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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">4nYWC7pnWBWn8kFdm8dWK9S</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000700502</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00502</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220858</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Carta Cient&#237;fica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Depress&#227;o, Doen&#231;a Cardiovascular e Sexo Feminino: Uma Tr&#237;ade Subestimada</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5686-7058</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Avila</surname>
            <given-names>Walkiria Samuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rivera</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Alayde Mendon&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rivera</surname>
            <given-names>Ivan Romero</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Alagoas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Macei&#243;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AL</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Alagoas &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina, Macei&#243;, AL &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Walkiria Samuel Avila &#8226; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Eneas Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>walkiria@incor.usp.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>17</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>7</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220858</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Depress&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Sexo Feminino</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Imunit&#225;rio</kwd>
        <kwd>Eixo Hipot&#225;lamo Hip&#243;fise Adrenal</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Renina Angiotensina Aldosterona</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="22"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A depress&#227;o &#233; uma doen&#231;a global que acomete cerca de 330 milh&#245;es de pessoas, o que corresponde a 4,4% da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial, e a coloca como a segunda causa de incapacita&#231;&#227;o nos EEUU.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No Brasil, estima-se que 5,8% da popula&#231;&#227;o, ou seja, 11 milh&#245;es de pessoas, sofram dessa doen&#231;a, colocando o pa&#237;s como o primeiro na Am&#233;rica Latina, e o segundo das Am&#233;ricas em n&#250;mero de casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Acrescentam-se os dados divulgados pela Pesquisa Nacional de Sa&#250;de (PNS) realizada em 2013 em que se verificou que 78,8% dos brasileiros com sintomas depressivos importantes, n&#227;o recebiam nenhum tipo de tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Depress&#227;o, mulheres e risco cardiovascular</title>
        <p>As mulheres, a partir da adolesc&#234;ncia, apresentam duas vezes maior propens&#227;o a desenvolver depress&#227;o quando comparadas aos homens e, quanto mais precoce &#233; o in&#237;cio da doen&#231;a, mais grave &#233; o progn&#243;stico. Estima-se que cerca de 20 a 25% das mulheres sofrer&#227;o pelo menos um epis&#243;dio de depress&#227;o ao longo da vida, com elevada taxa de recorr&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a, que por sua vez, est&#225; associada a risco aumentado de doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nesse cen&#225;rio, o mundo contempor&#226;neo destaca a DCV como a principal causa de morte em ambos os sexos, representando 56% da mortalidade entre as mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Vale destacar que a depress&#227;o &#233; identificada com muita frequ&#234;ncia entre pacientes que apresentam DCV, al&#233;m de haver ind&#237;cios que depress&#227;o e DCV apresentam uma rela&#231;&#227;o bidirecional, o que equivale dizer, que ambas s&#227;o preditivas &#8220;entre si&#8221;, e em conjunto deflagram eventos card&#237;acos mais graves ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fisiopatologia da depress&#227;o e doen&#231;a cardiovascular.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20220858-20858-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que depress&#227;o e DCV compartilham uma patogenia relacionada ao sistema imunol&#243;gico, com a hip&#243;tese de que a persist&#234;ncia de um estado inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico, com maior express&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias, prote&#237;nas de fase aguda e mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, quando associado &#224; desregula&#231;&#227;o do eixo hipot&#225;lamo-pituit&#225;rio-adrenal, do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona e vias serotonina-kynurenina<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> contribuem para o desenvolvimento de ambas as doen&#231;as ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As raz&#245;es da predomin&#226;ncia em mulheres ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o esclarecidas, contudo admite-se que al&#233;m da predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica e de fatores biol&#243;gicos, psicossociais e familiares, existe uma conex&#227;o da depress&#227;o com as flutua&#231;&#245;es hormonais, moduladas pelos n&#237;veis de estrog&#234;nio e progesterona, particularmente aquelas inerentes ao ciclo grav&#237;dico-puerperal e a menopausa ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Depress&#227;o puerperal</title>
