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Women with ACS are more likely older, having, thus, more comorbidities than men. In addition, women have continuous symptoms, try self-medication, and usually report similar symptoms in the past.</p>
          <p>Young age and absence of chest discomfort are some of the strongest predictors of ACS misdiagnosis and early or inappropriate discharge from the emergency sector. Women discharged with the diagnosis of unspecific chest pain can have twice more subsequent coronary events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The risk scores created to stratify patients are not perfect, notably for women, whose emerging and specific RFs are not considered. The HEART score performed better than the TIMI, GRACE, and EDACS scores to predict adverse events in emergency patients presenting with chest pain or anginal equivalents, but 5.7% of the patients classified as low risk had events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup>In the HEART score, the classical considerations for stratification are <italic>H</italic>istory, <italic>E</italic>CG, <italic>A</italic>ge, <italic>R</italic>isk factors, and <italic>T</italic>roponin, and the score is the addition of those five variables. Women have variable clinical presentations, frequent dubious ECG changes, and female sex-specific RFs, thus, that and other scores have a reduced power to stratify them.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Knowing the RFs enables the health professional to use preventive strategies that can, in the medium and long run, change the CVD prognosis and outcome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The anatomical and metabolic differences between sexes should be considered when studying the risk groups. The relevance of the RFs differs, therefore, studying them separately is important.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> It is worth noting that the well-established RFs (modifiable and nonmodifiable), as well as the female sex-specific RFs, should be considered. Some factors of impact on women&#8217;s cardiovascular health, such as depression, domestic violence, and psychosocial factors, are underrecognized and should be assessed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Usually, the RFs manifest together, and the higher the number of RFs, the higher the patient&#8217;s overall CVR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Established and Modifiable Risk Factors</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Obesity/overweight:</bold> Obesity is a disease, and, for women at reproductive age, it is the modifiable RF more directly associated with the presence of SAH. Obesity in pregnancy increases the risk of developing hypertensive disease of pregnancy and/or gestational diabetes, which play an important role in maternal and fetal mortality. In the Framingham Heart Study, obesity increased the risk of coronary disease by 64% in women and by 46% in men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Sedentary lifestyle:</bold> This is the RF with direct impact on CVD since early childhood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> From the first years of life, women participate less and less in physical activity, which leads to a cascade of changes produced by the lack of physical conditioning, with significant clinical relevance in the unhealthy aging process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> In countries where women live under social/religious restrictions, the cardiovascular data are worse, hindering health promotion and increasing the prevalence of other RFs, such as obesity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Smoking:</bold> Is an epidemic habit. Its prevalence in men is higher than in women; however, recent studies have shown that the CVR associated with smoking is 25% higher in women than in men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> It is worth noting that electronic cigarettes have been consolidated as a popular practice, reaching more and more young women worldwide, contributing to the formation of endothelial lesions. In all age groups, except for the 30-44 year age group, women are at a 25% higher risk of IHD associated with smoking as compared to men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Dyslipidemia:</bold> Is a RF related to lifestyle and genetic factors, but studies have shown lower attention to women&#8217;s health and therapeutic proposals as compared to those of men. An aggravating factor to consider is menopause, because of the relevant increase in total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentrations and smaller protective effect of HDL-cholesterol, thus leading to a higher predisposition to CVD. Treatment strategies are well established in the guidelines, not differing from those for men. However, it is worth emphasizing that atheroma regression and benefit from LDL-cholesterol reduction seem higher in women than in men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Diabetes mellitus:</bold> Women with DM are at a three-fold higher risk of fatal IHD than women without DM. Myocardial infarction occurs earlier and has higher mortality in women than in men with DM. Women with DM have a significantly higher risk of developing chronic arterial disease and/or HFpEF than men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Considering the worldwide increase in DM, directly related to the increase in obesity, women with DM have a 44% higher incidence of IHD than men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Stress:</bold> Mental health is a subject of great relevance, mainly after the COVID-19 pandemic. The relation between stress and CVR has been well established, and anxiety and depression are associated with an increase in morbidity and mortality from CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup>Domestic violence, which affects a large part of the female population, is the triggering factor of significant chronic stress, leading to sequelae that persist after the end of the abuse, causing other mental disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Systemic arterial hypertension:</bold> Is the major RF for women. Hypertensive women are at higher risk of AMI as compared to hypertensive men because of the higher velocity of disease progression, higher negligence in diagnosis, and lower adherence to treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Although the SAH guidelines have been well established, the impact of establishing different BP goals according to sex has been recently discussed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3. Established and Non-Modifiable Risk Factors</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Family history:</bold> Women under the age of 65 years with maternal history of AMI have a 4-fold higher risk of ACS than men at the same age or older women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Age:</bold> Age propitiates the development of metabolic syndrome, which conceptually associates with the major RFs &#8211; DM, SAH, obesity, and dyslipidemia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> and increases the insulin resistance as well as the pro-inflammatory and prothrombotic status, compounding the risk for CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4. Women-Specific Risk Factors</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Menopause:</bold> Estrogen is well known for its protective effect on the vascular endothelium. In menopause, the absence of estrogen protection has negative effects on the cardiovascular function/metabolism, such as: body fat change, vascular inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, sympathetic tonus increase, and higher insulin resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> However, hormone therapy in menopause is not indicated for the primary or secondary prevention of CVD, its use being indicated for replacement in early menopause. In addition, in the presence of important vasomotor symptoms that hinder the quality of life, hormone therapy can be used, but individual interprofessional assessment is required to ensure treatment safety and efficacy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Pregnancy-related disorders:</bold> Women are subject to complications, such as gestational diabetes and gestational hypertensive disease, which increase the risk of ACS by three to four times throughout life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Thus, their obstetric history should be carefully investigated, and the presence of those comorbidities indicates the need for continuous follow-up. Women with preeclampsia are at a 3.7-fold higher risk of developing SAH 14 years later, 2.16-fold higher risk of developing IHD in 12 years, 1.8-fold higher risk for stroke in 10 years, and 1.78-fold higher risk for venous thromboembolism in 5 years. Gestational diabetes increases the risk of type 2 DM by 7 times, the risk of stroke by 2 times, and of myocardial infarction by 4 times, independently of the patient becoming diabetic or not.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Oral contraceptive hormones:</bold> The use of oral contraceptive hormones doubles the risk of ACS of atherothrombotic etiology, which is compounded by smoking, SAH, and DM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Polycystic ovary syndrome:</bold> By promoting excessive androgens and oligoanovulation, polycystic ovary syndrome (POS) increases the likelihood of developing dyslipidemia, SAH, and DM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Systemic inflammatory and autoimmune disorders:</bold> The chronic inflammation of some diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis, leads to endothelial dysfunction and higher predisposition to CVD. Women have a higher prevalence of such disorders as compared to men. The women to men ratio for rheumatoid arthritis is 2.5:1, and for systemic lupus erythematosus, 9:1. For women with rheumatoid arthritis, the risk of AMI is 2-3 times higher, and of stroke, 50% higher. In systemic lupus erythematosus, the risk of AMI is 9-50 times that of the general population. The usual risk scores underestimate the CVR in women with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus, suggesting multiplying by 1.5 the absolute risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; <bold>Radiation and chemotherapy to treat breast cancer:</bold> Radiation therapy for breast cancer involves heart exposure to ionizing radiation, increasing the risk of IHD. This risk is proportional to the dose, begins a few years after exposure, and continues for 20 years. It is associated with the presence of RFs and is higher in the left breast radiation as compared to the right one. It can manifest as valvular heart disease or cardiomyopathies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>At least 20% of women have a coronary event with no well-established RF for CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Women should be assessed in a particular way to identify and control RFs, both the well-established and specific ones, whose knowledge is crucial for the prevention of CVD and health promotion in women&#8217;s longitudinal follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.5. Underrecognized Risk Factors</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Some RFs, such as anxiety/depression disorders, and social determinants of health, such as sexual abuse and violence, socioeconomic deprivation, and low education level, are considered CVD enhancers, and their investigation in women&#8217;s risk stratification is important. In addition, the social determinants of health lead to negative outcomes, such as vascular inflammation and endothelial dysfunction, mainly when associated with the classic RFs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>&#8226; Anxiety/depression disorders increase by two times the risk of IHD, because they change the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and ANS, increasing oxidative stress and inflammatory response, with consequent endothelial dysfunction, atherothrombosis, and IHD. Young women have a higher risk for depression and higher mortality after AMI than men, as well as a lower decline in death rates than men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <sec>
            <title>4.5.1. Recommendations</title>
            <p>The specific recommendations on the CVRFs are described in the Position Statement on Women&#8217;s Cardiovascular Heath.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.6. Drug Treatment in the Different Forms of Ischemia Manifestation</title>
        <p>As compared to men, women, including the younger ones, have a greater delay in ACS diagnosis and treatment. Therefore, they less often undergo coronary angiography and surgical treatment,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> including mechanical circulatory support in cardiogenic shock, and their probability of in-hospital death is higher.</p>
        <p>The lower surgical treatment rate in women seems to be due to the presence of MINOCA, small-caliber arteries, and less severe atherosclerotic disease. Women have a higher prevalence of other pathophysiological mechanisms of IHD, such as Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (stress-induced), coronary microvascular dysfunction, coronary embolism, coronary vasospasm, and SCAD. However, this does not explain why women less often undergo coronary angiography and circulatory support in cardiogenic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
        <p>INOCA is more common in women (&gt; 50% <italic>versus</italic> 7-17% in men) and associates with the risk of unfavorable outcomes, such as recurrent hospitalizations, interventions, worse quality of life, higher mortality, and 5- to 10-times higher risk of developing HFpEF. Thus, its diagnosis and prognosis, as well as its management, continue to be a challenge for physicians.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> Although INOCA associates with the risk for major events, less than 50% of the female patients undergo appropriate drug treatment, adherence to prescribed treatment is low, and cardiac rehabilitation is underused.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> It has been suggested that women less often undergo drug therapy because of the lack of evidence about their treatment, mainly in the presence of associated coronary microvascular dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Another factor limiting the consensus on INOCA treatment is the presence of different phenotypes of INOCA, either predominating coronary microvascular dysfunction, or coronary vasospasm, or both. Thus, the therapeutic responses are varied and uncertain.</p>
        <p>The INOCA/MINOCA treatment is based on three pilars:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Lifestyle change</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Control of CVRF</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Antianginal treatment</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Lifestyle change, control of CVRF, such as SAH, DM, and dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular rehabilitation are fundamental measures to reduce morbidity and mortality in INOCA/MINOCA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> as well as in coronary disease.</p>
        <p>Randomized studies, such as WISE and WARRIOR (ongoing), have shown the efficacy of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) in CFR and in anginal improvement. Thus, hypertensive female patients with INOCA/MINOCA can benefit from its use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Because of their inhibitory effect on oxidative stress and anti-inflammatory properties, statins act on CFR and coronary microvascular dysfunction, improving tolerance to exertion and reducing exertion-induced ischemia, mainly when associated with diltiazem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Antianginal drugs, such as nitrates, beta-blockers (BB), and calcium-channel blockers (CCB), are used in INOCA and MINOCA, but their efficacy varies according to the predominant phenotype (coronary microvascular dysfunction, coronary vasospasm, or both).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> In patients with coronary microvascular dysfunction, long-acting nitrates can worsen symptoms, because of the possible coronary steal phenomenon, thus, CCB should be preferred. Short-acting nitrates have uncertain efficacy and require repeated doses.</p>
        <p>For coronary vasospasm, CCBs are first-choice drugs, being followed by nitrates. For coronary microvascular dysfunction, reduced CFR and/or increased microcirculatory resistance, suggesting arteriolar remodeling, BBs are used initially, and, for refractory cases, CCBs. Ranolazine and trimetazidine can be considered in the treatment of nonobstructive IHD, mainly for refractory angina.</p>
        <p>Nebivolol is the most often used BB because of its B1-selective action and vasodilator effect via the nitric oxide production. It has been studied in women with coronary microvascular dysfunction, improving angina and tolerance to physical exertion. Its intracoronary infusion improves CFR and reduces myocardial oxygen consumption (VO<sub>2</sub>). In addition, it improves the LV filling pressure and CFR in patients with uncomplicated SAH, possibly because of the nitric oxide action on microcirculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Promising drugs have been studied for INOCA, such as nicorandil and trimetazidine. The former is a potassium channel activator that leads to microcirculation vasodilation similarly to nitrates. Trimetazidine acts in the metabolism of cardiac muscle cells by inhibiting the oxidation of free fatty acids, increasing the use of glucose in the production of high-energy phosphates. Trimetazidine in monotherapy or in combination with antianginal drugs has improved tolerance to exertion in patients with stable angina and INOCA. In addition, improvement in myocardial perfusion and endothelial function has been described, probably due to a reduction in oxidative stress. A single dose of trimetazidine increases exercise duration and the signs and symptoms of ischemia on exertion ECG. Recent studies have evidenced metabolic cardioprotection with trimetazidine for patients with stable angina and ACS after PCI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Ranolazine inhibits late calcium channels, reducing their concentration inside cardiomyocytes, thus improving the relaxation function and microcirculation. It seems to have a favorable action on women with INOCA and patients with reduced CFR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Considering that women have mental or emotional stress as triggers for ischemic pain, as well as higher psychological susceptibility and ANS reactivity, they might benefit from low doses of tricyclic antidepressants to help reduce symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In conclusion, women should be managed with a differentiated approach from the cardiovascular viewpoint, considering the peculiarities of IHD clinical manifestations due to different pathophysiological mechanisms, which hinder the diagnosis, and, thus, the therapy. Therefore, those factors can be deleterious to health. The RF analysis should be comprehensive, including enhancers of RFs, in addition to the women-specific RFs and the underrecognized ones.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.6.1. Recommendations</title>
          <p>The treatment of INOCA/MINOCA is based on lifestyle changes, RF control, and antianginal treatment. For hypertensive women, ACEI/angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) should be preferred. Statins act on CFR and coronary microvascular dysfunction, improving tolerance to exertion and reducing exertion-induced ischemia. Nitrates, BBs, and CCBs can be used as antianginal drugs; however, in patients with coronary microvascular dysfunction, long-acting nitrates can worsen symptoms, because of the possible coronary steal phenomenon, thus, CCB should be preferred. For coronary vasospasm, CCBs are first-choice drugs. In cases of arteriolar remodeling (coronary microvascular dysfunction, reduced CFR and/or increased microcirculatory resistance), BBs should be initially used (nebivolol is the most often used BB because of its B1-selective action and vasodilator effect via nitric oxide production) and, in refractory cases, the CCBs. Ranolazine and trimetazidine can be considered for refractory angina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Low doses of tricyclic antidepressants can help reduce symptoms in women with mental or emotional stress as a trigger of ischemic pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. Diagnosis through Graphic Functional Assessment</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1. Electrocardiogram at Rest</title>
          <p>Women&#8217;s ECG have differences as compared to that of men, such as higher HR at rest, QRS with smaller amplitude and longer duration, longer QT intervals, and ST-segment changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup></p>
          <p>For IHD assessment, the correct position of electrodes is fundamental to avoid misdiagnosis. Large breasts or breast prostheses generate low-voltage complex and reduce the R-wave amplitude in the V1 and V2 leads, simulating inactive area. In addition, women who underwent mastectomy have QRS widening, simulating LV hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup></p>
          <p>On women&#8217;s chest pain assessment, the ECG maintains the diagnostic criteria described in the male sex, except for the subepicardial lesion. In women, J-point elevation and ST-segment values &#8805; 1.5mm in the precordial V1 to V3 leads are considered pathological.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> Other variables, such as greater QRS-T angle and longer QRS duration, can be considered independent predictors of death, HF, and nonfatal AMI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup>Postmenopausal ventricular repolarization abnormalities can be important predictors of coronary events and mortality from IHD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. Exercise Testing</title>
          <p>The ET is an accessible, safe, reproducible, low-cost, radiation-free functional test that can analyze the cardiovascular response to exertion, providing clinical, hemodynamic, metabolic, autonomic, and electrocardiographic information to support the diagnosis, risk stratification, therapeutic assessment, and physical exercise prescription.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The multifactorial view of the ET has widened its interpretation by including prognostic variables, mainly in women. It is recommended as the first-choice method to assess symptomatic women at intermediate risk for IHD, with normal ECG at rest, and who can exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a meta-analysis of 19 studies, the mean sensitivity of ET was lower in women than in men (61% <italic>versus</italic> 70%), as was its specificity (72% <italic>versus</italic> 77%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In symptomatic women, the positive predictive value of the ST-segment depression was lower than in men (47% <italic>versus</italic> 77%, p&lt;0.05); however, its negative predictive value was similar (78% <italic>versus</italic> 81%). A maximal and negative ET is useful to rule out the presence of significant obstructive IHD and to predict excellent event-free survival.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In women, the prevalence of electrocardiographic changes without correspondence with obstructive IHD is higher.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> The factors that contribute most to lower diagnostic accuracy include: lower prevalence of multivessel IHD; higher prevalence of nonobstructive IHD, mitral valve prolapse, vasospastic and microvascular angina; low-voltage ECG and ventricular repolarization changes; predominantly atypical symptoms; pre- and postmenopausal hormonal factors; lower tolerance to exertion and achieved HR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The ST-segment changes with slow or convex ascending morphology, mainly restricted to the inferior leads, which appear at high HR, higher work load and rapidly normalize in recovery (within the first minute), tend to not correlate with significant obstructive IHD, differently from changes &#8805; 2.0mm, with horizontal or descending morphology, low loads and HR, persisting for several minutes in recovery, mainly if accompanied by symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> In addition to ST-segment changes, the ET contributes with important prognostic information through the analysis of parameters, such as physical functioning, chronotropic and BP responses, HR recovery, and assessment of scores.</p>
          <p>Physical functioning is the major independent predictor of death in women, including the asymptomatic ones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup>The ability to reach &#8805; 10 MET indicates very low prevalence of significant myocardial ischemia, independently of the gender.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup>However, when &lt; 7 MET are reached, the probability of ischemia is significantly higher (0.4% <italic>versus</italic> 7.1%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> The inability to reach 5 MET is an independent predictor of high risk, with a three-fold increase in mortality as compared to women reaching &gt; 8 MET.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The inability to reach 85% of the predicted maximal HR for age predicts increased risk for mortality and obstructive IHD in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> The presence of chronotropic incompetence increased by 30% the risk of all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> A HR reduction in the first minute of recovery &lt; 12 bpm is another important prognostic marker, being an independent predictor of all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The BP increase is smaller, mainly in younger women, and non-elevation (&#8220;plateau&#8221;) is a frequent finding, usually not related to cardiac disease, which differs in the male sex. Its interpretation should be associated with other variables.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Scores can be useful to improve the IHD diagnosis, the Duke treadmill score being the most frequently used, with diagnostic and prognostic value. The DTS is calculated as follows: exercise duration (Bruce protocol) &#8211; 5x (ST-segment deviation) &#8211; 4x (angina, with: 0 = none; 1 = nonlimiting pain; 2 = exercise-limiting pain).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup>The score categories are: low risk (DTS &#8805; 5), moderate risk (DTS ranging from -10 to 4), and high risk (DTS &#8804; -11).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> Low DTS is associated with an annual mortality rate of &#8776; 0.25% as compared to &#8776;5% for high risk, and the mortality rates are lower in women. In a cohort of 976 symptomatic women with ET and angiography, coronary stenosis &#8805; 75% was present in 19%, 35%, and 89% of those with low-, moderate-, and high-risk DTS, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Women with intermediate DTS should be referred for additional risk stratification with stress imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> The DTS is a valuable tool to predict the risk of events (cardiac death, nonfatal AMI, and late revascularization) in women, but might be less effective in those aged &#8805; 75 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t5001">Table 5.1</xref> shows the indicators of elevated risk in the women&#8217;s ET.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t5001">
              <label>Table 5.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Indicators of elevated risk that should be valued and reported in women&#8217;s exercise testing.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Variable</th>
                    <th>High-risk indicators</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Functional capacity</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 5 METs</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>ST-segment changes</td>
                    <td align="center">Depression &#8805; 2mm Depression &#8805; 1mm with &lt; 5 MET or &gt; 5 min in recovery Elevation &#8805; 2mm (in leads with no Q wave or aVR)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HR decline in the first min of recovery</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8804; 12 bpm</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Duke treadmill score</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8804; -11</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>BP response</td>
                    <td align="center">Reduction &gt; 10mmHg as compared to rest</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ventricular arrhythmias</td>
                    <td align="center">Persistent VT /fibrillation</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Adapted from Mieres et al.<sup>79</sup> HR: heart rate; BP: blood pressure; VT: ventricular tachycardia.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>In situations with high likelihood of CVD, orthopedic diseases, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle, the association with myocardial perfusion scintigraphy (MPS) can be useful in the presence of nonconclusive test results.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.1. Recommendations</title>
