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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="pt">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">nvs4VK3YtYvhH4r65pH8t9w</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000700101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230119</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Meio Ambiente e o Cora&#231;&#227;o</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2154-7828</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Eduardo Monteiro de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2357-5176</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Cardio L&#243;gica Ltda</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardio L&#243;gica Ltda, Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Ricardo Stein &#8226; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Servi&#231;o de Fisiatria/T&#233;rreo - Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. CEP 90035-903, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil E-mail: <email>kuqui.r@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>17</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>7</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230119</elocation-id>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Meio Ambiente</kwd>
        <kwd>Equil&#237;brio Ecol&#243;gico/m&#233;todos</kwd>
        <kwd>Polui&#231;&#227;o Ambiental</kwd>
        <kwd>Preven&#231;&#227;o e Controle</kwd>
        <kwd>Estresse Oxidativo</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="25"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Nosso planeta est&#225; enfrentando uma crise sem precedentes relacionada &#224;s mudan&#231;as clim&#225;ticas e &#224; perda de biodiversidade, evid&#234;ncias essas que t&#234;m amea&#231;ado a sa&#250;de dos nossos ecossistemas, comunidades, assim como modificado o estilo de vida dos seres que vivem na terra. Por sinal, muitos cientistas t&#234;m afirmado que &#8220;temos anos e n&#227;o d&#233;cadas para combater essa crise&#8221;.</p>
    <p>Desde a escola prim&#225;ria aprendemos sobre a import&#226;ncia do oxig&#234;nio para vida humana. Estima-se que 50 a 80% do oxig&#234;nio da Terra seja produzida nos oceanos (&#8220;Pulm&#245;es do Planeta&#8221;), al&#233;m de ser o maior meio de absor&#231;&#227;o do carbono, desempenhando papel fundamental na regula&#231;&#227;o do clima global.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> As florestas e demais ecossistemas produzem o restante de oxig&#234;nio que utilizamos. Indo de encontro ao bin&#244;mio produ&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio-absor&#231;&#227;o do carbono, a destrui&#231;&#227;o destes ambientes eleva o grau de polui&#231;&#227;o e as consequ&#234;ncias s&#227;o graves e podem ser ainda mais nefastas.</p>
    <p>A polui&#231;&#227;o do ar &#233; uma mistura complexa e din&#226;mica de numerosos compostos na forma gasosa, sendo part&#237;culas proveniente de v&#225;rias fontes, as quais est&#227;o sujeitas &#224; transforma&#231;&#227;o, variando no espa&#231;o e no tempo. As subst&#226;ncias mais agressivas ao ser humano est&#227;o sob a forma de Part&#237;culas Totais em Suspens&#227;o (PTS), Fuma&#231;a e Part&#237;culas Inal&#225;veis (PM<sub>10&#181;g</sub> e PM<sub>2,5 &#181;g</sub>), Oz&#244;nio (O<sub>3</sub>), Di&#243;xido de Nitrog&#234;nio (NO<sub>2</sub>), Di&#243;xido de Enxofre (SO<sub>2</sub>), Mon&#243;xido de Carbono (CO) e metais como Ars&#234;nio, Chumbo, C&#225;dmio, Merc&#250;rio e Cobre. Em s&#237;ntese, as vias fisiopatol&#243;gicas dominantes incluem a ativa&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo - inflama&#231;&#227;o e desequil&#237;brio auton&#244;mico, bem como transloca&#231;&#227;o de componentes da mistura de PM na circula&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Por sua vez, essas altera&#231;&#245;es podem promover doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) subcl&#237;nicas (remodela&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, progress&#227;o da aterosclerose, hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica e pulmonar, aumento da vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e coagula&#231;&#227;o), al&#233;m da DCV aguda tromb&#243;tica e n&#227;o tromb&#243;tica (s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, acidente vascular cerebral e arritmias de alto risco).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Neste cen&#225;rio onde o equil&#237;brio &#233; t&#227;o relevante, a polui&#231;&#227;o do ar &#233; um fator de risco para que as DCV incidam, sendo ela um dos principais contribuintes para a carga global de doen&#231;as.