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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">qB7BtKsHk6GnPrdV9DLq3gJ</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000600308</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00308</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220770</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Consumo de Frutose Altera Aminas Biog&#234;nicas Associadas a Fatores de Risco Cardiovasculares</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2910-4308</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Francisqueti-Ferron</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiane Valentini</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa,Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados,An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados,An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica,Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito,Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1656-405X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Belin</surname>
            <given-names>Matheus Ant&#244;nio Filiol</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Palacio</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago Luiz Novaga</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7089-3033</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferron</surname>
            <given-names>Artur Junio Togneri</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados,An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados,An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3670-243X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Garcia</surname>
            <given-names>J&#233;ssica Leite</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3172-2199</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Siqueira</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nakandakare-Maia</surname>
            <given-names>Erika Tiemi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Taynara Aparecida</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kano</surname>
            <given-names>Hugo Tadashi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreto</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Giuseppina Pace Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa,Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8493-5329</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Corr&#234;a</surname>
            <given-names>Camila Renata</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa,Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9922-2871</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Minatel</surname>
            <given-names>Igor Otavio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa,Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados,An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados,Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito,Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho C&#226;mpus de Botucatu Faculdade de Medicina, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Fabiane Valentini Francisqueti-Ferron &#8226; Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho C&#226;mpus de Botucatu Faculdade de Medicina &#8211; Av. Prof. Mario Rubens Guimar&#227;es Montenegro, s/n. CEP 18618-970, Botucatu, SP - Brasil E-mail: <email>fabiane_vf@yahoo.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>19</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220770</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o a principal causa de mortalidade do mundo, e um de seus fatores de risco s&#227;o os h&#225;bitos alimentares n&#227;o saud&#225;veis, tais como, o alto consumo de frutose. As aminas biog&#234;nicas (ABs) realizam fun&#231;&#245;es importantes no corpo humano. Entretanto, o efeito do consumo de frutose nos n&#237;veis das ABs ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claro, bem como a associa&#231;&#227;o entre estes e os fatores de risco da DCV.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo</title>
          <p> Este estudo teve o objetivo de estabelecer a associa&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de ABs e os fatores de risco de DCV em animais que consumiram frutose.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Ratos Wistar machos receberam ra&#231;&#227;o convencional (n=8) ou ra&#231;&#227;o convencional + frutose na &#225;gua de beber (30%) (n=8) durante 24 semanas. Ao final, foram analisados os par&#226;metros nutricionais e da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (SM) e os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos das ABs. Foi adotado um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> O consumo de frutose levou &#224; SM, reduziu os n&#237;veis de triptofano e 5-hidroxitriptofano e aumentou a histamina. Os n&#237;veis de triptofano, histamina e dopamina apresentaram correla&#231;&#227;o com par&#226;metros de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> O consumo de frutose altera as ABs associadas a fatores de risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Poliaminas</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome Metab&#243;lica</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="34"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <fig id="f01">
        <label>Figura Central</label>
        <caption>
          <title>: Consumo de Frutose Altera Aminas Biog&#234;nicas Associadas a Fatores de Risco Cardiovasculares</title>
        </caption>
        <attrib>O aumento do consumo de frutose leva a altera&#231;&#245;es em aminas biog&#234;nicas, que est&#227;o associadas a fatores de risco cardiovascular, tais como, diabetes tipo 2,hipertens&#227;o e dislipidemia.</attrib>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220770-20770-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    </p>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o a principal causa de morbidade e mortalidade tanto em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos quanto em desenvolvimento, e apresentam como principais fatores de risco dislipidemia, hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, obesidade abdominal, fatores psicossociais, consumo excessivo de &#225;lcool, falta de atividade f&#237;sica regular e h&#225;bitos alimentares pouco saud&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Um dos principais contribuintes para dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos associados a DCV &#233; a frutose, um a&#231;&#250;car simples naturalmente presente em frutas, vegetais e mel, que tem sido usado para ind&#250;strias aliment&#237;cias como ado&#231;ante desde a d&#233;cada de 1970. A literatura relata que o consumo cr&#244;nico e excessivo de produtos industrializados contendo frutose est&#225; associado a diversos dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> </sup> por mecanismos n&#227;o totalmente compreendidos.</p>
