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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">vY6DKHTnbDQjrfRkc7wWgHN</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000600304</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00304</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220671</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Valor Progn&#243;stico do Colesterol n&#227;o HDL na Pneumonia por COVID-19</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1998-361X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sivri</surname>
            <given-names>Fatih</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8134-9965</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>&#350;encan</surname>
            <given-names>Mehtap</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3756-8276</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>&#214;zt&#252;rk</surname>
            <given-names>&#350;erife Bar&#231;&#305;n</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7456-3610</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mara&#351;l&#305;</surname>
            <given-names>Ay&#351;e Sema</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0070-5281</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>&#304;&#231;en</surname>
            <given-names>Yahya Kemal</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4978-1955</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Akg&#252;ll&#252;</surname>
            <given-names>&#199;a&#287;da&#351;</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Dortyol State Hospital</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Hatay</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="TR">Turquia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Dortyol State Hospital, Hatay &#8211; Turquia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Adnan Menderes University</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ayd&#305;n</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="TR">Turquia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Adnan Menderes University, Ayd&#305;n &#8211; Turquia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Adana Health Practice and Research Center</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Adana</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="TR">Turquia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Adana Health Practice and Research Center, Adana &#8211; Turquia</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Fatih Sivri &#8226; Hatay D&#246;rtyol State Hospital , 31000, Hatay &#8211; Turquia E-mail: <email>fatih2014sivri@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220671</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2023</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> Al&#233;m da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, a lipoprote&#237;na de n&#227;o alta densidade (n&#227;o-HDL-C) fornece informa&#231;&#245;es preditivas de curto e longo prazo para muitas doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias cr&#244;nicas, como acidente vascular cerebral, hemodi&#225;lise, p&#243;s-transplante renal, hepatoesteatose n&#227;o alco&#243;lica e v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Este estudo examinou o valor preditivo do n&#227;o-HDL-C medido antes do SARS-CoV-2 para mortalidade na infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Este estudo incluiu retrospectivamente 1.435 pacientes diagnosticados com COVID-19 e tratados na enfermaria de doen&#231;as tor&#225;cicas em um &#250;nico centro entre janeiro de 2020 e junho de 2022. Todos os pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo apresentavam caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e radiol&#243;gicas e sinais de pneumonia por COVID-19. O diagn&#243;stico de COVID-19 de todos os pacientes foi confirmado por uma rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase estudada a partir de um swab orofar&#237;ngeo. A signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica foi estabelecida em p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Os pacientes do estudo, incluindo 1.435 indiv&#237;duos, foram divididos em 712 pacientes no grupo de n&#227;o sobreviventes e 723 no grupo de sobreviventes. Embora n&#227;o tenha havido diferen&#231;a entre os grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao sexo, houve uma diferen&#231;a de idade estatisticamente significativa. O grupo que n&#227;o sobreviveu era mais velho. Idade, lactato desidrogenase (LDH), prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR), triglicer&#237;deos, D-d&#237;mero e n&#227;o-HDL-C foram fatores de risco independentes para mortalidade em an&#225;lises de regress&#227;o. Na an&#225;lise de correla&#231;&#227;o, idade, PCR e LDH foram positivamente correlacionados com n&#227;o-HDL-C. Na an&#225;lise ROC, a sensibilidade para n&#227;o-HDL-C foi de 61,6% e a especificidade foi de 89,2%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> Acreditamos que o n&#237;vel de n&#227;o HDL-C estudado antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 pode ser usado como um biomarcador progn&#243;stico para a doen&#231;a.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Colesterol N&#227;o HDL/progn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Pneumonia/fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Mortalidade</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="42"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O COVID-19 tornou-se rapidamente uma pandemia global sem fim &#224; vista. Apesar de numerosos estudos recentes para explicar os mecanismos celulares da doen&#231;a, ainda existem quest&#245;es n&#227;o resolvidas. Pode levar &#224; s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo (SDRA), choque s&#233;ptico, fal&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os e at&#233; morte em pessoas com doen&#231;a leve ou assintom&#225;tica, especialmente em pacientes idosos com comorbidades. Al&#233;m da idade, sexo, comorbidades e tratamentos m&#233;dicos, v&#225;rios biomarcadores demonstraram ter valor preditivo para progn&#243;stico e mortalidade na doen&#231;a de COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora os lip&#237;dios sejam os blocos b&#225;sicos de constru&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas e organelas, eles desempenham um papel na absor&#231;&#227;o, prolifera&#231;&#227;o e transfer&#234;ncia de materiais virais ou bacterianos para outras c&#233;lulas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Ainda que os lip&#237;dios desempenhem um papel importante na penetra&#231;&#227;o e dissemina&#231;&#227;o da SARS- A infec&#231;&#227;o por CoV-2 em c&#233;lulas, estudos e meta-an&#225;lises geralmente investigaram as altera&#231;&#245;es lip&#237;dicas que ocorrem durante a infec&#231;&#227;o grave e o impacto dessas altera&#231;&#245;es no progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a e na mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na n&#227;o de alta densidade (n&#227;o-HDL-C) representa uma carga total de v&#225;rias lipoprote&#237;nas aterog&#234;nicas: LDL-C, VLDL-C, IDL-C, Lp(a), remanescente de VLDL e remanescente de quilom&#237;cron. &#201; considerado um melhor indicador do LDL-C, o alvo prim&#225;rio da aterosclerose. A principal vantagem do colesterol n&#227;o HDL sobre o colesterol LDL &#233; que ele cont&#233;m remanescentes de VLDL e quilom&#237;crons. Como o LDL-C, esses remanescentes de colesterol podem passar pela &#237;ntima vascular e causar aterosclerose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Meta-an&#225;lises demonstraram que a carga ateroscler&#243;tica do C n&#227;o-HDL &#233; melhor do que a do colesterol LDL, especialmente na hipertrigliceridemia leve a moderada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, muitos estudos de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria mostraram que o n&#227;o-HDL-C reflete melhor a aterosclerose do que o LDL-C, independentemente de fatores de risco, como idade, sexo e diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, acidente vascular cerebral, hemodi&#225;lise, transplante renal, hepatoesteatose n&#227;o alco&#243;lica e s&#237;ndrome da apneia obstrutiva do sono (SAOS), fornece informa&#231;&#245;es preditivas de curto e longo prazo para muitas doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias cr&#244;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o n&#227;o-HDL-C &#233; conhecido por prever a gravidade, comorbidade e mortalidade de v&#225;rias infec&#231;&#245;es virais. Um colesterol n&#227;o HDL alto &#233; um fator de risco independente para a r&#225;pida deteriora&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica em indiv&#237;duos infectados pelo v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana (HIV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Um estudo multic&#234;ntrico, prospectivo e observacional de Levy et al. encontraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre n&#227;o-HDL-C alto, baixa contagem de CD4 e alta carga viral em idosos infectados pelo HIV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Este estudo examinou o valor preditivo do n&#227;o-HDL-C medido antes do SARS-CoV-2 para mortalidade na infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Desenho do estudo e pacientes</title>
        <p>Este estudo avaliou 2.052 pacientes tratados com infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 em condi&#231;&#245;es hospitalares entre janeiro de 2020 e junho de 2022. Insufici&#234;ncia renal, neoplasias, doen&#231;a do tecido col&#225;geno e pacientes recebendo estatina e/ou terapia hipolipemiante foram exclu&#237;dos do estudo. Os n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos padr&#227;o (colesterol total (TC), lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C), LDL-C, triglicer&#237;deos (TG), n&#227;o-HDL-C) dos 1.435 dos 1.750 pacientes restantes ap&#243;s os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o, foram obtidos nos cinco anos (tempo m&#233;dio: 3,1 anos) anteriores &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19. O estudo foi um estudo observacional retrospectivo para o qual foi obtida a aprova&#231;&#227;o do comit&#234; de &#233;tica local. A sele&#231;&#227;o do grupo de estudo est&#225; resumida na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Valor Progn&#243;stico do Colesterol n&#227;o HDL na Pneumonia por COVID-19</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Diagrama mostra a sele&#231;&#227;o dos grupos de estudo.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220671-20671-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Todos os pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo apresentavam caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e radiol&#243;gicas e sinais de pneumonia por COVID-19. O diagn&#243;stico de COVID-19 foi confirmado por rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) com swab orofar&#237;ngeo. Todos os pacientes foram minuciosamente avaliados para hipertens&#227;o (HT), diabetes mellitus (DM), tabagismo, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio, insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica (IRC), insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva (ICC), doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica (DPOC), evento cerebrovascular (ECV ).</p>