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a polui&#231;&#227;o ambiental contribui para comorbidades que pioram o progn&#243;stico entre pessoas infectadas com o SARS-Cov 19 (v&#237;rus da COVID-19), dado este proveniente de uma declara&#231;&#227;o conjunta divulgada em 28 de janeiro de 2021 por quatro das maiores institui&#231;&#245;es cient&#237;ficas de cardiologia do mundo: &#8220;American College of Cardiology, World Heart Federation (WHF), American Heart Association (AHA) e European Society of Cardiology (ESC)&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Segundo a Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial de Sa&#250;de (OMS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> sete milh&#245;es de pessoas morrem a cada ano por causa da polui&#231;&#227;o, sendo 25% por doen&#231;a card&#237;aca e 24% por acidente vascular cerebral (AVC). Ainda, de acordo com dados da OMS, nove em dez pessoas moram em locais onde a polui&#231;&#227;o do ar externa excedem os limites recomendados. Por sua vez, a polui&#231;&#227;o do ar interno das casas afeta em torno de tr&#234;s bilh&#245;es de pessoas, j&#225; que fog&#245;es movidos a querosene ou combust&#237;veis s&#243;lidos s&#227;o utilizados. Nestas situa&#231;&#245;es, a fuma&#231;a interna (polui&#231;&#227;o dom&#233;stica) &#233; 100 vezes mais alta do que os n&#237;veis recomendados e, neste cen&#225;rio, 3,8 milh&#245;es de pessoas morrem anualmente, sendo 45% por doen&#231;a card&#237;aca ou AVC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
    <p>A exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; polui&#231;&#227;o do ar relacionada ao tr&#225;fego vi&#225;rio pode contribuir para o aumento da preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o arterial (HAS) para moradores de bairros pr&#243;ximos a rodovias. Hudda et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> realizaram ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado-cruzado, em ambiente controlado com monitoramento do n&#250;mero de part&#237;culas e concentra&#231;&#227;o do carbono negro, mostrando o efeito agudo do uso de filtros na redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS). O aumento da PAS foi relacionado &#224; magnitude de exposi&#231;&#227;o sendo de 0,6 mmHg para baixa exposi&#231;&#227;o, 1,3 mmHg para m&#233;dia exposi&#231;&#227;o e 2,8 mmHg para alta exposi&#231;&#227;o. Lanyu et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> atrav&#233;s de uma metan&#225;lise, evidenciaram que o uso de combust&#237;vel s&#243;lido dom&#233;stico foi significativamente associado a um risco aumentado de hipertens&#227;o. Qin et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> mostraram que o risco de hipertens&#227;o em adultos estava significativamente associado com aumento de cada 10 &#956;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> na exposi&#231;&#227;o ambiental &#224; longo prazo.</p>
    <p>Por sua vez, a exposi&#231;&#227;o profissional &#224; polui&#231;&#227;o est&#225; associada a arritmias card&#237;acas. Vanchiere et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> mostraram que os bombeiros que combateram um maior n&#250;mero de inc&#234;ndios por ano tiveram maior preval&#234;ncia de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (OR- <italic>Odds Ratio-</italic> 1,14; p=0,006), assim como Wang et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> publicaram uma met&#225;n&#225;lise relatando que a exposi&#231;&#227;o ao PM<sub>2,5</sub> foi significativamente relacionada ao aumento da incid&#234;ncia de FA em idosos. Tanto o OR combinado quanto o valor do % de altera&#231;&#227;o foram maiores em &#225;reas com n&#237;veis mais altos de PM<sub>2,5 &#181;g</sub> (&#8805;25 &#956;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> ).</p>
    <p>A exposi&#231;&#227;o por longo tempo &#224; polui&#231;&#227;o do ar externa est&#225; associada a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> e ao AVC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em uma importante an&#225;lise agrupada de dados individuais de seis estudos de coorte do Estudo ELAPSE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> os quais tiveram um acompanhamento m&#233;dio de 17,2 anos, a exposi&#231;&#227;o prolongada &#224; polui&#231;&#227;o do ar foi associada &#224; incid&#234;ncia de AVC (taxa de aumento no risco de 10% para cada 5 &#956;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> de aumento no PM<sub>2,5 e</sub> 8% para cada 10 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> de