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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">MQCLBy6rq9kKm6MJbGT9bvh</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000401301</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01301</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230203</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Posicionamento</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Posicionamento Brasileiro sobre S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar &#8211; 2023</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5738-2623</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9860-6582</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Raul Dias dos</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Assad</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Heitor Vieira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4455-6740</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Chagas</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos Palandri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0231-6490</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Toledo</surname>
            <given-names>Alceu de Oliveira</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7869-3826</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Nogueira</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cl&#225;udia Cavalcante</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9202-3546</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souto</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cristina Carneiro Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0598-5529</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lottenberg</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2881-1820</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Chacra</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula Marte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9149-1252</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2296-6098</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Louren&#231;o</surname>
            <given-names>Charles Marques</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2292-1735</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Valerio</surname>
            <given-names>Cynthia Melissa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7954-5630</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cintra</surname>
            <given-names>Dennys Esper</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9911-4598</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Antonio Helfenstein</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campana</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Aguiar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6746-8327</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bianco</surname>
            <given-names>Henrique Tria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1627-7018</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Josivan Gomes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3816-5612</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Castelo</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Helane Costa Gurgel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-2639-9982</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Scartezini</surname>
            <given-names>Marileia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6134-3654</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moretti</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8660-7078</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barreto</surname>
            <given-names>Natasha Slhessarenko Fraife</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8574-0168</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Maia</surname>
            <given-names>Rayana Elias</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7287-8726</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Montenegro</surname>
            <given-names>Renan Magalh&#227;es</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2527-8717</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Renato Jorge</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0566-6410</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Roberta Marcondes Machado</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8605-9035</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fock</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo Ambrosio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1027-6954</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martinez</surname>
            <given-names>T&#226;nia Leme da Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Giraldez</surname>