      <p>As aminas biog&#234;nicas (ABs) s&#227;o compostos nitrogenados quimicamente categorizados como monoaminas, diaminas e poliaminas, que podem ser obtidos a partir de alimentos, s&#237;ntese celular e/ou s&#237;ntese microbiana no intestino, e est&#227;o presentes em todos os organismos vivos, desde bact&#233;rias at&#233; seres humanos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Entre todas as ABs, as mais comuns presentes no tipo de c&#233;lula procari&#243;tica e eucari&#243;tica s&#227;o putrescina, espermidina e espermina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Embora a primeira descri&#231;&#227;o das ABs remonte ao s&#233;culo XVII, s&#243; foram alcan&#231;ados grandes avan&#231;os em seu metabolismo e fun&#231;&#245;es na segunda metade do s&#233;culo passado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>V&#225;rios experimentos mostraram que, devido &#224; sua natureza policati&#244;nica, as ABs podem se ligar a biomol&#233;culas carregadas negativamente como DNA, RNA, prote&#237;nas e fosfolip&#237;dios. Esse comportamento pode modificar os mecanismos celulares de tradu&#231;&#227;o, transcri&#231;&#227;o, transdu&#231;&#227;o de sinal, prolifera&#231;&#227;o e diferencia&#231;&#227;o celular, apoptose e resposta celular ao estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> </sup> Todas essas modifica&#231;&#245;es foram associadas a alguns dist&#250;rbios relacionados &#224; idade, incluindo Alzheimer, c&#226;ncer e DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas e relacionadas &#224; idade t&#234;m desequil&#237;brio inflamat&#243;rio e oxidativo envolvido em sua patog&#234;nese, e esses processos podem ser influenciados pelos efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios e antioxidantes exercidos por algumas ABs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> No entanto, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre ABs e DCV precisa ser elucidada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A participa&#231;&#227;o do consumo de frutose nas DCV j&#225; &#233; demonstrada pela literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> </sup> Entretanto, o efeito do consumo de frutose nos n&#237;veis das ABs ainda &#233; incerto, e sua associa&#231;&#227;o com fatores de risco para DCV precisa ser esclarecida. Assim, este estudo teve como objetivo estabelecer a associa&#231;&#227;o entre n&#237;veis de ABs e fatores de risco para DCV em animais que consumiram frutose.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
      <title>Materiais e m&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Protocolo experimental</title>
        <p>Todos os experimentos e procedimentos foram aprovados pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica Animal da Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (protocolo n&#250;mero 1065/2013) e realizados de acordo com o Guia do Instituto Nacional de Sa&#250;de para o Cuidado e Uso de Animais de Laborat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Ratos Wistar machos (8 semanas de idade) foram alojados em gaiolas individuais por 24 semanas com condi&#231;&#245;es ambientais controladas (22 &#176;C &#177; 3 &#176;C; ciclo claro-escuro de 12 horas e umidade relativa de 60 &#177; 5%). Os animais receberam ra&#231;&#227;o convencional (grupo controle, n=8 animais) ou ra&#231;&#227;o convencional + frutose na &#225;gua de beber (30%) (grupo frutose, n=8 animais) <italic>ad libitum</italic> . Os animais de cada grupo foram convenientemente alocados de forma a obter o mesmo peso corporal inicial entre os grupos. O tamanho da amostra foi calculado usando SigmaStat para Windows vers&#227;o 3.5 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, EUA) considerando as m&#233;dias de diferen&#231;a esperadas e desvio padr&#227;o esperado para fatores de risco de doen&#231;a cardiovascular (resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e dislipidemia), poder de teste de 90% e &#945; de 0,05. Portanto, o tamanho m&#237;nimo da amostra &#233; de 6 animais/grupo. Ao final do experimento, foram exclu&#237;dos deste estudo os animais dos grupos controle que desenvolveram altera&#231;&#245;es nos fatores de risco para DCV e os animais do grupo frutose que n&#227;o apresentaram altera&#231;&#245;es nesses par&#226;metros. Portanto, cada grupo permaneceu com 8 animais.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Par&#226;metros nutricionais</title>
        <p>Os par&#226;metros nutricionais inclu&#237;ram os seguintes: ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica, peso corporal final e &#237;ndice de adiposidade. A ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica foi determinada pela multiplica&#231;&#227;o do valor energ&#233;tico da dieta pelo consumo alimentar di&#225;rio (3,83 kcal x g consumido). A ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica para o grupo frutose tamb&#233;m considerou as calorias provenientes da &#225;gua (0,30 &#215; 4 &#215; mL consumidos). O peso corporal foi medido semanalmente. Ap&#243;s a eutan&#225;sia, os dep&#243;sitos de gordura visceral (LAV), epididimal (TAE), e retroperitoneal (RAT) foram usados para calcular o &#237;ndice de adiposidade (IA) pela seguinte f&#243;rmula: <inline-formula><mml:math><mml:mo stretchy="false">[</mml:mo><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">V</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">A</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">T</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">E</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">A</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">T</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">R</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">A</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">T</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mo>/</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">F</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">B</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">W</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">]</mml:mo><mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo><mml:mn>100</mml:mn></mml:math></inline-formula> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) foi realizada em ratos conscientes pelo m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo de manguito de cauda com um eletroesfigmoman&#244;metro NarcoBioSystems&#174; (International Biomedical, Austin, TX, EUA). Os animais foram mantidos em uma caixa de madeira (50 x 40 cm) entre 38&#8211;40 &#176;C por 4&#8211;5 minutos para estimular a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s esse procedimento, um manguito com sensor de pulso pneum&#225;tico foi fixado &#224; cauda de cada animal. O manguito foi inflado at&#233; a press&#227;o de 200 mmHg e, em seguida, esvaziado. Os valores da press&#227;o arterial foram registrados em um pol&#237;grafo Gould RS 3200 (Gould Instrumental Valley View, Ohio, EUA). A m&#233;dia de tr&#234;s leituras de press&#227;o foi registrada para cada animal.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise metab&#243;lica e hormonal plasm&#225;tica</title>
        <p>Ap&#243;s 12h de jejum, o sangue foi coletado e o plasma foi utilizado para as an&#225;lises seguintes. Um kit enzim&#225;tico-colorim&#233;trico foi usado para medir glicose e triglicer&#237;deos (Bioclin&#174;; Belo Horizonte) usando um sistema analisador enzim&#225;tico autom&#225;tico (Chemistry Analyzer BS-200, Mindray Medical International Limited, Shenzhen, China). O n&#237;vel de insulina foi medido usando o m&#233;todo de ensaio de imunoabsor&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica (ELISA) usando kits comerciais (EMD Millipore Corporation, Billerica, MA, EUA). O modelo homeost&#225;tico de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina (HOMA-IR) foi utilizado como &#237;ndice de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, calculado de acordo com a f&#243;rmula: <inline-formula><mml:math><mml:mi>HOMA</mml:mi><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mi>IR</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mi>glicose</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi>em</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi>jejum</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mi>mmol</mml:mi><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">L</mml:mi><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">x</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi>insulina</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi>em</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi>jejum</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mi>&#956;U</mml:mi><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mi>mL</mml:mi><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mn>22</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>5</mml:mn></mml:math></inline-formula> .</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>N&#237;veis de amino&#225;cidos e ABs por cromatografia l&#237;quida de alta efici&#234;ncia (HPLC) de fase reversa</title>