            <p>Individualized assessment and directed anti-ischemic therapies after ET should be based on the load reached, the symptoms, and the test&#8217;s grade of abnormality.</p>
            <p>The choice of the diagnostic method should be based on the patient&#8217;s clinical profile, pretest probability of CVD, symptoms, ECG findings at rest, and presence/absence of proper conditions to perform good-quality ET. The analysis should be multifactorial to optimize the clinical management and therapy.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.3. Cardiopulmonary Exercise Test</title>
        <p>The CPET provides noninvasive and integrated assessment of the cardiovascular, respiratory, and peripheral systems on exertion. Although CPET has been well-established for the clinical assessment of patients with HF, its indication for IHD investigation has not been consolidated in the guidelines. In a review article on the applicability of CPET in IHD, the following indications have been established:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup></p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Moderate to high pretest probability of IHD</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>To increase the IHD diagnostic accuracy in the presence of clinical or electrocardiographic changes that hinder the diagnosis on ET</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Large myocardial ischemic area that hinders LV function</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Assessment of the evolution after mechanical or surgical MRV.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>In addition to the assessment of clinical, hemodynamic, and electrocardiographic criteria, the CPET provides additional information on the ventilatory parameters in the analysis of ischemia, quantifies physical functioning precisely, and stratifies the prognosis. Low physical functioning [VO<sub>2</sub> &lt; 60% of the predicted value for age and sex] and myocardial ischemia signs and symptoms at low load (VO<sub>2</sub> &lt; 15ml.kg<sup>-1</sup>.min<sup>-1</sup>) stratify patients as at high risk for cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In patients with macrovascular IHD and reversible perfusion defects on myocardial perfusion imaging, the assessment of CPET variables, as compared to those of ET, increased sensitivity from 46% to 87% and specificity from 66% to 74%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The CPET identifies the beginning of LV dysfunction induced by ischemia during exertion, and, thus, can improve diagnostic accuracy, mainly in the female sex, reducing the rate of false-positive ET.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> This is particularly important, because, in the myocardial ischemic cascade, changes in the LV diastolic and systolic functions occur before the ischemic changes on ECG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The major variables obtained during CPET that evidence LV dysfunction triggered by IHD are: VO<sub>2</sub> curve and ascension, oxygen pulse, and cardiac work rate (VO<sub>2</sub> variation/load variation in <italic>Watt</italic>), the latter exclusively on cycle ergometer. A linear VO<sub>2</sub> increase in parallel with a workload of 10 mL/min/<italic>watt</italic> under physiological conditions is expected.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The analysis of oxygen pulse improves the diagnostic accuracy of IHD. Oxygen pulse is assessed as follows: the value obtained at peak exertion in relation to the predicted one, as well as the morphology of the oxygen pulse curve over time, which should show an increasing trend, most commonly in the shape of a parabola (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09001">Figure 5.1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> In the presence of obstructive IHD, the reduced systolic volume causes a compensatory increase in HR that impacts both the cardiac work rate and oxygen pulse. A reduction in the VO<sub>2</sub>/load curve progression and a decline in or absence of progressive increase in oxygen pulse are seen (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11001">Figures 5.2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10001">5.3</xref>). In the presence of an early plateau or, mainly, decline of oxygen pulse during exertion, the prescription of exercise intensity can be limited to loads below that threshold.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f09001">
            <label>Figure 5.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Ascending behavior of the oxygen pulse curve over time.</title>
              <p>HR: heart rate; RCP: respiratory compensation point; AT: anaerobic threshold.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf09-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f11001">
            <label>Figure 5.2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Descending behavior of the oxygen pulse curve over time.</title>
              <p>HR: heart rate; RCP: respiratory compensation point; AT: anaerobic threshold.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf10-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f10001">
            <label>Figure 5.3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Oxygen pulse plateau. HR: heart rate; RCP: respiratory compensation point; AT: anaerobic threshold.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf11-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A substudy of the ORBITA-Trial has assessed the CPET parameters related to myocardial ischemia and anginal symptoms in patients with chronic coronary syndrome. The oxygen pulse plateau was the only variable that could detect the ischemia severity and predict the PCI efficacy in severe single-vessel IHD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recent studies have assessed the role of CPET in coronary microvascular dysfunction, particularly in women, whose ET is less accurate. A study in postmenopausal women with typical angina and nonobstructive IHD on angiography has shown that ischemia on scintigraphy was associated with LV systolic dysfunction after stress, suggesting microvascular IHD. Considering the CPET potential to infer LV dysfunction in a noninvasive and cost-effective way, the CPET implementation, as compared to that of ET, in the microvascular IHD investigation increases the diagnostic potential.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> In addition, CPET can be an important tool to assess patients with left bundle branch block (LBBB) because of the limitation of ET in that population. Normal VO<sub>2</sub> and oxygen pulse curves could rule out significant coronary stenosis as the cause of LBBB.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Some limitations of CPET, such as restriction of the cardiac work rate assessment to only cycle ergometer, lower sensitivity in single-vessel IHD, and associated clinical conditions that can interfere with VO<sub>2</sub> (anemia, pulmonary disease, HF), are worth noting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> The CPET is a valuable tool in daily clinical practice, but further investigations should be directed to a more accurate assessment of its role in IHD diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment efficacy evaluation, mainly in women.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. Diagnosis by Use of Ergometric-Functional Evaluation</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>Noninvasive imaging methods play a fundamental role in the diagnosis and management of IHD. In women, especially, there are particularities regarding the etiology of myocardial ischemia involving obstructive IHD and coronary microvascular dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> This chapter addresses several cardiovascular imaging modalities, with important information on the assessment of women&#8217;s myocardial ischemia symptoms, defining diagnostic performance, female sex-related peculiarities, as well as advantages and limitations of each method (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12001">Figure 6.1</xref>). The sensitivity and specificity values of the major diagnostic methods for men and women, according to a recently published review, are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6001">Table 6.1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12001">Figure 6.1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f12001">
              <label>Figure 6.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Importance of noninvasive imaging methods in women&#8217;s ischemic heart disease. CAC: coronary artery calcium score; CCTA: coronary computed tomography angiography; CMRI: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; HR: heart rate; IHD: ischemic heart disease; INOCA: ischemia with nonobstructive coronary arteries; LV: left ventricular; MINOCA: myocardial infarction with nonobstructive coronary arteries; NM: nuclear medicine; PET: positron emission tomography; RF: risk factor; SEC: stress echocardiography; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography; VUS: vascular ultrasound (carotid).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf12-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t6001">
              <label>Table 6.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Sensitivity and specificity according to sex of the major diagnostic methods.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="14%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Modality</th>
                    <th>ET</th>
                    <th>SEC</th>
                    <th>SPECT-MPS</th>
                    <th>PET-MPS</th>
                    <th>CCTA</th>
                    <th>CMRI</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sensitivity</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Women</td>
                    <td align="center">43-71%</td>
                    <td align="center">70-96%</td>
                    <td align="center">84-91%</td>
                    <td align="center">81-100%</td>
                    <td align="center">90-98%</td>
                    <td align="center">84-91%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Men</td>
                    <td align="center">68-80%</td>
                    <td align="center">70-80%</td>
                    <td align="center">85-94%</td>
                    <td align="center">81-92%</td>
                    <td align="center">90-97%</td>
                    <td align="center">90-91%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Specificity</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Women</td>
                    <td align="center">64-85%</td>
                    <td align="center">79-92%</td>
                    <td align="center">58-91%</td>
                    <td align="center">86%</td>
                    <td align="center">84%</td>
                    <td align="center">81-88%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Men</td>
                    <td align="center">74-83%</td>
                    <td align="center">84-93%</td>
                    <td align="center">62-89%</td>
                    <td align="center">85-89%</td>
                    <td align="center">83%</td>
                    <td align="center">74-94%</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN3001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>CCTA: coronary computed tomography angiography; CMRI: cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; ET: exercise test; MPS: myocardial perfusion scintigraphy; PET: positron emission tomography; SEC: stress echocardiography; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.2. Echocardiography at Rest and Under Stress</title>
          <p>Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) at rest or using several modalities of stress (physical exercise, administration of inotropic drugs or vasodilators) is useful to detect myocardial ischemia in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> The technique is particularly appealing because it involves no radiation to the breast tissue, especially for younger women, considering their expected cumulative exposure throughout life, when serial studies might be necessary. In addition, the method has good accuracy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Findings compatible with myocardial ischemia include: abnormalities of the segmental LV wall contractility at rest, altered contractile response during stress, reduced microvascular perfusion assessed on contrast echocardiography and/or impairment of the flow of epicardial arteries analyzed by use of Doppler.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> In addition, TTE is useful to identify other causes of chest pain, such as pericarditis, aortic dissection, and pulmonary embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The TTE at rest is recommended for all female patients with suspicion of IHD to assess segmental contractility, as well as the global LV systolic function by use of LV ejection fraction (LVEF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> The presence of regional contractile abnormalities can be chronic or acute, an issue better solved if previous studies are available for comparison.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> It is worth noting that the segments with changes due to IHD should be contiguous and correspond to the territories of coronary arteries, because segmental changes can be caused by several conditions other than IHD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The LV segmental contractility is assessed visually based on wall thickening during the systole. More recent quantitative methods have been applied, such as the left ventricular global longitudinal strain (LVGLS) analysis. Subendocardial muscle fibers, longitudinally oriented, are more vulnerable to ischemia, and the LVGLS assessment at rest has shown to be more sensitive for the detection of segmental abnormalities as compared to the analysis of wall contractility in ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The preferred modality for ischemia assessment on SEC is physical exertion, especially with supine bicycle. In addition to providing additional prognostic data, such as physical functioning, that method comprises more physiological data for ischemia assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> When compared to ET, SEC has higher sensitivity and specificity in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> A meta-analysis of 14 studies, assessing the sensitivity and specificity of SEC with physical stress for the detection of women&#8217;s IHD, has reported values of 79% (95% CI, 74%&#8211;83%) and 83% (95% CI, 74%&#8211;89%), respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The SEC with dobutamine is preferably indicated for patients who cannot exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup>Vasodilators, such as dipyridamole or adenosine, have slightly lower sensitivity in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup>In a comparison between SEC with dobutamine and ET for the detection of IHD in symptomatic women, the former showed higher accuracy in women with chest pain, with sensitivity of 70.4% <italic>versus</italic> 53.7% and specificity of 94.6% <italic>versus</italic> 73.6% to detect coronary stenosis &gt;50%. The higher accuracy of SEC persisted after excluding the patients who reached HR higher than 85% of that predicted for age before ischemia induction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup> The results are different when comparing the diagnostic performance of SEC between men and women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The literature shows that the performance in women is similar or inferior to that in men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup> When compared to SPECT for the investigation of myocardial ischemia, SEC has higher specificity, because it has no false positive due to breast attenuation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The SEC can be limited by the impossibility of obtaining appropriate acoustic windows in the peak of stress,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> particularly in women, because of the breast tissue. The use of echocardiographic contrast media has become an important tool to properly visualize the endocardium of all LV segments. Thus, in the presence of two or more contiguous segments with limited technical quality, the use of those agents is indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In pregnancy, echocardiography with physical or pharmacological stress is considered safe and avoids exposure to radiation; dobutamine and dipyridamole are considered category B. Nuclear medicine techniques should be avoided.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3. Vascular Ultrasound</title>
          <p>Atherothrombosis is a systemic arterial disease that involves mainly the intima layer of large- and medium-caliber arteries (carotid, aorta, coronary, and peripheral arteries). The VUS is an excellent method for the morphological assessment and severity classification of carotid obstructive disease, abdominal aortic aneurysm, and PAD. In addition, VUS is an important tool to diagnose atherothrombosis in other arterial territories affected simultaneously with the coronary territory, being particularly appealing because of its low cost, wide availability, and noninvasive character.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The detection of subclinical disease and information on the characteristics of the atherosclerotic plaque and burden are useful in some scenarios of women&#8217;s atherosclerotic disease. The presence or absence of plaque can re-stratify patients beyond the traditional RFs, while the atherosclerotic burden quantification can personalize even more the risk assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> The plaque identification and atherosclerotic burden measurement in the carotid and/or peripheral arterial territory can be useful to reclassify the risk, as shown in recent studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup>The analysis of the characteristics and volume of the plaque on 3D seems to significantly improve the atherosclerotic burden estimation and identification of more vulnerable plaques, and can play a role in women&#8217;s risk stratification, because women seem to have a higher atherosclerotic burden than men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> In addition, the use of contrast-enhanced VUS is an attractive tool to assess neovascularization in carotid plaques, because women have more signs of neovascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Peripheral arterial disease is prevalent in men and women, and its subclinical form is more common in women. Patients with previous preeclampsia, gestational hypertension, and placental insufficiency are three times more likely to develop PAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> Recently, the assessment of carotid and femoral atherosclerosis has been suggested to improve the early detection of disease, and the presence of a femoral, rather than a carotid, plaque is more indicative of IHD. In women, the combined femoral and carotid plaque areas have higher sensitivity and can aid in the identification of false-positive stress tests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Women have a lower prevalence of abdominal aortic aneurysm and at a more advanced age. However, women are four-times more likely to undergo rupture as compared to men at the same age and have worse results after emergency surgery. The sensitivity of the physical examination is 29% in abdominal aortic aneurysms with diameter of 3-3.9cm; 50% in those with diameter of 4-4.9cm; and 75% in those with diameter over 5cm, justifying that a large part of diagnosis is incidental. Thus, in selected women, screening is indicated: age of 55-75 years; family history of abdominal aortic aneurysm; heavy smokers; and/or history of stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4. Computed Tomography</title>
          <p>Particularities of women&#8217;s IHD make noninvasive stratification an important step in the management of those patients. The findings of women&#8217;s tests differ from those of men&#8217;s regarding anatomy, distribution and extension of the lesions, as well as clinical repercussion. In this scenario, assessment of coronary calcification and obstruction grade on CCTA is important to define the patients&#8217; treatment and follow-up.</p>
          <p>Anatomically, epicardial coronary arteries in women are smaller than those in men, even after adjusting for age, body mass, and body surface area. In addition, the vasomotor tonus of those arteries is lower, determining higher coronary flow, which, associated with the reduced size of the arteries, can result in different phenotypes of IHD between the sexes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite the anatomical differences, the diagnostic potential of IHD by use of CCTA is similar between the sexes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup> and CCTA, as compared to invasive methods, has excellent accuracy to detect obstructive IHD and characterize plaques.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> The CCTA sensitivity and specificity values to detect IHD are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6001">Table 6.1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The presentation pattern of women&#8217;s IHD is predominantly nonobstructive, and the atherosclerotic burden of nonobstructive IHD (defined as stenosis &lt; 50%) affects women more markedly,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup> with high risk for coronary events as compared to that of the general population, being particularly higher in women &lt; 75 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> Analyses of the CONFIRM registry that assessed 24 775 patients (12 128 women) have shown an increased mortality risk of patients with obstructive and nonobstructive IHD. In women, the risk increased with the increase in the number of vessels with obstructive disease (three-vessel disease: HR: 4.21; 95% CI, 2.47-7.18; p &lt; 0.0001 <italic>versus</italic> HR: 3.27; 95% CI, 1.96-5.45; p &lt; 0.0001) as compared to men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref></sup> The presence of atherosclerotic plaques at high risk for thrombosis (low attenuation, punctate calcification, and napkin ring signal) is a predictor of cardiac events in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref></sup>In addition, coronary calcification assessed by use of coronary artery calcium score (CAC) differs between the sexes. For patients of the same race and age, CAC quantification is lower in women. Data have consistently shown that the prevalence and severity of coronary calcification increase with age and the male sex, women showing lower prevalence and severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup></p>
          <p>New technologies incorporate functional assessment to CCTA, which enables adding the anatomical evaluation to the ischemia investigation. The FFR by computed tomography can increase the diagnostic accuracy in detecting obstructive IHD as compared to CCTA alone. Although promising, the clinical applicability of FFR is reserved to a few centers that provide the technology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The SCAD, a more frequent complication in women than in men, can be well assessed by CCTA. Pregnant patients have high mortality associated with SCAD. The indication for CCTA in those patients should be individualized, considering the clinical context, and the invasive strategy might be necessary when the clinical suspicion is very relevant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.5. Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging</title>
          <p>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging has contributed to a better understanding of the pathophysiological phenomena, structural changes, diagnosis, and prognostic assessment of women&#8217;s CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup> The CMRI is a method of high spatial resolution that enables assessment of the morphology, function, and ischemia, in addition to tissue characterization with high accuracy. The fact that it does not have visual limitation due to interposition of the breast tissue, obesity, pulmonary disease, or breast prostheses enables a more detailed assessment of the female heart. In addition, by not using ionizing radiation, it is an innocuous option to the female breast tissue, especially useful for younger women. The female heart has specific morphological characteristics, being relatively smaller than the male heart, with smaller volume, mass and parietal thickness, and can be more accurately assessed by CMRI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Myocardial perfusion assessment with gadolinium enhancement under pharmacological stress has high sensitivity and has been well-established in both sexes since studies, such as MR-Impact, MR-Impact II, and CE-MARC, have shown high sensitivity to detect ischemia as compared to SPECT, being recommended mainly for the female population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In women, coronary microvascular dysfunction is a mechanism responsible for the presence of INOCA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> and CMRI is useful to identify the subendocardial perfusion defect under pharmacological stress in that population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> In addition, tissue characterization by use of late enhancement and T1 and T2 maps provides better assessment of the effects of cardiovascular events on the myocardium, more specifically atherothrombotic disease. Thus, myocardial infarction, MINOCA, Takotsubo, and viral or autoimmune myocarditis can be well defined with that methodology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The late enhancement technique has been established as the best way to identify fibrosis <italic>in vivo</italic> and can differentiate ischemic from nonischemic injury, enabling the differential diagnosis between myocardial infarction and inflammatory conditions. The quantification of the fibrotic involvement of the transmural thickness is determinant to assess the myocardial viability grade and the prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Contraindications to the use of CMRI are restricted to situations incompatible with the magnetic field, in addition to the limitations to the use of gadolinium in patients with kidney failure (creatinine clearance below 30 mL/min/BS), because of the risk of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, and in pregnant patients, because of the risk of fetal exposure to the paramagnetic agent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The CMRI enables the diagnostic differentiation of cardiovascular events causing anginal symptoms and ischemia in women, thus it is the preferred method for the functional assessment of that group of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> The advance of new myocardial perfusion sequences, quantitative perfusion assessment software, movement correction techniques, and higher availability of parametric maps are perspectives that contribute to the increasing use of the methodology. Therefore, CMRI plays a unique promising role in women&#8217;s heart assessment, aggregating a greater amount of diagnostic and prognostic information.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.6. Nuclear Medicine</title>
          <p>Nuclear imaging can assess the entire spectrum of IHD, from epicardial obstructive IHD to coronary microvascular dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup> National and international guidelines emphasize, for IHD assessment, the use of MPS, which can be performed in all patients, regardless of renal function, presence of arrhythmias, obesity, or intracardiac devices.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup> The techniques used are SPECT and PET.</p>
          <p>For over three decades, MPS by the SPECT technique has been widely used in clinical practice because of its wide availability and extensive body of literature that supports its value in the IHD diagnosis and risk stratification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup>Its is the most commonly used noninvasive imaging technique to assess women at intermediate-high risk for IHD and stable ischemic symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup></p>
          <p>One single test provides information on the extension and severity of perfusion abnormalities, myocardial wall motility, LVEF, and intraventricular synchronism at rest and under stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> The total perfusion deficit and extension can be calculated, being objective parameters of ischemic burden and myocardium at risk that facilitate the definition of therapeutic management and follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The ET should be chosen for the stress phase when the patient can exercise properly (reach &#8805; 5 MET), because it provides important additional diagnostic and prognostic information. For patients who cannot exercise properly, pharmacological stress with a vasodilator (dipyridamole, adenosine, or regadenoson) should be chosen. Another option of pharmacological stress is the positive inotropic drug use, such as dobutamine, either sensitized or not with atropine. Women with LBBB and intracardiac devices should always undergo pharmacological stress with a vasodilator, regardless of their physical functioning to avoid imaging artifacts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The prognostic value of a normal MPS in women is excellent, including elderly women and several racial and ethnic groups, with 99% event-free survival, similarly to that in men, as shown in a large meta-analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The major disadvantage of MPS is exposure to radiation, although more recent technologies, such as new solid-state CZT gamma-camera detectors, improvement in radionuclides, protocols, and individualized doses of the radiotracer, have reduced that exposure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> False-positive results can occur because of artifact due to breast attenuation in the anterior LV wall, in addition to possible lower accuracy in women with small hearts.</p>