            <given-names>Viviane Zorzanelli Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de cardiologia (INC), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina do ABC</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Caetano do Sul</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, S&#227;o Caetano do Sul, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ponta Grossa</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa (UEPG), Ponta Grossa, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de L&#237;pides (LIM 10) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>9</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein (HIAE), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>10</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto (FAMERP), S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>11</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Estadual de Diabetes e Endocrinologia Luiz Capriglione</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Estadual de Diabetes e Endocrinologia Luiz Capriglione (IEDE-RJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>12</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label>13</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Alliar Medicina Diagn&#243;stica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Alliar Medicina Diagn&#243;stica, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label>14</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Natal</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RN</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15">
        <label>15</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Diagn&#243;sticos da Am&#233;rica S.A.</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Diagn&#243;sticos da Am&#233;rica S.A. (DASA), Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16">
        <label>16</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225; (UFPR), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17">
        <label>17</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Cuiab&#225;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MT</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Cuiab&#225;, MT &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18">
        <label>18</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Para&#237;ba</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Para&#237;ba (UFPB), Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19">
        <label>19</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Cear&#225;</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFCE), Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares (EBSERH), Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20">
        <label>20</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21">
        <label>21</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade Israelita de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de Albert Einstein</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Israelita de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de Albert Einstein (FICSAE), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22">
        <label>22</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Benefic&#234;ncia Portuguesa de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Benefic&#234;ncia Portuguesa de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: 20020-907. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>14</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20230203</elocation-id>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="22"/>
        <equation-count count="2"/>
        <ref-count count="217"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" colspan="2">
                <bold>Posicionamento Brasileiro sobre S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar &#8211; 2023</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="2">
                <bold>O relat&#243;rio abaixo lista as declara&#231;&#245;es de interesse conforme relatadas &#224; SBC pelos especialistas durante o per&#237;odo de desenvolvimento deste posicionamento, 2022.</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>
                <bold>Especialista</bold>
              </td>
              <td>
                <bold>Tipo de relacionamento com a ind&#250;stria</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Alceu de Oliveira Toledo J&#250;nior</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ana Cl&#225;udia Cavalcante Nogueira</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Servier: Vastarel/Angina.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- PTC: Waylivra/SQF.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Participa&#231;&#227;o societ&#225;ria de qualquer natureza e qualquer valor economicamente apreci&#225;vel de empresas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, de ensino ou em empresas concorrentes ou fornecedoras da SBC:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- &#193;rea de ensino e pesquisa cl&#237;nica.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ana Cristina Carneiro Fernandes Souto</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ana Maria Pitta Lottenberg</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- PTC Therapeutics: Apoio Financeiro para palestras.