aumento no NO<sub>2</sub>. J&#225; para incid&#234;ncia de DAC a associa&#231;&#227;o ocorreu apenas com o NO<sub>2</sub>, mesmo em concentra&#231;&#245;es de poluentes inferiores aos valores-limite atuais estabelecidos pelos &#243;rg&#227;os fiscalizadores. O Estudo KPNC,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> realizado no norte da Calif&#243;rnia, avaliou a associa&#231;&#227;o da polui&#231;&#227;o por PM<sub>2,5</sub> e mortalidade por DCV, AVC e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM). Observou-se um aumento na mortalidade por DCV ( <italic>Hazard Ratio-</italic> HR-, 2,31; 95% IC, 1,96-2,71), AVC (HR, 1,41; 95% IC, 1,09-1,83]) e IAM (HR, 1,51; IC 95%, 1,21-1,89) para cada aumento de 10 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> na m&#233;dia do PM<sub>2,5</sub> em 1 ano, mesmo em n&#237;veis de exposi&#231;&#227;o &lt;12 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> . Ali&#225;s, o aumento dos riscos observados em n&#237;veis de exposi&#231;&#227;o &lt;12 &#181;g/m3 destaca que os atuais n&#237;veis de regulamenta&#231;&#227;o PM<sub>2,5</sub> podem n&#227;o ser protetores para essa popula&#231;&#227;o suscet&#237;vel.</p>
    <p>Polui&#231;&#227;o do ar associado ao risco em curto prazo de IAM com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST (STEMI) foi analisado em investiga&#231;&#227;o cruzada realizada pelo grupo do SWEDEHEART.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> A conclus&#227;o deste experimento foi que o risco de STEMI aumenta horas ap&#243;s a exposi&#231;&#227;o a poluentes atmosf&#233;ricos, com maior impacto para a a&#231;&#227;o do NO<sub>2</sub>. Atrav&#233;s de metan&#225;lise, Lee et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> sugeriram que a raz&#227;o de risco agrupada para IAM foi de 1,052 (95% IC 1,017-1,089) para cada aumento de 1 mg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> na concentra&#231;&#227;o de CO ambiente. No entanto, estudos mais robustos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para confirmar a associa&#231;&#227;o da polui&#231;&#227;o do ar com o IAM de fato.</p>
    <p>Evid&#234;ncias que examinaram a associa&#231;&#227;o entre a polui&#231;&#227;o do ar e a descompensa&#231;&#227;o aguda por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> mostraram que a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o ou morte estava relacionada a aumento no CO (3,52% por uma parte por milh&#227;o; 95% IC 2,52-4,54), SO<sub>2</sub> (2,36% por 10 partes por bilh&#227;o; IC 1,35-3,38) e NO<sub>2</sub> (1,70% por 10 partes por bilh&#227;o; IC 1,25-2,16). J&#225;, as concentra&#231;&#245;es de part&#237;culas estavam associadas com hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou morte (PM<sub>2,5</sub> 2,12% por 10 &#956;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> , IC 95% 1,42-2,82; PM<sub>10</sub>: 1,63% por 10 &#956;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> , 95% IC 1,20-2,07). A saber, elas eram tanto mais fortes ao serem observadas no dia de exposi&#231;&#227;o, sendo os efeitos mais persistentes para PM<sub>2,5</sub>.</p>
    <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre a exposi&#231;&#227;o materna &#224; polui&#231;&#227;o do ar e o risco de doen&#231;a cong&#234;nita card&#237;aca na prole tamb&#233;m tem sido estudada. Em metan&#225;lise realizada por Hu et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> a exposi&#231;&#227;o ao CO foi associada a um risco aumentado de tetralogia de Fallot (OR 1,21, IC 95% 1,04-1,41]. Eleva&#231;&#227;o do risco de comunica&#231;&#227;o interatrial (CIA) foi encontrado (para cada 10 mg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> de aumento), assim como quando ocorria incremento de 10 ppb no PM<sub>10</sub> e exposi&#231;&#227;o ao O<sub>3</sub>, respectivamente (OR 1,04, 95% IC 1,00 - 1,09; e OR 1,09, 95% IC 1,02 - 1,17). Por sua vez, a exposi&#231;&#227;o categ&#243;rica ao NO<sub>2</sub> foi associada um risco aumentado de coarcta&#231;&#227;o da aorta (OR para alto versus baixo 1,14, IC 95% 1,02 &#8211; 1,26).</p>
    <p>Chowdhury et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> ao avaliarem a associa&#231;&#227;o da polui&#231;&#227;o por metais e desfechos cardiovasculares mostraram que a exposi&#231;&#227;o ao ars&#234;nico, chumbo, c&#225;dmio e cobre estavam associados a um risco aumentado de DCV, em especial &#224; DAC. Houve uma rela&#231;&#227;o linear de dose resposta para ars&#234;nico, chumbo e c&#225;dmio com desfechos cardiovasculares.</p>