        <p>Nesse contexto, vale ressaltar a import&#226;ncia da depress&#227;o puerperal, com preval&#234;ncia no Brasil de cerca de 20,5%, que pode estar subestimada, em raz&#227;o da falta de diagn&#243;stico e omiss&#227;o na notifica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> &#201; oportuno mencionar uma recente pesquisa que demonstrou uma propor&#231;&#227;o maior de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e acidente vascular cerebral entre mulheres que sofreram de depress&#227;o puerperal, tema que merece futuros estudos no rastreamento de um novo preditivo de risco cardiovascular na mulher.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O quadro cl&#237;nico da depress&#227;o puerperal, apresentado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tabela 1</xref> n&#227;o difere do cl&#225;ssico da popula&#231;&#227;o em geral e pode ter in&#237;cio na gesta&#231;&#227;o ou em at&#233; quatro semanas ap&#243;s o parto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Dentre os sintomas, destacam-se mudan&#231;as do humor, perda de interesse pela vida, sentimento de baixa estima e idea&#231;&#227;o suicida/homicida. Este quadro pode progredir para a psicose (agita&#231;&#227;o, confus&#227;o, del&#237;rios), e culminar com o suic&#237;dio.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas da depress&#227;o do g&#234;nero feminino e da depress&#227;o puerperal</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th align="left">Depress&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="left">Depress&#227;o p&#243;s-parto</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Fatores de Risco</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Hist&#243;ria familiar de depress&#227;o</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Desequil&#237;brio em neurotransmissores cerebrais</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas (esclerose m&#250;ltipla, diabetes mellitus, c&#226;ncer)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Dor cr&#244;nica, altera&#231;&#245;es do sono</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Flutua&#231;&#245;es hormonais (pr&#233;-menstrual, gesta&#231;&#227;o, perimenopausa)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es do ritmo circadiano</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Defici&#234;ncia nutricional</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Estresse, Perda, luto</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Medicamentos (anticonvulsivantes, benzodiazep&#237;nicos, corticoides)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Abuso de &#225;lcool e outras drogas</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Depress&#227;o durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mult&#237;paras (&#8805; 3 partos )</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Estresse grave durante a gravidez</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Abuso sexual atual ou anterior</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Insatisfa&#231;&#227;o conjugal ou do parceiro</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Complica&#231;&#245;es referentes ao parto ou ao rec&#233;m-nascido</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Sentimentos mistos sobre a gravidez (planejada ou n&#227;o)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Falta de apoio emocional do c&#244;njuge, parceiro, fam&#237;lia/amigos</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>FATORES DE PROTE&#199;&#195;O</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Maior escolaridade materna e paterna</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Presen&#231;a do c&#244;njuge ou companheiro</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Apoio do pai da crian&#231;a e da fam&#237;lia durante a gravidez</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Sintomas observados</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Humor deprimido;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Perda de interesse ou prazer pelas atividades habituais;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Ins&#244;nia ou hipersonia;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Perda ou ganho de peso significativo (&gt; 5% /m&#234;s), diminui&#231;&#227;o ou aumento do apetite</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Retardo psicomotor ou agita&#231;&#227;o</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Fadiga e baixa estima;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Diminui&#231;&#227;o da capacidade de concentra&#231;&#227;o ou tomar decis&#245;es</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Pensamentos de inutilidade ou culpa excessiva ou inadequada</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Pensamentos recorrentes de morte, ou idea&#231;&#227;o suicida, ou tentativa de suic&#237;dio</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mudan&#231;as no apetite e h&#225;bitos alimentares</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Fadiga extrema, Ins&#244;nia</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Mudan&#231;as de humor (irritabilidade, raiva e tristeza)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Falta de interesse em atividades prazerosas ou favoritas</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Baixa estima ou capacidade de concentra&#231;&#227;o</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Isolamento social, incluindo o beb&#234;, associado a sentimento de culpa/vergonha</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Sentimentos de tristeza, inquieta&#231;&#227;o, ansiedade ou desesperan&#231;a</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Queixas persistentes (dor de cabe&#231;a, estomago ou outras)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Pensamentos sobre ferir a si mesmo ou ao seu beb&#234; (idea&#231;&#227;o suicida/homicida)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Ferramenta Diagn&#243;stica</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Question&#225;rio de Sa&#250;de do Paciente de 2 Perguntas (PHQ-2).