        <p>O plasma (200&#181;L) foi misturado com 800&#181;L de &#225;cido percl&#243;rico frio 5% (v/v). Depois disso, a mistura foi centrifugada a 3800 <italic>g</italic> (Hettich Zentrifugen, Mikro220R) por 20 min a 4&#176;C, e ao sobrenadante (200&#956;l) foram adicionados 400&#956;l de cloreto de dansila e 200&#956;l de carbonato de s&#243;dio saturado (2M). Ap&#243;s incuba&#231;&#227;o por 1h a 60&#176;C, 200&#956;l de prolina foram adicionados &#224; mistura e mantidos no escuro por 30 min em temperatura ambiente. A essa mistura foram adicionados 1000&#956;l de tolueno mal homogeneizado e o sobrenadante foi seco sob nitrog&#234;nio gasoso. As amostras foram ressuspensas em 0,5 mL de acetonitrila e 20&#181;L foram injetados no sistema HPLC (Dionex UltiMate 3000; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Alemanha) equipado com bomba quatern&#225;ria, amostrador autom&#225;tico 3000, detector de arranjo de diodos (DAD-3000) e um ACE C18 coluna (4,6&#215;250mm; 5um) a 25&#176;C. A an&#225;lise foi monitorada em 280 nm, e o pico de integra&#231;&#227;o e as calibra&#231;&#245;es foram realizadas entre 210 e 350 nm usando o software Chromeleon 7 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Alemanha). O gradiente do cromat&#243;grafo foi estabelecido para uma mistura de solventes (A) 100% de acetonitrila e (B) 50% de acetonitrila, como segue: 0&#8211;2 min, 40% A + 60% B; 2&#8211;4 min, 60% A + 40% B; 4&#8211;8 min, 65% A + 35% B; 8&#8211;12 min, 85% A + 15% B; 12&#8211;15 min, 95% A + 5% B; 15&#8211;21 min, 85% A + 15% B; 21&#8211;22 min, 75% A + 25% B; 22&#8211;25 min, 40% A + 60% B. A quantidade de cada AB e amino&#225;cido foi calculada comparando as &#225;reas dos picos com os padr&#245;es e a &#225;rea abaixo da curva obtida por meio de curvas de calibra&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>Os dados foram submetidos ao teste de normalidade de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. As vari&#225;veis param&#233;tricas foram comparadas pelo teste t de Student n&#227;o pareado e os resultados s&#227;o relatados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o. As vari&#225;veis n&#227;o param&#233;tricas foram comparadas pelo teste de Mann-Whitney e os resultados s&#227;o relatados como mediana (faixa interquartil (25-75)). A correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman foi utilizada para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre aminas biog&#234;nicas e fatores de risco para DCV. As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas usando Sigma Stat para Windows vers&#227;o 3.5 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, EUA). Um p valor &lt;0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>O peso corporal inicial foi semelhante entre os grupos (grupo controle= 258 &#177;16 g; grupo frutose= 257 &#177; 16g, p= 0,80). A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">figura 1</xref> mostra os par&#226;metros avaliados em ambos os grupos e associados a maior risco de DCV. &#201; poss&#237;vel notar que o grupo frutose apresentou n&#237;veis elevados de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, HOMA-IR e triglicer&#237;deos. N&#227;o foram observadas altera&#231;&#245;es na ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica, peso corporal final, &#237;ndice de adiposidade e glicose plasm&#225;tica.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Fatores de risco para DCV. A) Ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica (kcal/dia); B) Peso corporal final (g); C) &#205;ndice de adiposidade (%); D) Glicose (mg/dl); E) Modelo homeost&#225;tico de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina (HOMA-IR); F) Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (mmHg); G) N&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos (mg/dL). Compara&#231;&#227;o pelo teste T de Student (p&lt;0,05 como significativo).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220770-20770-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de amino&#225;cidos e ABs s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tabela 1</xref> . O consumo de frutose reduziu os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de triptofano e 5-hidroxitriptofano (5-HTP) e aumentou os n&#237;veis de histamina. N&#227;o foram observadas altera&#231;&#245;es para as demais ABs.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; N&#237;veis de amino&#225;cidos e aminas biog&#234;nicas</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th>Controle</th>
                <th>Frutose</th>
                <th>p valor</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Triptofano (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">25,5 (24,8, 26,3)</td>
                <td align="center">18,4 (16,7, 19,6)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,003*</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>5-HTP (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">120 (113 - 123)</td>
                <td align="center">82,0 (79,0, 88,1)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,002*</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Triptamina (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">200 (178 - 245)</td>
                <td align="center">192 (166 - 207)</td>
                <td align="center">0,996</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Agmatina (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">3,45 (2,66, 4,52)</td>
                <td align="center">3,28 (2,67, 4,04)</td>
                <td align="center">1,00</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Putrescina (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">343 (221 - 343)</td>
                <td align="center">257 (215 - 297)</td>
                <td align="center">0,310</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Histamina (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">5,00 (3,84, 6,32)</td>
                <td align="center">16,0 (16,0, 17,8)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0,001*</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tiramina (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">17,5 (16,0, 19,4)</td>
                <td align="center">21,8 (19,1, 26,3)</td>
                <td align="center">0,053</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Espermidina (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">8,99 (7,75, 11,0)</td>
                <td align="center">11,2 (10,5, 11,5)</td>
                <td align="center">0,143</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dopamina (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">2,30 (1,31, 2,34)</td>
                <td align="center">2,70 (2,54, 3,54)</td>
                <td align="center">0,132</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Espermina (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">1,10 (1,04, 1,27)</td>
                <td align="center">0,65 (0,59, 0,67)</td>