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ana Paula Marte Chacra</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Antonio Carlos Palandri Chagas</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Possui qualquer outro interesse (financeiro ou a qualquer outro t&#237;tulo) que deva ser declarado tendo em vista o cargo ocupado na SBC, ainda que n&#227;o expressamente elencado anteriormente:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Membro do Comit&#234; Cient&#237;fico Instituto Vita Nova.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carlos Eduardo dos Santos Ferreira</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Charles Marques Louren&#231;o</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Sanofi: Biomarin/Acondroplasia; PTC: NiemannPick B/Defici&#234;ncia de AADC.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Cynthia Melissa Valerio</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk: Saxenda, Rybelsus, Ozempic; PTC: Waylivra; Amryt: Myalept.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Amryt: Metreleptina.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Dennys Esper Cintra</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Francisco Antonio Helfenstein Fonseca</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Gustavo Aguiar Campana</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Henrique Tria Bianco</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Josivan Gomes de Lima</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcelo Heitor Vieira Assad</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk: Rybelsus.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk: Rybelsus.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Maria Cristina de Oliveira Izar</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Amgen: Repatha; Amryt Pharma: Lojuxta; AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina; Ach&#233;: Trezor, Trezete; Biolab: Livalo; Abbott: Lipidil; EMS: Rosuvastatina; Eurofarma: Rosuvastatina; Sanofi: Praluent, Zympass, Zympass Eze, Efluelda; Libbs: Plenance, Plenance Eze; Novo Nordisk: Ozempic, Victoza; Servier: Acertamlo, Alertalix; PTCBio: Waylivra.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- PTCBio: Waylivra; Amgen: Repatha; Novartis: Inclisiran, Pelacarsen; NovoNordisk: Ziltivekimab.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk: Diabetes.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Maria Helane Costa Gurgel Castelo</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marileia Scartezini</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Miguel Antonio Moretti</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Natasha Slhessarenko Fraife Barreto</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Raul Dias dos Santos Filho</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Amgen: Evolocumabe; Astra Zenec:Dapagliflozina; Ach&#233;:/Rosuvastatina; PTC Therapeutics:Volanesorsen; Novartis: Inclisiran; Novo Nordisk: Semaglutide; Sanofi: Rosuvastatina; Libbs: Rosuvastatina.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras. - Amgen: Evolocumabe; Sanofi: Alirocumabe; Novartis: Inclisiran; Esperion: &#193;cido Bemped&#243;ico; Novartis: Pelacarsen; Kowa: Pemafibrato.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Amgen: Colesterol; Ache: Colesterol; AstraZeneca: Diabete; Libbs: Colesterol; Novartis: Colesterol; Novo Nordisk: Diabetes; Eli-Lilly: Diabetes; Merck: Diabetes; Biolab: Colesterol.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Rayana Elias Maia</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Amgen: PTC: Volanersorsen.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Amgen: PTC: Volanersorsen.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Renan Magalh&#227;es Montenegro Junior</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Boheringer, AstraZeneca, Novo Nordisk, PTC, Nestl&#233;, Amryt, Jansen.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk, Amryt, PTC, Boheringer, Abbott.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Renato Jorge Alves</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Boheringer, AstraZeneca, Novo Nordisk, PTC, Nestl&#233;, Amryt, Jansen.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novo Nordisk, Amryt, PTC, Boheringer, Abbott.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Roberta Marcondes Machado Figueiredo</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- PTC Therapeutics.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- PTC Therapeutics.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Rodrigo Ambrosio Fock</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Biomarin.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>T&#226;nia Leme da Rocha Martinez</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Sum&#225;rio</p>
    <p>1. Carta de Apresenta&#231;&#227;o 5</p>
    <p>2. Objetivos do Documento 6</p>
    <p>3. Defini&#231;&#227;o de Graus de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o e N&#237;veis de Evid&#234;ncia 6</p>
    <p>4. Defini&#231;&#227;o de Hipertrigliceridemia (&gt;150mg/dL), Hipertrigliceridemia Grave (&gt;500mg/dL) e Quilomicronemia (&gt;1.000mg/dL) 7</p>
    <p>4.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 7</p>
    <p>4.2. Defini&#231;&#227;o de Hipertrigliceridemia 7</p>