</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Question&#225;rio de Sa&#250;de do Paciente de 9 Perguntas (PHQ-9).</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Escala de Depress&#227;o P&#243;s-natal de Edimburgo (EPDS).</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Tratamento</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Psicoterapia (terapia cognitivo-comportamental; terapia interpessoal; grupos de suporte);</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Antidepressivos: inibidores seletivos da recapta&#231;&#227;o de serotonina; inibidores da recapta&#231;&#227;o da serotonina /norepinefrina (exceto fluoxetina e paroxetina, que inibem o efeito do tamoxifeno, n&#227;o devendo ser usados em pacientes com c&#226;ncer de mama); inibidores seletivos da recapta&#231;&#227;o da norepinefrina/dopamina; antagonistas do receptor alfa-1; moduladores da serotonina.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Antidepressivos tric&#237;clicos devem ser evitados em pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular estrutural pelos seus efeitos na condu&#231;&#227;o do est&#237;mulo card&#237;aco.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Eletroconvulsoterapia (depress&#227;o grave)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Orienta&#231;&#227;o para a busca de fatores psicol&#243;gicos positivos</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Psicoterapia (terapia cognitivo-comportamental; terapia interpessoal; grupos de suporte).</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Antidepressivos: inibidores seletivos da recapta&#231;&#227;o de serotonina no tratamento inicial (sertralina &#233; a droga preferencial, por sua baixa concentra&#231;&#227;o no leite materno);</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Outras drogas indicadas: paroxetina, duloxetina, nortriptilina e imipramina;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Antidepressivos tric&#237;clicos podem ser considerados o tratamento de primeira escolha, caso haja hist&#243;ria de tratamento pr&#233;vio com sucesso e n&#227;o existam contraindica&#231;&#245;es para seu uso, como a probabilidade de suic&#237;dio; doxepina &#233; contraindicada (depress&#227;o respirat&#243;ria; seda&#231;&#227;o; hipotonia)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Brexanolona IV em casos graves (dispon&#237;vel nos EUA)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Outras terapias (yoga; massagens; t&#233;cnicas de relaxamento; medita&#231;&#227;o)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Eletroconvulsoterapia (depress&#227;o grave, com alucina&#231;&#245;es, ilus&#245;es, pensamentos suicidas)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>A lacta&#231;&#227;o deve ser incentivada pelos benef&#237;cios na rela&#231;&#227;o m&#227;e e filho; devem ser discutidos os riscos do tratamento para o beb&#234; e os riscos para a din&#226;mica familiar de n&#227;o tratar a depress&#227;o.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">Progn&#243;stico</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>O n&#227;o reconhecimento/tratamento da depress&#227;o pode causar:</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>a) impacto negativo no reconhecimento e controle dos fatores de riscos da doen&#231;a cardiovascular;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>b) aumento na incid&#234;ncia de eventos agudos</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="top">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>O n&#227;o reconhecimento/tratamento da depress&#227;o puerperal pode causar:</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>a) aumento do risco de suic&#237;dio e infantic&#237;dio;</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>b) ruptura do v&#237;nculo m&#227;e-filho, com danos f&#237;sicos/emocionais de impacto negativo no crescimento e desenvolvimento da crian&#231;a (tend&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade; dificuldades nas intera&#231;&#245;es sociais)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A depress&#227;o puerperal prejudica a qualidade de vida, fragiliza o v&#237;nculo materno-infantil, favorece a disc&#243;rdia conjugal e motiva o infantic&#237;dio, al&#233;m do suic&#237;dio materno. Nesse aspecto, o fato mais alarmante &#233; que a depress&#227;o puerperal &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o psiqui&#225;trica que aumenta em cinco vezes a tentativa de suic&#237;dio, e foi inclu&#237;da como a causa entre 30 e 50% das gestantes que se suicidaram.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> &#192; vista das raz&#245;es apresentadas, a perspic&#225;cia do profissional m&#233;dico no diagn&#243;stico da depress&#227;o na mulher, &#233; de extrema import&#226;ncia, vez que 10 a 20% das pacientes negam a doen&#231;a e omitem os sintomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Depress&#227;o e perimenopausa</title>
        <p>Ainda no ciclo biol&#243;gico da mulher, a perimenopausa &#233; uma janela de vulnerabilidade para o desenvolvimento da depress&#227;o, mesmo em mulheres sem hist&#243;rico da doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>Dentre os fatores de risco para a depress&#227;o na perimenopausa destacam-se aqueles relacionados &#224; sa&#250;de mental, em particular a ansiedade e transtornos depressivos anteriores, e outras condi&#231;&#245;es como a ra&#231;a negra, obesidade, eventos tr&#225;gicos no decorrer da vida e isolamento social.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Os &#8220;gatilhos&#8221; da depress&#227;o na perimenopausa encontram-se nas mudan&#231;as de carreira ou de relacionamento, na conscientiza&#231;&#227;o do envelhecimento, na transforma&#231;&#227;o da apar&#234;ncia f&#237;sica, doen&#231;a pessoal ou familiar, al&#233;m da conhecida s&#237;ndrome do &#8220;ninho vazio&#8221;.</p>