          <p>Although less available, the MPS with PET has an excellent diagnostic performance, with sensitivity of 90-92% and specificity of 81-88% to detect angiographically significant stenoses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> In addition to higher accuracy, PET enables the quantification of myocardial blood flow in milliliters per minute per gram of tissue, and the calculation of CFR, an important prognostic marker of CVR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> Thus, PET improves the detection of severe multivessel obstructive IHD with balanced ischemia pattern and coronary microvascular dysfunction, which are difficult to identify with SPECT because of its technical limitations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup> Another advantage of PET is the lower exposure to radiation (effective dose of 2-3mSv <italic>versus</italic> 9-12mSv with SPECT), because it uses short-duration radionuclides, which makes it particularly useful for women of reproductive age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Studies with PET have shown that coronary microvascular dysfunction is prevalent in women and men (54% and 51%, respectively), and regardless of sex, CFR proved to be a powerful incremental predictor of events, a trend maintained even in patients with no coronary calcification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup>The new CZT gamma-cameras have shown promising results in the CFR assessment with SPECT, increasing the availability of coronary microvascular dysfunction assessment in regions where the PET technique is not available.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition, abnormal CFR is associated with diastolic dysfunction. A recent study with 64.7% of women without obstructive IHD has shown an independent association of CFR reduction (defined as &lt; 2) and diastolic dysfunction, and an increase in cardiovascular events or HFpEF. Those findings suggest a pathophysiological relation between coronary microvascular dysfunction and HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Imaging protocols with hybrid equipment (PET/CT or SPECT/CT) add the ability of assessing anatomical changes with CAC quantification, thus increasing the test&#8217;s sensitivity for IHD diagnosis with a single test.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7. Arrhythmias in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy</title>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1. Atrial Fibrillation and Ischemic Heart Disease</title>
          <p>The age-adjusted incidence of AF is 1.5- to 2-times higher in men, but the risk of AF throughout life is similar in both sexes because of the longer life expectancy of the female sex. At the age of 85 years, the differences in prevalence are mild.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Women have more symptoms and worse quality of life as compared to men. There are innumerous mechanisms associated with the differences between sexes in AF, but it is worth noting that the IHD, more commonly observed in the male sex, can contribute to the higher incidence of AF in the group.</p>
          <p>When the rhythm control strategy with AAD is analyzed, women have more adverse events. The increase in the baseline QT interval can affect tolerance to the use of AAD, especially of class III, requiring more careful monitoring in that group of patients. Regarding the results of catheter ablation in the female sex, observational studies have shown that women less often undergo ablation and at a later time, with worse procedural outcome as compared to men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Innumerous studies have shown that AF treatment based on <italic>&#8220;Atrial Fibrillation Better Care (ABC) pathway&#8221;</italic> causes significant reductions in the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, hospitalization, and mortality, with no difference related to sex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> The ABC strategy comprises three aspects: &#8216;A&#8217; - to prevent stroke; &#8216;B&#8217; - to provide better control of symptoms with focus on the patient; and &#8216;C&#8217; - to prevent and/or treat the CVRFs and comorbidities that contribute to the AF appearance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding &#8216;C&#8217;, women with AF have a higher prevalence of SAH, obesity, depression, HFpEF, and valvular heart disease as the cause of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Physical activity is another important predictor in women: the higher the exercise intensity, the lower the incidence of AF. Women who practice vigorous physical activity have a 28% reduction in the incidence of AF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref></sup> In a large prospective study with 30 034 women, menopause did not significantly relate to the incidence of AF, while the use of estrogen monotherapy was associated with an increase in its risk, suggesting a pathophysiological relation between estrogen exposure and arrhythmia in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref></sup> As compared to nulliparity, multiparity was associated with a linear increase in the risk of AF in a large cohort of initially healthy women. The repeated exposure to hormonal, metabolic, and physiological changes during pregnancy can predispose to AF later in life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding &#8216;A&#8217;, women with AF have a higher incidence of stroke than men, and women&#8217;s stroke is more severe and causes higher permanent disability, and that is the reason why anticoagulation, based on risk scores, is essential in both sexes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> Antithrombotic therapy with oral anticoagulants is indicated for patients with AF and CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc &#8805; 2, but the decision should be individualized.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Patients with indication of continuous use of anticoagulants require risk assessment of bleeding caused by those drugs before initiating their use. A high risk of bleeding does not contraindicate anticoagulation and indicates the need for higher control of RFs. There are innumerous scores for that purpose, and the HAS-BLED score has been recommended in the last guidelines on AF. Individuals with a score &#8805; 3 are considered at higher risk of bleeding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Clinical studies on anticoagulation in AF have shown higher safety in the use of DOACs &#8211; dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, edoxaban &#8211; in relation to warfarin. The percutaneous occlusion of the LAA has been indicated when there is absolute contraindication to the use of anticoagulants, as occurs in intracranial bleeding of irreversible cause. The surgical occlusion or exclusion of the LAA can be considered when the patient with AF has indication for cardiac surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding &#8216;B&#8217;, women with AF have more symptoms, worse quality of life, and higher mortality, justifying the need for a proper and early approach regarding HR control with AADs or ablation of the atrioventricular node and, when possible, reversion to sinus rhythm with ECV, chemical cardioversion, or catheter ablation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> Catheter ablation with electrical isolation of the pulmonary veins is currently indicated for the treatment of paroxysmal/persistent AF in patients without graft vascular disease, those with AF-induced tachycardiomyopathy, as well as in those with graft vascular disease and HF to reduce hospitalization and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Association between AF and ICM is less frequent in women than in men, but the high risks of that association have no sex-related differences.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup> In patients with ACS, the incidence of AF varies from 2% to 23%, being associated with higher in-hospital mortality in the first month and first year, and higher frequency of stroke, with no evidence of sex-related differences. These outcomes are more frequent in individuals who develop AF during hospitalization due to ACS, as compared to those who already had AF previously to the acute ischemic event.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B154">154</xref></sup> The hemodynamic instability attributed to AF in the presence of ACS should be treated with synchronized ECV. In stable patients, HR control can be obtained with the intravenous use of BB or CCB. The administration of amiodarone is a proper alternative to control ventricular frequency and can favor the reversion to sinus rhythm. Propafenone should not be used in patients with AF and ACS for reversion to sinus rhythm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Recent studies on revascularization in men and women with AF and ACS or chronic coronary syndrome undergoing angioplasty and stent implantation have shown that, in patients with indication for anticoagulation due to AF, the use of dual antiplatelet therapy (acetylsalicylic acid and a P2Y12 receptor inhibitor &#8211; clopidogrel, prasugrel, ticagrelor) is recommended for at least one week for those at lower risk of thrombosis and/or higher risk of bleeding, and can last for four weeks, with acetylsalicylic acid suspension after that period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref></sup> Dual antiplatelet therapy (anticoagulant + antiplatelet) should be maintained for at least 6 months in patients with AF and chronic coronary syndrome and for 12 months in those with AF and ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In acute or chronic ICM associated with AF, there is no evidence that investigation or treatment strategies differ in men and women; thus, those strategies should be equally provided to prevent the innumerous and severe complications related to those diseases.</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t7001">Table 7.1</xref> summarizes the indications for the current treatment of AF and shows the particularities and perspectives related to the female sex.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t7001">
              <label>Table 7.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Treatment of atrial fibrillation: indications, particularities, and perspectives related to the female sex.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="25%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">TREATMENT STRATEGIES</th>
                    <th>INDICATIONS</th>
                    <th>PARTICULARITIES</th>
                    <th>PERSPECTIVES</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR CONTROL</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Control of symptoms;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Strategies: drugs isolated or in combination for all patients with AF;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. Goal: HR &lt; 110 bpm.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Women are more symptomatic;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Women are less often recruited for clinical trials.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Therapeutic strategy should pay more attention to symptoms;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Recruit more women for clinical trials.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>BB</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Calcium channel blocker (diltiazem, verapamil)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Digoxin</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Atrioventricular node ablation</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. BB: first choice for any LVEF;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Diltiazem/verapamil: patients with LVEF &gt; 40%;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. Digoxin: patients with LVEF &lt; 40%;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4. Low dose of digoxin associated with a lower risk;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>5. Amiodarone and ablation: when the others fail.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Women most frequently receive a prescription of digoxin;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Atrioventricular node ablation, rather than reversion to sinus rhythm, is most frequently indicated for women.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Proper and time-limited digoxin prescription;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Proper monitoring of electrolytes.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RHYTHM CONTROL</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Restore and maintain sinus rhythm for symptom control and quality of life improvement;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Strategies: ECV, chemical cardioversion and/or catheter ablation (associated with anticoagulation, HR control and treatment of risk factors for AF).</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Women have more symptoms and worse quality of life;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Fewer women are recruited for clinical trials.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Therapeutic strategy should pay more attention to symptoms;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Systematic quality of life investigation;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. Early and proper indication of strategies, including catheter ablation;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4. Recruit more women for clinical trials.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>ECV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Class I drugs</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Class III drugs</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Catheter ablation</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Maze surgery</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. ECV for patients with AF and hemodynamic instability, including in the presence of ACS;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Class I drugs for patients without structural heart disease (including ischemic);</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. Catheter ablation (complete electrical isolation of pulmonary veins) indicated for paroxysmal/persistent AF in patients without graft vascular disease, with AF-induced tachycardiomyopathy, and those with graft vascular disease to reduce hospitalization and mortality;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4. Maze surgery indicated concomitantly with mitral or revascularization surgery.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Women receive less indication for ECV;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Women are later referred to sinus rhythm reversion strategies, including catheter ablation;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. There are more reports of complications in women undergoing ablation;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4. Women have a higher frequency of adverse events related to the use of antiarrhythmic drugs (acquired long QT syndrome; sinus node disease).</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Monitoring of electrolytes and ECG when using antiarrhythmic drugs;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Proper design of catheters for ablation in women.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>ANTICOAGULATION</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Reduce thrombus formation and prevent stroke in patients with CHA2DS2VASc &#8805; 3 (women) and low risk for bleeding (HAS-BLED &lt; 3).</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Women higher frequency of stroke, which can be more severe and permanently disabling, with higher mortality;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. Fewer women are recruited for clinical trials.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Periodical stratification of thrombosis and bleeding scores for therapy adequacy;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. DOACs, at proper doses, are more often indicated;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. Proper INR control over time, when using warfarin;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4. Recruit more women for clinical trials.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>DOACs</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Warfarin</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LAA occlusion</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. DOACs are preferable to warfarin, except when AF is associated with moderate/severe mitral valve stenosis or mechanical prostheses;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. LAA occlusion is indicated when oral anticoagulants are contraindicated;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. Periodical reassessments of CHA2DS2Vasc and HAS-BLED;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4. When using warfarin: target range for INR = 2.0-3.0, with time in the therapeutic range &gt; 70%.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>5. For women with AF and ACS, oral anticoagulants are indicated when CHA2DS2Vasc &#8805; 2.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1. Women receive lower doses of anticoagulants;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. When on warfarin, women remain less time in the INR therapeutic range and have a higher residual risk for stroke;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. Women have a lower risk of bleeding when on DOACs.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p> </p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN4001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; AF: atrial fibrillation; BB: beta-blocker; DOACs: direct oral anticoagulants; ECV: electric cardioversion; HR: heart rate; INR: international normalized ratio; LAA: left atrial appendage; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2. Ventricular Arrhythmias: Sudden Death, Prevention, and Treatment</title>
          <p>Women&#8217;s representation in clinical trials has increased in recent decades, but is still very low, mainly in cardiology, including studies on arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup> Despite all medical advances, sudden cardiac death remains the major cause of cardiovascular death in patients with ICM,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref></sup> including acute and chronic IHD and different ventricular arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A recent review on ventricular arrhythmias in acute myocardial ischemia, focused on the role of age and sex, has concluded that the mechanisms responsible for sex-dependent differences in susceptibility to malignant ventricular arrhythmias during acute ischemia are still misunderstood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> In addition, the underrepresentation of women as subjects in clinical trials contributes to the paucity of scientific evidence to develop sex-dependent methods for sudden cardiac death prevention. Despite the scarcity of data on women&#8217;s arrhythmia mechanisms, parameters that promote ventricular arrhythmias, such as fibrosis, cardiac hypertrophy, abnormalities of calcium signaling, and electrophysiological changes, differ according to age and sex, stressing the need for further research.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> In the major studies of primary prevention, the percentage of women undergoing ICD implantation has ranged from 8% to 29%, indicating the low representation of women, which hinders the assessment of the procedure&#8217;s real benefit on that population. In addition, the individual analyses of those studies on the mortality benefit are not appropriate, because those studies had not been designed with statistical power to answer the question.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regardless of the sex, the prevention and treatment of ventricular arrhythmias of all etiologies involve the control of modifiable RFs, use of AADs, catheter ablation, and ICD use, the last one as primary or secondary prevention.</p>
          <p>The ICD therapy for patients with indication is another important point. In 2007, Hernandes <italic>et al.</italic> assessed more than 13 000 patients of the GWTG-HF program (<italic>American Heart Association&#8217;s Get With the Guidelines &#8211; Heart Failure</italic>) and concluded that the ICD therapy rates differed in black men, black women, and white women, being 27%, 38%, and 44% lower, respectively, as compared to that of white men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref></sup> The analysis of the GWTG-HF program in 2012 showed an improvement in those rates and the end of the differences, drawing attention to the need to maintain attention and continuing education around the world.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> However, a huge difference persists between the patients who, according to the guidelines, need and those who receive an ICD, especially women.</p>
          <p>Regarding individuals with an ICD, there are differences between women and men related to outcomes other than mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref></sup> A subanalysis of the MADIT-CRT study has concluded that women have a lower incidence of VT/VF, suggesting that, in women, non-arrhythmic sudden death is higher than in men. In addition, the presence of appropriate shock therapy by the ICD was a predictor of death, mainly in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup> In 2022, a study on assessment of ventricular arrhythmias in women (propensity score-matched analysis) was conducted in individuals with ICD. After pairing for the major comorbidities, indications, concomitant therapy, and demographic data, women remained with a lower risk profile for sustained ventricular arrhythmia than men, except for the subgroup of women with CRT and those with LVEF &lt; 30%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Catheter ablation is an effective therapy to control ventricular arrhythmias, being recommended in several scenarios in the guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup> However, in VT ablation studies, the percentage of women in the population with IHD is low (7-13%). The less often indication for invasive procedures, less often induction of sustained VT, and the smaller number of appropriate shocks are factors that might contribute to that reduced percentage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.3. Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy</title>
          <p>Clinical studies, such as MIRACLE, COMPANION, CARE-HF, MADIT-CRT, RAFT, REVERSE, and MIRACLE, have shown that CRT improves the outcomes in symptomatic patients with reduced LVEF and prolonged QRS duration. Although in those studies the percentage of women has ranged from 17% to 33%, an even greater benefit was demonstrated in women as compared to men (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8001">Table 7.2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup>Those studies were performed in ischemic and nonischemic patients, and ischemia was present in 36% to 69% of the patients studied.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t8001">
              <label>Table 7.2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Results of clinical studies with cardiac resynchronization therapy according to gender.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="20%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Study</th>
                    <th>N of patients</th>
                    <th>Inclusion criterion</th>
                    <th>Randomization</th>
                    <th>HR of events (95%; P value)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>COMPANION<sup>2</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: 1025 (67%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: 495 (33%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA III-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>QRS &#8805; 120ms</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">ODT vs ODT + CRT-D</td>
                    <td align="center">HR for death: men: 0.63 (0.4-0.9) women: 0.58 (0.25-1.13)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>CARE-HF<sup>3</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: 597 (73%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: 216 (27%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA III-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>QRS &#8805; 130ms</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEDV &#8805; 300ms</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">ODT vs ODT + CRT</td>
                    <td align="center">HR for death or cardiac hospitalization: men: 0.62 (0.49-0.79) women: 0.64 (0.42-0.97)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>MADIT CRT<sup>4</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: 1367 (75%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: 453 (25%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 30%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA II-III</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>QRS &#8805; 120ms</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">ICD vs CRT-D</td>
                    <td align="center">HR for HF or death: men: 0.76 (0.59-0.97) women: 0.37 (0.22-0.61)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>RAFT<sup>5</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: 1490 (83%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: 308 (17%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 30%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA II-III</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>QRS &#8805; 130ms</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">ICD vs CRT-D</td>
                    <td align="center">HR for death or HF hospitalization: men: 0.82 (0.7-0.95) women: 0.52 (0.35-0.85)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>REVERSE<sup>6</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: 479 (78.5%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: 131 (21.5%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 40%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA I-II</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>QRS &gt; 120ms</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">CRT-on vs CRT-off</td>
                    <td align="center">HR composite clinical outcome: men: 0.69 (0.43-1.11) women: 0.75 (0.26-2.19)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>MIRACLE<sup>7</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: 216 (67%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: 107 (33%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA III-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>QRS &gt; 130ms</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">CRT-on vs CRT-off</td>