                <td align="center">0,052</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>Os dados foram expressos como mediana (faixa interquartil). Compara&#231;&#227;o pelo teste de Mann-Whitney (*p&lt;0,05 considerado significativo). Os valores em negrito representam diferen&#231;as estat&#237;sticas significativas entre os grupos de frutose e de controle. 5-HTP - 5-hidroxitriptofano</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> apresenta a correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman entre os amino&#225;cidos e ABs e os fatores de risco cardiovascular. &#201; poss&#237;vel verificar que os n&#237;veis de 5-HTP correlacionaram-se negativamente com insulina, HOMA-IR e triglicer&#237;deos. Os n&#237;veis de histamina foram positivamente correlacionados com insulina, HOMA-IR e triglicer&#237;deos. Os n&#237;veis de dopamina foram positivamente correlacionados ao HOMA-IR.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman entre as vari&#225;veis</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220770-20770-gt01.tif"/></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; TG: triglicer&#237;deos. Valores vermelhos indicam correla&#231;&#227;o positiva e valores azuis indicam correla&#231;&#227;o negativa. Quanto mais intensa a cor, maior a correla&#231;&#227;o. Os valores em negrito mostram os resultados significativos (p&lt;0,05). 5-HTP - 5-hidroxitriptofano.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>O objetivo deste estudo foi estabelecer a associa&#231;&#227;o entre ABs e os fatores de risco para DCV em animais que consumiram frutose. A frutose &#233; um a&#231;&#250;car comumente encontrado em frutas. No entanto, a ind&#250;stria tem utilizado o xarope de milho, rico em frutose, como ado&#231;ante para bebidas e alimentos, aumentando a ingest&#227;o desse a&#231;&#250;car pela popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O alto consumo de frutose pode levar ao aumento da obesidade e comorbidades relacionadas &#224; obesidade, como dislipidemia, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, hipertens&#227;o e diabetes mellitus tipo II, todos fatores de risco para DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> </sup> Dentro desse contexto, &#233; poss&#237;vel verificar que a ingest&#227;o de frutose foi capaz de induzir dislipidemia, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e hipertens&#227;o nos animais, confirmando os efeitos negativos de seu consumo. Al&#233;m disso, o grupo frutose apresentou diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de triptofano e 5HTP e aumento dos n&#237;veis de histamina.</p>
      <p>O triptofano &#233; um amino&#225;cido essencial para o ser humano envolvido em vias metab&#243;licas cruciais que resultam em v&#225;rios produtos finais, entre os quais as prote&#237;nas. O triptofano tem sido implicado em v&#225;rias doen&#231;as e condi&#231;&#245;es, incluindo DCV, devido ao seu papel fundamental como precursor de muitos metab&#243;litos bioativos. Tamb&#233;m foi demonstrado que o triptofano suprime os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de glicose e insulina e inibe a absor&#231;&#227;o de glicose no intestino, sugerindo que esse amino&#225;cido suprime a eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de glicose no sangue e reduz os efeitos adversos associados &#224; insulina plasm&#225;tica elevada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Algumas evid&#234;ncias indicam que o triptofano serve como fonte de nitrog&#234;nio para o crescimento de alguns microrganismos patog&#234;nicos no intestino, o que representa uma perturba&#231;&#227;o da microbiota intestinal. Essa condi&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m pode explicar os n&#237;veis reduzidos de triptofano no grupo da frutose. A disbiose intestinal tem sido associada a DCV, especialmente por alterar o metabolismo da glicose e lip&#237;dios e desencadear inflama&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O 5-HTP &#233; produzido a partir do triptofano pela triptofano hidroxilase (TPH) e sua descarboxila&#231;&#227;o produz a serotonina (5-hidroxitriptamina, 5-HT), um neurotransmissor monoam&#237;nico envolvido na modula&#231;&#227;o do humor, cogni&#231;&#227;o, recompensa, aprendizado, mem&#243;ria, sono e v&#225;rios outros processos fisiol&#243;gicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A serotonina intestinal tem diversas fun&#231;&#245;es em sistemas neuronais e n&#227;o neuronais, atuando como horm&#244;nio e mit&#243;geno, al&#233;m de neurotransmissor. A serotonina regula diversos processos fisiol&#243;gicos e patol&#243;gicos, que s&#227;o mediados por in&#250;meros receptores, destacando-se o 5-HT2B que se expressa em tecidos perif&#233;ricos como f&#237;gado, rim, cora&#231;&#227;o e est&#244;mago. Est&#225; associada &#224; fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, &#224; doen&#231;a card&#237;aca valvular, e &#224; morfog&#234;nese card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Entretanto, embora muitas fun&#231;&#245;es do 5-HPT ocorram nos tecidos, mais de 90% do 5-HTP corporal total s&#227;o produzidos no intestino. A serotonina &#233; liberada por c&#233;lulas e neur&#244;nios enterocromafins e &#233; regulada por meio do transportador de recapta&#231;&#227;o de serotonina (SERT), que est&#225; localizado nas c&#233;lulas epiteliais e nos neur&#244;nios do intestino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> No entanto, a literatura j&#225; relatou que alguns nutrientes, como a frutose, promovem danos &#224; barreira intestinal e comprometimento do SERT, levando &#224; transloca&#231;&#227;o de lipopolissacar&#237;deos (LPS). O comprometimento do SERT pode explicar os n&#237;veis mais baixos de 5-HTP nos animais que consumiram frutose. Al&#233;m disso, a transloca&#231;&#227;o do LPS est&#225; associada &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o, condi&#231;&#227;o que explica as altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas apresentadas pelo grupo frutose mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de obesidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> </sup> Outra explica&#231;&#227;o para n&#237;veis mais baixos de 5-HTP em baixos n&#237;veis de triptofano, uma vez que este amino&#225;cido &#233; substrato para sintetizar 5-HTP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A histamina &#233; uma amina de baixo peso molecular sintetizada a partir da L-histidina exclusivamente pela histidina descarboxilase e produzida por v&#225;rias c&#233;lulas em todo o corpo. Participa da regula&#231;&#227;o de muitas fun&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas, incluindo prolifera&#231;&#227;o e diferencia&#231;&#227;o celular, hematopoiese, desenvolvimento embrion&#225;rio e regenera&#231;&#227;o. No sistema nervoso central, afeta a cogni&#231;&#227;o e a mem&#243;ria, a regula&#231;&#227;o do ciclo do sono e da vig&#237;lia, a homeostase energ&#233;tica e end&#243;crina. A histamina &#233; um neurotransmissor bem conhecido envolvido em condi&#231;&#245;es al&#233;rgicas e fisiol&#243;gicas que podem regular as fun&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos aumentados de histamina foram significativamente correlacionados com os fatores de risco de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca observados no grupo da frutose. No entanto, faltam estudos que avaliem os n&#237;veis de ABs em indiv&#237;duos com comprometimento metab&#243;lico decorrente da ingest&#227;o de frutose. Outras ABs analisadas, como a putrescina e a tiramina, embora n&#227;o tenham apresentado correla&#231;&#227;o com fatores de risco card&#237;aco, poderiam estar potencializando a toxicidade da histamina ao interagir com as aminas oxidases e favorecer a absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal e diminuir a desintoxica&#231;&#227;o da histamina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> No entanto, o grupo frutose apresentou menores teores de triptofano, o que pode ser explicado pela rea&#231;&#227;o que pode ocorrer entre a frutose e prote&#237;nas e amino&#225;cidos como o triptofano, levando &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de um complexo frutose-triptofano que pode resultar na diminui&#231;&#227;o da qualidade da prote&#237;na devido &#224; perda de res&#237;duos de amino&#225;cidos e diminui&#231;&#227;o da digestibilidade da prote&#237;na.