        <p>Os sintomas habituais da depress&#227;o s&#227;o superpostos aos espec&#237;ficos da menopausa, tais como as ondas de calor, suores noturnos, dist&#250;rbios do sono e da libido, e altera&#231;&#245;es cognitivas, que dificultam o diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a. Nesse sentido, a aplica&#231;&#227;o de question&#225;rios convencionais<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> ( <italic>Menopause Rating Scale</italic> MRS, <italic>Menopause Quality of Life Questionnaire-</italic> MENQOL, <italic>Greene Climacteric Scale, Utian Quality-of-Life Scale</italic> ) pode contribuir na interface de sintomas (menopausa, ansiedade e depress&#227;o), e direcionar para a abordagem segura e eficaz da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Depress&#227;o, COVID-19 e mulheres</title>
        <p>Uma an&#225;lise abrangente sobre a intera&#231;&#227;o entre g&#234;nero, depress&#227;o, DCV e COVID-19, destacou uma preval&#234;ncia combinada de 25% (95% IC: 18%-33%) de depress&#227;o na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, resultante dos efeitos da pandemia da COVID-19. Curiosamente, as mulheres parecem ter complica&#231;&#245;es menos graves em curto prazo, quando comparadas aos homens, por&#233;m sofrem de complica&#231;&#245;es maiores da COVID-19 ao longo do tempo, incluindo a depress&#227;o e piora nos h&#225;bitos de vida, aumentando o risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O sexo feminino tem sido o destaque significativo para a piora do estado de sa&#250;de mental e sintomas de depress&#227;o, provavelmente em raz&#227;o da maior preval&#234;ncia de transtornos depressivos e de ansiedade preexistentes, do estresse ambiental constante, e da viol&#234;ncia dom&#233;stica, que intensificaram durante a pandemia pela COVID-19. Al&#233;m do mais, as mulheres vivenciam situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse relacionadas ao per&#237;odo reprodutivo, tais como problemas de fertilidade, gravidez, aborto espont&#226;neo, depress&#227;o p&#243;s-parto e viol&#234;ncia por parceiro &#237;ntimo.</p>
        <p>Nesse cen&#225;rio, um estudo multic&#234;ntrico que teve o objetivo de avaliar a sa&#250;de mental de mulheres no per&#237;odo grav&#237;dico-puerperal, durante a pandemia da COVID-19, mostrou uma preval&#234;ncia de 15% de sintomas depressivos maiores entre 3.907 gestantes e de 13% entre 5.134 lactantes. Esse estudo destaca a import&#226;ncia de monitorar a condi&#231;&#227;o mental perinatal durante pandemias e outras crises sociais, para a salvaguarda da sa&#250;de materno-infantil.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da depress&#227;o nas mulheres</title>
        <p>A recomenda&#231;&#227;o usual para o diagn&#243;stico da depress&#227;o &#233; a aplica&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo conhecido como <italic>Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)-2</italic> , que inclui duas quest&#245;es e, diante da suspeita da doen&#231;a, utiliza-se o chamado <italic>Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)-9</italic> , que cont&#233;m nove quest&#245;es, para a confirma&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de ambos os m&#233;todos de investiga&#231;&#227;o da depress&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica tem demonstrado boa sensibilidade, especificidade e valor preditivo negativo. Ambos os m&#233;todos est&#227;o respectivamente dispon&#237;veis nos sites https://bit.ly/2VvPHIG (PHQ-2) e https://bit.ly/2PY3INz (PHQ-9).</p>
        <p>Para a investiga&#231;&#227;o da depress&#227;o puerperal recomenda-se a aplica&#231;&#227;o da Escala de Depress&#227;o P&#243;s-Natal de Edimburgo (EPDS), considerado bom m&#233;todo de triagem,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> que compreende um question&#225;rio com dez perguntas, pontuadas numa escala de risco, que classifica a doen&#231;a desde a forma leve &#224;quela de alta gravidade.</p>
        <p>No que diz respeito ao tratamento da depress&#227;o, o uso de antidepressivos melhora os sintomas da doen&#231;a,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> favorece a ader&#234;ncia &#224;s demais terap&#234;uticas e demonstra tend&#234;ncia na redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares maiores, no entanto, sem evid&#234;ncias na redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade geral ou cardiovascular. Os melhores resultados do tratamento s&#227;o potencializados com a psicoterapia, especialmente a terapia cognitivo-comportamental, e a pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ).</p>
        <p>Os inibidores seletivos de recapta&#231;&#227;o da serotonina (ISRS) s&#227;o os antidepressivos considerados como de primeira linha, inclusive no tratamento da depress&#227;o puerperal, destacando-se o uso da sertralina, nas mulheres lactantes, pela baixa concentra&#231;&#227;o no leite materno e boa efic&#225;cia no tratamento n&#227;o inferior ao tempo de 6 a 12 meses ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico. Nos casos moderados a graves, tem sido indicada a brexanolona, recentemente aprovada pela <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (FDA) como f&#225;rmaco bem tolerado, eficaz e espec&#237;fico para depress&#227;o puerperal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quanto aos efeitos do uso prolongado de antidepressivos, um estudo de coorte recente demonstrou que a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de ISRS ao longo de dez anos promoveu a redu&#231;&#227;o de 32% do risco de diabetes e de 23% de hipertens&#227;o arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> O estudo tamb&#233;m evidenciou aumento do risco de doen&#231;a coronariana e de mortalidade geral e cardiovascular, particularmente associados ao uso de outros antidepressivos (mirtazapina, venlafaxina, duloxetina, trazodona),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> chamando a aten&#231;&#227;o para o fato de que algumas classes de antidepressivos podem oferecer melhores benef&#237;cios que outras, no cuidado &#224; sa&#250;de cardiovascular.</p>