    <p>O estudo PURE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> avaliou a associa&#231;&#227;o de 14 poss&#237;veis fatores de risco modific&#225;veis com mortalidade cardiovascular, tendo sido realizado em 21 pa&#237;ses de 5 continentes, observados n&#237;veis de escolaridade e renda. A polui&#231;&#227;o do ar esteve associada a uma maior propor&#231;&#227;o de DCV e de mortes em pa&#237;ses de baixa renda. J&#225; naqueles de renda baixa e m&#233;dia, a polui&#231;&#227;o do ar dom&#233;stico, dieta inadequada e baixa escolaridade tiveram um efeito mais forte sobre a morte cardiovascular do que em pa&#237;ses de alta renda. De acordo com o PURE, a ideia que fica &#233; de uma l&#243;gica perversa: os pa&#237;ses ricos poluem e os pobres adoecem e morrem.</p>
    <p>Uma informa&#231;&#227;o importante a ser discutida diz respeito ao impacto de uma poss&#237;vel redu&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade global atribu&#237;da &#224; polui&#231;&#227;o. Dados da OMS descrevem que a polui&#231;&#227;o por exposi&#231;&#227;o anual a n&#237;veis de PM<sub>2,5</sub> de 10 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> , se aplicada a nova recomenda&#231;&#227;o que consta na Diretriz 2021 da OMS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> para n&#237;veis permiss&#237;veis de exposi&#231;&#227;o a PM<sub>2.5</sub> de 5 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> , a mortalidade poderia ser reduzida em 79,5%. Cabe salientar que em 2019, segundo o <italic>Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation</italic> , a polui&#231;&#227;o do ar ocupou a quarta posi&#231;&#227;o como fator de risco modific&#225;vel, ficando atr&#225;s apenas a hipertens&#227;o arterial, uso de tabaco e dieta inapropriada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Temos ainda as altera&#231;&#245;es clim&#225;ticas extremas (enchentes, inc&#234;ndios e grandes &#225;reas de degelo), as quais tamb&#233;m se relacionam de forma direta com a polui&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m de outros fatores que aumentam o aquecimento global, impactado direta e/ou indiretamente na sa&#250;de global do planeta. Essas mudan&#231;as est&#227;o acontecendo com um aquecimento m&#233;dio de apenas 1,1&#176;C em rela&#231;&#227;o aos n&#237;veis pr&#233;-industriais. O mais recente relat&#243;rio do Painel Intergovernamental sobre Mudan&#231;as Clim&#225;ticas (IPCC)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> conclui que isso &#233; apenas uma amostra do que est&#225; por vir. Esse relat&#243;rio mostra que o mundo provavelmente atingir&#225; ou exceder&#225; 1,5 &#176;C de aquecimento nas pr&#243;ximas duas d&#233;cadas &#8211; mais cedo do se imaginava em avalia&#231;&#245;es anteriores. Logo, limitar o aquecimento a este n&#237;vel e evitar os impactos clim&#225;ticos mais severos depende de a&#231;&#245;es ainda nesta d&#233;cada. Somente cortes ambiciosos nas emiss&#245;es permitir&#227;o manter o aumento da temperatura global em 1,5&#176;C, o limite que os cientistas dizem ser necess&#225;rio para prevenir impactos clim&#225;ticos de maior monta. Em um cen&#225;rio de altas emiss&#245;es, o IPCC constata que o mundo pode aquecer muito mais, atingindo os apocal&#237;pticos 5,7&#176;C at&#233; 2100.</p>
    <p>J&#225; quase finalizando e mudando um pouco o tom, saindo do destrutivo e indo para o construtivo. No nordeste do Brasil e certamente em muitos outros lugares do nosso pa&#237;s, existem movimentos em prol da sa&#250;de da natureza. E &#233; isso que est&#225; acontecendo na pequena e tradicional comunidade de Jacarap&#233;, praia paraibana. A partir da iniciativa do primeiro autor deste artigo em parceria com diversos membros da comunidade, pr&#225;ticas de educa&#231;&#227;o ambiental vem sendo desenvolvidas a pleno. Tendo como base o pequeno Posto de Sa&#250;de ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ), a rela&#231;&#227;o entre polui&#231;&#227;o do meio ambiente e risco cardiovascular tem sido amplamente discutida. Atrav&#233;s de palestras com pacientes, outros membros da comunidade, grupos escolares da regi&#227;o, assim como com visitantes, a educa&#231;&#227;o quanto a polui&#231;&#227;o ambiental &#233; realizada. Al&#233;m disso, em Jacarap&#233; est&#225; sendo constru&#237;do um Observat&#243;rio Ambiental, este em conjunto com a Universidade Federal da Para&#237;ba (UFPB). Ali, pol&#237;ticas sustent&#225;veis de saneamento b&#225;sico biol&#243;gico, como tamb&#233;m o replantio de 5000 mudas de manguezal, al&#233;m do monitoramento da qualidade das &#225;guas dos rios Jacarap&#233; e Cui&#225;, est&#227;o sendo realizados. Estas pr&#225;ticas, nas suas devidas propor&#231;&#245;es do microcosmo, est&#227;o alinhadas com a fala de Richard J. Kovacs, ex-presidente do <italic>American College of Cardiology.</italic> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> &#8220;Os m&#233;dicos t&#234;m a responsabilidade de educar seus pacientes, seus colegas e suas comunidades em geral sobre a conex&#227;o entre a polui&#231;&#227;o do ar e o risco de DCVs&#8221;.</p>