    <p>5. Defini&#231;&#227;o de Quilomicronemia &#8211; S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar e S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Multifatorial: Crit&#233;rios Cl&#237;nicos, Laboratoriais e Modo de Transmiss&#227;o da Doen&#231;a 7</p>
    <p>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 7</p>
    <p>5.2. Conceitos 8</p>
    <p><bold>5.2.1. S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</bold> 8</p>
    <p><bold>5.2.2. S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Multifatorial</bold> 8</p>
    <p>6. Epidemiologia da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar no Mundo e no Brasil 9</p>
    <p>6.1. Defini&#231;&#227;o de S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar e Aspectos Cl&#237;nicos 9</p>
    <p><bold>6.1.1. Primeiros Casos de S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia</bold> 9</p>
    <p>6.2. Epidemiologia da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar no Mundo 9</p>
    <p>6.3. Epidemiologia da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar em Crian&#231;as 11</p>
    <p>6.4. Epidemiologia da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar no Brasil 11</p>
    <p>7. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas na S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar, Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial e Abordagem das Complica&#231;&#245;es 12</p>
    <p>7.1. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas na S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar 12</p>
    <p><bold>7.1.1. Hipertrigliceridemia</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>7.1.2. Dor Abdominal e Pancreatite Aguda</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>7.1.3. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Neurol&#243;gicas</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>7.1.4. Hepatosplenomegalia</bold> 12</p>
    <p><bold>7.1.5. Xantomas Eruptivos</bold> 13</p>
    <p><bold>7.1.6. Lipemia Retinalis</bold> 13</p>
    <p><bold>7.1.7. Qualidade de Vida</bold> 13</p>
    <p><bold>7.1.8. Escore Diagn&#243;stico</bold> 13</p>
    <p>7.2. Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial 13</p>
    <p><bold>7.2.1. S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Multifatorial</bold> 13</p>
    <p><bold>7.2.2. Lipodistrofias</bold> 14</p>
    <p>7.3. Abordagem das Complica&#231;&#245;es da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar 14</p>
    <p><bold>7.3.1. Pancreatite Aguda</bold> 14</p>
    <p>8. Diagn&#243;stico Laboratorial da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar 15</p>
    <p>8.1. Fase Pr&#233;-anal&#237;tica (Orienta&#231;&#245;es para Pacientes) 15</p>
    <p><bold>8.1.1. Instru&#231;&#245;es para Coleta</bold> 15</p>
    <p><bold>8.1.2. Interferentes Pr&#233;-anal&#237;ticos para An&#225;lise dos Triglic&#233;rides</bold> 15</p>
    <p><bold>8.1.3. Orienta&#231;&#245;es para o Laborat&#243;rio (Per&#237;odo Pr&#233;-anal&#237;tico)</bold> 15</p>
    <p>8.2. Fase Anal&#237;tica 15</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.1. Metodologias que Avaliam os Quilom&#237;crons</bold> 15</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.1.1. Ultracentrifuga&#231;&#227;o</bold> 15</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.1.2. Aspecto do Soro</bold> 15</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.1.3. Eletroforese de Lipoprote&#237;nas</bold> 16</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.2. Metodologias que Avaliam os Triglic&#233;rides</bold> 16</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.3. Interfer&#234;ncia no Resultado dos Triglic&#233;rides</bold> 16</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.4. Interfer&#234;ncia dos Triglic&#233;rides em Outros Analitos</bold> 16</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.4.1. LDL-C</bold> 16</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.4.2. Plaquetas</bold> 16</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.4.3. Analitos com Avalia&#231;&#227;o Colorim&#233;trica</bold> 16</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.4.4. Enzimas</bold> 16</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.4.5. Eletr&#243;litos</bold> 17</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.5. An&#225;lises Laboratoriais para Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial</bold> 17</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.5.1. Atividade da LPL com Heparina</bold> 17</p>
    <p><bold>8.2.5.2. Dosagem de Apolipoprote&#237;na C3 Plasm&#225;tica</bold> 17</p>
    <p>8.3. Fase P&#243;s-anal&#237;tica 17</p>
    <p><bold>8.3.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para as NOTAS nos Laudos Laboratoriais</bold> 17</p>
    <p>9. Aconselhamento Gen&#233;tico e as Etapas no Diagn&#243;stico e Acompanhamento das Hipertrigliceridemias Graves 17</p>
    <p>10. Orienta&#231;&#227;o Nutricional na Quilomicronemia em Adultos, Crian&#231;as e Adolescentes 19</p>
    <p>10.1. Classifica&#231;&#227;o e Absor&#231;&#227;o dos &#193;cidos Graxos 19</p>
    <p>10.2. Absor&#231;&#227;o das Gorduras 20</p>