        <p>&#201; oportuno mencionar que a serotonina, conhecida como 5-hidroxitriptamina (5-HT), al&#233;m de neurotransmissor do sistema nervoso central, tamb&#233;m desempenha um papel significativo nos tecidos perif&#233;ricos. H&#225; crescentes ind&#237;cios sugerindo que a serotonina interfere nas respostas das c&#233;lulas imunes e, contribui para o desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a cardiovascular e outras doen&#231;as consequentes da hiperatividade do sistema imunol&#243;gico. Admite-se que a serotonina deflagra processos inflamat&#243;rios em condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas normais e intensifica o estado pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio em condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas que envolvem inflama&#231;&#227;o, como a aterosclerose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Por &#250;ltimo, &#233; importante refor&#231;ar que a busca de convic&#231;&#245;es psicol&#243;gicas positivas, tais como otimismo, senso de prop&#243;sito, afetos positivos, sentimentos de gratid&#227;o e resili&#234;ncia, e n&#227;o apenas o controle dos fatores negativos, determinam a redu&#231;&#227;o dos eventos agudos e o melhor controle dos fatores de riscos da DCV em mulheres que sofrem de depress&#227;o ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>As crescentes evid&#234;ncias estabelecem a depress&#227;o como um fator de risco modific&#225;vel para a DCV, e diante do reconhecimento da sua alta preval&#234;ncia entre as mulheres, &#233; imprescind&#237;vel que o aprimoramento da investiga&#231;&#227;o e o implemento de estrat&#233;gias efetivas de abordagem das distintas formas de depress&#227;o devam ser refor&#231;adas em diretrizes de preven&#231;&#227;o da DCV na mulher.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
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        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
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    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Research Letter</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Depression, Cardiovascular Disease, and Female Gender: An Underestimated Triad</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5686-7058</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Avila</surname>
            <given-names>Walkiria Samuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rivera</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Alayde Mendon&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rivera</surname>
            <given-names>Ivan Romero</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Alagoas &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina, Macei&#243;, AL &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Walkiria Samuel Avila &#8226; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Eneas Carvalho Aguiar, 44. Postal Code 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: walkiria@incor.usp.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Depression</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Female Gender</kwd>
        <kwd>Immune System</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System</kwd>
        <kwd>Renin Angiotrensin Aldosterone System</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Depression is a global disease affecting around 330 million people, corresponding to 4.4% of the global population, and is the second cause of incapacitation in the USA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>In Brazil, it is estimated that 5.8% of the population, 11 million people, suffer from this disease, placing the country first in Latin America and the second in the Americas considering the number of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>In addition, the data published by the National Health Survey (PNS) conducted in 2013 verified that 78.8% of Brazilian people with significant depressive symptoms were not receiving any treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Depression, women, and cardiovascular risk</title>
          <p>Women, since their teenage years, are twice as likely to develop depression compared to men; the early the disease appears, the more severe the prognosis. It is estimated that around 20 to 25% of women will suffer at least one depression episode throughout their lives, with a high rate of disease recurrence, which, in its turn, is related to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Within this scenario, the contemporary world highlights CVD as the main reason for death in both sexes, representing 56% of the mortality among women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>It is worth emphasizing that depression is frequently identified among CVD patients, besides evidence that depression and CVD present a bidirectional relationship, which means that they are predictive &#8220;among themselves,&#8221; and combined, they set off more severe cardiac events ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Pathophysiology of depression and cardiovascular disease.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-07-e20220858-20858-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>There is evidence that depression and CVD share a pathogenesis related to the immune system, with the hypothesis that the persistence of a chronic inflammatory state, with increased expression of inflammatory cytokines, acute-phase proteins, and adhesion molecules, when associated with the deregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and the serotonin-kynurenine<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>pathways contribute to the development of both diseases ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The reasons for the prevalence in the female gender are not yet clear; however, it is assumed that, beyond the genetical predisposition, biological, psychosocial, and family factors, there is a connection between depression and hormonal fluctuations, modulated by the levels of estrogen and progesterone, especially those inherent to the pregnancy and childbirth cycle and the menopause ( Figure1).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Puerperal depression</title>