        <p>Primeiro segundo da expira&#231;&#227;o for&#231;ada (VEF1) / Capacidade vital for&#231;ada (FEVC) &lt; 70% ou VEF1 &lt; 70% ap&#243;s broncodilatador inalat&#243;rio foram aceitos como crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para DPOC. Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (FE) &lt; 35% foi considerada ICC por causas isqu&#234;micas ou n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas. Uma taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular inferior a 60 em tr&#234;s meses foi tomada como CRF. O diagn&#243;stico de HT foi feito se os pacientes estivessem recebendo tratamento anti-hipertensivo ou tivessem press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica superior a 140 mmHg e press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica superior a 90 mmHg em pelo menos tr&#234;s medi&#231;&#245;es. Pacientes em uso de medica&#231;&#227;o antidiab&#233;tica ou com pelo menos duas medi&#231;&#245;es de glicemia de jejum superiores a 126 mg/dl foram classificados como DM.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Exame ecocard&#305;ogr&#225;f&#305;co</title>
        <p>O exame ecocardiogr&#225;fico de todos os pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo foi realizado com o sistema de ultrassom card&#237;aco iE33 (Phillips Healthcare, Best, Holanda) e um sistema de sonda de 2,5-5 MHz. A FE foi medida com o m&#233;todo de Simpson modificado.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;l&#305;se laborator&#305;al</title>
        <p>Os valores basais hematol&#243;gicos e bioqu&#237;micos de todos os pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo foram recuperados do sistema eletr&#244;nico e registrados. Al&#233;m disso, os biomarcadores s&#233;ricos (D-d&#237;mero, lactato desidrogenase (LDH)) associados ao progn&#243;stico da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 foram determinados na hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o inicial. Antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, os n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos padr&#227;o dos pacientes, LDL-C, HDL-C, TC, n&#227;o-HDL-C e TG, foram escaneados e registrados. O n&#227;o-HDL-C foi medido subtraindo-se o valor de HDL-C do TC. O valor do LDL-C foi calculado de acordo com a f&#243;rmula de Friedewald.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>Os pacotes estat&#237;sticos IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (vers&#227;o 25.0) (NY, EUA) e Amos (vers&#227;o 24.0) (WA, EUA) foram usados para analisar os dados. O teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov avaliou se os dados tinham uma distribui&#231;&#227;o normal. Vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas s&#227;o apresentadas como m&#233;dia (desvio padr&#227;o) se a vari&#225;vel for param&#233;trica ou mediana (intervalo interquartil: Q1 a Q3) se a vari&#225;vel for distribu&#237;da como valores n&#227;o param&#233;tricos. As vari&#225;veis foram comparadas com valores independentes do teste t ou do teste de Mann-Whitney, dependendo do tipo de distribui&#231;&#227;o dos dados. Vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas s&#227;o apresentadas como n&#250;meros e porcentagens. Os testes qui-quadrado e exato de Fisher foram realizados para comparar vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas. A rela&#231;&#227;o entre as duas vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foi avaliada por meio do coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson e, quando as condi&#231;&#245;es para o teste param&#233;trico n&#227;o foram atendidas, foi calculado o coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman. Um n&#237;vel de p&lt;0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo. As vari&#225;veis para as quais o valor de p n&#227;o ajustado foi &lt;0,05 no modelo de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica foram identificadas como potenciais marcadores de risco e inclu&#237;das no modelo multivariado completo. Foram utilizadas an&#225;lises de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica multivariada de elimina&#231;&#227;o retr&#243;grada usando um teste de raz&#227;o de verossimilhan&#231;a para eliminar vari&#225;veis. A curva de caracter&#237;sticas operacionais do receptor foi usada para determinar a sensibilidade e especificidade do n&#227;o-HDL-C e o valor de corte ideal para prever a mortalidade por COVID-19.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Os dados sociodemogr&#225;ficos de 1.435 pacientes, incluindo aqueles que concordaram em participar do estudo, foram os seguintes: 712 pacientes foram a &#243;bito (grupo n&#227;o sobreviventes) e 723 pacientes receberam alta (grupo sobreviventes). Embora n&#227;o tenha havido diferen&#231;a entre os grupos sobreviventes e n&#227;o sobreviventes em rela&#231;&#227;o ao sexo, houve uma diferen&#231;a de idade estatisticamente significativa. O grupo que n&#227;o sobreviveu era mais velho. (Tabela 1-2)</p>
      <p>Quando os grupos foram avaliados quanto aos fatores de risco e doen&#231;as adicionais, n&#227;o foi encontrada diferen&#231;a no grupo n&#227;o sobrevivente em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo sobrevivente. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>)</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Compara&#231;&#227;o das caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes n&#227;o sobreviventes e sobreviventes</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="5" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th colspan="4">Grupo</th>
                <th rowspan="5">p</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="4">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2">N&#227;o sobreviventes (n=712)</th>
                <th colspan="2">Sobreviventes (n=723)</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="4" rowspan="1">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>n</th>
                <th>%</th>
                <th>n</th>
                <th>%</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">G&#234;nero</td>
                <td align="center">Masc.</td>
                <td align="center">437</td>
                <td align="center">61.4</td>
                <td align="center">432</td>
                <td align="center">59,8</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">0,529</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Fem.</td>
                <td align="center">275</td>
                <td align="center">38,6</td>
                <td align="center">291</td>
                <td align="center">40.2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">HT</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">204</td>
                <td align="center">28,7</td>
                <td align="center">273</td>
                <td align="center">37,8</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">0,558</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">508</td>
                <td align="center">71.3</td>
                <td align="center">450</td>
                <td align="center">62,2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">DM</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">430</td>
                <td align="center">60,4</td>
                <td align="center">446</td>
                <td align="center">61,7</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">0,615</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">282</td>
                <td align="center">39,6</td>
                <td align="center">277</td>
                <td align="center">38.3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">ECV</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">620</td>
                <td align="center">87.1</td>
                <td align="center">654</td>
                <td align="center">90,5</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">0,122</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">92</td>
                <td align="center">12.9</td>
                <td align="center">69</td>
                <td align="center">9.5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">ICC</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">466</td>
                <td align="center">65,4</td>
                <td align="center">503</td>
                <td align="center">69,6</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">0,255</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">246</td>
                <td align="center">34,6</td>
                <td align="center">220</td>
                <td align="center">30,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">DPOC</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">398</td>
                <td align="center">55,9</td>
                <td align="center">473</td>
                <td align="center">64,5</td>
                <td align="center" rowspan="2">0,435</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">314</td>
                <td align="center">44.1</td>
                <td align="center">250</td>
                <td align="center">35,5</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>Os valores s&#227;o mostrados em n&#250;mero e percentil. HT: hipertens&#227;o; DM: diabetes mellitus; ECV: evento cerebrovascular; ICC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica; DPOC: doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Ao comparar os grupos quanto aos valores laboratoriais, as plaquetas e o HDL-C foram maiores no grupo sobrevivente do que no grupo n&#227;o sobrevivente. LDH, prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR), gl&#243;bulo branco (WBC), d&#237;mero D, TG e n&#227;o-HDL-C foram estatisticamente maiores no grupo n&#227;o sobrevivente do que no grupo sobrevivente. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos quanto aos valores de s&#243;dio. No entanto, hiponatremia foi observada em ambos os grupos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>)</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Compara&#231;&#227;o dos par&#226;metros laboratoriais dos pacientes nos grupos n&#227;o sobreviventes e sobreviventes</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th colspan="2">Grupo</th>