    <p>10.3. Tratamento Nutricional 20</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.1. Gorduras</bold> 20</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.2. Triglic&#233;rides de Cadeia M&#233;dia</bold> 21</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.3. Carboidratos</bold> 21</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.4. &#193;lcool</bold> 21</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.5. Lactentes e Primeira Inf&#226;ncia</bold> 21</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.6. Gestantes</bold> 22</p>
    <p><bold>10.3.7. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es Gerais</bold> 22</p>
    <p>10.4. Exemplos de Card&#225;pios 23</p>
    <p>11. Af&#233;rese 27</p>
    <p>11.1. Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento 27</p>
    <p>11.2. Tratamento N&#227;o Medicamentoso 27</p>
    <p>11.3. Tratamento Farmacol&#243;gico 27</p>
    <p>11.4. Af&#233;rese 27</p>
    <p>11.5. Gesta&#231;&#227;o e PH nos Pacientes com S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar 28</p>
    <p>12. Novas Terap&#234;uticas para Tratamento da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia familiar 28</p>
    <p>12.1. ApoC3 28</p>
    <p><bold>12.1.1 Antissentido Anti-APOC3</bold> 29</p>
    <p>13. Aspectos Sociais, Psicol&#243;gicos e Impacto Econ&#244;mico da Doen&#231;a 31</p>
    <p>13.1. Aspecto Social na S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar 32</p>
    <p>13.2. Aspectos Psicol&#243;gicos na S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar 32</p>
    <p><bold>13.2.1. Os Pais das Crian&#231;as com Diagn&#243;stico de S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</bold> 33</p>
    <p>13.3. Para Reduzir os Impactos da Doen&#231;a: Modos de Enfrentamento 33</p>
    <p><bold>13.3.1. Modelos Ativos e Passivos de Enfrentamento: Foco no Paciente</bold> 33</p>
    <p><bold>13.3.2. Modelo Social de Enfrentamento: Foco nos Pares</bold> 33</p>
    <p>13.4. Custo-efetividade do Manejo de Riscos Psicossociais 31</p>
    <p>14. Resumo das Recomenda&#231;&#245;es 34</p>
    <p>Refer&#234;ncias 35</p>
    <sec>
      <title>Carta de Apresenta&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A s&#237;ndrome da quilomicronemia familiar (SQF) &#233; uma forma grave de dislipidemia e compreende um conjunto de m&#250;ltiplos sinais e sintomas causados pela defici&#234;ncia da enzima lipoprote&#237;na lipase (LPL) ou de um de seus cofatores, comprometendo o metabolismo de triglic&#233;rides. Apresenta modo de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mico recessivo e acomete cerca de 1 a 2 pessoas por milh&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos, mas pode ser mais frequente quando existe consanguinidade.</p>
      <p>Existe grande desconhecimento sobre essa condi&#231;&#227;o e, por esse motivo, o seu diagn&#243;stico ocorre tardiamente, quando complica&#231;&#245;es j&#225; se instalaram. O paciente portador de SQF pode se apresentar com dores abdominais recorrentes, epis&#243;dios de pancreatite, xantomas eruptivos, lipemia <italic>retinalis</italic> , hepatoesplenomegalia, al&#233;m do aspecto cremoso do soro.</p>
      <p>Nas formas cl&#225;ssicas e mais graves, os achados cl&#237;nicos podem ser reconhecidos logo ao nascimento, ou ainda na inf&#226;ncia, mas estes podem se apresentar em qualquer idade, especialmente nos portadores de novas muta&#231;&#245;es. N&#227;o &#233; infrequente que o paciente com SQF tenha consultado v&#225;rias especialidades m&#233;dicas antes de ter seu diagn&#243;stico firmado.</p>
      <p>A apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da SQF pode, ainda, ser indistingu&#237;vel da s&#237;ndrome da quilomicronemia multifatorial (SQM), mais frequente e que tamb&#233;m tem uma base gen&#233;tica, mas sofre influ&#234;ncia de fatores ambientais e ligados ao estilo de vida. Al&#233;m disso, o quadro cl&#237;nico pode ser secund&#225;rio a condi&#231;&#245;es como hipotireoidismo, diabetes n&#227;o controlado, doen&#231;as renais, consumo abusivo de &#225;lcool e uso de certos medicamentos, o que dificulta ainda mais seu diagn&#243;stico.</p>
      <p>A confirma&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica, com um painel de genes causais para a SQF, &#233;, atualmente, realizada em poucos centros em nosso meio. No entanto, quando uma muta&#231;&#227;o em homozigose em um dos genes causais, ou duas muta&#231;&#245;es em um mesmo gene (heterozigoto composto), ou em diferentes genes causais (heterozigoto duplo), for encontrada, confirma-se a condi&#231;&#227;o de SQF, embora exista um percentual em que nenhuma muta&#231;&#227;o causal esteja presente. Algoritmos validados podem auxiliar na suspei&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da SQF e indicar quem deve realizar o teste gen&#233;tico.</p>
      <p>O tratamento da SQF requer uma abordagem multiprofissional, incluindo nutricionista, psic&#243;logo, entre outros profissionais de sa&#250;de, visando manter o bem-estar do indiv&#237;duo e o estado nutricional. Restri&#231;&#227;o do consumo de gorduras e de carboidratos simples, suplementa&#231;&#227;o de vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis e de &#225;cidos graxos essenciais devem ser recomendados ao longo da vida. O suporte psicol&#243;gico visa ajudar o indiv&#237;duo a conviver com as restri&#231;&#245;es diet&#233;ticas impostas.</p>