    <p>
      <fig id="f01">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>&#8211; Posto de sa&#250;de na pequena e tradicional comunidade de Jacarap&#233; (PB).</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230119-30119-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Por fim, para enfrentar este cen&#225;rio de degrada&#231;&#227;o exponencial do meio ambiente, tamb&#233;m cabe a n&#243;s cardiologistas convocar a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral e, principalmente os trabalhadores da &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, para a&#231;&#245;es que reduzam de forma dr&#225;stica a destrui&#231;&#227;o da natureza. Atuar contra a polui&#231;&#227;o &#233; antes de mais nada um ato de cidadania, ato este apartid&#225;rio e em prol dos que votam nos mais diferentes partidos ou que torcem para os distintos clubes de futebol Brasil afora, ou seja, todos n&#243;s. Logo, para ir de encontro &#224; degrada&#231;&#227;o exponencial do lugar onde vivem mais de 8 bilh&#245;es de habitantes (entre outros tantos seres vivos), a frase do poeta paraibano Geraldo Vandr&#233; <italic>cai como uma luva</italic>:  &#8220;Quem sabe faz a hora n&#227;o espera acontecer&#8221;.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>The Environment and the Heart</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2154-7828</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Eduardo Monteiro de</given-names>
          </name>
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            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2357-5176</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stein</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardio L&#243;gica Ltda,Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Ricardo Stein &#8226; Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Servi&#231;o de Fisiatria/T&#233;rreo - Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. Postal Code 90035-903, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil E-mail: kuqui.r@gmail.com</corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Environment</kwd>
        <kwd>Ecological Equilibrium/methods</kwd>
        <kwd>Environmental, Pollution</kwd>
        <kwd>Prevention and Control</kwd>
        <kwd>Oxidative Stress</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Our planet is facing an unprecedented crisis related to climate change and the loss of biodiversity, and there is evidence that this crisis has threatened the health of our ecosystems and communities, in addition to modifying the lifestyle of living beings on Earth. Moreover, multiple scientists have stated that &#8220;we have years rather than decades to fight this crisis.&#8221;</p>
      <p>Since elementary school, we learn about the importance of oxygen for human life. It is estimated that 50% to 80% of the oxygen on Earth is produced in the oceans (&#8220;the planet&#8217;s lungs&#8221;), which is also the largest means of absorbing carbon, playing a fundamental role in regulating the global climate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Forests and other ecosystems produce the rest of the oxygen we use. Going against the dichotomy of producing oxygen and absorbing carbon, the destruction of these environments increases the degree of pollution; the consequences are severe and can be even more detrimental.</p>
      <p>Air pollution is a complex and dynamic mixture of numerous compounds in gaseous form, comprising particles from various sources, which are subject to transformation, varying in space and time. The most aggressive substances to humans are in the form of total suspended particles, smoke and inhalable particles (PM<sub>10</sub>and PM<sub>2.5</sub>), ozone (O<sub>3</sub>), nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2</sub>), sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>), carbon monoxide (CO), and metals such as arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, and copper. In summary, the dominant pathophysiological pathways include activation of oxidative stress, inflammation and autonomic imbalance, as well as translocation of components of the PM mixture into the systemic circulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In turn, these alterations can promote subclinical cardiovascular disease (CVD) (myocardial remodeling , progression of atherosclerosis, systemic and pulmonary arterial hypertension, increased vasoconstriction, and coagulation), in addition to acute thrombotic and non-thrombotic CVD (acute coronary syndromes, heart failure, stroke, and high-risk arrhythmias).