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora evid&#234;ncias substanciais tenham se acumulado sobre o metabolismo, receptores e transdu&#231;&#227;o de sinal da histamina, a complexa inter-rela&#231;&#227;o e interfer&#234;ncia da histamina e os efeitos fisiol&#243;gicos e patol&#243;gicos precisam ser esclarecidos. Em humanos, a histamina desencadeia sintomas agudos devido &#224; sua atividade muito r&#225;pida no endot&#233;lio vascular e nas c&#233;lulas br&#244;nquicas e musculares lisas, levando a sintomas como rinite aguda, broncoconstri&#231;&#227;o, c&#243;licas, diarreia ou vermelhid&#227;o cut&#226;nea e respostas exacerbadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> </sup> Apesar da alta variabilidade dos teores de ABs nos alimentos, a dieta ocidental moderna &#233; caracterizada por quantidades excessivas de frutose. Essas grandes quantidades sobrecarregam o transportador de frutose nas c&#233;lulas epiteliais intestinais, resultando em maiores quantidades de frutose n&#227;o completamente absorvidas pela mucosa intestinal ou ainda, intoler&#226;ncia &#224; frutose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> A intoler&#226;ncia &#224; frutose &#233; uma das condi&#231;&#245;es associadas a rea&#231;&#245;es adversas &#224; histamina, tamb&#233;m conhecida como intoler&#226;ncia &#224; histamina. &#201; uma condi&#231;&#227;o causada por um desequil&#237;brio entre a histamina liberada dos alimentos e a capacidade do organismo de degradar tal quantidade, levando a um aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de histamina no plasma e ao surgimento de rea&#231;&#245;es adversas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> </sup> Essa condi&#231;&#227;o de intoler&#226;ncia &#224; frutose pode explicar os altos n&#237;veis de histamina encontrados no plasma de animais que consumiram frutose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo</title>
        <p>A limita&#231;&#227;o deste estudo &#233; n&#227;o avaliar as vias pelas quais as aminas biog&#234;nicas est&#227;o associadas a DCV.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em conclus&#227;o, este estudo mostrou que o consumo de frutose leva &#224; resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, aumento da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e dislipidemia. Tamb&#233;m foi demonstrado que a ingest&#227;o de frutose alterou os n&#237;veis de aminas biog&#234;nicas, principalmente por aumentar a histamina e reduzir os n&#237;veis de triptofano e 5-hidroxitriptofano, e essas altera&#231;&#245;es podem estar associadas a fatores de risco para DCV.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <mixed-citation>1. Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd ed. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor &amp; Francis; 2011.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="book">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Benzie</surname>
              <given-names>IFF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Wachtel-Galor</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <role>editors</role>
          </person-group>
          <source> Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects </source>
          <edition>2nd</edition>
          <publisher-loc>Boca Raton (FL)</publisher-loc>
          <publisher-name>CRC Press/Taylor &amp; Francis</publisher-name>
          <year>2011</year>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
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        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
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      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
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          <subject>Original Article</subject>
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          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nakandakare-Maia</surname>
            <given-names>Erika Tiemi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Taynara Aparecida</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kano</surname>
            <given-names>Hugo Tadashi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreto</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Giuseppina Pace Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research,Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8493-5329</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Corr&#234;a</surname>
            <given-names>Camila Renata</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research,Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9922-2871</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Minatel</surname>
            <given-names>Igor Otavio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research,Acquisition of data,Analysis and interpretation of the data,Writing of the manuscript,Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho C&#226;mpus de Botucatu Faculdade de Medicina, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Fabiane Valentini Francisqueti-Ferron &#8226; Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho C&#226;mpus de Botucatu Faculdade de Medicina &#8211; Av. Prof. Mario Rubens Guimar&#227;es Montenegro, s/n. Postal Code 18618-970, Botucatu, SP - Brazil E-mail: fabiane_vf@yahoo.com.br</corresp>
        <fn id="fn1001">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the major cause of mortality worldwide, whose most prominent risk factor is unhealthy eating habits, such as high fructose intake. Biogenic amines (BAs) perform important functions in the human body. However, the effect of fructose consumption on BA levels is still unclear, as is the association between these and CVD risk factors.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p>This study aimed to establish the association between BA levels and CVD risk factors in animals that consumed fructose.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>Male Wistar rats received standard chow (n=8) or standard chow + fructose in drinking water (30%) (n=8) over a 24-week period. At the end of this period, the nutritional and metabolic syndrome (MS) parameters and plasmatic BA levels were analyzed. A 5% level of significance was adopted.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>Fructose consumption led to MS, reduced the levels of tryptophan and 5-hydroxitryptophan, and increased histamine. Tryptophan, histamine, and dopamine showed a correlation with metabolic syndrome parameters.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p>Fructose consumption alters BAs associated with CVD risk factors.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Polyamines</kwd>
        <kwd>Metabolic Syndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01001">
          <label>Central Illustration</label>
          <caption>
            <title>: Fructose Consumption Alters Biogenic Amines Associated with Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Increased fructose intake leads to changes in biogenic amines, which are associated with cardiovascular risk factors, such as type 2 Diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220770-20770-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the major cause of morbidity and mortality in both developed and developing countries, presenting the main risk factors of dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes, abdominal obesity, psychosocial factors, excessive alcohol consumption, the lack of regular physical activity, and unhealthy eating habits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>One of the major contributors to metabolic disorders associated with cardiovascular disease is fructose, a simple sugar naturally present in fruits, vegetables, and honey, which has been used for food industries as a sweetener since the 1970s. The literature reports that the chronic and excessive consumption of industrialized products containing fructose is associated with several metabolic disorders<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> </sup>by mechanisms that are not fully understood.</p>