                    <td align="center">NYHA. quality of life. exercise capacity; women, but not men, with CRT experienced longer times for first HF hospitalization or death (p = 0.157)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN5001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>CRT: cardiac resynchronization therapy; CRT-D: cardiac resynchronization therapy with defibrillator; HF; heart failure; HR: hazard ratio; ICD: implantable cardioverter defibrillator; LVEDV: left ventricular end-diastolic volume; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; NYHA: New York Heart Association;ODT: optimized drug therapy; vs: versus.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>The MIRACLE study has assessed 453 patients with NYHA functional class III or IV HF, LVEF &#8804; 35% and QRS duration &#8805; 130ms, comparing CRT on <italic>versus</italic> off, and 33% of the patients were women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup> Woo <italic>et al</italic>. have analyzed eight pre-specified subgroups in the MIRACLE study, and, when assessing response according to sex, they observed that women receiving CRT had longer times for the first hospitalization or death as compared to the control group, deriving more benefit from CRT than men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The MADIT-CRT study has assessed 1820 patients with NYHA functional class I or II HF (25% were women), LVEF &#8804; 30%, and QRS duration &#8805; 130ms. The RAFT study has assessed 1798 patients with NYHA functional class II or III HF (17%, women), LVEF &#8804; 30%, and QRS duration &#8805; 120ms or &#8805; 200ms when stimulated by previous pacemaker. Both studies compared cardiac resynchronization therapy with defibrillator (CRT-D) <italic>versus</italic> ICD and showed a favorable HF-free survival curve in the CRT-D group, with a reduction in the composite outcome of HF and death of 34% and 25%, respectively. In the multivariate analysis in both studies for the outcome death and HF, a marked benefit was observed in women. In the MADIT-CRT study, women receiving CRT-D had a more favorable survival curve than women and men not receiving ICD or even men who received CRT-D. There was a 72% reduction in the risk of death when comparing women with CRT-D <italic>versus</italic> ICD, but there was no difference in the survival curves of men with CRT-D <italic>versus</italic> ICD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A meta-analysis of the MADIT-CRT, RAFT, and REVERSE studies with 4076 patients, 22% of the female sex, has shown, in the analysis of the outcome HF and death, favorable curves for CRT in women. In addition, for the outcome death, the same results with favorable curve to CRT <italic>versus</italic> ICD in women were found and no difference between men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A study has assessed 741 patients aged 66 &#177; 11 years, 33% women, 78% white, LVEF 28 &#177; 9%, 58% ICM, 75% with LBBB and LV end-systolic volume of 65 &#177; 30mL/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, undergoing CRT-D implantation, with randomly assigned atrioventricular interval as either fixed at 120ms, echocardiography-determined, or SmartDelay algorithm-programmed. The composite outcome was death and HF hospitalization and &gt;15% reduction in the end-diastolic diameter at 6 months. The response of both sexes to CRT was similar, and the sex disparities in CRT outcomes were explained by the sex differences in HF substrate, treatment, and comorbidities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Beela <italic>et al</italic>. have investigated to which extent best CRT outcomes could be explained by differences in the baseline characteristics between the sexes. They assessed 1058 patients (24% women) receiving CRT with primary endpoint of all-cause mortality. Women less often had ICM and less fibrosis, more LBBB, and more mechanical dyssynchrony. Considering the baseline characteristics, the survival response was similar in both sexes. The best result found in women was due to the lower ICM rate and smaller scars.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The presence of LBBB is a determinant factor of better response to CRT and the same benefit is not observed when LBBB is absent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A study with 75 079 patients with NYHA functional class III or IV HF, reduced LVEF (&#8804; 35%), and QRS duration &#8805; 120ms, comparing CRT between women and men, has shown benefit in both sexes. The same occurred in the presence of LBBB, although a more attenuated mortality curve was observed in women. In the group without LBBB, women had a better mortality curve than men for even wider QRS complexes (150-159ms).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref></sup> Women with LBBB responded better than men with narrower QRS complexes and a possible reason might be that women have smaller LV mass and narrower QRS complexes than men (approximately 10ms shorter). Thus, any absolute QRS prolongation in women can correspond to a higher grade of dyssynchrony.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181">181</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Women have twice the number of major complications related to CRT procedures. This difference can be significant between women and men receiving CRT, the most common complication being pneumothorax/hemothorax. Infection requiring reoperation was more frequent in women. The best predictor of complications in women was a small body mass index (BMI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B182">182</xref></sup> The major differences between women and men receiving CRT are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9001">Chart 7.1</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t9001">
              <label>Chart 7.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Major differences between women and men receiving cardiac resynchronization therapy.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">1. Women represent 30% or less of the studied populations</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2. As compared to men, women more often have:</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>&#10003; Nonischemic cardiomyopathy</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>&#10003; Left bundle branch block and narrower QRS</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>&#10003; Procedural complications</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>&#10003; Advanced age</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>&#10003; Hypertension and diabetes</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3. As compared to men, women less often have:</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>&#10003; Atrial fibrillation</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>&#10003; Ischemic cardiomyopathy</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>&#10003; Reduced ejection fraction</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Although therapies, such as ICD and CRT, are beneficial regarding mortality, women receive fewer devices than men (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13001">Figure 7.1</xref>). This disproportion suggests that women either do not meet the criteria for CRT or are not selected for the studies or not even properly maintained in the studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f13001">
              <label>Figure 7.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Distribution of implantable cardiac electronic devices per type and gender. Adapted from Chen-Scarabelli et al.183 <italic>CRT-D: cardiac resynchronization therapy with defibrillator; CRT-P: cardiac resynchronization therapy with pacemaker; ICD: implantable cardioverter defibrillator; PM: pacemaker.</italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf13-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.4. Recommendations</title>
          <p>For stroke risk assessment, the CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc score is recommended to identify patients at low risk (CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc score = 0 for men and 1 for women) who should not receive oral anticoagulants. Antithrombotic therapy with oral anticoagulants is indicated for patients with AF and CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc &#8805; 2, but the decision should be individualized.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The recommendations relative to management of arrhythmias are the same for both sexes.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8. Atherothrombosis in Pregnancy, Contraception, Infertility, Antiphospholipid Syndrome</title>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>Specific circumstances of women&#8217;s biological cycle add risks that contribute to the different course of atherosclerosis and thrombotic disease in women and remain under investigation. This chapter addresses specific topics of reproductive age, such as pregnancy, contraception, infertility, and APS. The APS, prevalent in the female sex, is considered a potential trigger of atherothrombotic disease in women.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2. Pregnancy</title>
          <p>Ischemic heart disease is not common during pregnancy. According to data from the World Health Organization, the AMI rate is 3.34 events per 100 000 pregnancies, non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) being the most frequent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14001">Figure 8.1</xref> shows the major RFs for IHD during pregnancy, in addition to the other RFs, identified in a careful anamnesis and complete physical examination.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f14001">
              <label>Figure 8.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Major risk factors for ischemic heart disease in pregnancy and additional risk factors. IHD: ischemic heart disease.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf14-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Maternal age over 40 years is a progressive RF, thus, for each year of a woman&#8217;s life, there is a 20% increase in the risk for myocardial infarction in pregnancy. A contemporary review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref></sup> has reported on the most frequent mechanisms related to myocardial infarction during pregnancy and puerperium (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15001">Figure 8.2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f15001">
              <label>Figure 8.2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Pathophysiological mechanisms of myocardial infarction during pregnancy and puerperium.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf15-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Spontaneous coronary artery dissection accounts for almost half of the causes of myocardial infarction, with a prevalence of 1.81 event per 100 000 pregnancies, being most frequent in the third gestational trimester. The results of pregnancy-associated SCAD have worse prognosis as compared to those of the general population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The management of myocardial infarction due to atherothrombotic disease during pregnancy and after delivery does not differ from that of the general population, even regarding the percutaneous or surgical MRV techniques.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup> Regarding pharmacological therapy, acetylsalicylic acid at low doses is safe for the pregnancy and fetus,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup> as is clopidogrel, and should be suspended 7 days before the programmed delivery date.</p>
          <p>In cases of SCAD, clinical treatment has been most often indicated, including the use of BBs, which, except for atenolol, can be used in all gestational trimesters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref></sup> Absence of residual ischemia or ventricular dysfunction allows a &#8220;new&#8221; pregnancy with individualized indication.</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t15001">Table 8.1</xref> summarizes the findings of IHD during pregnancy and puerperium.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t15001">
              <label>Table 8.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Summary of definition, etiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and prevention of ischemic heart disease during pregnancy and puerperium.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="17%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                    <th>SCAD</th>
                    <th>ATHEROSCLEROSIS</th>
                    <th>VASOSPASM</th>
                    <th>CORONARY THROMBOSIS</th>
                    <th>MICROCIRCULATION DISEASE</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>DEFINITION</td>
                    <td align="center">Spontaneous rupture of the intimal layer of coronary arteries and intramural hemorrhages in the arterial &#8220;false lumen&#8221;</td>
                    <td align="center">Related to traditional and emerging risk factors for cardiovascular disease</td>
                    <td align="center">Reversible diffuse or focal vasoconstriction of coronary arteries</td>
                    <td align="center">No atherosclerosis; possible relation to coagulation disorders and hypercoagulability of pregnancy and puerperium; paradoxycal embolism</td>
                    <td align="center">Mechanisms not yet established, including transient spasms</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>ETIOLOGY &amp; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY</td>
                    <td align="center">Disorganization and weakening of coronary walls related to pregnancy hormones</td>
                    <td align="center">Gestational hypertensive disease, gestacional diabetes, smoking, prolonged use of contraceptives prior to gestation, age &gt; 35 years</td>
                    <td align="center">Endothelial dysfunction, chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and smooth muscle hyperreactivity</td>
                    <td align="center">Hypercoagulability of pregnancy and predisposing genetic factors</td>
                    <td align="center">Increased vascular reactivity, use of ergot derivatives</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>CLINICAL PRESENTATION</td>
                    <td align="center">Varied: from mild chest pain to sudden death. Symptoms of acute coronary syndrome during pregnancy and post-partum</td>
                    <td align="center">Chest, jaw, and neck pain, fatigue, and nauseas</td>
                    <td align="center">Varied: from asymptomatic to sudden death, angina, and acute myocardial infarction</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>PREVENTION</td>
                    <td align="center">Avoid emotional stress, hormone therapy, and new pregnancy</td>
                    <td align="center">Treat the cardiovascular disease risk factors and raise awareness of early diagnosis</td>
                    <td align="center">Avoid illicit drugs, amphetamines, and alcohol</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN6001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>DEAC: dissec&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea de art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria. SCAD: spontaneous coronary artery dissection.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.3. Contraception</title>
          <p>Hormonal contraception is well-known to be efficient and safe in healthy women, despite the scarce evidence on its effects on individuals with comorbidities, mainly SAH and cerebrovascular diseases, or history of ischemic events, such as deep venous thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE), regardless of the composition or administration route.</p>
          <p>In recent decades, there has been an increasing number of young women with CVD, corroborating North-American registries that have shown an 11.5% prevalence of CVD in women aged 20-29 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup> Adolescent or young women often have to face pregnancy without prior counseling about conception planning. Pregnancy, either programmed or not, is a &#8220;window of opportunity&#8221; to propitiate contraception, for both healthy women and those with some type of comorbidity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In this scenario, it is worth mentioning that self-identification as transgender occurs in 0.69% of the Brazilian population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> The population assigned female at birth receives no reproductive counseling throughout life, although the use of contraceptives might relieve the ovulatory cycle-related symptoms and reduce undesired pregnancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The hormonal contraceptives are classified as combined hormonal contraceptives (CHC - estrogen and progesterone), oral and patch, progestin-only contraceptives (POCs), and long-acting contraceptives (subdermal etonogestrel implant, levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system). The copper intrauterine device is a non-hormonal contraceptive. The failure and efficacy of contraceptives can be calculated by the Pearl index, which considers the number of pregnancies/100 women/year<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16001">Figure 8.3</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f16001">
              <label>Figure 8.3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Pearl index of the major contraceptive methods. IUD: intrauterine device. Source: adaptado de Curtis et al.<italic><sup>193</sup></italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf16-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Contraceptives in general and the CHC can be associated with atherothrombotic disease. A meta-analysis has shown that the use of CHC represents a risk 1.7-fold higher of myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup> The effect is due to the action of estrogen, when passing through the liver, to promote changes in the hemostatic pathways that lead to a procoagulant and prothrombotic state. The same does not occur with the POCs, except for medroxyprogesterone acetate, which changes the glycidic and lipidic profiles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is worth noting that the presence of RFs for CVD (smoking &gt; 15 cigarettes/day, age &gt; 35 years, obesity, SAH &gt; 160/100mmHg, vascular disease, thrombophilia, history of DVT/PTE, prolonged immobilization, stroke, and myocardial ischemia) significantly increases the risk of thromboembolism in women on hormonal contraceptives. According to the 2015 WHO-MEC eligibility criteria, in such situations, the CHCs, the patches and ring with combined contraceptives, and the injectable combined contraceptives are contraindicated, while the POCs, the subdermal etonogestrel implant, and the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system can be indicated<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t16001">Chart 8.1</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t16001">
              <label>Chart 8.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Use of contraceptives in thrombotic and atherothrombotic diseases.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="13%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th colspan="8">Contraceptives: Introduction and continuation according to thrombotic and atherothrombotic diseases</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">CONDITION</th>
                    <th>Co-IUD</th>
                    <th align="left">LNG</th>
                    <th align="left">Implant</th>
                    <th align="left">DMPA</th>
                    <th align="left">POC</th>
                    <th align="left">CHC</th>
                    <th align="left">CHC</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td style="background-color: #cdcdcd">IHD</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Recent or previous</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td style="background-color: #cdcdcd">Diagnosed thrombogenic mutation</td>
                    <td style="background-color: #b2b2b2"> </td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td style="background-color: #cdcdcd">CVRF</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Advanced age, smoking, DM, SAH, dyslipidemia</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td style="background-color: #cdcdcd">Ischemic stroke</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">History of stroke</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="2" style="background-color: #cdcdcd">CVD</td>
                    <td align="center" rowspan="2" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Noncomplicated Complicated (pulmonary hypertension, atrial fibrillation, and endocarditis)</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="12" style="background-color: #cdcdcd">DVT /PTE</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">History of DVT/PTE without anticoagulation</td>
                    <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">High risk of recurrence</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Low risk of recurrence</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #f23700">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Acute DVT/PTE</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color: #b2b2b2">
                    <td align="center">DVT/PTE with anticoagulation for at least 3 months</td>
                    <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">High risk of recurrence</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Low risk of recurrence</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Family history</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color: #b2b2b2">
                    <td align="center">Large surgery</td>
                    <td colspan="6"> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">With prolonged immobilization</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #5e5e5e">4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Without prolonged immobilization</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #ffb232">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #b2b2b2">Small surgery without immobilization</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                    <td align="center" style="background-color: #9bdd81">1</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN7001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Categories: 1= no use restriction; 2= benefit exceeds potential risk; 3= risk exceeds benefit; 4= unacceptable risk. CHC: combined hormonal contraceptive; Co-IUD: copper intrauterine device; CVD: cardiovascular disease; CVRF: cardiovascular risk factor; DM: diabetes mellitus; DMPA: depot medroxyprogesterone acetate; DVT: deep venous thrombosis; IHD: ischemic heart disease; LNG: levonorgestrel; POC: progestin-only contraceptive; PTE: pulmonary thromboembolism; SAH: systemic arterial hypertension. Source: adapted from Curtis et al.</italic>
                    <sup>193</sup>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>In conclusion, although CHCs are the contraceptives most often used worldwide, we emphasize that the subdermal implants and the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system have a smaller impact on atherothrombotic disease. It is worth noting that the selection of a contraceptive method should consider the patient&#8217;s intrinsic factors, as well as the safety and efficacy of the contraceptive, in addition to involving a multidisciplinary approach throughout a woman&#8217;s reproductive life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>8.3.1. Recommendations</title>
            <p>The use of contraceptives in thrombotic and atherothrombotic disease should be guided by the presence or absence of RFs for CVD, in which the following are contraindicated: CHCs, patches and ring with combined contraceptives, and injectable combined contraceptives. In such situations, POCs, subdermal etonogestrel implant, and levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system can be indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.4. Infertility</title>
        <p>Infertility is a disease characterized by the failure to establish a clinical pregnancy after 12 months of regular and unprotected sexual intercourse. It is estimated to affect 8-12% of couples at reproductive age worldwide. Secondary infertility is the most common type of female infertility, often due to reproductive tract infections. The three major factors influencing the spontaneous likelihood of conception are the time of unwanted non-conception, female partner&#8217;s age, and causes related to diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The factors that affect both sexes&#8217; fertility are hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, hyperprolactinemia, ciliary function disorders, cystic fibrosis, infections, systemic diseases, and lifestyle-related factors, while premature ovarian insufficiency, POS, endometriosis, uterine myomas, and endometrial polyps are important causes of female infertility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In addition to those comorbidities, infertility is often associated with mental disorders, such as depression and anxiety, and has a strong relation to CVD because of the impact of androgenic hormones on CVRFs and on metabolic syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200">200</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A meta-analysis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B201">201</xref></sup> comparing groups of women of the same age range, with or without infertility, has shown higher frequency of proatherosclerotic metabolic disorders, mainly obesity and increased total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and triglycerides, in infertile women. In that meta-analysis, an isolated study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref></sup> has shown an increase in IHD, stroke, and HF in infertile women in a follow-up of at least 5 years as compared to healthy women (HR 1.35; 1.16&#8211;1.57; p &lt; 0.0001).</p>
        <p>Women with POS are at a higher risk for obesity, SAH, glucose intolerance, dyslipidemia, and sleep obstructive apnea. Regarding metabolic disorders, obesity is present in 50% of the cases. Insulin resistance, present in 60-95% of the cases, causes glucose intolerance in 31-35% and type 2 DM in 7.5-20% of those women. However, the lipid profile changes characterized by low HDL-cholesterol levels, high triglyceride plasma levels, and increased LDL-cholesterol levels are the most frequent metabolic change in POS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203">203</xref></sup></p>
        <p>On the 20<sup>th</sup> year of the CARDIA prospective study, the analysis of the images of coronary artery calcifications and measures of the carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) has shown a high risk for subclinical CVD (OR 2.70; 95% CI, 1.31 &#8211; 5.60) in the presence of hyperandrogenism and anovulation in POS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup> These data have been emphasized in the meta-analysis by Zhang <italic>et al.</italic>, who have reported an increased risk for myocardial infarction, IHD, and stroke (OR 1.66; 95% CI, 1.32 &#8211; 2.08) in women with POS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B205">205</xref></sup></p>
        <p>An equally important cause of infertility is endometriosis, with prevalence of almost 10% in the population and associated with chronic diseases, such as asthma, autoimmune diseases, gynecologic cancers, and CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> In endometriosis, there is a chronic inflammatory process mediated by substances, such as intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM-1), interleukin 1 and 6 (IL-1 and IL-6), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-a), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which increase oxidative stress and LDL-cholesterol levels, with subsequent atherogenic effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Endometriosis has been shown to associate with well-established RFs for CVD, such as SAH and dyslipidemia, with higher atherogenic profile and increased risk for venous thromboembolism, coronary artery disease, HF, and stroke. A study considering the combination of IHD, HF, and cerebrovascular disease as the primary endpoint has established a positive association of those events with endometriosis (OR 1.24; 95% IC, 1.13 &#8211; 1.37), placing endometriosis as a RF for CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup> These observations were in accordance with a prospective study showing the association of endometriosis with an increased risk for myocardial infarction/ coronary ischemia and surgical and percutaneous MRV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Fertility therapy is considered a potential RF for hypertensive disorders in pregnancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref></sup> However, a systematic review grouping ACS, stroke, venous thromboembolism, SAH, and DM in women undergoing fertility treatment has shown no increase in the combined events. That analysis, however, with only six very heterogeneous studies, has serious limitations and has not met the statistical criterion to provide more robust evidence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In conclusion, the reproductive age is a convenient time to estimate the CVR throughout a woman&#8217;s life. In that phase of the female biological cycle, attention should be paid to risks and interventions in clinical pathologies not included in traditional CVR scores, stratifying those women differently for effective prevention of CVD.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.5. Antiphospholipid Syndrome</title>