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>In this scenario, where equilibrium is so relevant, air pollution is a risk factor for CVD to occur, and it is one of the main contributors to the global burden of disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Furthermore, environmental pollution contributes to comorbidities that worsen prognosis among people infected with SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19), according to data from a joint statement released on January 28, 2021 by 4 of the largest cardiology institutions worldwide: American College of Cardiology, World Heart Federation, American Heart Association, and European Society of Cardiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>According to the World Health Organization (WHO),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> 7 million people die each year due to pollution, 25% of them from heart disease and 24% from stroke. Also according to WHO data, 9 out of 10 people live in places where outdoor air pollution exceeds recommended limits. In turn, indoor air pollution in homes affects around 3 billion people, where stoves powered by kerosene or solid fuels are used. In these situations, indoor smoke (domestic pollution) is 100 times higher than recommended levels and, in this scenario, 3.8 million people die annually, 45% of them from heart disease or stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Exposure to air pollution related to road traffic may contribute to increased prevalence of arterial hypertension in residents of neighborhoods close to highways. Hudda et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> carried out a randomized crossover clinical trial, in a controlled environment with monitoring the number of particles and black carbon concentration, showing the acute effect of using filters in reducing systolic blood pressure. The increase in systolic blood pressure was related to the magnitude of exposure, as follows: 0.6 mmHg for low exposure, 1.3 mmHg for medium exposure, and 2.8 mmHg for high exposure. A meta-analysis by Lanyu et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> provided evidence that the use of domestic solid fuel was significantly associated with an increased risk of hypertension. Qin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> showed that the risk of hypertension in adults was significantly associated with each 10-&#956;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> increase in long-term environmental exposure.</p>
      <p>In turn, occupational exposure to pollution is associated with cardiac arrhythmias. Vanchiere et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> showed that firefighters who fought a greater number of fires per year had a higher prevalence of atrial fibrillation (odds ratio [OR] 1.14; p = 0.006), and Wang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> published a meta-analysis reporting that exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub>was significantly related to increased incidence of atrial fibrillation in elderly patients. Both the combined OR and the percentage change were higher in areas with higher levels of PM<sub>2.5</sub>(&#8805; 25 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> ).</p>
      <p>Long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution is associated with coronary artery disease<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> and stroke.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In an important pooled analysis of individual data from 6 cohort studies from the ELAPSE Study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> which had a median follow-up of 17.2 years, prolonged exposure to air pollution was associated with stroke incidence, with an increase rate of 10% for each 5-&#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> increase in PM<sub>2.5</sub>and 8% for each 10-&#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> increase in NO<sub>2</sub>. Regarding the incidence of coronary artery disease, the association occurred only with NO<sub>2</sub>, even in concentrations of pollutants lower than the current limit values established by the inspection agencies. The