      <p>O tratamento farmacol&#243;gico convencional frequentemente se associa a uma resposta inferior a 20% na redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides, raz&#227;o pela qual a grande esperan&#231;a desses pacientes reside na chegada de novos f&#225;rmacos ao Brasil, com benef&#237;cio comprovado em reduzir os triglic&#233;rides nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Situa&#231;&#245;es peculiares no manuseio da SQF s&#227;o a gesta&#231;&#227;o e os epis&#243;dios de pancreatite recorrentes, em que a mortalidade pode ser elevada e tratamentos individualizados s&#227;o requeridos.</p>
      <p>O intuito deste documento &#233; conscientizar profissionais de sa&#250;de dos aspectos peculiares &#224; SQF, capacitando-os no reconhecimento e na abordagem precoces da condi&#231;&#227;o, mitigando o sofrimento do paciente e as complica&#231;&#245;es pelo retardo do diagn&#243;stico.</p>
      <p>Membros do Departamento de Aterosclerose da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia e renomados especialistas de nosso pa&#237;s reuniram-se com o objetivo de transmitir as melhores informa&#231;&#245;es cient&#237;ficas dispon&#237;veis sobre a SQF para melhoria da pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, de forma clara e objetiva.</p>
      <disp-quote>
        <p>
          <bold>Sinceramente,</bold>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>Prof. Dra. Maria Cristina de Oliveira Izar</italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>Prof. Dr. Raul Dias Santos</italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>Prof. Dr. Antonio Carlos Palandri Chagas</italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>Dr. Marcelo Heitor Vieira Assad</italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>Coordenadores</italic>
        </p>
      </disp-quote>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. Objetivos do Documento</title>
      <p>Este documento tem por objetivo conscientizar profissionais de sa&#250;de, especialmente cardiologistas, cl&#237;nicos e endocrinologistas, de uma doen&#231;a muito rara, subdiagnosticada, que causa intenso sofrimento &#224;s pessoas acometidas e que, at&#233; recentemente, n&#227;o era diagnosticada, al&#233;m de ser subtratada.</p>
      <p>Escrito por especialistas na &#225;rea, o Posicionamento Brasileiro sobre S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar vem suprir uma lacuna no conhecimento dos dados epidemiol&#243;gicos no mundo e em nosso pa&#237;s de manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, diagn&#243;stico laboratorial e gen&#233;tico, e diagn&#243;stico diferencial com outras formas de hipertrigliceridemia (HTG) graves. Al&#233;m disso, o manejo nutricional, peculiar, e a abordagem de neonatos e crian&#231;as, gestantes e das complica&#231;&#245;es, como a pancreatite, s&#227;o destacados neste documento. Vale ressaltar que, recentemente, tivemos em nosso pa&#237;s a aprova&#231;&#227;o de uma nova terapia antissentido anti-APOC3, com evid&#234;ncias de redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides e perspectivas de prevenir as complica&#231;&#245;es e melhorar a qualidade de vida dos pacientes.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Defini&#231;&#227;o de Graus de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o e N&#237;veis de Evid&#234;ncia</title>
      <p>Classes (graus) de recomenda&#231;&#227;o:</p>
      <p>Classe I &#8211; Condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias conclusivas, ou, na sua falta, consenso geral de que o procedimento &#233; seguro e &#250;til/eficaz.</p>
      <p>Classe II &#8211; Condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias conflitantes e/ou diverg&#234;ncia de opini&#227;o sobre seguran&#231;a e utilidade/efic&#225;cia do procedimento.</p>
      <p>Classe IIa &#8211; Peso ou evid&#234;ncia/opini&#227;o a favor do procedimento. A maioria aprova.</p>
      <p>Classe IIb &#8211; Seguran&#231;a e utilidade/efic&#225;cia menos bem estabelecida, n&#227;o havendo predom&#237;nio de opini&#245;es a favor.</p>
      <p>Classe III &#8211; Condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias e/ou consenso de que o procedimento n&#227;o &#233; &#250;til/eficaz e, em alguns casos, pode ser prejudicial.</p>
      <p>N&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncia:</p>
      <p>N&#237;vel A &#8211; Dados obtidos a partir de m&#250;ltiplos estudos randomizados de bom porte, concordantes e/ou de metan&#225;lise robusta de estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados</p>
      <p>N&#237;vel B &#8211; Dados obtidos a partir de metan&#225;lise menos robusta, a partir de um &#250;nico estudo randomizado ou de estudos n&#227;o randomizados (observacionais).</p>
      <p>N&#237;vel C &#8211; Dados obtidos de opini&#245;es consensuais de especialistas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Defini&#231;&#227;o de Hipertrigliceridemia (&gt;150mg/dL), hipertrigliceridemia Grave (&gt;500mg/dL) e Quilomicronemia (&gt;1.000mg/dL)</title>