          <p>In this context, it is worth highlighting the importance of post-partum depression, with a prevalence of around 20.5% in Brazil, which may be underestimated due to the lack of diagnosis and omission in notifications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup>A recent study should be mentioned, which demonstrated a higher proportion of myocardial infarction and cerebrovascular accidents among women who suffered post-partum depression, a theme that must be further studied to track a new predictor of cardiovascular risk in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The clinical condition of post-partum depression is no different from the classic conditions for the general population ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ), and it can begin during pregnancy or up to four weeks after childbirth.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>Among the symptoms, we highlight mood changes, loss of interest in life, changes in appetite and sleep, incapacity to focus, low self-esteem, and suicide/homicide thoughts. This scenario can progress to psychosis (agitation, confusion, delusions) and culminate with suicide.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Characteristics of female gender depression and puerperal depression</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                    <th align="left">Depression</th>
                    <th align="left">Post-partum depression</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Risk Factors</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Family history of depression</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Chronic diseases (multiple sclerosis, diabetes mellitus, cancer), Chronic pain, sleep changes</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Hormonal fluctuations (premenstrual, pregnancy, perimenopause)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Changes in the circadian rhythm</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Nutritional deficiency</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Stress, Loss, Mourning</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Medicines (anticonvulsants, benzodiazepine, corticosteroids)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Abuse of alcohol and other drugs</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Depression during pregnancy</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Multiparous women (&#8805; 3 births)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Severe stress during pregnancy</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Current or previous sexual abuse</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Marital or partner dissatisfaction</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Complications referring to the birth or the newborns</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Mixed feelings about the pregnancy (planned or not)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Lack of emotional support by the spouse, partner, family/friends</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>
                            <bold>PROTECTIVE FACTORS</bold>
                          </p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Higher maternal and paternal schooling</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Presence of spouse or partner</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Support from the child&#8217;s father and family during pregnancy</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Observed Symptoms</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Depressed mood; Lack of interest or pleasure in usual activities; Insomnia or hypersomnia;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Significant weight gain or loss (&gt; 5%/month), reduction or increase in appetite</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Psychomotor retardation or agitation</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Fatigue and low self-esteem; Reduction in the ability to focus or make decisions</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Thoughts of uselessness or excessive or inadequate guilt</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Recurring death or suicide thoughts, or attempt at suicide</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Changes in appetite and eating habits</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Extreme fatigue, Insomnia</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Mood changes (irritability, anger, and sadness)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Lack of interest in pleasant or favorite activities</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Low self-esteem or ability to focus</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Social isolation, including the baby, associated with feelings of guilt/shame</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Feelings of sadness, unrest, anxiety, or hopelessness</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Persistent complaints (headache, stomachache, or others)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Thoughts