                <th rowspan="3">p</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2">
                  <hr/>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>N&#227;o sobreviventes (n=712)</th>
                <th>Sobreviventes (n=723)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade</td>
                <td align="center">64,25&#177;35,2</td>
                <td align="center">50,14&#177;47,4</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Creatinina</td>
                <td align="center">1,0 (0,2-9,0)</td>
                <td align="center">1,0 (0,3-1,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,271</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDH</td>
                <td align="center">527,0 (47,0-6500,0)</td>
                <td align="center">263,0 (42,0-2500,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>S&#243;dio</td>
                <td align="center">132,0 (116,0-143,0)</td>
                <td align="center">131,0 (125,0-141,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,269</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pot&#225;ssio</td>
                <td align="center">4,0 (2,9-7,1)</td>
                <td align="center">4,0 (2,1-5,1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,276</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PCR</td>
                <td align="center">126,0 (2,3-400,0)</td>
                <td align="center">51,0 (0,2-423,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gl&#243;bulos brancos</td>
                <td align="center">11,8 (1,2-102,0)</td>
                <td align="center">9,5 (2,1-96,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HB</td>
                <td align="center">11,8 (5,8-17,8)</td>
                <td align="center">12,0 (3,5-18,6)</td>
                <td align="center">0,075</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PLT</td>
                <td align="center">208,0 (7,9-600,0)</td>
                <td align="center">243,0 (18,0-890,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>D-d&#237;mero</td>
                <td align="center">4,9 (0,1-136,0)</td>
                <td align="center">1,5 (0,1-29,1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Troponina</td>
                <td align="center">83,0 (0,0-4000,0)</td>
                <td align="center">50,0 (0,1-3750,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,095</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CT</td>
                <td align="center">200,0 (51,0-389,0)</td>
                <td align="center">200,0 (1,0-485,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,097</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDL-C</td>
                <td align="center">120 (9,0-231,0)</td>
                <td align="center">112,0 (18,0-293,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,809</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HDL-C</td>
                <td align="center">34,0 (3,0-120,0)</td>
                <td align="center">48,0 (10,0-144,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TG</td>
                <td align="center">156,0 (42,0-1222,0)</td>
                <td align="center">146,0 (90,0-2000,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,007</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o HDL-C</td>
                <td align="center">155,0 (15,0-361,0)</td>
                <td align="center">146,0 (98,0-451,9)</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>Os valores s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o, mediana e intervalo interquart&#237;lico. LDH: lactato desidrogenase; PCR: prote&#237;na C reativa; HB: hemoglobina PLT: plaquetas; CT: colesterol total; LDL-C: colesterol de baixa densidade; HDL-C: colesterol de alta densidade; TG: triacilglicerol; n&#227;o HDL-C: colesterol n&#227;o de alta densidade.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Idade, LDH, PCR, D-d&#237;mero, TG e n&#227;o-HDL-C foram considerados fatores de risco independentes para mortalidade em an&#225;lises de regress&#227;o univariadas e multivariadas. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>) Na an&#225;lise de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson e Spearman, idade, PCR e LDH foram positivamente correlacionados com n&#227;o-HDL-C. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref>) Na an&#225;lise ROC, a sensibilidade para n&#227;o-HDL-C foi de 61,6% e a especificidade foi 89,2%. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>)</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Impacto de diferentes vari&#225;veis no grupo de n&#227;o sobreviventes em an&#225;lises de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica univariada e multivariada</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th colspan="4">Univariado</th>
                <th colspan="4">Multivariada</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>OR</th>
                <th colspan="2">IC 95%</th>
                <th>p</th>
                <th>OR</th>
                <th colspan="2">IC 95%</th>
                <th>p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade</td>
                <td align="center">1,655</td>
                <td align="center">1,256</td>
                <td align="center">2,122</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">1,588</td>
                <td align="center">1,352</td>
                <td align="center">1,755</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDH</td>
                <td align="center">1,004</td>
                <td align="center">1,004</td>
                <td align="center">1,005</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">1,002</td>
                <td align="center">1,002</td>
                <td align="center">1,003</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PCR</td>
                <td align="center">1,010</td>
                <td align="center">1,009</td>
                <td align="center">1,012</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">1,004</td>
                <td align="center">1,002</td>
                <td align="center">1,006</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gl&#243;bulos brancos</td>
                <td align="center">1,057</td>
                <td align="center">1,039</td>
                <td align="center">1,076</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">0,965</td>
                <td align="center">0,928</td>
                <td align="center">1,003</td>
                <td align="center">0,072</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TG</td>
                <td align="center">1,001</td>
                <td align="center">1,000</td>
                <td align="center">1,002</td>
                <td align="center">0,032</td>
                <td align="center">1,005</td>
                <td align="center">1,002</td>
                <td align="center">1,010</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>D-d&#237;mero</td>
                <td align="center">1,259</td>
                <td align="center">1,214</td>
                <td align="center">1,306</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">1,131</td>
                <td align="center">1,088</td>
                <td align="center">1,175</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N&#227;o HDL-C</td>
                <td align="center">1,004</td>
                <td align="center">1,002</td>
                <td align="center">1,006</td>
                <td align="center">0,000</td>
                <td align="center">1,005</td>
                <td align="center">1,002</td>
                <td align="center">1,008</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a; OR: raz&#227;o de chances; p: valor p; LDH: lactatodesidrogenase; PCR: Prote&#237;na C reativa; TG: triglicer&#237;deo; n&#227;o HDL-C: colesterol n&#227;o de alta densidade.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Correla&#231;&#227;o entre n&#227;o-HDL-C e biomarcadores s&#233;ricos</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="2" scope="col">N:712</th>
                <th scope="col">N&#227;o HDL-C</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" rowspan="2">Idade</td>
                <td>r</td>
                <td align="center">0,333</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">p</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">LDH</td>
                <td align="center">r</td>
                <td align="center">0,222</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">p</td>
                <td align="center">0,002</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td rowspan="2">PCR</td>
                <td align="center">r</td>
                <td align="center">0,235</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">p</td>
                <td align="center">0,025</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>LDH: lactato desidrogenase; PCR: Prote&#237;na C reativa.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise da curva ROC do colesterol n&#227;o HDL.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>AUC: &#225;rea sob a curva; IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a. Sensibilidade de 61,6%, especificidade de 89,2%, ponto de corte 150,4</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220671-20671-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nosso estudo &#233; o primeiro a investigar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre a infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-COV-2 e o n&#237;vel n&#227;o-HDL-C estudado antes da doen&#231;a COVID-19. A primeira descoberta deste estudo &#233; que o n&#237;vel de n&#227;o-HDL-C estudado antes da doen&#231;a COVID-19 &#233; um fator de risco independente para mortalidade. O segundo achado importante &#233; que o n&#237;vel de n&#227;o-HDL-C se correlaciona positivamente com a idade, PCR e LDH.</p>