KPNC Study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> carried out in Northern California, evaluated the association of PM<sub>2.5</sub>pollution and mortality from CVD, stroke, and myocardial infarction. They observed an increase in mortality from CVD (hazard ratio [HR] 2.31; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.96 to 2.71), stroke (HR 1.41; 95% CI 1.09 to 1.83) and myocardial infarction (HR 1.51; 95% CI 1.21 to 1.89) for each 10-&#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> increase in mean PM<sub>2.5</sub>in 1 year, even at exposure levels &lt; 12 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> . The increased risks observed at exposure levels &lt; 12 &#181;g/m<sub>3</sub>highlight that current PM<sub>2.5</sub>regulatory levels may, in fact, not be protective for this susceptible population.</p>
      <p>Air pollution associated with short-term risk of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) was analyzed in a case-crossover study by the SWEDEHEART group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> The conclusion of this experiment was that the risk of STEMI increases hours after exposure to air pollutants, with greater impact due to the action of NO<sub>2</sub>. Through meta-analysis, Lee et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> suggested that the pooled risk ratio for myocardial infarction was 1.052 (95% CI 1.017 to 1.089) for each 1-mg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> increase in ambient CO concentration. However, more robust studies are needed to confirm the actual association between air pollution and myocardial infarction.</p>
      <p>Evidence examining the association between air pollution and acute decompensation of heart failure<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> showed that hospitalization or death was related to an increase in CO (3.52% per 1 part per million; 95% CI 2.52 to 4.54), SO<sub>2</sub>(2.36% per 10 parts per billion; 95% CI 1.35 to 3.38) and NO<sub>2</sub>(1.70% per 10 parts per billion; 95% CI 1.25 to 2.16). Particle concentrations were associated with hospitalization due to heart failure or death (PM<sub>2.5</sub>: 2.12% per 10 &#956;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> , 95% CI 1.42 to 2.82; PM<sub>10</sub>: 1.63% per 10 &#956;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> , 95% CI 1.20 to 2.07). Namely, they were stronger when observed on the day of exposure, and the effects were more persistent for PM<sub>2.5</sub>.</p>
      <p>The relationship between maternal exposure to air pollution and the risk of congenital heart disease in offspring has also been studied. In a meta-analysis conducted by Hu et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> CO exposure was associated with an increased risk of tetralogy of Fallot (OR 1.21, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.41). Elevated risk of atrial septal defect was found for each 10-mg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> increment, as well as for each increase of 10 ppb in PM<sub>10</sub>and O<sub>3</sub>exposure, respectively (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.09; and OR 1.09, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.17). In turn, categorical NO<sub>2</sub>exposure was associated with an increased risk of aortic coarctation (OR for high versus low 1.14, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.26).</p>
      <p>Chowdhury et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> when evaluating the association between metal pollution and cardiovascular outcomes, showed that exposure to arsenic, lead, cadmium, and copper was associated with an increased risk of CVD, especially coronary artery disease. There was a linear dose-response relationship for arsenic, lead, and cadmium with cardiovascular outcomes.</p>
      <p>The PURE study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> evaluated the association of 14 possible modifiable risk factors with cardiovascular mortality, carried out in 21 countries on 5 continents, observing levels of education and income. Air pollution was associated with a higher proportion of CVD and deaths in low-income countries. In low- and middle-income countries, household air pollution, poor diet, and low education had a stronger effect on cardiovascular death than in high-income countries. According to the PURE study, a perverse logic is maintained: rich countries pollute, and poor countries get sick and die.</p>