about hurting herself or the baby (suicidal/homicidal thoughts)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Diagnostic Tool</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2-Question Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-2)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>9-Question Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Treatment</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Psychotherapy (cognitive behavioral therapy; interpersonal therapy; support groups);</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Physical exercises</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Antidepressants: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors; serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (fluoxetine and paroxetine inhibit the effect of tamoxifen and should not be used in patients with breast cancer); selective norepinephrine/dopamine reuptake inhibitors; alpha-1 receptor antagonists; serotonin modulators. Tricyclic antidepressants must be avoided in patients with structural cardiovascular disease due to their effects on the conduction of cardiac stimuli.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Electroconvulsive therapy (severe depression)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Orientation for searching for positive psychological factors</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Psychotherapy (cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, support groups). Antidepressants: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the initial treatment (sertraline is the preferred drug due to its low concentration in mother&#8217;s milk);</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Other indicated drugs: paroxetine, duloxetine, nortriptyline, and imipramine;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Tricyclic antidepressants can be considered the first-choice treatment in case of a history of previous successful treatment and provided there are no counter-indications to its use, such as the probability of suicide; doxepin is counter-indicated (respiratory depression; sedation; hypotonia)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Brexanolone IV in severe cases (available in the USA)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Physical exercise</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Other therapies (yoga; massages; relaxation techniques; meditation)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Electroconvulsive therapy (severe depression, with hallucinations, illusions, and suicidal thoughts)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Lactation must be encouraged due to its benefits for the mother and child relationship; the risks of the treatment for the baby must be discussed, as well as the risks of not treating the depression for the family dynamics.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">Prognosis</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Failure to recognize/treat the depression can cause:</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>a) negative impact in recognizing and controlling cardiovascular risk factors</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>b) increased incidence of acute events</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="top">
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Failure to recognize/treat post-partum depression can cause:</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>a) increased the risk of suicide and infanticide;</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>b) rupture of the mother-child bond, with physical/emotional damages with negative impacts on the child&#8217;s growth and development (prone to obesity; difficulty in social interactions)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Post-partum depression harms the quality of life, weakens the mother-child bond, favors marital discord, and motivates infanticide, besides mother suicide. In this aspect, the most alarming fact is that post-partum depression is a psychiatric complication that increases by five times suicide attempts, and it was included as the cause among 30 to 50% of pregnant women who committed suicide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup>Given the reasons presented, the foresight of medical professionals in diagnosing depression in women is extremely important, once 10 to 20% of patients deny the disease and omit symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Perimenopause depression</title>
          <p>Still, in the women&#8217;s biological cycle, perimenopause is a vulnerable window for the development of depression, even among women who have no history of the disease. Among risk factors for depression in perimenopause, we highlight anxiety and previous depressive disorders, as well as other conditions, such as black race, obesity, tragic events throughout life, and social isolation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup>The depression &#8220;triggers&#8221; in perimenopause lie in career or relationship changes, awareness of aging, the transformation of physical features, and personal or family diseases, besides the known &#8220;empty nest&#8221; syndrome.</p>
          <p>The usual depression symptoms are overlapped with the ones specific to menopause, such as heat waves, night sweats, sleep and libido disorders, and cognitive changes, making it harder for the disease to be diagnosed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>In this sense, the application of conventional questionnaires (Menopause Rating Scale &#8211; MRS, Menopause Quality of Life Questionnaire &#8211; MENQOL, Greene Climacteric Scale, Utian Quality-of-Life Scale) can contribute to the interface of symptoms (menopause, anxiety, depression), and guide towards a safe and efficient approach to the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Depression, pandemic COVID-19, and gender female</title>