      <sec>
        <title>4.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Primeiramente, antes de definirmos valores e classificar a HTG em discreta, moderada ou grave, devemos levar em considera&#231;&#227;o alguns fatores relevantes.</p>
        <p>Para avalia&#231;&#227;o do perfil lip&#237;dico, recomenda-se estado metab&#243;lico est&#225;vel e dieta habitual. Entretanto, orienta-se suspender o consumo et&#237;lico com 5 dias de anteced&#234;ncia.</p>
        <p>Ao interpretar o perfil lip&#237;dico, deve-se levar em considera&#231;&#227;o a possibilidade de varia&#231;&#227;o biol&#243;gica intraindividual e poss&#237;veis varia&#231;&#245;es interlaboratoriais. Tais varia&#231;&#245;es podem atingir valores de 10% para o colesterol total, HDL-c e LDL-c e de at&#233; 25% para os triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As mais recentes diretrizes brasileiras de dislipidemia e de diabetes adotam como norma a dispensa do jejum para determina&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides s&#233;ricos. Contudo, na presen&#231;a de concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides &gt;400mg/dL, deve-se realizar uma nova dosagem, em jejum de 12h, diante da poss&#237;vel exist&#234;ncia de HTG prim&#225;ria, na qual o jejum &#233; necess&#225;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, com HTG &gt;400mg/dL, deixamos de utilizar a f&#243;rmula de Friedewald, habitualmente usada para c&#225;lculo das fra&#231;&#245;es do colesterol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Algumas publica&#231;&#245;es sugerem maior risco cardiovascular relacionado &#224; HTG p&#243;s-prandial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Em 2016, as diretrizes da <italic>European Atherosclerosis Society</italic> (EAS) e da <italic>European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine</italic> retiraram a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de jejum para coleta do perfil lip&#237;dico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A Diretriz Brasileira de Dislipidemia e Aterosclerose classifica laboratorialmente as dislipidemias conforme a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 1</xref> .</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Classifica&#231;&#227;o laboratorial das dislipidemias, segundo a Diretriz Brasileira de Dislipidemia e Aterosclerose <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> </title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hipercolesterolemia isolada</td>
                  <td>Aumento do LDL-c (&gt;160mg/dL)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hipertrigliceridemia isolada</td>
                  <td>Aumento dos triglic&#233;rides (&gt;150mg/dL em jejum ou &gt;175mg/dL sem jejum)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hiperlipidemia mista</td>
                  <td>Aumento do LDL-c e dos triglic&#233;rides</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diminui&#231;&#227;o do HDLc</td>
                  <td>HDLc &lt;40mg/dL em homens ou &lt;50mg/dL em mulheres, com ou sem aumento dos triglic&#233;rides ou LDL-c</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>
                  <italic>HDLc: colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; LDL-c: colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade. Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A classifica&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica de Fredrickson, demonstrada na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabela 2</xref> , baseia-se na separa&#231;&#227;o eletrofor&#233;tica e/ou por ultracentrifuga&#231;&#227;o das fra&#231;&#245;es lipoproteicas. Embora tenha sido muito importante, atualmente, &#233; pouco utilizada, exceto em servi&#231;os terci&#225;rios e especializados no atendimento de dislipidemias. Como exemplo de sua relev&#226;ncia, citaremos pacientes com HTG, com diferentes classifica&#231;&#245;es fenot&#237;picas, de acordo com a anormalidade lipoproteica prim&#225;ria: SQF (tipo I), hiperlipidemia familiar combinada (tipo IIb), disbetalipoproteinemia (tipo III), HTG prim&#225;ria simples (tipo IV) e HTG com quilomicronemia (tipo V).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t9">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Classifica&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica de Fredrickson <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> </title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Classifica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Lipoprote&#237;na elevada</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tipo I</td>
                  <td align="center">Quilom&#237;crons</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tipo IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">LDL</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tipo IIb</td>
                  <td align="center">LDL e VLDL</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tipo III</td>
                  <td align="center">IDL</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tipo IV</td>