        <p>Biogenic amines (BAs) are nitrogenous compounds chemically categorized as monoamines, diamines, and polyamines, which can be obtained from food, cell synthesis, and/or microbial synthesis in the gut, and are present in all living organisms from bacteria to humans.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>Among all BAs, the most common types, which appear in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types, are putrescine, spermidine, and spermine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>Although the first description of BAs dates back to the seventeenth century, major advances in their metabolism and functions were achieved only in the second part of the last century.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Several experiments have shown that, due to their polycationic nature, BAs can bind into negatively charged biomolecules, such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and phospholipids. This behavior can modify a cell&#8217;s mechanism of translation, transcription, signal transduction, cell proliferation and differentiation, apoptosis, and cell stress response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> </sup>All these modifications have been associated with some age-related disorders, including Alzheimer, cancer, and CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>Chronic and age-related diseases have an inflammatory and oxidative imbalance involved in their pathogenesis, and these processes may be influenced by the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects exerted for some BAs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup>However, the association between BAs and CVDs needs to be elucidated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The participation of fructose consumption in cardiovascular diseases has already been demonstrated by the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> </sup>However, the effect of fructose consumption on BA levels is still lacking, and its association with CVD risk factors needs to be clarified. Thus, this study aimed was to establish the association between BA levels and CVD risk factors in animals that consumed fructose.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
        <title>Material and methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Experimental Protocol</title>
          <p>All the experiments and procedures were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Botucatu Medical School (protocol number 1065/2013) and were performed in accordance with the National Institute of Health&#8217;s Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>Male Wistar rats (8 weeks old) were housed in individual cages for 24 weeks under environmentally controlled conditions (22 &#176;C &#177; 3 &#176;C; 12-h light-dark cycle and relative humidity of 60 &#177; 5%). Animals received standard chow (control group, n=8 animals) or standard chow + fructose in drinking water (30%) (fructose group, n=8 animals) <italic>ad libitum</italic> . Animals of each group were conveniently allocated in order to obtain the same initial body weight between the groups. The sample size was calculated by using SigmaStat for Windows Version 3.5 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) considering the means of expected difference and expected standard deviation for CVD risk factors (insulin resistance, systolic blood pressure, and dyslipidemia), a test power of 90%, and &#945; of 0.05. Therefore, the minimum sample size was 6 animals/ group. At the end of the experiment, animals from control groups that developed changes in CVD risk factors and animals from the fructose group that did not show changes in these parameters were excluded from this study. Thus, each group remained with 8 animals.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Nutritional Parameters</title>
          <p>The nutritional parameters included the following parameters: caloric intake, final body weight, and adiposity index. Caloric intake was determined by multiplying the energy value of diet by the daily food consumption (3.83 kcal x g consumed). The caloric intake for the fructose group also considered the calories from water (0.30 &#215; 4 &#215; mL consumed). Body weight was measured weekly. After euthanasia, the visceral (VAT), epididymal (EAT), and retroperitoneal (RAT) fat deposits were used to calculate the adiposity index (AI) by the following formula: <inline-formula><mml:math><mml:mo stretchy="false">[</mml:mo><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">V</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">A</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">T</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">E</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">A</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">T</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">R</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">A</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">T</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mo>/</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">F</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">B</mml:mi><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">W</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">]</mml:mo><mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo><mml:mn>100</mml:mn></mml:math></inline-formula> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Systolic blood pressure</title>
          <p>The evaluation of systolic blood pressure (SBP) was assessed in conscious rats by the non-invasive tail-cuff method with a NarcoBioSystems<sup>&#174;</sup>Electro-Sphygmomanometer (International Biomedical, Austin, TX, USA). The animals were kept in a wooden box (50 x 40 cm) between 38&#8211;40&#176;C for 4&#8211;5 minutes to stimulate arterial vasodilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup>After this procedure, a cuff with a pneumatic pulse sensor was attached to the tail of each animal. The cuff was inflated to 200 mmHg pressure and subsequently deflated. The blood pressure values were recorded on a Gould RS 3200 polygraph (Gould Instrumental Valley View, Ohio, USA). The average of three pressure readings was recorded for each animal.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Plasma metabolic and hormonal analysis</title>
          <p>After 12h of fasting, blood was collected and plasma was used for the following analysis. An enzymatic- colorimetric kit was used to measure glucose and triglycerides (Bioclin<sup>&#174;</sup>; Belo Horizonte) using an automatic enzymatic analyzer system (Chemistry Analyzer BS-200, Mindray Medical International Limited, Shenzhen, China). The insulin level was measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method using commercial kits (EMD Millipore Corporation, Billerica, MA, USA). The homeostatic model of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was used as an insulin resistance index, calculated according to the formula: <inline-formula><mml:math><mml:mi>HOMA</mml:mi><mml:mo>-</mml:mo><mml:mi>IR</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mi>fasting</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi>glucose</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mi>mmol</mml:mi><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">L</mml:mi><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">x</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi>fasting</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mi>insulin</mml:mi><mml:mo> </mml:mo><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mi>&#956;U</mml:mi><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mi>mL</mml:mi><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mo>)</mml:mo><mml:mo>/</mml:mo><mml:mn>22</mml:mn><mml:mo>.</mml:mo><mml:mn>5</mml:mn></mml:math></inline-formula> .</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Amino acids and BAs levels by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)</title>