      <p>Semelhante a estudos anteriores, nosso estudo identificou idade, TG, LDH, PCR e D-d&#237;mero como fatores de risco independentes para infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Aumento de comorbidade, fragilidade e dist&#250;rbios do sistema imunol&#243;gico que aumentam com a idade s&#227;o considerados fatores importantes para o progn&#243;stico da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> No estudo conduzido por Onder G et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> na It&#225;lia, a taxa de mortalidade em pacientes hospitalizados com infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 foi de 0,4% nos menores de 40 anos, 0,4% nos 50 anos, 3,5% nos 60 anos, 12,8% nos 70 anos e 20,2% naqueles com 80 anos ou mais.18 Embora nenhuma diferen&#231;a de g&#234;nero tenha sido observada entre os grupos em nosso estudo, foi observado em estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos que a gravidade e a mortalidade da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 s&#227;o maiores, especialmente em homens mais velhos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> No estudo epidemiol&#243;gico de Zou et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> a m&#233;dia de idade dos falecidos foi de 56 anos, sendo a maioria do sexo masculino (70%). aumento de mediadores oxidativos e inflamat&#243;rios (TNF-alfa, IL-1, IL-6) e disfun&#231;&#227;o do sistema imunol&#243;gico. Al&#233;m disso, estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos constataram que o grupo de pacientes do sexo masculino tem menor conhecimento da doen&#231;a e ades&#227;o ao tratamento. Quando consideradas as doen&#231;as concomitantes, verifica-se que o tabagismo &#233; mais prevalente no sexo masculino, e as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e respirat&#243;rias decorrentes causam alta mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A PCR resultante da libera&#231;&#227;o de IL-6 &#233; um fator de risco independente tanto para o progn&#243;stico quanto para a mortalidade da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Smilowitz et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> em seu estudo com 2.872 pacientes, constataram que o risco de tromboembolismo venoso aumentou 2,33 vezes, o risco de insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda 2,11 vezes e risco de mortalidade 2,59 vezes maior em pacientes com PCR elevada. A LDH &#233; uma enzima intracelular encontrada em quase todos os sistemas de &#243;rg&#227;os.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> N&#237;veis elevados de LDH foram observados em infec&#231;&#245;es por COVID-19, aumentando a gravidade da doen&#231;a em 6 vezes e a mortalidade em 16 vezes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> O d&#237;mero D &#233; um importante biomarcador da coagula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea e fibrin&#243;lise que aumenta significativamente na coagula&#231;&#227;o intravascular disseminada (CIVD). Estudos demonstraram uma estreita associa&#231;&#227;o entre D-d&#237;meros e a gravidade e mortalidade da doen&#231;a. No estudo de Zhang L. et al. em pacientes tratados no hospital, a mortalidade foi maior em pacientes com d&#237;mero D &gt; 2&#181;g/mL com sensibilidade de 92% e especificidade de 83,3%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Embora n&#227;o tenha havido diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica nos valores de s&#243;dio entre os grupos em nosso estudo, leve hiponatremia foi detectada em ambos os grupos. Em uma metan&#225;lise de 23 estudos sobre infec&#231;&#245;es por COVID-19, a hiponatremia foi observada em 25,8% de 38.753 pacientes e foi mais comum em pacientes tratados em hospitais e unidades de terapia intensiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup>Habas et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> relataram que a hiponatremia &#233; muito comum em pacientes com infiltra&#231;&#227;o pulmonar radiol&#243;gica e que a gravidade da doen&#231;a &#233; diretamente proporcional &#224; profundidade da hiponatremia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Acreditamos que a raz&#227;o para a hiponatremia observada em ambos os grupos em nosso estudo seja a popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes. Basicamente, assumiu-se que todos os pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo apresentavam infiltra&#231;&#227;o pulmonar radiol&#243;gica e foram tratados em condi&#231;&#245;es hospitalares.</p>
      <p>Embora o n&#227;o-HDL-C mostre uma carga aterog&#234;nica em estudos recentes, demonstrou ter valor preditivo e progn&#243;stico para muitas doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas inflamat&#243;rias, como a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, a hepatoesteatose n&#227;o alco&#243;lica, SAOS, HIV e hepatite B (HBV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O processo inflamat&#243;rio come&#231;a com a forma&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos carregados de lip&#237;dios pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios (foam) passando pela camada endotelial vascular de n&#227;o-HDL-C. Isso leva &#224; peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica e &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres de oxig&#234;nio. Esses produtos formados ativam fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o semelhantes ao fator nuclear (NF) &#954;B e causam a libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias (TNF-alfa e IL-1B). Esses mecanismos causam o in&#237;cio e a progress&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular. Numerosos estudos relataram que a eleva&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica ateroscler&#243;tica desencadeia inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e local.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Em um estudo animal realizado por Busnelli et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> foi demonstrado que uma dieta hipercolesterol&#234;mica desencadeia inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica vascular e cr&#244;nica. Como resultado do estudo, al&#233;m de aumento de leuc&#243;citos, mon&#243;citos e linf&#243;citos plasm&#225;ticos em v&#225;rios sistemas, como f&#237;gado e tecido adiposo branco, aumento de macr&#243;fagos e linf&#243;citos de c&#233;lulas T, bem como aumento de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias (TNF-alfa, IL-1B , IL-6), foram observados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Wang et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> relataram que o n&#227;o-HDL-C &#233; um marcador precoce de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial vascular em pacientes com DM tipo 2 e se correlaciona com a PCR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Prado et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> mostraram em seu estudo que o n&#227;o-HDL-C &#233; um melhor indicador de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a e controle glic&#234;mico do que a PCR em adolescentes e crian&#231;as com DM tipo 1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> No estudo animal conduzido por Poledne et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> foi encontrada uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre o desenvolvimento de macr&#243;fagos pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios (CD14-16-36) no tecido adiposo visceral, que forma a base para o desenvolvimento da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e aterosclerose, e n&#227;o-HDL-C.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Cippollene et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> descobriram que o n&#227;o-HDL-C era maior em pacientes que desenvolveram reestenose ap&#243;s angioplastia coron&#225;ria transluminal percut&#226;nea, e houve correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre reestenose e IL-1B e PCR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> No estudo de Karasek et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> foi observada correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre n&#227;o HDL-C e os marcadores inflamat&#243;rios PCR, pept&#237;deo C e PAI ( inibidor da ativa&#231;&#227;o do plasminog&#234;nio).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> De acordo com os resultados de um estudo de acompanhamento de 4 anos em pacientes cr&#244;nicos com HBV, Joo et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> relataram que n&#227;o-HDL-C foi 0,69 vezes maior em pacientes HBsAg-positivos do que em pacientes negativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora nenhum estudo direto examine a rela&#231;&#227;o entre sepse e n&#227;o-HDL-C, os n&#237;veis de PCSK-9, que formam a base do metabolismo de n&#227;o-HDL-C, s&#227;o considerados marcadores importantes de sepse. A PCSK-9 &#233; uma serina protease sintetizada principalmente no f&#237;gado. Sua principal fun&#231;&#227;o &#233; degradar os receptores de LDL na superf&#237;cie do f&#237;gado. Al&#233;m disso, destr&#243;i o receptor da apolipoprote&#237;na E, receptor Toll-like, receptor VLDL e prote&#237;na relacionada ao LDL-1 (LDLR1), o que pode levar a um aumento anormal na concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de lipoprote&#237;nas e n&#237;veis de citocinas e trombose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Muitos estudos t&#234;m encontrado um aumento significativo nos n&#237;veis de PCSK-9 em pacientes com sepse e/ou choque s&#233;ptico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Walley et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> investigaram o efeito da perda de fun&#231;&#227;o (LOF) e ganho de fun&#231;&#227;o de PCSK-9 na mortalidade em humanos e camundongos em choque s&#233;ptico. Foi determinado que LOF no grupo humano reduziu a mortalidade no dia 28 (61% versus 71%). Al&#233;m disso, quando avaliado ap&#243;s 72 horas no grupo de camundongos, verificou-se que a forma&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias e endotoxinas foi menor no grupo com LOF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Boyd et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> mostraram n&#237;veis elevados de PCSK-9 durante a sepse e forma&#231;&#227;o aumentada de endotoxina bacteriana fortemente correlacionada com fal&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Embora n&#227;o haja informa&#231;&#245;es claras entre pneumonia por COVID-19 e PCSK-9, previu-se que a inibi&#231;&#227;o de PCSK-9 pode reduzir a infecciosidade viral, como demonstrado por v&#225;rias hip&#243;teses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