          <p>A comprehensive review of the interaction between gender, depression, CVD, and COVID-19 highlighted a combined 25% prevalence (95% CI: 18%-33%) of depression in the general population resulting from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Interestingly, women seem to have less severe complications in the short term when diagnosed than men but suffer from greater complications from COVID-19 over time, including depression and worsening lifestyle habits, increasing cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The female gender has been highlighted as a significant risk factor for worsening health status and symptoms of depression, probably due to the higher prevalence of depressive disorders and pre-existing anxiety, constant environmental stress, and domestic violence, which have intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, women experience stressful situations related to the reproductive period, such as fertility problems, pregnancy, miscarriage, post-partum depression, and intimate partner violence.</p>
          <p>A multicenter study that assessed the mental health status of pregnant and breastfeeding women during the COVID-19 pandemic showed a prevalence of 15% of major depressive symptoms among 3,907 pregnant women and 13% among 5,134 breastfeeding mothers. This study reinforced the importance of monitoring the perinatal mental condition during pandemics and other social crises to safeguard maternal and child health.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Depression, diagnosis, and treatment in women</title>
          <p>The usual recommendation to diagnose depression is the application of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)-2 method, which includes two questions and, given the suspicion of the disease, the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)-9, which contains nine questions, to confirm the diagnosis. The use of both depression investigation methods in clinical practice has shown good sensitivity, specificity, and negative predictive value. They are available at https://bit.ly/2VvPHIG (PHQ-2) and https://bit.ly/2PY3INz (PHQ-9).</p>
          <p>In the investigation of post-partum depression, it is recommended to apply the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), considered a good triage method,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>which is composed of a questionnaire with ten questions, scored in a risk scale, which classified the disease from light to high severity.</p>
          <p>Regarding the treatment of depression, the use of antidepressants improves the symptoms of the disease,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup>favors adherence to other therapies, and shows a tendency to reduce bigger cardiovascular events; however, with no evidence of the reduction of general or cardiovascular mortality. The best results of the treatment are potentialized with psychotherapy, especially cognitive behavioral therapy, and the practice of physical exercise ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ).</p>
          <p>Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are considered the first-line antidepressants, including in the treatment of post-partum depression, with a highlight on the use of sertraline, in lactating women, due to its low concentration in mother milk and good efficiency in the treatment not shorter than 6 to 12 months after the diagnosis. In moderate to severe cases, brexanolone is being indicated, which was recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a well-tolerated, efficient, and specific drug for post-partum depression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding the effects of the long-term use of antidepressants, a recent cohort study showed that using SSRIs for ten years was associated with a 32% reduction in the risk of diabetes and a 23% reduction in arterial hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup>The study also showed an increase in the risk of coronary disease and general/cardiovascular mortality, particularly associated with the use of other antidepressants (mirtazapine, venlafaxine, duloxetine, trazodone),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup>reinforcing that some classes of antidepressants may offer better benefits than others in health care cardiovascular.</p>
          <p>It is opportune to comment that serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and plays a significant role in peripheral tissues. Growing evidence suggests that serotonin interferes with immune cell responses and contributes to the development of cardiovascular disease and other diseases resulting from an immune hyperactivity system. It is assumed that serotonin triggers inflammatory processes under normal physiological conditions and intensifies the pro-inflammatory state in pathological conditions involving inflammation, such as atherosclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Finally, it is very important to reinforce that the search for positive psychological convictions, such as optimism, a sense of purpose, positive affections, feelings of gratitude, and resilience, and not only the control of negative factors, determines that reduction of acute events and the better control of CVD risk factors in depression patients ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>The growing evidence establishes depression as a modifiable risk factor for CVD. Given the recognition of its high prevalence among women, it is fundamental that the improvement of the investigation and implementation of effective strategies to approach the different types of depression must be reinforced in guidelines for CVD prevention in women.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