        <p>The APS is an autoimmune thrombotic disease that affects mainly young women at the proportion of 5:1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B212">212</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup> The diagnosis is made in the presence of clinical suspicion of thrombosis in any vascular territory and/or recurring obstetrical complications, such as spontaneous abortions, premature deliveries, and preeclampsia/eclampsia. The APS causes placental insufficiency and restriction of intrauterine growth associated with the persistent presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL): anticardiolipin (aCL), anti-beta2-glycoprotein 1, and/or lupus anticoagulant (LAC) antibodies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The aPL are strongly associated with stroke in women aged less than 50 years. The presence of aCL and/or LAC in young patients with ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack, with no concomitant diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus, is frequent. In addition, patients with aPL and cerebral ischemia have a higher frequency of multiple events than patients without those antibodies. A prothrombotic state associated with aPL can be a determinant of recurrent ischemia in women with atherosclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The APS is associated with myocardial infarction in approximately 2.8% of patients affected by the disease. The mechanism of myocardial ischemia in APS is considered acute thrombosis of the coronary arteries, which requires anticoagulation therapy, in contrast to atherosclerotic plaque rupture, which is effectively treated with antiplatelet drugs and stenting<italic>.</italic> Considering the different forms of treatment, the distinction between undiagnosed APS patients is fundamental for therapeutic success and prognosis. Although uncommon, APS should be considered in young women with myocardial infarction, especially in the presence of previous unprovoked thrombosis, lower platelet counts, high partial thromboplastin time, and normal coronary arteries or coronary thrombosis. Anticoagulation should be maintained throughout life, even from the first episode. The role of coronary stenting in such patients requires further studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The evidence of significantly elevated titles of different aPLs in the initial phase of myocardial infarction suggests that these antibodies are present before the event and are not secondary to it. The disappearance of high aPL levels after 3 months from myocardial infarction can be due to an effect of absorption or possibly to a cyclical phenomenon similar to that found in other autoimmune diseases. The aPL can be an additional RF for myocardial infarction and should be considered especially in younger patients with no apparent CVRF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The clinical and laboratory criteria for the APS diagnosis should be present concomitantly in a window inferior to 5 years. The progress in the knowledge on the molecular bases of vascular involvement considers APS a multifactorial disease that develops in genetically predisposed individuals. Several mechanisms contribute to the development of thrombosis in patients with APS, mainly the synergistic effect of autoantibodies with prothrombotic molecules, adhesion receptors, inflammatory mediators, oxidative stress, and intracellular signaling molecules.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The presence of aPLs induces a proatherothrombotic state through the expression of prothrombotic and proinflammatory molecules, including tissue factor and VEGF, and induces oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in monocytes and neutrophils, in addition to increased formation of extracellular &#8220;traps&#8221; of neutrophils.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Genetic predisposition has been shown in associations of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) with the disease and the occurrence of aPLs in patients with APS. The major histocompatibility complex genes seem to influence not only the production of autoantibodies, but disease expression as well.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup> In addition, genetic polymorphisms have been associated with thrombosis in patients with APS, including variants of clotting factors, antithrombotic molecules, and inflammatory mediators.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup> The aPLs induce genomic and epigenetic changes that support a prothrombotic state.</p>
        <p>Epigenetics, defined as changes or modifications in DNA that influence the phenotype without changing the genotype, represents a new mechanism of genetic regulation. Epigenetic and post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms are altered in autoimmune and cardiovascular diseases, with modifications in DNA methylation, histones, and microRNA activities, changing the expression of genes and proteins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup> MicroRNAs affect the immune system and have an important role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune and inflammatory conditions, acting as the major regulators of several gene targets involved in the APS clinical characteristics, such as immune response, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref></sup> Two microRNAs (miR-19b/miR-20a) are known to function as potential modulators of the tissue factor, the major receptor involved in the development of thrombosis in APS. Thus, a specific signature of circulating microRNAs has been recently identified in patients with APS as potential biomarkers<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221">221</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17001">Figure 8.4</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f17001">
            <label>Figure 8.4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Genomic risk factors of atherothrombosis in antiphospholipid syndrome.<italic><sup>217</sup></italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf17-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Once the patient had a thrombotic event, independently of being venous or arterial, warfarin is the therapy of choice, with a target INR (International Normalized Ratio) between 2 and 3. Heparin, administered acutely at the time of the thrombotic event, can have two benefits: first, complement activation blockade (even if only in a prophylactic dose), and second, anticoagulation. Given the high risk of APS recurrence, long-term anticoagulation is recommended, because that risk can reach 24% with anticoagulation suspension, particularly in cases of systemic lupus erythematosus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Continuous progress in the knowledge of genomic bases and epigenetic biomarkers boosts clinical pharmacology and provides more safety to the APS therapy. Thus, although larger studies are needed, the new discoveries provide better understanding of the possibility of new models directed to therapeutic options to prevent the APS thrombosis.</p>
        <p>Menopause represents a significant transition in a woman&#8217;s life and is characterized by the cessation of the menstrual cycle and the subsequent dramatic reduction in the levels of the sexual hormones, estrogen and progesterone. Although testosterone also decreases in postmenopausal women, that reduction is more gradual and the effects of the androgens in a woman&#8217;s health after the menopausal transition have not been totally understood. Hormone replacement therapy is a method by which women can control menopausal symptoms during and after that transition. However, there is no sufficient understanding of the exact effects that different hormone replacement therapy forms have on the woman&#8217;s physiology, particularly in the context of risk for CVD. The interaction of advanced age and female sex with CVD in addition to the role of hormone replacement therapy and menopause in the CVD progression leads to future questions to address the gaps in the current understanding of the health of elderly women at risk for CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B222">222</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>8.5.1. Recommendations</title>
          <p>Antiphospholipid syndrome should be considered in young women with myocardial infarction, in situations of previous unprovoked thrombosis, lower platelet counts, high partial thromboplastin time, and normal coronary arteries or coronary thrombosis. Anticoagulation should be maintained throughout life, even from the first episode, particularly in systemic lupus erythematosus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9. Ischemic Cardiomyopathy in Women</title>
        <sec>
          <title>9.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>In a study involving individuals with ICM undergoing heart transplantation, the assessment of explanted hearts showed an increase in LV mass, myocyte volume, and cellular length in men. This difference was not identified in idiopathic cardiomyopathy, suggesting that gender may influence local myocardial response to ischemic injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B223">223</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The evolution after AMI in women is more severe. Higher hospital readmission and mortality rates have been registered in women as compared to men, and they remain higher at 1 (26% x 19%) and 5 years (47% x 36%) after the acute episode.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup> In addition, the incidence of symptomatic HF after AMI is higher in the female sex, especially in older women. The increase in risk extends beyond the initial episode of AMI. The female sex is an independent predictor of cardiogenic shock, even in AMI with a less severe IHD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite the better LVEF and lower obstructive IHD burden, women with IHD and ICM have lower physical functioning and quality of life, but similar mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup></p>
          <p>There is more information on ICM regarding men, possibly due to its higher frequency. The SAH and DM play a more significant role in women&#8217;s risk for HF, with a distinct phenotypic pattern.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Over the past decade, there was an extension of the debate on inequality in CVD care between genders, especially in AMI treatment; however, the underrepresentation of women in clinical trials and the lower optimization of their treatment currently persist. Men are more promptly taken care of and referred for treatment, and more often receive therapy supported by guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Somehow, this diagnostic-therapeutic limitation may be influencing the unfavorable outcomes in women.</p>
          <p>Regarding remodeling in IHD, the differences seem related to the sexual hormones, in addition to the sexual chromosomes and epigenetics. Several genes related to adverse processes of cardiac remodeling, such as activation of macrophages, apoptosis, and lipidic metabolism, have been shown to be in the chromosome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B225">225</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Female mitochondria have been reported to better tolerate oxygen deprivation and oxidative injury than the male ones, and women seem to be better protected from apoptosis induced by ischemia/reperfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> High levels of calcium increase the ischemia-reperfusion injury, and estrogen can reduce the levels of calcium before ischemia, leading to fewer lesions in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B227">227</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In animal models of infarction and fibrosis due to massive apoptosis, necrosis in the infarcted area is larger, with more collagen, in male mice compared to female ones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref></sup> This has been confirmed in trials with human beings, in whom apoptosis after myocardial infarction follows the same pattern, being more prevalent in men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B229">229</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Thus, although they seem not to improve mortality and hospitalizations, estrogens can protect against oxidative stress and modulate apoptosis; in addition, estradiol can reduce fibrosis by negatively regulating collagen synthesis, although mortality remains high.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In ICM, recent data have suggested that obesity is more frequent in the female population, correlating with worse prognosis as compared to men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding the HF symptoms, women tend to be more symptomatic, with complaints of dyspnea and orthopnea across the entire functional class spectrum as compared to men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Several noninvasive methods are available for the diagnosis of women&#8217;s ICM and, in many cases, they can aid not only the diagnosis, but the prognostic assessment and therapy definitions as well. The choice of the best modality should consider the diagnostic performance, the gender-related peculiarities, and, sometimes, the presence of special situations, such as pregnancy.</p>
          <p>The CCTA has high sensitivity and similar performance in men and women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B231">231</xref></sup> The addition of technologies for functional assessment enables the identification of hemodynamically significant lesions and helps define therapies. In addition, it aids the diagnosis of SCAD, which affects mainly women. The CMRI has high diagnostic accuracy in both women and men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B232">232</xref></sup> In addition, in cardiomyopathy, different patterns of late enhancement and tissue changes can help the identification of nonischemic etiologies.</p>
          <p>Briefly, several noninvasive modalities are available for ICM assessment. Knowing the advantages and disadvantages of each one helps choose the method to be used and interpret the results. It is worth noting, however, that invasive assessment with coronary angiography may be necessary and should not be delayed in case of doubt. In addition, not only in the presence of severe cardiomyopathy and clinical findings, but also of characteristics that increase the probability of ischemic etiology (anginal symptoms or segmental changes), definitive assessments that exclude or identify the ischemic etiology should be considered.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.2. Clinical Treatment</title>
          <p>In recent decades, different clinical trials have reported advances in the treatment of HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). Thus, the major guidelines recommend the use of quadruple therapy, with ACEI/ARB or angiotensin receptor/neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI) + BB + aldosterone antagonist + SGLT2 inhibitors, for the treatment of patients with HFrEF because of the impact on overall and cardiovascular mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
          <p>For patients who persist symptomatic, other classes of drugs, such as hydralazine-nitrate, ivabradine, digoxin, and, more recently, guanylate cyclase stimulators, in addition to CRT, can be added. It is worth noting that, in most clinical studies, ischemia has been the most frequent etiology, ranging from 50% to 70% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t17001">Table 9.1</xref>). In addition, as a treatment with impact on mortality reduction, the use of ICD is indicated, especially in patients with ICM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t17001">
              <label>Table 9.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Studies on the therapy for ischemic cardiomyopathy.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="11%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Studies</th>
                    <th>Drug</th>
                    <th>Women</th>
                    <th>Ischemic</th>
                    <th>Population</th>
                    <th>Primary endpoint</th>
                    <th>Result</th>
                    <th>Interaction M/W</th>
                    <th>P interaction</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>Acetylsalicylic acid</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Secondary prevention</td>
                    <td align="center">16 clinical trials of secondary prevention</td>
                    <td align="center">----</td>
                    <td align="center">All</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>17 000 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>High cardiovascular risk</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Serious vascular event</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0,81 (0.75&#8211;0.87)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR 19%</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0,81 (0.73&#8211;0.90)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.81 (0.64&#8211;1.02)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>BB</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>CIBIS II</td>
                    <td align="center">Bisoprolol* 10mg/d</td>
                    <td align="center">20%</td>
                    <td align="center">50%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2647 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC III-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 16 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Overall death</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.66 (0.54-0.81)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 34%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 18</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.53 (0.42&#8211;0.67)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.37 (0.19&#8211;0.89)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>MERIT HF</td>
                    <td align="center">Metoprolol succinate* 200mg/d</td>
                    <td align="center">22%</td>
                    <td align="center">65%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3991 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC II-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 40%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 12 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Overall death</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.66 (0.53&#8211;0.81)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 34%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 27</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">In women, there was no reduction in overall death (7.5% x 6.9%)</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 0.05</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>COPERNICUS</td>
                    <td align="center">Carvedilol* 25mg 2xd</td>
                    <td align="center">20%</td>
                    <td align="center">67%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2289 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 25%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 11 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Overall death</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 15</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">No significant difference</td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>CIBIS II MERIT HF COPERNICUS</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">Overall death (grouped data)</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.66 (0.58 to 0.75)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.69 (0.51 to 0.93)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>ACEI/ARB</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>SOLVD</td>
                    <td align="center">Enalapril* 10mg 2xd</td>
                    <td align="center">20%</td>
                    <td align="center">70%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2569 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC II-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 37 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Overall death</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.84 (0.74-0.95)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 16%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 22</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">In women, there was no reduction in overall death</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt; 0.05</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>CHARM</td>
                    <td align="center">Candesartan* 32mg/d</td>
                    <td align="center">32%</td>
                    <td align="center">67%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2028 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC II-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 40%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 33 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">CV death or HFH</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.77 (0.67&#8211;0.89)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 27%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 14</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">No significant difference</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>Aldosterone antagonist</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>RALES</td>
                    <td align="center">Spironolactone* 25-50mg/d</td>
                    <td align="center">27%</td>
                    <td align="center">54%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1663 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC III-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 24 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Overall death</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.69 (0.58-0.82)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 31%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 10</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.71 (0.60&#8211;0.82)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.72 (0.57&#8211;0.97)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>EMPHASIS</td>
                    <td align="center">Eplerenone* 25-50mg/d</td>
                    <td align="center">22%</td>
                    <td align="center">68%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2737 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC II</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &#8804; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 21 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">CV death or HFH</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.66 (0.56&#8211;0.78)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 37%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 13</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">No significant difference</td>
                    <td align="center">0.36 (NS)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>ARNI</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>PARADIGM-HF</td>
                    <td align="center">Sacubitril-Valsartan<sup>&#8224;</sup> 200 mg 2x day</td>
                    <td align="center">21%</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>8442 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC II-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 40% / LVEF &#8804; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 27 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">CV death or HFH</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.80 (0.73&#8211;0.87)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 20%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 21</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.80 (0.73&#8211;0.87)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.79 (0.66&#8211;0.94)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>SGLT2i</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>DAPA-HF</td>
                    <td align="center">Dapagliflozine* 10mg/day</td>
                    <td align="center">23%</td>
                    <td align="center">55%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>4744 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC II-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 40%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 18 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">CV death or HFH</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.75 (0.65&#8211;0.85)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 26%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 21</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.73 (0.63&#8211;0.85)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.79 (0.59&#8211;1.06)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>EMPEROR-Reduced</td>
                    <td align="center">Empagliflozine* 10mg/day</td>
                    <td align="center">24%</td>
                    <td align="center">51%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3730 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC II-IV</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 40%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 16 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">CV death or HFH</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.75 (0.65&#8211;0.86)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 25%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 19</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.80 (0.68&#8211;0.93)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.59 (0.44&#8211;0.80)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>Direct vasodilators</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>A-HeFT</td>
                    <td align="center">Hydralazine 225mg/d + Isosorbide dinitrate* 120mg/d</td>
                    <td align="center">36%</td>
                    <td align="center">23%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1050 Black patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC III/ IV EF &#8804; 35%, or EF &lt; 45% if</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVDD &gt; 6.5cm or &gt; 2.9cm/m<sup>2</sup></p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 18 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Primary endpoint: composite score (1<sup>st</sup> HFH, quality of life, and event-free survival)</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 43%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 25</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.67 (0.49&#8211;0.92)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.58 (0.39&#8211;0.86)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NS</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>p = 0.806</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>If Inhibitors</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>SHIFT</td>
                    <td align="center">Ivabradine* 5 &#8211; 7.5mg 2x day</td>
                    <td align="center">23%</td>
                    <td align="center">67%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>6558 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HF LVEF &lt; 35%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Sinus rhythm/ Heart rate &gt; 70</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 23 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">CV death or HFH</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.82 (0.75&#8211;0.90)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RRR = 18%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NNT = 26</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.84 (0.76&#8211;0.94)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.74 (0.60&#8211;0.91)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">NS</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>Digitalis</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>DIG</td>
                    <td align="center">Digoxin* 0,25mg/d</td>
                    <td align="center">22%</td>
                    <td align="center">65%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>6800 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 45%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC II-III</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 37 m</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Overall death No reduction</td>
                    <td align="center">No mortality reduction</td>
                    <td align="center">Increased risk of death in women if serum level &gt; 1.2mg/mL</td>
                    <td align="center">---</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="9">
                      <bold>Resynchronization therapy</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>MADIT-CRT</td>
                    <td align="center">CRT-D <italic>versus</italic> ICD alone</td>
                    <td align="center">25%</td>