      <p>No estudo de Mostaza et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> que examinou o efeito progn&#243;stico dos n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, foi encontrada uma associa&#231;&#227;o inversa entre um alto n&#237;vel de HDL-C e mortalidade em indiv&#237;duos mais velhos antes da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Este &#233; um status semelhante ao nosso estudo. Em outro estudo de Masana et al., foram examinados os n&#237;veis de lip&#237;dios s&#233;ricos de 1.305 pacientes. Ao final do estudo, embora a infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 fosse mais grave em pacientes com TG alto e HDL-C baixo, nenhum efeito progn&#243;stico do C-n&#227;o-HDL foi observado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Essa situa&#231;&#227;o est&#225; em contradi&#231;&#227;o com nosso estudo. Em nosso estudo, n&#237;veis elevados de n&#227;o-HDL-C, juntamente com n&#237;veis elevados de TG e baixo n&#237;vel de HDL-C, foram considerados um fator de risco independente para mortalidade. Suspeitamos que isso se deva &#224;s diferen&#231;as na popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes e no m&#233;todo de estudo entre os estudos. Em seu estudo, Masana et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> indicaram que IRC, c&#226;ncer e DM, considerados fatores de risco independentes para mortalidade na infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, foram altos no grupo de infec&#231;&#227;o grave. Al&#233;m disso, n&#237;veis n&#227;o-HDL-C e uso de estatina, que t&#234;m valor preditivo para mortalidade na infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, n&#227;o foram investigados entre os grupos. No entanto, nosso estudo n&#227;o incluiu pacientes em uso de estatinas ou pacientes com c&#226;ncer e IRC, que s&#227;o fatores de risco independentes para mortalidade na infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>As principais limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo s&#227;o as seguintes: &#233; baseado em um &#250;nico centro e desenho de estudo retrospectivo, o mecanismo exato dessa rela&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o p&#244;de ser elucidado com precis&#227;o e p&#244;de ter ocorrido vi&#233;s na sele&#231;&#227;o de grupos de controle. Al&#233;m disso, as altera&#231;&#245;es lip&#237;dicas durante a primeira interna&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes e ap&#243;s o tratamento n&#227;o puderam ser examinadas. Os tratamentos administrados para a infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 n&#227;o foram estudados. Os n&#237;veis de apolipoprote&#237;na B, que indicam carga aterog&#234;nica total em vez de n&#227;o-HDL-C, n&#227;o foram medidos. Outra limita&#231;&#227;o do estudo &#233; que o acompanhamento de curto e longo prazos n&#227;o foi realizado.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nosso estudo mostrou pela primeira vez que um n&#237;vel mais alto de n&#227;o-HDL-C antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 &#233; um fator de risco independente para mortalidade. Acreditamos que o n&#237;vel de n&#227;o HDL-C estudado antes da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 pode ser usado como um biomarcador progn&#243;stico para a doen&#231;a. Al&#233;m disso, acreditamos que pode nos ajudar a entender a fisiopatologia e desenvolver novas estrat&#233;gias de tratamento. Mais estudos prospectivos com grandes amostras s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para entender melhor a patog&#234;nese do COVID-19 e o valor diagn&#243;stico e terap&#234;utico do n&#227;o-HDL-C em pacientes com COVID-19.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica do Adnan Menderes University sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 2022/065. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Prognostic Value of Non-HDL Cholesterol in COVID-19 Pneumonia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1998-361X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sivri</surname>
            <given-names>Fatih</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Obtaining financing</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8134-9965</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>&#350;encan</surname>
            <given-names>Mehtap</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3756-8276</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>&#214;zt&#252;rk</surname>
            <given-names>&#350;erife Bar&#231;&#305;n</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7456-3610</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mara&#351;l&#305;</surname>
            <given-names>Ay&#351;e Sema</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0070-5281</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>&#304;&#231;en</surname>
            <given-names>Yahya Kemal</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4978-1955</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Akg&#252;ll&#252;</surname>
            <given-names>&#199;a&#287;da&#351;</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="TR">Turkey</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Dortyol State Hospital, Hatay &#8211; Turkey</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="TR">Turkey</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Adnan Menderes University, Ayd&#305;n &#8211; Turkey</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="TR">Turkey</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Adana Health Practice and Research Center, Adana &#8211; Turkey</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: Fatih Sivri &#8226; Hatay D&#246;rtyol State Hospital , 31000, Hatay &#8211; Turkey E-mail: fatih2014sivri@gmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> In addition to coronary artery disease, non-high-density lipoprotein(non-HDL-C) provides short and long-term predictive information for many chronic inflammatory diseases such as stroke, hemodialysis, post-renal transplant, non-alcoholic hepatosteatosis, and human immunodeficiency virus.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> This study examined the predictive value of non-HDL-C measured before SARS-CoV-2 for mortality in COVID-19 infection.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> This study retrospectively included 1435 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 and treated in the thoracic diseases ward in a single center between January 2020 and June 2022. All patients included in the study had clinical and radiological features and signs of COVID-19 pneumonia. The COVID-19 diagnosis of all patients was confirmed by a polymerase chain reaction studied from an oropharyngeal swab. Statistical significance was set at p &lt; 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> The study patients, including 1435 subjects, were divided into 712 patients in the non-surviving group and 723 in the surviving group. While there was no difference between the groups regarding gender, there was a statistically significant age difference. The non-surviving group was older. Age, lactate dehydrogenase(LDH), C reactive protein(CRP), triglycerides, D-dimer, and non-HDL-C were independent risk factors for mortality in regression analyses. In correlation analysis, age, CRP, and LDH were positively correlated with non-HDL-C. In the ROC analysis, sensitivity for non-HDL-C was 61.6%, and specificity was 89.2%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p> We believe that the non-HDL-C level studied before COVID-19 infection can be used as a prognostic biomarker for the disease.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>HDL-C/prognosis</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Pneumonia/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Mortality</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>COVID-19 has rapidly become a global pandemic with no end in sight. Despite numerous recent studies to explain the cellular mechanisms of the disease, there are still unresolved questions. It can lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), septic shock, multiorgan failure, and even death in persons with mild or asymptomatic disease, especially in elderly patients with comorbid diseases. In addition to age, gender, comorbid disease, and medical treatments, several biomarkers have been shown in studies to have predictive value for prognosis and mortality in COVID-19 disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although lipids are the basic building blocks of cells and organelles, they play a role in the uptake, proliferation, and transfer of viral or bacterial materials to other cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Although lipids play an important role in the penetration and spread of SARS-CoV-2 infection into cells, studies, and meta-analyses have generally investigated the lipid changes that occur during severe infection and the impact of these changes on disease prognosis and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) represents a total burden of several atherogenic lipoproteins: LDL-C, VLDL-C, IDL-C, Lp(a), VLDL remnant, and chylomicron remnant. It is considered a better indicator of LDL-C, the primary target of atherosclerosis. The main advantage of non-HDL cholesterol over LDL cholesterol is that it contains VLDL and chylomicron remnants. Like LDL-C, these remnants of cholesterols can pass through the vascular intima and cause atherosclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Meta-analyses have shown that the atherosclerotic burden of non-HDL-C is better than that of LDL cholesterol, especially in mild to moderate hypertriglyceridemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Also, many primary and secondary prevention studies have shown that non-HDL-C reflects atherosclerosis better than LDL-C, independent of risk factors such as age, gender, and diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In addition to coronary artery disease, stroke, hemodialysis, renal transplantation, non-alcoholic hepatosteatosis, and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS), it provides short- and long-term predictive information for many chronic inflammatory diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>Moreover, non-HDL-C is known to predict the severity, comorbidity, and mortality of several viral infections. A high non-HDL-C is an independent risk factor for the rapid deterioration of renal function and subclinical atherosclerosis in human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) infected individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A multicenter, prospective, observational study by Levy et al. found an association between a high non-HDL-C, low CD4 count, and high viral load in HIV-infected elderly individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This study examined the predictive value of non-HDL-C measured before SARS-CoV-2 for mortality in COVID-19 infection.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study design and patients</title>