          <p>The plasma (200&#181;L) was mixed with 800&#181;L of cold perchloric acid 5% (v/v). The mixture was then centrifuged at 3800 <italic>g</italic> (Hettich Zentrifugen, Mikro220R) for 20 min at 4&#176;C, and 400&#956;l of dansyl chloride and 200&#956;l of saturated sodium carbonate (2M) were added to the supernatant (200 &#956;l). After incubation for 1 h at 60&#176;C, 200&#956;l of proline was added to the mixture and maintained in the dark for 30 min at room temperature. To this mixture was added 1000&#956;l of toluene, strongly homogenated, and the supernatant was dried under gaseous nitrogen. The samples were resuspended in 0.5mL of acetonitrile and 20&#181;L were injected into the HPLC system (Dionex UltiMate 3000; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany) equipped with quaternary pump, automatic sampler 3000, diode array detector (DAD-3000), and an ACE C18 column (4.6 &#215; 250 mm; 5um) at 25&#176;C. The analysis was monitored at 280nm, and the integration peak and calibrations were realized between 210 and 350nm using Chromeleon 7 software (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany). The chromatograph gradient was set to a mixture of solvents, (A) 100% acetonitrile and (B) 50% acetonitrile, as follows: 0&#8211;2 min, 40% A + 60% B; 2&#8211;4 min, 60% A + 40% B; 4&#8211;8 min, 65% A + 35% B; 8&#8211;12 min, 85% A + 15% B; 12&#8211;15 min, 95% A + 5% B; 15&#8211;21 min, 85% A + 15% B; 21&#8211;22 min, 75% A + 25% B; 22&#8211;25 min, 40% A + 60% B. The amount of each BA and amino acid was calculated by comparing the peak areas with standards and the area under the curve (AUC) obtained through calibration curves.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>The data were submitted to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test. Parametric variables were compared by unpaired Student&#8217;s t-test, and the results are reported as mean &#177; standard deviation. Non-parametric variables were compared using the Mann-Whitney test, and the results were reported as median (interquartile range (25-75)). Spearman correlation was used to assess the association among biogenic amines and CVD risk factors. Statistical analyses were performed using Sigma Stat for Windows Version 3.5 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA). A p value &lt; 0.05 was considered statistically significant.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>Initial body was similar between the groups (control group= 258 &#177;16 g; fructose group= 257 &#177; 16g, p= 0.80). <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref> shows parameters assessed in both groups and associated with a higher risk for CVD. It is possible to note that the fructose group presented high systolic blood pressure, HOMA-IR, and triglyceride levels. No changes were observed in caloric intake, final body weight, adiposity index, and plasmatic glucose.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. A) Caloric intake (kcal/day); B) Final body weight (g); C) Adiposity index (%); D) Glucose (mg/dl); E) Homeostatic model of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR); F) Systolic blood pressure (mmHg); G) Triglyceride levels (mg/dL). Comparison conducted using the Student&#8217;s T test (p&lt;0.05 considered significant).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220770-20770-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Plasmatic levels of amino acids and BAs are presented in the <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> . The fructose consumption reduced the plasma levels of tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) and increased the levels of histamine. No changes were observed for the other BAs.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Plasma amino acids and biogenic amines levels</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>Control</th>
                  <th>Fructose</th>
                  <th>p value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tryptophan (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">25.5 (24.8 &#8211; 26.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">18.4 (16.7 - 19.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.003*</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>5-HTP (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">120 (113 - 123)</td>
                  <td align="center">82.0 (79.0 - 88.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.002*</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tryptamine (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">200 (178 - 245)</td>
                  <td align="center">192 (166 - 207)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.996</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Agmatine (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.45 (2.66 - 4.52)</td>
                  <td align="center">3.28 (2.67 - 4.04)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.00</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Putrescine (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">343 (221 - 343)</td>
                  <td align="center">257 (215 - 297)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.310</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Histamine (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.00 (3.84 - 6.32)</td>
                  <td align="center">16.0 (16.0 - 17.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&lt; 0.001*</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tyramine (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">17.5 (16.0 - 19.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">21.8 (19.1 - 26.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.053</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Spermidine (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">8.99 (7.75 - 11.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">11.2 (10.5 - 11.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.143</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dopamine (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.30 (1.31 - 2.34)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.70 (2.54 - 3.54)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.132</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Spermine (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.10 (1.04 - 1.27)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.65 (0.59 - 0.67)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.052</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>Data are presented as median (interquartile range). Comparison conducted using the Mann-Whitney test (*p&lt;0.05 as significant). Bold values represent significative statistical differences between fructose and control groups. 5-HTP - 5-hydroxytryptophan.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> presents the Spearman Correlation among the amino acids and BAs and CVD risk factors. It is possible to verify that the levels of 5-HTP were negatively correlated with insulin, HOMA-IR and triglycerides. Histamine levels were positively correlated with insulin, HOMA-IR, and triglycerides. Dopamine levels were positively correlated with HOMA-IR.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Spearman correlation among the variables</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220770-20770-gt01-en.tif"/></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>SBP: systolic blood pressure; TG: triglycerides. Red values indicate positive correlation and blue values indicate negative correlation. The more intense the color, the greater the correlation. Bold values show the significant results (p&lt;0.05). 5-HTP - 5-hydroxytryptophan.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The aim of this study was to establish the association between BAs and CVD risk factors in animals that consumed fructose. Fructose is a sugar commonly found in fruits. However, the industry has used corn syrup, which is rich in fructose, as a sweetener for beverages and foods, increasing the intake of this sugar by the population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>High fructose consumption can lead to increased obesity and obesity-related comorbidities, such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus type II, all risk factors for CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> </sup>Within this context, it is possible to verify that the fructose intake was able to induce dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and hypertension in the animals, confirming the negative effects of its consumption. In addition, the fructose group showed decreased plasmatic levels of tryptophan and 5HTP, as well as increased levels of histamine.</p>