                    <td align="center">50%</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>1820 patients</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>LVEF &lt; 30%</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NYHA FC I-II QRS &gt; 30ms</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Follow-up: 4.5 years</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Overall death or nonfatal HF event</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>HR 0.66 (0.52&#8211;0.84)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Higher benefit in women</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Men: HR 0.76 (0.59&#8211;0.97)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Women: HR 0.37 (0.22&#8211;0.61)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">p = 0.01</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN8001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>ACEI: angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin-receptor blockers; ARNI: Angiotensin Receptor/Neprilysin Inhibitor; BB: beta-blockers; CRT: cardiac resynchronization therapy; CRT-D: cardiac resynchronization therapy associated with defibrillator; CV: cardiovascular; FC: functional class; HF: heart failure; HFH: HF hospitalization; HR: hazard ratio; ICD: implantable cardioverter defibrillator; LVDD: left ventricular diastolic diameter; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; m, months; SGLT2i: sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor; NNT: defined for primary endpoint/all-cause death during the entire follow-up; NS: nonsignificant; NYHA: New York Heart Association; RRR: relative risk reduction.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Despite recent advances, treating women with ICM is challenging. The first challenge refers to women&#8217;s underrepresentation in the major clinical trials of HFrEF. While women represent approximately 50% of the patients in HFpEF trials, their representation in HFrEF trials ranges from 20% to 30% only. Thus, the gender-specific differences are limited, based on analyses of subgroups, and, thus, should be cautiously interpreted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The therapy for ICM and its major supporting studies are as follows:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Beta-blockers:</bold> a meta-analysis involving the major studies on BB in HFrEF has shown that the reduction in mortality occurs similarly in women and men. Sub-analyses have shown that bisoprolol improved the survival of 515 women studied in the CIBIS-II study (HR 0.37; IC 95%, 0.19 &#8211; 0.69), carvedilol reduced the composite outcome of death and hospitalization in 469 women with LVEF &lt; 25% in the COPERNICUS sub-study (HR 0.23; IC 95%, 0.07 &#8211; 0.69), and metoprolol succinate reduced the length of hospital stay due to HF in women with LVEF &lt; 25% (p = 0.004), but did not reduce mortality alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B236">236</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B238">238</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>ACE inhibitors:</bold> studies with ACEI, such as SOLVD and CONSENSUS, have shown an impact on mortality reduction of patients with HFrEF and NYHA functional class II/III and IV, respectively; however, when assessing women alone, that benefit was not observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B239">239</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Angiotensin-receptor blockers:</bold> data from a subanalysis of the CHARM trials (candesartan) have shown no sex-related difference in the primary endpoint of the study on cardiovascular death and HF hospitalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B240">240</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors:</bold> analysis of subgroups of the PARADIGM-HF study has suggested no difference between women and men regarding the primary endpoint of cardiovascular death or HF hospitalization. Recently, a real-world study involving 427 patients (29% women) has shown similar tolerability to the use of ARNI in women and men. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B241">241</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Aldosterone antagonists:</bold> analysis of subgroups from studies involving spironolactone (RALES) and eplerenone (EMPHASIS) has revealed that the impact on overall and cardiovascular death/HF hospitalization, respectively, occurred in women and men, with no statistically significant difference.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>SGLT2 inhibitors:</bold> the studies assessing dapagliflozine (DAPA-HF) or empagliflozine (EMPEROR-Reduced) in patients with HFrEF have shown that the addition of that new class of drugs to triple therapy causes a reduction in the composite outcome of cardiovascular death and HF hospitalization, and that benefit is similar in men and women<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B242">242</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B243">243</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="table" rid="t17001">Table 9.1</xref>).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Regarding additional therapies, the subanalysis of the A-HeFT trial, which investigated the hydralazine-nitrate association, and of the SHIFT study, which assessed ivabradine in patients with HFrEF, has shown a reduction in the primary endpoint in women and men. Regarding digoxin use, the DIG study has shown no mortality reduction in the total population, but it is worth noting that, in the subgroup of women with serum digoxin outside the therapeutic range (higher than 1.2mg/mL), the mortality rate was higher. Thus, lower doses and strict control of digoxin serum levels in women are recommended when that medication is indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B244">244</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B246">246</xref></sup></p>
          <p>As previously described, most clinical trials on HFrEF have shown equivalent efficiency of the medicamentous treatment for women and men, and prognosis-modifying drugs should be used in both sexes. However, it is worth noting that those observations result from the analyses of subgroups from studies, and, thus, should be cautiously considered.</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t17001">Table 9.1</xref> summarizes data from the major clinical trials in ICM and their results comparing men and women.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.3. Devices and Advanced Heart Failure</title>
          <p>The advances in electric and mechanical devices have provided substantial benefits to patients&#8217; symptoms, hospitalization, and results, with strong evidence in both sexes.</p>
          <p>The range of devices includes ICD, CRT, and defibrillators of CRT. However, recent data have shown that women are less likely to receive ICD, and, when they do, their rates of implantation-related complications, such as pneumothorax and infection, are higher.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.4. Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator</title>
          <p>As previously mentioned, women less often have IHD as the etiology, and, as remodeling response, less fibrosis, and a lower rate of ventricular arrhythmias, resulting in fewer sudden cardiac deaths. A meta-analysis assessing studies involving patients (n=7229) with ischemic (74%) and nonischemic cardiomyopathy, 22% of women, has shown that the benefit was significantly higher in men (HR 0.67; 95% CI, 0.58-0.78, p &lt; 0.001) than in women (HR 0.78; 95% CI, 0.57-1.05, p = 0.1).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B247">247</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, even after adjusting for age and comorbidities, the female sex had lower probability of receiving an ICD as compared to the male sex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B248">248</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is worth noting that women have higher rates of complications related to device implantation, such as pneumothorax, infection, bleeding, and tamponade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B249">249</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, because of the less fibrotic profile and even the structural and anatomical characteristics, studies have suggested that women respond more favorably to CRT, which results in improvement of symptoms, quality of life, LVEF, and mortality. Data from the MADIT-CRT study, comparing CRT-D to implantation of ICD alone, have shown a higher benefit in women as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t17001">Table 9.1</xref> (p = 0.01).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.5. Advanced Heart Failure</title>
          <p>Ventricular assist devices are already well implemented in the practice of advanced HF services as a bridge or a destination therapy. Women are more likely to be hospitalized due to advanced HF, but less often receive a ventricular assist device. In a recent study analyzing the EUROMACS registry, 966 patients (151 women) have been included. Characteristically, at the time of implantation, women showed worse INTERMACS 1 and 2 profiles (51.7% <italic>versus</italic> 41.6% in men) and experienced more complications, such as major bleeding (p = 0.001), arrhythmias (p = 0.02), and right ventricular insufficiency (p &lt; 0.001), with worse 1-year survival (75.5% <italic>versus</italic> 83.2%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Heart transplantation continues to be the gold-standard for the treatment of advanced HF, with only 25% of recipients of the female sex, usually because of height, weight, blood type, and immune panel mismatch. In addition, women have more complications after heart transplantation, such as rejection mediated by antibodies and cardiac allograft vasculopathy.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.6. Recommendations</title>
          <sec>
            <title>9.6.1. Clinical Management and Indications for Advanced Therapies</title>
            <p><bold>Class I/B &#8211;</bold> Female patients with ICM and HF with reduced ejection fraction should receive pharmacological treatment according to HF guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
            <p><bold>Class I/B &#8211;</bold> Female patients with ICM and HF with improved ejection fraction should receive pharmacological treatment according to HF guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
            <p><bold>Class I/B &#8211;</bold> Female patients with ICM and HF with preserved ejection fraction (LVEF&gt;50%) should receive pharmacological treatment according to HF guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
            <p><bold>Class I/C &#8211;</bold> Female patients with ICM and HF with reduced ejection fraction, refractory to pharmacological treatment according to HF guidelines, should be referred for cardiac resynchronization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
            <p><bold>Class I/C &#8211;</bold> Female patients with ICM and advanced HF, refractory to pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment according to HF guidelines, should be considered for heart transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B233">233</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B235">235</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10. Percutaneous Coronary Intervention</title>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>Recent studies have reported a significant increase in the mortality rates of acute coronary disease in young women (&lt; 55 years).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B250">250</xref></sup> Despite the increasing evidence of sex-related differences in baseline RFs, coronary anatomy and function, symptoms, comorbidities, treatment efficacy, and outcomes in ACSs, the mechanisms of those differences are not completely known.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> These gaps of knowledge are due to women&#8217;s underrepresentation in clinical trials; thus, the scientific community should be encouraged to change this paradigm.</p>
          <p>Despite the general benefit of MRV, the female sex has been consistently associated with an increased risk of bleeding and vascular complications associated with PCI, evidencing the need to consider the major biological differences, such as the size of the vessels of percutaneous accesses and the prevalence of nonobstructive coronary artery disease in women, in addition to the need to apply the recommendations of current guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B251">251</xref></sup></p>
          <p>As compared to men, women submitted to PCI are older and have higher prevalence of kidney failure, anemia, and DM. As compared to men, women with ACS have higher mortality and less often undergo the recommended treatments, such as early invasive strategy and antithrombotic therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B252">252</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Clinical factors, such as advanced age, kidney failure, cardiogenic shock, and use of major introducers, were specifically identified as predictors of the risk of bleeding in women. However, the female propensity for bleeding persists in addition to those RFs. Sex-specific mechanisms regarding BMI, puncture site anatomy, platelet biology, and PCI-related pharmacotherapy may play an important role.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.2. Vascular Access to Cardiac Catheterization and Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in Women</title>
          <p>Mason Sones performed the first selective coronary angiography in 1958 through dissection of the brachial artery. In 1967, Judkins and Amplatz developed the technique of femoral artery puncture and appropriate catheters for that technique, which is still widely used because it provides excellent access in cases of complex angioplasties that require larger introducers and the assessment of bypasses and grafts of patients with previous surgical MRV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The radial access, described in 1989 by Campeau, is a more complex technique that requires higher ability and experience, in addition to a longer learning curve. A higher proportion of women have more tortuous radial arteries of smaller caliber as compared to men. Patients with chronic kidney disease, DM, low BMI, and elderly have a higher rate of unsuccessful radial access.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B254">254</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B255">255</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The femoral artery access has predominated for decades, because of its significant viability and reproducibility. The radial artery access, however, has shown to be efficient to reduce bleedings and other vascular complications, especially in patients with ACS, thus, becoming the access of choice recently.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition, the radial access use can be associated with a better quality of life and lower costs as compared to the femoral one.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B255">255</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B256">256</xref></sup> However, the magnitude of the benefit associated with radial access can vary widely, depending mainly on the patient&#8217;s risk for femoral access complications. Thus, it is fundamental to ensure the preferential use of the radial access in patients at higher risk for complications from the vascular access, such as women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B256">256</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3. Diagnosis</title>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.1. Coronary Angiography</title>
            <p>Women&#8217;s epicardial coronary arteries are significantly smaller than those of men, even after adjusting for age, body structure, and LV mass. The discrepancy in the size of the coronary arteries between women and men is considered an important base of the sex-related differences in the outcomes of the coronary artery disease, despite the smaller atherosclerotic plaque volume of women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The important implication of the smaller size of the coronary arteries is that the comparatively lower atherosclerotic plaque and thrombus burden can result in obstructive disease. This may be a potential reason for the higher incidence of sudden cardiac death in younger women, despite their lower atherosclerotic plaque burden. In addition, smaller vessels can represent a higher risk of re-stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In addition, the baseline and hyperemic myocardial blood flow, as assessed on PET, is typically higher in women as compared to men. Thus, the smaller diameter of female epicardial coronary arteries and their higher baseline myocardial blood flow are suggested to significantly increase in conditions of endothelial shear stress in women and can explain some sex-related differences in susceptibility to coronary artery disease<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18001">Figure 10.1</xref>).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f18001">
                <label>Figure 10.1</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Diagnosis of ischemic heart disease. Creation of the authors. ICUS: intracoronary ultrasound; OCT: optical coherence tomography.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf18-en.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.2. Intravascular Imaging</title>
            <p>The characteristics of the atherosclerotic plaque, the vascular response to coronary stent implantation, and the vascular endothelium can be assessed with a close correlation with the histopathological findings by use of intravascular imaging methods performed during cardiac catheterization. The current technologies of intracoronary imaging include mainly intracoronary ultrasound (ICUS), OCT, and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The ICUS enables the precise atherosclerotic plaque burden quantification with axial resolution of 70-200 mm and penetration &gt; 5mm. Using that method, the PROSPECT study (<italic>Providing Regional Observations to Study Predictors of Events in the Coronary Tree</italic>) could evaluate the effect of sex on the coronary artery disease extent and characteristics and confirm significant differences between the sexes. Women have less extensive IHD. The morphology and composition of the plaque in women have smaller necrotic nucleus and calcification, for a similar atherosclerotic plaque burden, although smaller minimum luminal area and more lesions with minimum luminal area &lt; 4.0mm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, as compared to men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B257">257</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The OCT has a lateral resolution of 10-20 mm and enables the characterization of plaques and thrombi, but with lower penetration, hindering the precise assessment of the atherosclerotic plaque burden. However, it has high resolution and power to detect the atherosclerotic plaque morphology, helping identify vulnerable plaques or thin-cap fibroatheroma. In addition, OCT enables the clarification of some mechanisms of nonobstructive coronary disease aggravation, such as dissection, and corroborates findings that differentiate coronary disease between sexes<italic>.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B258">258</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B259">259</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The NIRS uses an optical fiber catheter with an absorption pattern specific for lipids and other plaque components, improving the accuracy of the identification of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Together, these three intravascular imaging methods allow us to know some differences in the characteristics of atherosclerosis and IHD between the sexes. In women, the plaque burden is lower, erosion is more prevalent than rupture as the mechanism of coronary artery disease aggravation, and there is a higher concentration of cholesterol crystals and calcification in ruptured atherosclerotic plaques.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B259">259</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.3. Invasive Tests with Measuring Guide</title>
            <p>The diagnostic and therapeutic routine has concentrated on stenosis of the epicardial coronary arteries, although evidence in recent decades has established the concept that epicardial obstructive stenosis is not a mandatory condition to cause ischemic symptoms of stable coronary disease. Innumerous publications have shown that symptomatic women are more likely than men to have nonobstructive IHD and coronary microvascular dysfunction, accounting for up to 40% of the cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B260">260</xref></sup></p>
            <p>
              <bold>
                <italic>10.3.3.1. Fractional Flow Reserve</italic>
              </bold>
            </p>
            <p>The measurement of FFR consists in the use of angioplasty guidewires with a sensor on their tips, which were developed to measure the pressure and blood flow across a coronary artery stenosis in the catheterization lab. The FFR measures the proximal (aortic pressure) and distal (guidewire pressure) pressures in coronary artery stenosis under maximum blood flow and creates a pressure ratio, representing the proportion of flow through the stenosis. For accurate FFR measures, the pressures should be obtained during hyperemia. Maximum blood flow (hyperemia) is most commonly induced by use of intravenous (140mcg/kg/min) or intracoronary (right coronary artery 50-100 mcg, left coronary artery 100-200mcg in <italic>bolus</italic>) adenosine. The ratio between distal coronary pressure and aortic pressure (as registered by the guidewire) during maximum hyperemia is called FFR. The normal value is 1, while values &lt; 0.80 are associated with provocable ischemia with a precision over 90%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B261">261</xref></sup></p>
            <p>For certain grades of stenosis, the FFR values in female patients tend to be much higher than those in male ones. Considering that female patients are at a higher risk of in-hospital mortality and post-PCI adverse results, the importance of measuring FFR should be emphasized especially in women to avoid unnecessary PCI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B262">262</xref></sup></p>
            <p>
              <bold>
                <italic>10.3.3.2. Instantaneous Wave-free Pressure Ratio</italic>
              </bold>
            </p>
            <p>An index derived from the resting pressure, independently of adenosine, has been developed and tested as surrogate for FFR. Using wave intensity analysis, the period of diastole in which the balance between the pressure waves of aorta and the distal microcirculatory reflection was the &#8220;wave-free period&#8221; was determined to meet the criteria of FFR as having a minimum constant resistance. The diastolic pressure/aortic pressure (Pd/Pa) during the wave-free period (75% in diastole finishing 5ms before the R wave) is called instantaneous wave-free pressure ratio (iFR). It has been shown that, for iFR cut-off points of &gt; 0.93 or &lt; 0.86, there was a strong correlation with normal and abnormal FFR values (using 0.80 as the FFR cut-off point). In the ADVISE II study, iFR was compared to FFR in 690 intermediate stenoses. As compared to FFR (&lt; 0.80), the iFR cut-off of 0.89 classified correctly 83% of the stenoses. The iFR classified correctly those stenoses outside the iFR grey zone from 0.85 to 0.94 with 92% of concordance. Thus, the iFR-FFR hybrid approach for intermediate stenosis can be assessed without the hyperemic stimulus in 65% of the patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B262">262</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B263">263</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.4. Functional Tests</title>
            <p>Microvascular coronary vasoconstriction can also be assessed by use of functional tests with intracoronary acetylcholine, which produces coronary vasodilation in the presence of healthy endothelium or paradoxical vasoconstriction in the presence of endothelial dysfunction. Incremental doses are administered for 3 minutes until the response is produced or the target dose is reached.</p>
            <p>The positive response for epicardial coronary spasm is a focal or diffuse coronary artery diameter reduction &gt; 90% (as compared to the relaxed state). Patients experience the reproduction of angina and ischemic changes on ECG. These patients are considered to have vasospastic angina.</p>
            <p>The positive response for microvascular vasoconstriction is the absence of epicardial coronary spasm (no diameter reduction or reduction &lt; 90%). Patients experience the reproduction of angina and ischemic changes on ECG (ST-segment depression or elevation).</p>
            <p>The negative response to the acetylcholine test is the absence of epicardial coronary spasm (no diameter reduction or reduction &lt; 90%), with no angina and no ischemic changes on ECG (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19001">Figure 10.2</xref>).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f19001">
                <label>Figure 10.2</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Management of INOCA. Based on the EAPCI Consensus on INOCA.<italic><sup>77</sup></italic> CFR: coronary flow reserve; FFR: fractional flow reserve; IFR: instantaneous wave-free pressure ratio; LVEDP: left ventricular end-diastolic pressure.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf19-en.jpg"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>If the test with acetylcholine is negative, there is still the option of testing with intracoronary adenosine. The CFR is calculated based on the coronary flow velocity (CFV), which is the ratio between peak CFV and baseline CFV. A CFR &lt; 2.5 indicates endothelium-independent coronary microvascular dysfunction. These patients with abnormal CFR will also be considered to have changes in the microcirculation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B260">260</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.4. Percutaneous Treatment of Coronary Atherothrombotic Disease in Women</title>
        <sec>
          <title>10.4.1. Revascularization for Chronic Coronary Syndromes</title>
          <p>The objective of MRV in chronic coronary syndromes is to relieve angina rather than reduce mortality. Thus, when considering the medicamentous or PCI treatment options, the higher incidence and frequency of angina in women should be considered. In a subanalysis of the COURAGE study, there was no significant difference in the effect of treatment on the major results between women and men. However, women assigned for PCI have shown a higher benefit, as compared to men, with a reduction in HF hospitalization and in the need for future MRV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B264">264</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The ISCHEMIA clinical trial has shown that women, as compared to men, have a higher burden of angina symptoms, although their coronary disease is less extensive, and ischemia is less severe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B265">265</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <bold>
              <italic>10.4.1.1. Disease of the Left Main Coronary Artery</italic>
            </bold>
          </p>
          <p>Until recently, coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) was the treatment recommended for left main coronary artery (LMCA) disease, but PCI has been more and more adopted to treat the LMCA disease.</p>
          <p>In the EXCEL trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B266">266</xref></sup> women undergoing PCI for unprotected LMCA showed a trend towards worse outcomes, a finding related to associated comorbidities and increased periprocedural complications. However, sex was not an independent predictor of post-MRV adverse outcomes, the same conclusion of the NOBLE study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B267">267</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <bold>
              <italic>10.4.1.2. Total Chronic Occlusion</italic>
            </bold>
          </p>
          <p>Total chronic occlusions represent an important subgroup of coronary lesions and are found in as much as 18% of diagnostic angiographies.</p>
          <p>A well-succeeded PCI for total chronic occlusion is known to be associated with the symptomatic relief of angina, improvement in LV function and quality of life, as well as mortality reduction. However, several studies have shown that, in women, a well-succeeded PCI for total chronic occlusion has not been associated with a reduced risk for cardiovascular mortality or major adverse coronary events (MACE) as compared to clinical treatment alone, which differs from that in men, who have a significant reduction in the rate of MACE after well-succeeded PCI for total chronic occlusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B268">268</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.4.2. Revascularization for Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction</title>
          <p>In patients with NSTEMI, the initial invasive approach is associated with better results and a lower rate of combined outcomes of death, myocardial infarction or refractory angina in 4 to 6 months of follow-up, especially in patients at high risk; however, women undergo PCI less often, especially the younger ones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref></sup> The benefits of an invasive approach are more pronounced in patients with elevated biomarkers or other findings of high risk, regardless of sex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B270">270</xref></sup>A flowchart summarizes the strategy choice and the invasive assessment time (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20001">Figure 10.3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f20001">
              <label>Figure 10.3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Invasive assessment of non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Based on the Brazilian Society of Cardiology Guidelines on Unstable Angina and Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction &#8211; 2021.<italic><sup>65</sup></italic> AMI: acute myocardial infarction; CABG: coronary artery bypass grafting; CHF: congestive heart failure; CPA: cardiopulmonary arrest; DM: diabetes mellitus; HF: heart failure; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; NSTEMI: non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf20-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.4.3. Revascularization for ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction</title>
          <p>The female sex has been associated with late presentation to the hospital and a delay in primary PCI, which has been partially attributed to women&#8217;s atypical symptoms. Women are less likely to undergo invasive therapies for STEMI, possibly because of their higher number of comorbidities and fragility of admission. In addition, there are fewer female patients with obstructive coronary disease on angiography. These delays and disparities in healthcare contribute to increase in-hospital mortality in women with STEMI. Once the treatment is initiated, the rates of procedural success, postprocedural epicardial flow, myocardial perfusion, and ST-segment resolution are similar in both sexes after primary PCI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21001">Figure 10.4</xref> shows the reperfusion strategy selection with the times that should be pursued to improve the results of STEMI care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B271">271</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f21001">