          <p>This study evaluated 2052 patients treated with COVID-19 infection under hospital conditions between January 2020 and June 2022. Renal insufficiency, malignancies, collagen tissue disease, and patients receiving statin and/or lipid-lowering therapy were excluded from the study. Standard lipid levels (total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C), LDL-C, triglycerides (TG), non-HDL-C) of the 1,435 of the 1,750 patients remaining after the exclusion criteria were met were obtained in the five years (average time: 3.1 years) before COVID-19 infection. The study was a retrospective observational study for which approval was gathered from the local ethics committee. The selection of the study group is summarized in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">central illustration</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Central Illustration</label>
              <caption>
                <title>: Prognostic Value of Non-HDL Cholesterol in COVID-19 Pneumonia</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Diagram shows the selection of the study groups.</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220671-20671-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>All patients included in the study had clinical and radiological features and signs of COVID-19 pneumonia. The diagnosis of COVID-19 was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with an oropharyngeal swab. All patients were thoroughly evaluated for hypertension (HT), diabetes mellitus (DM), tobacco use, previous myocardial infarction, chronic renal failure (CRF), congestive heart failure (CHF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cerebrovascular event (CVE).</p>
          <p>First second of forced expiration (FEV1) / Forced vital capacity (FEVC) &lt; 70% or FEV1 &lt; 70% after inhaled bronchodilator were accepted as diagnostic criteria for COPD. Ejection fraction (EF) &lt; 35% was regarded as CHF due to ischemic or non-ischemic causes. A glomerular filtration rate of less than 60 over three months was taken as CRF. The diagnosis of HT was made if patients were receiving antihypertensive treatment or had a systolic blood pressure of more than 140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure of more than 90 mmHg on at least three measurements. Patients taking antidiabetic medication or having at least two fasting blood glucose measurements greater than 126 mg/dl were classified as DM.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Echocardiographic examination</title>
          <p>Echocardiographic examination of all patients included in the study was performed with the iE33 cardiac ultrasound system (Phillips Healthcare, Best, The Netherlands) and a 2.5-5-MHz probe system. The EF was measured with the modified Simpson method.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Laboratory analysis</title>
          <p>The baseline hematological and biochemical values of all patients enrolled in the study were retrieved from the electronic system and recorded. In addition, serum biomarkers (D-dimer, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)) associated with the prognosis of COVID-19 infection were determined at initial hospitalization. Before COVID-19 infection, patients&#8217; standard lipid levels, LDL-C, HDL-C, TC, non-HDL-C, and TG, were scanned and recorded. Non-HDL-C was measured by subtracting the HDL-C value from TC. The LDL-C value was calculated according to the Friedewald formula.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (version 25.0) (NY, USA) and Amos (version 24.0) (WA, USA) statistical packages were used to analyze the data. The Kolmogorov&#8211;Smirnov test assessed whether the data had a normal distribution. Continuous variables are presented as mean (standard deviation) if the variable is parametric or median (interquartile range: Q1 to Q3) if the variable is distributed as non-parametric values. Variables were compared with independent t-test or Mann&#8211;Whitney test values depending on the type of data distribution. Categorical variables are presented as numbers and percentages. The chi-square and Fisher&#8217;s exact tests were performed to compare categorical variables. The relationship between the two continuous variables was assessed using the Pearson correlation coefficient, and when the conditions for the parametric test were not met, the Spearman correlation coefficient was calculated. A p&lt;0.05 level was considered statistically significant. The variables for which the unadjusted <italic>p-</italic>value was &lt;0.05 in the logistic regression model were identified as potential risk markers and included in the full multivariate model. Backward elimination multivariate logistic regression analyses using a likelihood ratio test to eliminate variables were utilized. The receiver operating characteristics curve was used to determine the sensitivity and specificity of non-HDL-C and the optimal cutoff value for predicting COVID-19 mortality.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>The sociodemographic data of 1435 patients, including those who agreed to participate in the study, were as follows: 712 patients were deceased (non-surviving group), and 723 patients were discharged (surviving group). While there was no difference between the surviving and non-surviving groups regarding gender, there was a statistically significant age difference. The non-surviving group was older. (Table 1-2)</p>
        <p>When the groups were evaluated regarding risk factors and additional diseases, no difference was found in the non-surviving group than in the surviving group. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>)</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Comparison of patient clinical characteristics in the non-surviving and surviving groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="5" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th colspan="4">Group</th>
                  <th rowspan="5">p</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="4">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2">Non-surviving (n=712)</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Surviving (n=723)</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="4" rowspan="1">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>n</th>
                  <th>%</th>
                  <th>n</th>
                  <th>%</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">Gender</td>
                  <td align="center">Male</td>
                  <td align="center">437</td>
                  <td align="center">61.4</td>
                  <td align="center">432</td>
                  <td align="center">59.8</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">0.529</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Female</td>
                  <td align="center">275</td>
                  <td align="center">38.6</td>
                  <td align="center">291</td>
                  <td align="center">40.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">HT</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">204</td>
                  <td align="center">28.7</td>
                  <td align="center">273</td>
                  <td align="center">37,8</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">0.558</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">508</td>
                  <td align="center">71.3</td>
                  <td align="center">450</td>
                  <td align="center">62,2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">DM</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">430</td>
                  <td align="center">60.4</td>
                  <td align="center">446</td>
                  <td align="center">61.7</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">0.615</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">282</td>
                  <td align="center">39.6</td>
                  <td align="center">277</td>
                  <td align="center">38.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">CVE</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">620</td>
                  <td align="center">87.1</td>
                  <td align="center">654</td>
                  <td align="center">90.5</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">0.122</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">92</td>
                  <td align="center">12.9</td>
                  <td align="center">69</td>
                  <td align="center">9.5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">CHF</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">466</td>
                  <td align="center">65.4</td>
                  <td align="center">503</td>
                  <td align="center">69,6</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">0,255</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">246</td>
                  <td align="center">34.6</td>
                  <td align="center">220</td>
                  <td align="center">30,4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">COPD</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">398</td>
                  <td align="center">55.9</td>
                  <td align="center">473</td>
                  <td align="center">64,5</td>
                  <td align="center" rowspan="2">0.435</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">314</td>
                  <td align="center">44.1</td>
                  <td align="center">250</td>
                  <td align="center">35,5</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>Values are shown in number and percentile. HT: hypertension; DM: diabetes mellitus; CVE: cerebrovascular event; CHF: chronic heart failure; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>When comparing the groups regarding laboratory values, platelets and HDL-C were higher in the surviving group than in the non-surviving group. LDH, C reactive protein (CRP), white blood cell (WBC), D-dimer, TG, and non-HDL-C were statistically higher in the non-surviving group than in the surviving group. No statistically significant difference was found between the groups regarding sodium values. However, hyponatremia was observed in both groups (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>) Age, LDH, CRP, D-dimer, TG, and Non-HDL-C were found to be independent risk factors for mortality in univariate and multivariate regression analyses. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref>) In Pearson and Spearman correlation analysis, age, CRP, and LDH were positively correlated with non-HDL-C.(<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 4</xref>) In the ROC analysis, sensitivity for non-HDL-C was 61.6%, and specificity was 89.2%. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Comparison of patients&#8217; laboratory parameters in the non-surviving and surviving groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th colspan="2">Group</th>