      <p>An important piece of information to be discussed concerns the impact of a possible reduction in global mortality attributed to pollution. WHO data describe that pollution due to annual exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub>levels of 10 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> , when applying the new recommendation put forth in the 2021 WHO Guideline<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> for permissible levels of exposure to PM<sub>2.5</sub>of 5 &#181;g/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> , mortality could be reduced by 79.5%. It should be noted that, in 2019, according to the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, air pollution ranked fourth as a modifiable risk factor, after high blood pressure, tobacco use, and inappropriate diet.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>We are also facing extreme climate changes (floods, fires, and large areas of melting ice), which are also directly related to pollution, in addition to other factors that increase global warming, directly and/or indirectly impacting the global health of the planet. These changes are happening with an average warming of just 1.1 &#176;C in relation to pre-industrial levels. The most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> report concludes that this is merely a preview of things to come. The report shows that the world is likely to reach or exceed 1.5 &#176;C of warming over the next 2 decades&#8212;sooner than previously thought. Therefore, limiting warming to this level and avoiding the most severe climate impacts depends on actions during this decade. Only ambitious emission cuts will keep global temperature rise to 1.5 &#176;C, the limit scientists say is needed to prevent major climate impacts. In a scenario of high emissions, the IPCC has stated that the world could warm much more, reaching an apocalyptic 5.7 &#176;C by 2100.</p>
      <p>In moving toward the conclusion and changing the tone slightly, leaving the destructive behind and looking toward the constructive, in the Northeast Region of Brazil and certainly in many other places in our country, there are movements in favor of the health of nature. And this is what is happening in the small and traditional community of Jacarap&#233;, located on the coast of Para&#237;ba. Based on the initiative of the first author of this article, in partnership with several members of the community, environmental education practices are being developed extensively. Based out of the small Public Health Clinic ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ), the relationship between environmental pollution and cardiovascular risk has been widely discussed. Education about environmental pollution is carried out through lectures with patients, other members of the community, school groups in the region, and visitors. In addition, an Environmental Observatory is being constructed in Jacarap&#233;, in partnership with the Federal University of Para&#237;ba (UFPB). At this location, sustainable policies for basic sanitation are being implanted, in addition to the replanting of 5000 mangrove seedlings and monitoring of the water quality of the Jacarap&#233; and Cui&#225; Rivers. These practices, in their due proportions of the microcosm, are in line with the words of the former president of the American College of Cardiology Richard J. Kovacs: &#8220;Clinicians have a responsibility to educate their patients, their colleagues and their communities at large on the connection between air pollution and CVD risk&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01001">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Public health clinic in the small, traditional community of Jacarap&#233;, Para&#237;ba, Brazil.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20230119-30119-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Finally, to face this scenario of exponential degradation of the environment, it is also up to us cardiologists to call on the general population and especially health workers, for actions that dramatically reduce the destruction of nature. Acting against pollution is, above all, an act of citizenship, an act that is non-partisan and that benefits those who vote for the most different political parties or cheer for any number of football teams throughout Brazil and worldwide, or be it, all of us. Therefore, to face the exponential degradation of this place where more than 8 billion inhabitants live (among many other living beings), the song by the poet from Para&#237;ba, Geraldo Vandr&#233;, fits like a glove: &#8220;Those who know choose the time. They do not wait for it to happen.&#8221;</p>
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