              <label>Figure 10.4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Selection of reperfusion strategy. Based on 2018 ESC/EACTS Guidelines on Myocardial Revascularization.<italic><sup>271</sup></italic> NSTEMI: non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf21-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <bold>
              <italic>10.4.3.1. Strategies to Approach Multivessel Coronary Artery Disease</italic>
            </bold>
          </p>
          <p>The patients who benefit the most from revascularization of nonculprit arteries include those with large myocardial area at risk and those without significant comorbidities that would increase the MRV risk. Data from the COMPLETE study support complete MRV and the treatment of nonculprit lesions either at the time of primary PCI for STEMI or after the index hospitalization. However, the analyses of subgroups of that study have shown a trend towards a change in the sex-related effect (p interaction = 0.08), and no benefit regarding cardiac mortality with complete MRV for women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B272">272</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <bold>
              <italic>10.4.3.2. Cardiogenic Shock</italic>
            </bold>
          </p>
          <p>Cardiogenic shock, HF and right ventricular infarction occur more frequently in women with STEMI as compared to men. In addition, women have lower BP and cardiac output as compared to men in cardiogenic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup>However, several studies, such as the CULPRIT-SHOCK trial, have shown that sex had no influence on mortality according to different MRV strategies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B273">273</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.4.4. Considerations on Device During Percutaneous Revascularization</title>
          <p>
            <bold>
              <italic>10.4.4.1. Drug-eluting Stents</italic>
            </bold>
          </p>
          <p>In the past two decades, there was an important advance in the technology of drug-eluting stents, such as drug optimization, polymers, and stent design, supporting the safety and efficacy of those most recent devices. Angiographic studies of drug-eluting stents assessing in-stent late loss have shown similar degrees of neointimal hyperplasia in women and men, suggesting that the drug-eluting profiles are effective in both sexes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B274">274</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <bold>
              <italic>10.4.4.2. Drug-Coated Balloon</italic>
            </bold>
          </p>
          <p>The PCI with drug-eluting stent is the most common mode of revascularization for IHD. However, in-stent restenosis and thin vessels are known limitations. Drug-coated balloon is a balloon coated with antiproliferative agents encapsulated in a polymeric matrix, which are released in the wall during insufflation and contact with the intima. Leaving no metal in the vessel treated is beneficial for thin vessels, in-stent restenosis, and intermediate and distal vessels, where distal stents can be disadvantageous for future MRVs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B275">275</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B277">277</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <bold>
              <italic>10.4.4.3. Rotational Atherectomy and Intravascular Lithotripsy</italic>
            </bold>
          </p>
          <p>Rotational atherectomy and intravascular lithotripsy are indicated for calcified lesions to prevent stent underexpansion, which is associated with higher restenosis rates. In women, rotational atherectomy is associated with a higher risk of periprocedural complications, but with long-term MACE-free adjusted overall survival rates similar to those in men. However, intravascular lithotripsy has angiographic complications, safety, and efficacy similar in women and men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B278">278</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.5. Adjunct Pharmacological Therapy</title>
        <p>Although randomized studies have suggested similar benefits of adjunct antithrombotic therapy for coronary disease in both sexes, women less often receive the treatment recommended in the guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B279">279</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B280">280</xref></sup> Vulnerability for bleeding is one reason. Women, particularly the elderly and low-weight ones, have higher risk of hemorrhagic complications, which can be related to a smaller body distribution volume, lower glomerular filtration rates, and differences in the activities of hepatic enzymes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B269">269</xref></sup> To mitigate that risk, in addition to the radial access, it is worth noting the need to adjust the doses of anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs to weight and renal function, whenever pertinent, and to monitor the activated clotting time every 30-60 minutes during the intervention, administering supplementary doses of heparin, if needed, to ensure proper anticoagulation levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B281">281</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Regarding oral antiplatelet therapy, the dual antiplatelet therapy with acetylsalicylic acid and a P2Y12 inhibitor (clopidogrel, prasugrel or ticagrelor) is recommended to prevent post-intervention thrombotic events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> Clinical presentation, risk of bleeding, ischemic risk, and comorbidities should guide the selection of the P2Y12 inhibitor type, the ideal time to administer its loading dose, and the dual antiplatelet therapy duration, regardless of sex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B281">281</xref></sup> Women, however, have a higher risk of bleeding with any inhibitor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B282">282</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B283">283</xref></sup> Strategies to minimize that risk include to shorten the dual antiplatelet therapy duration, discontinue the acetylsalicylic acid, maintaining monotherapy with a P2Y12 inhibitor after a short period of dual antiplatelet therapy, or de-escalation of the P2Y12 inhibitor, from prasugrel or ticagrelor to clopidogrel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B284">284</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B285">285</xref></sup> The acetylsalicylic acid suspension after a short peri-intervention period (at hospital discharge or after 1 week) has proven effective to reduce bleedings in individuals with AF requiring oral anticoagulation and undergoing PCI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B286">286</xref></sup> Sex-specific analyses of safety and effectiveness of those strategies can help select or personalize the ideal antiplatelet regimen for women.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.6. Knowledge Gaps</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; Prevalence of obstructive and nonobstructive coronary disease in the female sex, in different clinical scenarios, acute and chronic.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; Clinical validation of the women-specific reference values for the invasive coronary physiological assessment tests (hyperemic and non-hyperemic), regarding the differences in coronary caliber, myocardial mass, and microvascular resistance between sexes.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; Different impact of the intravascular imaging method on women, considering its diagnostic role in cases of MINOCA and its value to optimize PCI in the female sex, which typically involves thinner vessels and higher risk of bleeding.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; Selection of the ideal MRV method (percutaneous <italic>versus</italic> surgical) in women with LMCA or multivessel lesion, reassessing the influence of sex in current therapeutic outcomes.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; Optimization of the diagnostic and treatment strategies for the different etiologies of MINOCA (and differential diagnoses), advancing in the pathophysiological understanding, and identification of sex-specific RFs and predictors of recurrence of SCAD and Takotsubo cardiomyopathy.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>&#8226; Particularities of PCI in women in complex scenarios, such as cardiogenic shock, calcified lesions, bifurcations, and chronic coronary occlusions.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.7. Recommendations</title>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table</label>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Recommendation</th>
                  <th>Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  <th>Reference</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>For patients requiring coronary revascularization, treatment decision should be based on clinical indication, regardless of sex, race, or ethnicity</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                  <td align="center">155</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>For patients with ACS undergoing PCI, radial rather than femoral access is preferred to reduce the risk of death, vascular complications, and bleeding</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">A</td>
                  <td align="center">155</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>For patients with stable ischemic disease undergoing PCI, radial access is recommended to reduce bleeding at the access site and vascular complications</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">A</td>
                  <td align="center">155</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>FFR-guided PCI should be considered for patients with multivessel disease undergoing PCI</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                  <td align="center">271</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Urgent/immediate invasive strategy is indicated for patients with ACS without ST-segment elevation with refractory angina and/or hemodynamic and/or electric instability (no severe comorbidity or contraindication to those procedures)</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">A</td>
                  <td align="center">65</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In STEMI, reperfusion therapy is indicated for all patients with symptom onset &lt;12 h and persistent ST-segment elevation</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">A</td>
                  <td align="center">271</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>All patients should be stratified and classified as at high, intermediate, or low risk for bleeding</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                  <td align="center">65</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention; FFR: fractional flow reserve; STEMI: ST-elevation myocardial infarction.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11. Surgical Intervention, Heart Transplantation</title>
        <sec>
          <title>11.1. Myocardial Revascularization</title>
          <p>Several factors, such as epidemiological, anatomical, and/or operative technique-related ones, make the results of women&#8217;s CABG less favorable as compared to those of men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B287">287</xref></sup>Several series have shown that, at the time of surgical indication, women tend to have a higher surgical risk, with more comorbidities associated, such as SAH, DM, HF, ACS, in addition to a higher respiratory function impairment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B288">288</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O&#8217;Connor <italic>et al</italic>. have shown that coronary artery diameters are directly proportional to body surface, being, thus, usually smaller in women than in men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B292">292</xref></sup>Since the 1980s, the analyses of the <italic>Coronary Artery Surgery Study</italic> (CASS) have shown that the coronary artery diameters had a direct influence on the immediate results of CABG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref></sup></p>
          <p>When stratified by groups, mortality in patients with large coronary arteries (2.5 &#8211; 3.5mm) was 1.5%, increasing to 4.6% in those with intermediate diameter (1.5 &#8211; 2.0mm), and reaching 15.8% in individuals whose coronary arteries had a mean diameter of 1mm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B292">292</xref></sup> In addition to the coronary artery diameters, the quality and fragility of the grafts influence the decision on the surgical tactic to be used and increase the complexity of the surgical techniques.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B294">294</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although the 2021 ACC/AHA/SCAI guidelines recommend the preferential use of arterial grafts,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> several studies have shown the underuse of those grafts in female patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B295">295</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B296">296</xref></sup> Because of the smaller caliber of the mammary arteries and radial arterial grafts, there is an underuse of arterial grafts, which could increase the proportion of revascularized vessels with grafts of higher late permeability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B297">297</xref></sup> The less favorable characteristics of both arterial and venous grafts in women can lead to a higher predisposition to early thrombosis and trend to spasms, increasing the chance of unfavorable results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B292">292</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B298">298</xref></sup> Similarly, although the importance of complete MRV in patients with multivessel lesions has been well established, several studies have shown that women receive a smaller number of grafts, being, thus, not completely revascularized.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B299">299</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The benefits of CABG with no cardiopulmonary bypass, off-pump CABG, are still controversial. Some studies have shown similar mortality between the sexes, while others do not confirm those findings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B300">300</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B301">301</xref></sup> However, in patients with more advanced cerebrovascular disease, kidney and/or respiratory dysfunction, that technique might be safer. However, because of the anatomical and technical aspects already mentioned, the off-pump CABG in women is frequently more challenging than in men.</p>
          <p>In recent years, there was a significant increase in the number of women submitted to CABG. However, in most studies, the male sex still predominates in the samples analyzed. There is evidence in the literature that, as compared to men, women have worse outcomes and prognosis after CABG. According to Attia <italic>et al.</italic>, the long-term survival after CABG is worse in women than in men, even after adjusting for differences in RFs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B288">288</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Previous analyses have identified the female sex as an independent RF for intra-operative and long-term mortality after CABG, even after adjusting for some variables, such as more advanced age and increased prevalence of comorbidities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B290">290</xref></sup> Both in the EXCEL and NOBLE studies, women had a higher prevalence of RFs, such as DM, SAH, and dyslipidemia. However, the anatomical complexity of their coronary lesions was smaller.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Vaccarino <italic>et al</italic>. have conducted a meta-analysis of studies related to several aspects of CABG: ART TRIAL, CORONARY TRIAL, GOPCABE TRIAL, and PREVENT TRIAL. After the first 5 years from surgery, female patients had worse cardiac and cerebrovascular outcomes, but similar mortality as compared to men. These differences are not evident after the age of 75 years (the difference of these results between the sexes is inversely associated with age). Those studies have reported that women, as compared to men, have a more difficult postoperative recovery from CABG. Between the 6<sup>th</sup> and 8<sup>th</sup> postoperative weeks, women reported more physical complaints and side effects than men in the same period. In addition, they had lower physical functioning, more depressive symptoms, and were twice more likely to be readmitted to hospital. These differences remained substantial and statistically significant even after multivariate analysis. In addition, those authors have observed that CABG had a much higher impact on the women&#8217;s mood as compared to that of men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B303">303</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite the gender-related differences, the indications for CABG are well established in current recommendations and guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup> Healthcare providers should know the female sex-related particularities to promote differentiated strategies to improve the healthcare to women undergoing CABG.</p>
          <p>Historically, women have a worse postoperative course as compared to men regarding CABG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B304">304</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B305">305</xref></sup>Several aspects have been analyzed to identify factors with a negative impact. Of the non-modifiable differences, the smaller body surface most frequently found in the female sex has been studied and considered a factor that can negatively contribute to postoperative results, with no conclusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup> An important anatomical characteristic regards the aspects of the female coronary circulation, with thinner coronary arteries of smaller caliber, increasing the complexity of the anastomosis technique and the risk of early graft occlusions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B293">293</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B307">307</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Because of their smaller caliber, fewer arteries receive grafts and, thus, some myocardial areas remain unprotected, increasing the risk of recurrent ischemic events, ventricular dysfunction, and HF in the mid- and long-term postoperative period. The risk of perioperative myocardial infarction and early graft occlusion contributes to a marked higher in-hospital mortality as compared to that observed in men, affecting the late results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B305">305</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Other important data related to unfavorable postoperative course concerns the use of arterial grafts, which is less often in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B307">307</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B308">308</xref></sup> Even the isolated use of the left internal thoracic artery to revascularize the anterior descending artery, considered gold-standard in CABG, is less frequent in female patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B305">305</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B306">306</xref></sup> The potential benefit of arterial grafts can be lost in patients of higher risk, which would explain why women with worse baseline risk profiles would not receive as many arterial grafts as men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Female patients referred for surgical treatment are more likely to be older, have significantly more severe comorbidities, such as SAH, DM, hyperlipidemia, peripheral arterial and venous disease, and more advanced clinical status of coronary disease with unstable angina, post-infarction angina, HF, and indication for urgent CABG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B309">309</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Thus, the diagnosis of coronary insufficiency, as well as the indication and referral for surgical treatment occur later in women, with consequent negative impacts on the postoperative results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B310">310</xref></sup> Women most often than men have immediate postoperative complications, but the rates of reoperation due to bleeding are lower in female patients<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B311">311</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22001">Figure 11.1</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f22001">
              <label>Figure 11.1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Multiple factors that influence the postoperative results of women and men. DM: Diabetes mellitus; SAH: systemic arterial hypertension.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf22-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Regarding technical aspects, Puskas <italic>et al.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B300">300</xref></sup> have reported that, in off-pump CABG, the postoperative results were similar in men and women, considering that the strategy reduces gender disparity in postoperative clinical outcomes. In addition, especially in patients at higher risk, the female sex was not an independent RF of mortality after off-pump CABG.</p>
          <p>However, according to a meta-analysis by Gaudino <italic>et al</italic>.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B302">302</xref></sup> variations in the surgical technique used in procedures with cardiopulmonary bypass neither improved the results in women nor reduced mortality, considering the difference between sexes in off-pump CABG.</p>
          <p>Regarding the surgical techniques used in CABG, the international guidelines strongly recommend the use of the left internal thoracic artery for the left anterior descending artery, a higher number of arterial grafts for ischemic multivessel coronary disease, and complete CABG to obtain better short- and long-term postoperative results after CABG. However, even following the recommendations of the guidelines, women are likely to less often, 14% to 22%, undergo CABG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B312">312</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B317">317</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>11.1.1. Surgical Myocardial Revascularization in Women &#8211; Recommendations</title>
            <p>
              <table-wrap id="t3001">
                <label>Table</label>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="25%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th align="left">Recommendation</th>
                      <th>Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th>Level of evidence</th>
                      <th>Reference</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Complete revascularization with minimum manipulation of the aorta</td>
                      <td align="center">I</td>
                      <td align="center">B</td>
                      <td align="center">314,315</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Use of the left mammary artery for the anterior descending artery</td>
                      <td align="center">I</td>
                      <td align="center">B</td>
                      <td align="center">316</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Use of the radial artery as the second option for the territories with arterial obstruction &gt;80%</td>
                      <td align="center">I</td>
                      <td align="center">B</td>
                      <td align="center">313</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Mammary artery skeletonization to prevent infection</td>
                      <td align="center">I</td>
                      <td align="center">B</td>
                      <td align="center">317</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11.2. Heart Transplantation</title>
        <p>Several factors should be considered when choosing a donor, such as concordance between the donor-recipient sexes, sizes, and heights, BMI, pulmonary hypertension, and, more recently, predicted total heart mass (pHM) assessment. It is reasonable to use the pHM calculation to help the donor-recipient correspondence. A donor-recipient pHM of 0.86 or greater predicts a good prognosis; a pHM between 0.86 and 0.7 can be considered for individual cases; and a pHM lower than 0.7 can be associated with adverse posttransplant results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B318">318</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The donor-recipient sex correspondence has recently attracted considerable attention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B320">320</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B321">321</xref></sup> There has been a slight increase in transplants from women to women and a corresponding decline in transplants from women to men, maybe because of the shorter survival observed after donor-recipient sex mismatch transplantations. This can be explained by immune differences<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B291">291</xref></sup> or the donor-recipient size matching.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B320">320</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The sex distribution of heart transplant recipients has changed over time, with an increase in the proportion of female recipients from 19.3% in 1992-2000, to 22.4% in 2001-2009, and to 25.6% in 2010-2018. The reasons why women have reduced representation among heart transplant recipients have not been clearly identified; one would be the HF development and consequent indication for transplant at a more advanced age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B321">321</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B323">323</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Women are at higher risk of sensitization, pregnancy being one of the major RFs. Transfusions, ventricular assist devices, and previous transplantation are other RFs. Preformed antibodies can cause hyperacute rejection and increase the risk of posttransplant rejection, in addition to predisposing patients to the development of cardiac allograft vasculopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B324">324</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B325">325</xref></sup> Anti-HLA antibodies should be detected to reduce the risk of hyperacute rejection. The use of virtual crossmatch, from a data bank, in pre-transplant assessment replaces prospective crossmatch, can increase the pool of donors and reduce the testing time, in addition to helping decide which sensitized patients require treatment before the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B324">324</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B326">326</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Panel reactive antibody should be performed in all candidates for transplant. When the panel reactive antibody is elevated (&#8805; 10%), an additional assessment is recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> Desensitization of the recipients can be performed prior to transplantation with venous infusion of immunoglobulin, plasmapheresis isolated or in combination, rituximab, and, in certain very special cases, splenectomy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> Targeting at the humoral response components, desensitization can be used as a therapeutic option to increase the number of donors and, thus, increase the likelihood of transplantation for sensitized patients (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f23001">Figure 11.2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f23001">
            <label>Figure 11.2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Therapeutic options for desensitization and increase in the number of donors. Source: Adapted from Bacal F. 3&#170; Diretriz Brasileira de Transplante Card&#237;aco.<italic><sup>327</sup></italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf23-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>The treatment of hyperacute rejection should be initiated immediately after the diagnosis, even in the operating room. According to the current International Society for the Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT) guidelines, the treatments include:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> (1) mechanical circulatory support; (2) high dose of venous corticosteroids; (3) plasmapheresis; (4) venous immunoglobulins; (5) rituximab; (6) cytolytic immunosuppressive therapy; (7) eculizumab; (8) cyclosporin, tacrolimus with increased target levels and inhibitors of the metabolic cycle (mycophenolate); (9) venous inotropic and vasopressors; and (10) heparin.</p>