                  <th rowspan="3">p</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Non-surviving(n=712)</th>
                  <th>Surviving (n=723)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age</td>
                  <td align="center">64.25&#177;35.2</td>
                  <td align="center">50.14&#177;47.4</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Creatinin</td>
                  <td align="center">1.0 (0.2-9.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.0 (0.3-1.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.271</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDH</td>
                  <td align="center">527.0 (47.0-6500.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">263.0 (42.0-2500.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sodium</td>
                  <td align="center">132.0 (116.0-143.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">131.0 (125.0-141.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.269</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Potassium</td>
                  <td align="center">4.0 (2.9-7.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">4.0 (2.1-5.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.276</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CRP</td>
                  <td align="center">126.0 (2.3-400.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">51.0 (0.2-423.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>WBC</td>
                  <td align="center">11.8 (1.2-102.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">9.5 (2.1-96.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HB</td>
                  <td align="center">11.8 (5.8-17.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">12.0 (3.5-18.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.075</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>PLT</td>
                  <td align="center">208.0 (7.9-600.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">243.0 (18.0-890.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>D-dimer</td>
                  <td align="center">4.9 (0.1-136.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.5 (0.1-29.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Troponin</td>
                  <td align="center">83.0 (0.0-4000.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">50.0 (0.1-3750.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.095</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TC</td>
                  <td align="center">200.0 (51.0-389.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">200.0 (1.0-485.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.097</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDL-C</td>
                  <td align="center">120 (9.0-231.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">112.0 (18.0-293.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.809</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HDL-C</td>
                  <td align="center">34.0 (3.0-120.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">48.0 (10.0-144.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TG</td>
                  <td align="center">156.0 (42.0-1222.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">146.0 (90.0-2000.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.007</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Non-HDL-C</td>
                  <td align="center">155.0 (15.0-361.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">146.0 (98.0-451.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>Values are shown as mean &#177; standard deviation, median and interquartile range. LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; CRP: C-reactive protein; WBC: White blood cell; HB: hemoglobin; PLT: platelets; TC: total cholesterol; LDL-C: low-density cholesterol; HDL-C: high-density cholesterol; TG: triacylglycerol; non-HDL-C: non-high density cholesterol.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Impact of different variables on the non-surviving group in univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th colspan="4">Univariate</th>
                  <th colspan="4">Multivariate</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>OR</th>
                  <th colspan="2">%95 CI</th>
                  <th>p</th>
                  <th>OR</th>
                  <th colspan="2">%95 CI</th>
                  <th>p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age</td>
                  <td align="center">1.655</td>
                  <td align="center">1.256</td>
                  <td align="center">2.122</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  <td align="center">1.588</td>
                  <td align="center">1.352</td>
                  <td align="center">1.755</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDH</td>
                  <td align="center">1.004</td>
                  <td align="center">1.004</td>
                  <td align="center">1.005</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  <td align="center">1.002</td>
                  <td align="center">1.002</td>
                  <td align="center">1.003</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CRP</td>
                  <td align="center">1.010</td>
                  <td align="center">1.009</td>
                  <td align="center">1.012</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  <td align="center">1.004</td>
                  <td align="center">1.002</td>
                  <td align="center">1.006</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>WBC</td>
                  <td align="center">1.057</td>
                  <td align="center">1.039</td>
                  <td align="center">1.076</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  <td align="center">0.965</td>
                  <td align="center">0.928</td>
                  <td align="center">1.003</td>
                  <td align="center">0.072</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TG</td>
                  <td align="center">1.001</td>
                  <td align="center">1.000</td>
                  <td align="center">1.002</td>
                  <td align="center">0.032</td>
                  <td align="center">1.005</td>
                  <td align="center">1.002</td>
                  <td align="center">1.010</td>
                  <td align="center">0.03</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>D-dimer</td>
                  <td align="center">1.259</td>
                  <td align="center">1.214</td>
                  <td align="center">1.306</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  <td align="center">1.131</td>
                  <td align="center">1.088</td>
                  <td align="center">1.175</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>non-HDL-C</td>
                  <td align="center">1.004</td>
                  <td align="center">1.002</td>
                  <td align="center">1.006</td>
                  <td align="center">0.000</td>
                  <td align="center">1.005</td>
                  <td align="center">1.002</td>
                  <td align="center">1.008</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>CI: confidence interval; OR: odds ratio; p: p-value, LDH: lactatedehydrogenase, CRP: C-Reactive Protein; WBC: white blood cell; TG: triglyceride; non-HDL-C:non-high-density cholesterol.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4001">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Correlation between non-HDL-C and serum biomarkers</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" scope="col">N:712</th>
                  <th scope="col">N&#227;o HDL-C</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" rowspan="2">Idade</td>
                  <td align="center">r</td>
                  <td align="center">0,333</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">p</td>
                  <td align="center">0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">LDH</td>
                  <td align="center">r</td>
                  <td align="center">0,222</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">p</td>
                  <td align="center">0,002</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">PCR</td>
                  <td align="center">r</td>
                  <td align="center">0,235</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">p</td>
                  <td align="center">0,025</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4001">
                <p>LDH: lactatedehydrogenase; CRP: C-reactive protein.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; ROC curve analysis of non-HDL-cholesterol.</title>
              <p>AUC: area under the curve 61.6% sensitivity, 89.2% specificity, cutoff point 150.4</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-06-e20220671-20671-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Our study is the first to investigate the association between SARS-COV-2 infection and the non-HDL-C level studied before the COVID-19 disease. The first finding of this study is that the non-HDL-C level studied before the COVID-19 disease is an independent risk factor for mortality. The second important finding is that the non-HDL-C level positively correlates with age, CRP, and LDH.</p>