        <p>Tryptophan is an essential amino acid for humans involved in crucial metabolic pathways that results in various end-products, among them proteins. Tryptophan has been found in various diseases and conditions, including CVD, because of its key role as a precursor of many bioactive metabolites. It was also demonstrated that tryptophan suppresses both serum glucose and insulin levels and inhibits glucose absorption from the intestine, suggesting that this amino acid suppresses the elevation of blood glucose levels and reduces the adverse effects associated with high plasm insulin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup>Some evidence has indicated that tryptophan serves as a nitrogen source for the growth of some pathogenic microbes in the gut, which represents an intestinal microbiota perturbation. This condition may also explain the reduced tryptophan levels in the fructose group. Gut dysbiosis has been associated with CVD, especially by altering glucose and lipid metabolism and triggering inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>5-HTP is produced from tryptophan by tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), and its decarboxylation yields serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in the modulation of mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, sleep, and numerous other physiological processes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>Intestinal serotonin has diverse functions in neuronal and non-neuronal systems, by acting as a hormone and a mitogen, as well as a neurotransmitter. Serotonin regulates several physiological and pathological processes, which are mediated through numerous receptors, highlighting the 5- HT2B expressed in peripheral tissues including the liver, kidney, heart, and stomach. It is associated with cardiac function, valvular heart disease, and heart morphogenesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup>However, although many functions of 5-HTP occur in tissues, over 90% of the total body 5-HTP is produced in the gut. Serotonin is released by enterochromaffin cells and neurons, and is regulated via the serotonin re-uptake transporter (SERT), which is located on epithelial cells and neurons in the gut.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>However, the literature has already reported that some nutrients, such as fructose, promote damage to intestinal barriers and an impairment of SERT, leading to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) translocation. The impairment of SERT can explain the lower levels of 5-HTP in the animals that consumed fructose. Moreover, LPS translocation is associated with inflammation, a condition that explains the metabolic changes presented by the fructose group even in the absence of obesity,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> </sup>which is another explanation for lower 5-HTP levels in low levels of tryptophan, since this amino acid is a substrate used to synthesize 5-HTP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Histamine is a low-molecular-weight amine synthesized from L-histidine exclusively by histidine decarboxylase and produced by various cells throughout the body. It participates in the regulation of many physiological functions, including cell proliferation and differentiation, hematopoiesis, embryonic development, and regeneration. In the central nervous system, it affects cognition and memory, the regulation of the cycles of sleeping and waking, as well as energy and endocrine homeostasis. Histamine is a well-known neurotransmitter involved in allergic and physiological conditions that can regulate cardiovascular functions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>The increased plasm levels of histamine were significantly correlated with CVD risk factors observed in the fructose group. However, there is a lack of studies evaluating BA levels in individuals with metabolic impairment arising from fructose intake. Other analyzed BAs, such as putrescine and tyramine, although these have presented no correlation with cardiac risk factors, could be enhancing the histamine toxicity by interacting with amine oxidases, thus favoring intestinal absorption and decreasing histamine detoxification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>However, the fructose group presented lower levels of tryptophan, which can be explained by the reaction that can occurs between fructose and proteins and amino acids, such as tryptophan, leading to a fructose-tryptophan complex that can be formed, which results in a decrease in protein quality due to the loss of amino acid residues and decreased protein digestibility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although substantial evidence has accumulated on histamine metabolism, receptors, and signal transduction, the complex interrelationship and cross-talk by histamine and physiological and pathological effects needs to be clarified. In humans, histamine triggers acute symptoms due to its very rapid activity on vascular endothelium and bronchial and smooth muscle cells, leading to such symptoms as acute rhinitis, bronchoconstriction, cramping, diarrhea, or cutaneous weal and flare responses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> </sup>Despite the high variability of the BA content in foods, the modern Western diet is characterized by excessive amounts of fructose. These large quantities overload the fructose transporter on the intestinal epithelial cells, resulting in larger amounts of fructose not completely absorbed by the intestinal mucosa, or even fructose intolerance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup>Fructose intolerance is one of the conditions associated with adverse reactions to histamine, also known as histamine intolerance. It is a condition caused by an imbalance between the histamine released from food and the ability of the organism to degrade such an amount, leading to an increased concentration of histamine in plasma and the emergence of adverse reactions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> </sup>This condition of fructose intolerance can explain the high levels of histamine found in the plasma of animals that consumed fructose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Study limitations</title>
          <p>The limitation of this study is not evaluating the pathways by which biogenic amines are associated with cardiovascular diseases.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>In conclusion, this study showed that fructose consumption led to insulin resistance, increased systolic blood pressure and dyslipidemia. It was also demonstrated that the fructose intake altered biogenic amines levels, mainly by increasing histamine and reducing tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan levels, and these changes may be associated with CVD risk factors.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
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