        <p>Cardiac allograft vasculopathy remains highly prevalent and one of the major causes of late death after heart transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> Severe acute cellular rejection (ISHLT 3R) diagnosed by use of endomyocardial biopsy should be treated even in the absence of symptoms or evidence of cardiac allograft dysfunction. The significant RFs for the development of cardiac allograft vasculopathy include donor&#8217;s death due to stroke and diagnosis of recipient&#8217;s ICM and retransplantation. The female sex of both the donor and the recipient has been reported to reduce the risk of developing cardiac allograft vasculopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B328">328</xref></sup> Previous studies disagree and have shown either a higher incidence of cardiac allograft vasculopathy in procedures with female donors or recipients or no sex-related difference regarding the development of cardiac allograft vasculopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B329">329</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B331">331</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Heart transplantation for peripartum myocarditis remains relatively infrequent. Some studies have shown that, in its late stage, the incidence of cardiac allograft vasculopathy is similar to that of transplantations performed in women due to other etiologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B332">332</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Malignancy after heart transplantation continues to be a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in recipients. Data from the ISHLT registry have shown a cumulative prevalence of all types of malignancy after heart transplantation in adults of 16% in 5 years and of 28% in 10 years. Skin cancer continues to be the most common posttransplant malignancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B328">328</xref></sup> Rudasill <italic>et al.</italic>, in a recent analysis of the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) registry, have shown no association of donor&#8217;s malignancy with the recipient&#8217;s 10-year survival.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B333">333</xref></sup> However, a recipient&#8217;s history of pretransplant malignancy has been associated with an increased risk of posttransplant malignancy, especially skin neoplasms. However, that incidence was smaller in women. It is worth noting the need for rigorous surveillance of skin and breast malignancy in the female population and of colon malignancy in the general population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B334">334</xref></sup></p>
        <p>According to the 2021 ISHLT report on Adult Heart Transplantation, female donor-recipient had a higher 1-year mortality as compared to the male donor-recipient combination (HR 1.16). The male/female combination increases the 5-year mortality (HR 1.1). However, the female donor-recipient combination is associated with a lower risk (HR 0.90) as compared to the male donor-recipient combination in 5 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B323">323</xref></sup> In addition to size mismatch, those sex-related differences in survival suggest that hormonal influences on immune response can be associated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B319">319</xref></sup> Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and congenital heart disease were associated to an increased 1-year mortality. Other variables associated with increased 5-year mortality, conditional on 1-year survival, include restrictive, ischemic, and retransplant cardiomyopathy.</p>
        <p>Indistinctly between genders, the recipient&#8217;s panel reactive antibodies and the ischemia duration are associated with 1-year mortality, while the recipient&#8217;s chronic characteristics are associated with 5-year mortality. Thus, chronic sequelae of DM, vascular and chronic kidney disease can affect the long-term posttransplant results. Other variables associated with 5-year mortality, conditional on 1-year survival, include recipient&#8217;s age, BMI, pulmonary vascular resistance, renal function, donor&#8217;s age, and transplant center&#8217;s volume of surgeries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B323">323</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The female gender is a strong predictor of waitlist mortality in heart transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B326">326</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B335">335</xref></sup> However, sex has not been shown to be a significant or important variable associated with posttransplant mortality, with few interactions of gender as a mortality predictor, although women live longer than men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B336">336</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Despite the increased number of women submitted to heart transplantation, they continue underrepresented. Female recipients have different baseline characteristics when compared to male recipients, and posttransplant survival is equivalent in women and men after adjusting for recipient and donor&#8217;s characteristics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B321">321</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Women tend to have better long-term survival than men after heart transplantation, with smaller risk of developing coronary artery disease, cardiac allograft vasculopathy, and malignancies, but a higher risk of antibody-mediated rejection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B330">330</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Early posttransplant mortality (&lt; 1 year) is mainly due to graft failure, infection, and multiple organ failure, while late posttransplant mortality (&gt; 5 years) is mainly due to malignancy, graft failure, and cardiac allograft vasculopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B330">330</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Overall survival is emphasized as the primary endpoint after heart transplantation. However, health-related quality of life is important in heart transplant recipients. A recent study using the Short Form with 36 items (SF-36) for quality-of-life assessment, in accordance with the World Health Organization, has shown that 22% of the survivors were employed at 1 year and almost 33% at 2 years following heart transplantation. Neurological and nephrological complications have a negative impact and are important predictors of quality of life after heart transplantation. Gender is a factor related to social determinants of health, as well as race and ethnicity, in addition to socioeconomic and education levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B337">337</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B339">339</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In a study cohort to develop and validate machine learning models to increase the predictive accuracy of mortality after heart transplantation, with 18 625 patients, the models demonstrated good predictive accuracy of the posttransplant results, and one of those models was the Index for Mortality Prediction after Cardiac Transplantation (IMPACT) score. However, only 27% were female patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B340">340</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Chronic humoral rejection and cardiac allograft vasculopathy are the major causes of late morbidity and mortality in patients submitted to heart transplantation, and the diagnosis by use of noninvasive methods has low sensitivity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B327">327</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>11.2.1. Heart Transplant in Women &#8211; Recommendations</title>
          <p>The recommendations for heart transplant, which can be found in the guidelines on heart transplant, do not differ between sexes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B327">327</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>12. Rehabilitation in Women&#8217;s Ischemic Cardiomyopathy</title>
        <p>The indication of cardiac rehabilitation in IHD is a consensus in international<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B341">341</xref></sup> and national<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> guidelines. After ACS and percutaneous or surgical MRV and for stable angina, referral for cardiac rehabilitation should be part of the medical prescription. Its efficacy to improve the quality of life and to reduce modifiable RFs and mortality, as well as to prevent readmissions due to new events, has been well established.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B342">342</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Studies have shown that women less often adhere to cardiac rehabilitation than men. In a sample with 44% of women, only 14.3% used cardiac rehabilitation after AMI as compared to 22.1% of men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B343">343</xref></sup> Referral to cardiac rehabilitation at hospital discharge has been related to lower mortality, especially in women and ethnical minorities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B344">344</xref></sup> Among women, the likelihood of death, HF or stroke 5 years after AMI is higher than among men, independently of age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B345">345</xref></sup></p>
        <p>One of the major barriers to cardiac rehabilitation use is the lack of medical referral for it. In women, cardiac rehabilitation referral and incentive by the physician regarding the importance of cardiac rehabilitation as part of the treatment is a strong predictor of admission to programs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B346">346</xref></sup> Other important barriers are lack of social support, low physical functioning, unemployment, more advanced age, fear of physical exercise, high burden of family responsibilities, multiple comorbidities, absence of reimbursement of the sessions, limited accessibility, and diversity of programs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B344">344</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B347">347</xref></sup></p>
        <p>During the initial assessment for admission to the cardiac rehabilitation program, it is necessary to interrogate women&#8217;s specific questions that are related to CVD in that population. Preeclampsia, DM, gestational hypertension, preterm birth, and early menopause are some important additional RFs to be addressed, as are menopause symptoms, presence of urinary incontinence, musculoskeletal questions, and fatigue perception.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B348">348</xref></sup></p>
        <p>To increase the individualization and optimization of the aerobic exercise prescription, a CPET is ideally indicated, with detected ventilatory thresholds being the intensity limits used in the absence of ischemia and/or changes of other indicators, such as early plateau or oxygen pulse drop (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f24001">Figure 12.1</xref>). When those variables and ST-segment changes are present, they should be considered in the prescription and maintained below the ischemic threshold. When CPET is not available, percentages of peak HR predicted or measured on ET, talk test, and subjective perception of exertion might help the prescription of physical exercise intensity (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t18001">Table 12.1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B349">349</xref></sup> The aim is to achieve moderate intensity with impact on mortality and quality of life, but the prescription should always be individualized (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t19001">Table 12.2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f24001">
            <label>Figure 12.1 </label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Prescription of aerobic exercises based on ventilatory thresholds 1 and 2 of the cardiopulmonary exercise test. AT: anaerobic threshold; RCP: respiratory compensation point.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230303-30303-gf24-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t18001">
            <label>Table 12.1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Alternative methods for the prescription of aerobic exercises.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">METHOD</th>
                  <th>DESCRIPTION</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Perceived exertion (Borg scale)</td>
                  <td align="center">Exercise practice with self-perception of exertion</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Talk test</td>
                  <td align="center">Exercise practice at moderate and controlled intensity, at which the individual can talk without pausing for a breath</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Percentages of maxHR predictor</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Exercise prescription based on maxHR percentage</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <inline-formula>
                            <mml:math>
                              <mml:mtext> target </mml:mtext>
                              <mml:mrow>
                                <mml:mi>H</mml:mi>
                                <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
                              </mml:mrow>
                              <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
                              <mml:mtext> percentage </mml:mtext>
                              <mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo>
                              <mml:mi>maxHR</mml:mi>
                            </mml:math>
                          </inline-formula>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <inline-formula>
                            <mml:math>
                              <mml:mi>maxHR</mml:mi>
                              <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
                              <mml:mn>208</mml:mn>
                              <mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo>
                              <mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
                              <mml:mn>0.7</mml:mn>
                              <mml:mi>x</mml:mi>
                              <mml:mtext> age </mml:mtext>
                              <mml:msup>
                                <mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
                                <mml:mo>&#8727;</mml:mo>
                              </mml:msup>
                              <mml:mtext> or </mml:mtext>
                              <mml:mn>220</mml:mn>
                              <mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo>
                              <mml:msup>
                                <mml:mtext> age </mml:mtext>
                                <mml:mrow>
                                  <mml:mo>&#8727;</mml:mo>
                                  <mml:mo>&#8727;</mml:mo>
                                </mml:mrow>
                              </mml:msup>
                            </mml:math>
                          </inline-formula>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Reserve HR (Karvonen)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <inline-formula>
                      <mml:math>
                        <mml:mtext> target </mml:mtext>
                        <mml:mi>H</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
                        <mml:mtext> resting </mml:mtext>
                        <mml:mi>H</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                        <mml:mi>%</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo>
                        <mml:mo>(</mml:mo>
                        <mml:mi>maxHR</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo>
                        <mml:mtext> resting </mml:mtext>
                        <mml:mi>H</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mi>R</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mo>)</mml:mo>
                      </mml:math>
                    </inline-formula>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN9001">
                <p>
                  <italic>HR: heart rate; maxHR: maximum heart rate; *Tanaka formula, **Karvonen formula.</italic>
                  <sup>349</sup>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t19001">
            <label>Table 12.2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Aerobic exercise intensity levels.</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="17%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Intensity</th>
                  <th>%VO<sub><bold>2</bold></sub> max</th>
                  <th>%maxHRpred</th>
                  <th>%RHR</th>
                  <th>MET* (absolute)</th>
                  <th>Borg Scale</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Very mild</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 37</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 57</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 2</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mild</td>
                  <td align="center">37-45</td>
                  <td align="center">57-64</td>
                  <td align="center">30-40</td>
                  <td align="center">2-3,9</td>
                  <td align="center">9-11</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Moderate</td>
                  <td align="center">46-64</td>
                  <td align="center">65-76</td>
                  <td align="center">40-60</td>
                  <td align="center">4-6</td>
                  <td align="center">12-13</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Intense</td>
                  <td align="center">65-91</td>
                  <td align="center">76-96</td>
                  <td align="center">60-90</td>
                  <td align="center">6,1-8,8</td>
                  <td align="center">14-17</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Very intense</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 91</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 96</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 90</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 8,9</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 17</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN10001">
                <p>
                  <italic>Modified from ACSM</italic>
                  <sup>349</sup>
                  <italic>*MET: metabolic equivalent; %VO<sub><italic>2</italic></sub> max: percentage values of maximum oxygen consumption; %maxHRpred: percentage values of maximum heart rate predicted for age; %RHR: percentage values of reserve heart rate; Borg scale: linear scale of perceived exertion, grading from 6 to 20.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Women have lower gains in physical functioning after cardiac rehabilitation programs, independently of the initial physical functioning levels. Thus, prescription adjustments are necessary throughout the program, because physical functioning improvement is the main factor for the effectivity of the program regarding its benefits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B347">347</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In parallel with physical functioning, the reduction in muscle strength associates with an increase in CVD and mortality. Women have less strength in the hand grip test. Khadanga <italic>et al</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B347">347</xref></sup> have emphasized that additional attention should be paid to the prescription of resistance training, with intensity of up to 80% of 1 maximal repetition and aimed at improving leg strength and walking capacity to meet the demands of daily life activities. In addition, those authors have suggested the inclusion of high-intensity interval aerobic trainings (90-95% of maximum HR) based on a small, randomized study from their group, in which, as compared to moderate training (70-85% of maximum HR), oxygen consumption had a higher increase (23% <italic>versus</italic> 7%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B348">348</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B350">350</xref></sup> However, further studies are needed to support those findings. Women are more likely to experience musculoskeletal pain and fatigue. To elaborate a program with shared objectives and to offer methods of complementary exercises, such as Yoga, dance, Tai-Chi, might prevent drop out from cardiac rehabilitation programs. However, further studies are necessary to confirm the effectiveness of the methods to reduce CVR, morbidity, and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B348">348</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The following situations, more prevalent in the female population, should be considered when addressing cardiac rehabilitation and its role in IHD:</p>
        <p><bold>Spontaneous coronary dissection</bold>: The lack of consensus on exercise practice after SCAD and its possible relation to intense exertion cause uncertainty among health professionals and patients regarding resuming physical activities. However, a Mayo Clinic registry with 354 patients with SCAD, 96% of whom were women, has confirmed the benefits of participating in cardiac rehabilitation programs, without clinical complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B351">351</xref></sup> A dedicated cardiac rehabilitation program for SCAD survivors was designed at Vancouver General Hospital<italic>,</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B352">352</xref></sup> with improvement in physical functioning and psychological stress, as well as a reduction in the need for MRV during follow-up. Thus, referral to cardiac rehabilitation centers should be encouraged, addressing the concerns about exercise that many patients have after the first SCAD episode.</p>
        <p><bold>MINOCA</bold>: Differently from the unequivocal consensus on the role of cardiac rehabilitation in obstructive coronary disease, data on the efficacy and safety of cardiac rehabilitation in coronary microvascular dysfunction are scarce. However, studies performed in women with microvascular angina have been able to show improvement in physical functioning, metabolic variables, quality of life, and myocardial perfusion after different periods of a cardiac rehabilitation program, and, thus, further studies should be encouraged.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B353">353</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B354">354</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label/>
          <p><bold>Development:</bold> Department of Women&#8217;s Cardiology (Departamento de Cardiologia da Mulher &#8211; DCM), Department of Ergometry, Exercise, Nuclear Cardiology and Cardiovascular Rehabilitation (Departamento de Ergometria, Exerc&#237;cio, Cardiologia Nuclear e Reabilita&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular &#8211; DERC), Department of Cardiovascular Imaging (Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular &#8211; DIC), Department of Atherosclerosis (Departamento de Aterosclerose &#8211; DA) and Department of Heart Failure (Departamento de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca &#8211; DEIC) of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; SBC); Brazilian Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (Sociedade Brasileira de Cirurgia Cardiovascular &#8211; SBCCV); Brazilian Society of Cardiac Arrhythmias (Sociedade Brasileira de Arritmias Card&#237;acas &#8211; SOBRAC); Brazilian Society of Hemodynamics and Interventional Cardiology (Sociedade Brasileira de Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista &#8211; SBHCI)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label/>
          <p><bold>SBC Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee:</bold> Carisi Anne Polanczyk (Coordenadora), Humberto Graner Moreira, M&#225;rio de Seixas Rocha, Jose Airton de Arruda, Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva &#8211; Period 2022-2024</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label/>
          <p><bold>How to cite this Guideline:</bold> Oliveira GMM, Almeida MCC, Rassi DC, Bragan&#231;a EOV, Moura LZ, Arrais M, et al. Position Statement on Ischemic Heart Disease &#8211; Women-Centered Health Care &#8211; 2023. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2023;120(7):e20230303</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label/>
          <p><bold>Note:</bold> These statements are for information purposes and should not replace the clinical judgment of a physician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <title>List of Abbreviations and Acronyms</title>
        <fn fn-type="abbr">
          <p>AAD &#8211; antiarrhythmic drug</p>
          <p>ACEI &#8211; angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor</p>
          <p>aCL &#8211; anticardiolipin antibody</p>
          <p>ACS &#8211; acute coronary syndrome</p>
          <p>AF &#8211; atrial fibrillation</p>
          <p>AMI &#8211; acute myocardial infarction</p>
          <p>ANS &#8211; autonomic nervous system</p>
          <p>aPL &#8211; antiphospholipid antibodies</p>
          <p>APS &#8211; antiphospholipid syndrome</p>
          <p>ARB - angiotensin receptor blocker</p>
          <p>ARNI &#8211; angiotensin receptor/neprilysin inhibitor</p>
          <p>BB &#8211; beta-blockers</p>
          <p>BMI &#8211; body mass index</p>
          <p>BP &#8211; blood pressure</p>
          <p>CABG - coronary artery bypass grafting</p>
          <p>CAC &#8211; coronary artery calcium score</p>
          <p>CCB &#8211; calcium-channel blockers</p>
          <p>CCTA - coronary computed tomography angiography</p>
          <p>CFR &#8211; coronary flow reserve</p>
          <p>CFV &#8211; coronary flow velocity</p>
          <p>CHC &#8211; combined hormonal contraceptive</p>
          <p>CMRI &#8211; cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</p>
          <p>CPET &#8211; cardiopulmonary exercise test</p>
          <p>CRT &#8211; cardiac resynchronization therapy</p>
          <p>CRT-D &#8211; cardiac resynchronization therapy with defibrillator</p>
          <p>CVD &#8211; cardiovascular disease</p>
          <p>CVR &#8211; cardiovascular risk</p>
          <p>CVRF &#8211; cardiovascular risk factor</p>
          <p>DALYs &#8211; Disability-Adjusted Life Years</p>
          <p>DM &#8211; diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic></p>
          <p>DOACs &#8211; direct oral anticoagulants</p>
          <p>DTS &#8211; Duke treadmill score</p>
          <p>DVT &#8211; deep venous thrombosis</p>
          <p>ECG &#8211; electrocardiogram</p>
          <p>ECV &#8211; electric cardioversion</p>
          <p>ET &#8211; exercise test</p>
          <p>FFR &#8211; fractional flow reserve</p>
          <p>GBD &#8211; Global Burden of Diseases</p>
          <p>HF &#8211; heart failure</p>
          <p>HFpEF &#8211; heart failure with preserved ejection fraction</p>
          <p>HFrEF &#8211; heart failure with reduced ejection fraction</p>
          <p>HLA &#8211; human leukocyte antigen</p>
          <p>HR &#8211; heart rate</p>
          <p>ICAM-1 &#8211; intercellular adhesion molecule</p>
          <p>ICD &#8211; implantable cardioverter defibrillator</p>
          <p>ICM &#8211; ischemic cardiomyopathy</p>
          <p>ICUS &#8211; intracoronary ultrasound</p>
          <p>iFR &#8211; instantaneous wave-free pressure ratio</p>
          <p>IHD &#8211; ischemic heart disease</p>
          <p>IL &#8211; Interleukin</p>
          <p>IMT &#8211; intima-media thickness</p>
          <p>INOCA &#8211; ischemia with nonobstructive coronary arteries</p>
          <p>INR &#8211; International Normalized Ratio</p>
          <p>LAA &#8211; left atrial appendage</p>
          <p>LAC &#8211; lupus anticoagulant antibody</p>
          <p>LBBB &#8211; left bundle branch block</p>
          <p>LMCA &#8211; left main coronary artery</p>
          <p>LV &#8211; left ventricular</p>
          <p>LVEF &#8211; left ventricular ejection fraction</p>
          <p>LVGLS &#8211; left ventricular global longitudinal strain</p>
          <p>MACE &#8211; major adverse coronary events</p>
          <p>MINOCA &#8211; myocardial infarction with nonobstructive coronary arteries</p>
          <p>MPS &#8211; myocardial perfusion scintigraphy</p>
          <p>MRV &#8211; myocardial revascularization</p>
          <p>NIRS &#8211; near infrared spectroscopy</p>
          <p>NSTEMI &#8211; non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction</p>
          <p>NYHA &#8211; New York Heart Association</p>
          <p>OCT &#8211; optic coherence tomography</p>
          <p>PAD &#8211; peripheral arterial disease</p>
          <p>PCI &#8211; percutaneous coronary intervention</p>
          <p>PET &#8211; positron emission tomography</p>
          <p>pHM &#8211; predicted total heart mass</p>
          <p>POC &#8211; progestin-only contraceptive</p>
          <p>POS &#8211; polycystic ovary syndrome</p>
          <p>PTE &#8211; pulmonary thromboembolism</p>
          <p>RF &#8211; risk factor</p>
          <p>SAH &#8211; systemic arterial hypertension</p>
          <p>SCAD &#8211; spontaneous coronary artery dissection</p>
          <p>SDI &#8211; Sociodemographic Index</p>
          <p>SEC &#8211; stress echocardiography</p>
          <p>SGLT2 - sodium-glucose cotransporter 2</p>
          <p>SIM &#8211; Brazilian Mortality Information System (in Portuguese, <italic>Sistema de Informa&#231;&#245;es sobre Mortalidade</italic>)</p>
          <p>SPECT &#8211; single photon emission computed tomography</p>
          <p>STEMI &#8211; ST-elevation myocardial infarction</p>
          <p>TNF-a &#8211; tumor necrosis factor</p>
          <p>TTE &#8211; transthoracic echocardiography</p>
          <p>VEGF &#8211; vascular endothelial growth factor</p>
          <p>VF &#8211; ventricular fibrillation</p>
          <p>VO<sub>2</sub> &#8211; oxygen consumption</p>
          <p>VT &#8211; ventricular tachycardia</p>
          <p>VUS &#8211; vascular ultrasound</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