        <p>Similar to previous studies, our study identified age, TG, LDH, CRP, and D-dimer as independent risk factors for COVID-19 infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Increased comorbidity, frailty, and immune system disorders that increase with age are considered important factors for the prognosis of COVID-19 infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> In the study conducted by Onder G et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> in Italy, the mortality rate in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 infection was 0.4% in those younger than 40 years old, 0.4% in those 50 years old, 3.5% in those 60 years old, 12.8% in those 70 years old, and 20.2% in those 80 years old and older. Although no gender difference was observed between the groups in our study, it has been observed in epidemiological studies that the severity and mortality of COVID-19 infection are higher, especially in older men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup>In the epidemiological study by Zou F. et al., the average age of the deceased subjects was 56 years, and the majority of them were male (70%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> This situation has many causes, such as metabolic deterioration (increasing obesity, OSAS), hormonal imbalance (decreased testosterone level), increased oxidative and inflammatory mediators (TNF-alpha, IL-1, IL-6), and immune system dysfunction. In addition, epidemiological studies have found that the male patient group&#8217;s awareness of the disease and treatment adherence are lower. When concomitant diseases are taken into account, it is found that smoking is more prevalent in the male gender, and the resulting cardiovascular and respiratory concomitant diseases cause high mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>CRP resulting from the release of IL-6 is an independent risk factor for both prognosis and mortality of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Smilowitz et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> in their study of 2872 patients, found that the risk of venous thromboembolism increased 2.33 times, the risk of acute kidney failure 2.11 times, and the risk of mortality 2.59 times increased in patients with high CRP. LDH is an intracellular enzyme found in almost all organ systems.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Elevated LDH levels have been observed in COVID-19 infections, increasing disease severity by 6-fold and mortality by 16-fold.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup>D-dimer is an important biomarker of blood coagulation and fibrinolysis that increases significantly in disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Studies have shown a close association between D-dimers and disease severity and mortality. In the study by Zhang L. et al. in hospital-treated patients, mortality was higher in patients with a D-dimer &gt; 2&#181;g/mL with a sensitivity of 92% and a specificity of 83.3%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Although there was no statistical difference in sodium values between groups in our study, mild hyponatremia was detected in both groups. In a meta-analysis of 23 studies on COVID-19 infections, hyponatremia was observed in 25.8% of 38,753 patients and was more common in patients treated in hospitals and intensive care units.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Habas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> reported that hyponatremia is very common in patients with radiological lung infiltration and that the severity of the disease is directly proportional to the depth of hyponatremia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> We think that the reason for the hyponatremia observed in both groups in our study is the patient population. Basically, all patients included in the study were assumed to have radiological lung infiltration and were treated under hospital conditions.</p>
        <p>Although non-HDL-C shows an atherogenic burden in recent studies, it has been shown to have predictive and prognostic value for many chronic inflammatory diseases such as coronary artery disease, non-alcoholic hepatosteatosis, OSAS, HIV, and hepatitis B(HBV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>The inflammatory process begins with forming pro-inflammatory lipid-laden macrophages (foam) by passing through the vascular endothelial layer of non-HDL-C. This leads to lipid peroxidation and the formation of oxygen free radicals. These formed products activate nuclear factor (NF) &#954;B-like transcription factors and cause the release of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha and IL-1B). These mechanisms cause the initiation and progression of vascular inflammation. Numerous studies have reported that atherosclerotic lipid elevation triggers local and systemic inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In an animal study by Busnelli et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> feeding a hypercholesterolemic diet was shown to trigger vascular and chronic systemic inflammation. As a result of the study, in addition to an increase in plasma leukocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes in many systems such as liver and white adipose tissue, an increase in macrophages and T-cell lymphocytes, as well as an increase in inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-1B, IL-6), were noted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup>Wang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> reported that non-HDL-C is an early marker of vascular endothelial dysfunction in patients with type 2 DM and correlates with CRP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Prado et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> showed in their study that non-HDL-C is a better indicator of disease progression and glycemic control than CRP in adolescents and children with type 1 DM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> In the animal study conducted by Poledne et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> a positive correlation was found between the development of pro-inflammatory macrophages (CD14-16-36) in visceral adipose tissue, which forms the basis for the development of metabolic syndrome and atherosclerosis, and non-HDL-C levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup>Cippollena et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> found that non-HDL-C was higher in patients who developed restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, and there was a positive correlation between restenosis and IL -1B and CRP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> In the study by Karasek et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> a positive correlation was observed between non-HDL-C and the inflammatory markers CRP, C-peptide, and PAI (plasminogen activation inhibitor).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> According to the results of a 4-year follow-up study in chronic HBV patients, Joo et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> reported that non-HDL-C was 0.69 times higher in HBsAg-positive patients than in negative patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although no direct study examines the relationship between sepsis and non-HDL-C, PCSK-9 levels, which form the basis of non-HDL-C metabolism, are considered important markers of sepsis. PCSK-9 is a serine protease synthesized mainly in the liver. Its main function is to degrade LDL receptors on the liver surface. In addition, it destroys the apolipoprotein E receptor, Toll-like receptor, VLDL receptor, and LDL-related-1 (LDLR1) protein, which may lead to an abnormal increase in plasma lipoprotein concentration and cytokine levels and thrombosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Many studies have found a significant increase in PCSK-9 levels in patients with sepsis and/or septic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Walley et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> investigated the effect of PCSK-9 loss-of-function (LOF) and gain-of-function on mortality in humans and mice in septic shock. It was determined that LOF in the human group reduced mortality at day 28 (61% versus 71%). In addition, when evaluated after 72 hours in the mice group, it was found that the formation of inflammatory cytokines and endotoxins was lower in the group with LOF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Boyd et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> showed elevated PCSK-9 levels during sepsis and increased formation of bacterial endotoxin correlated strongly with multiorgan failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup>Although there is no clear information between COVID-19 pneumonia and PCSK-9, it has been predicted that inhibition of PCSK-9 may reduce viral infectivity, as shown by several hypotheses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In the study by Mostaza et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> which examined the prognostic effect of lipid levels before COVID-19 infection, an inverse association was found between a high HDL-C level and mortality in older individuals before the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> This is a similar status to our study. In another study by Masana et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> serum lipid levels of 1305 patients were examined. At the end of the study, although COVID-19 infection was more severe in patients with high TG and low HDL-C, no prognostic effect of non-HDL-C was observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> This situation is in contradiction with our study. In our study, high non-HDL-C, together with high TG and low HDL-C, was considered an independent risk factor for mortality. We suspect this is due to the differences in patient population and study method between the studies. In their study, Masana et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> indicated that CRF, cancer, and DM, considered independent risk factors for mortality in COVID-19 infection, were high in the severe infection group. In addition, non-HDL-C levels and statin use, which have predictive value for mortality in COVID-19 infection, were not investigated between groups. However, our study did not include patients taking statins or patients with cancer and CRF, which are independent risk factors for mortality in COVID-19 infection.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limitations</title>
          <p>The study&#8217;s main limitations are the following: It is based on a single center and retrospective study design, the exact mechanism of this relationship could not be precisely elucidated, and bias may have occurred in the selection of control groups. In addition, lipid changes during patients&#8217; first hospitalization and after treatment could not be examined. Treatments given for COVID-19 infection were not studied. Apolipoprotein-B levels, which indicate total atherogenic burden rather than non-HDL-C, were not measured. Another limitation of the study is that short- and long-term follow-up was not performed.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Our study has shown for the first time that a higher non-HDL-C level before COVID-19 infection is an independent risk factor for mortality. We believe that the non-HDL-C level studied before COVID-19 infection can be used as a prognostic biomarker for the disease. In addition, we believe that it can help us understand the pathophysiology and develop new treatment strategies. Further prospective studies with large samples are warranted to understand better the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and the diagnostic and therapeutic value of non-HDL-C in COVID-19 patients.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Adnan Menderes University under the protocol number 2022/065. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