                  <td align="center">VLDL</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tipo V</td>
                  <td align="center">Quilom&#237;crons e VLDL</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>
                  <italic>IDL: lipoprote&#237;na de densidade intermedi&#225;ria; LDL: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; VLDL: lipoprote&#237;na de muito baixa densidade.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.2. Defini&#231;&#227;o de Hipertrigliceridemia</title>
        <p>Do ponto de vista laboratorial, define-se HTG quando a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides estiver &gt;150mg/dL. No entanto, quando a coleta do perfil lip&#237;dico n&#227;o for realizada em jejum, considera-se HTG com valores &gt;175mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Desse modo, podemos classificar as HTG<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> em:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Discretas: triglic&#233;rides plasm&#225;ticos &gt;150mg/dL;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Moderadas: entre 151 e 499mg/dL;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Graves: entre 500 e 1.000mg/dL;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Muito graves: &gt;1.000mg/dL.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>As HTG resultam do ac&#250;mulo de lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em &#225;cidos graxos e glicerol (como VLDL, IDL e remanescentes). A principal anormalidade lipoproteica nas formas graves e muito graves &#233; a quilomicronemia, definida como a presen&#231;a de quilom&#237;crons circulantes no estado de jejum. Com concentra&#231;&#245;es de triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, j&#225; se pode detectar a presen&#231;a de quilom&#237;crons no sangue; contudo, a quilomicronemia &#233; mais prov&#225;vel quando essas concentra&#231;&#245;es ultrapassarem 1.500mg/dL. A relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica das formas graves e muito graves da HTG deve-se &#224; sua associa&#231;&#227;o com um risco duas vezes maior de pancreatite aguda, cuja incid&#234;ncia aumenta em 3% para cada 100mg/dL &gt;1.000mg/dL de trigliceridemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Defini&#231;&#227;o de quilomicronemia &#8211; s&#237;ndrome da quilomicronemia familiar e s&#237;ndrome da quilomicronemia multifatorial: crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos, laboratoriais e modo de transmiss&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</title>
      <sec>
        <title>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Quilomicronemia &#233; caracterizada por ac&#250;mulo de quilom&#237;crons na circula&#231;&#227;o e aumento importante da concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides.</p>
        <p>Quanto maior a concentra&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides plasm&#225;tico, maior o risco de ocorrer pancreatite. Entretanto, casos de valores &gt;1.000mg/dL ou quadro de HTG muito grave s&#227;o mais propensos a desenvolver pancreatite aguda. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es laboratoriais devem ser associadas a altera&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que estariam presentes desde a inf&#226;ncia ou adolesc&#234;ncia, para suspeitar-se do diagn&#243;stico de SQF. Entre essas altera&#231;&#245;es, estariam: lipemia <italic>retinalis</italic> , xantomas eruptivos, hepatoesplenomegalia e, principalmente, pancreatites agudas, que ajudariam a confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica das formas graves e muito graves da HTG deve-se &#224; sua associa&#231;&#227;o com um risco duas vezes maior de pancreatite aguda. Al&#233;m de ser uma emerg&#234;ncia m&#233;dica potencialmente fatal, a pancreatite aguda tamb&#233;m pode levar a v&#225;rias complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, tais como pancreatite cr&#244;nica, insufici&#234;ncia pancre&#225;tica e diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os quilom&#237;crons s&#227;o formados pela incorpora&#231;&#227;o dos l&#237;pides provenientes da dieta com as apolipoprote&#237;nas (A1, A2, A4, B48, C2, C3 e E) e secretados na linfa mesent&#233;rica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A LPL &#233; uma enzima que se localiza na superf&#237;cie endotelial dos capilares do tecido adiposo e de m&#250;sculos, que, ao ser ativada, inicia o processo de hidr&#243;lise dos triglic&#233;rides dos quilom&#237;crons, gerando os remanescentes de quilom&#237;crons. A atividade da LPL &#233; modulada pela a&#231;&#227;o da APOC2 e da APOA5, que atuam como cofatores na sua ativa&#231;&#227;o; pelo fator de matura&#231;&#227;o da lipase 1 (LMF1; do ingl&#234;s, <italic>lipase maturation factor 1</italic> ), necess&#225;rio para a produ&#231;&#227;o de LPL em adip&#243;citos e mi&#243;citos; e pela GPIHBP1 ( <italic>glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchored high-density lipoprotein binding protein 1</italic> ), que transporta LPL do espa&#231;o intersticial para o l&#250;men capilar. Qualquer altera&#231;&#227;o na fun&#231;&#227;o e/ou ativa&#231;&#227;o da LPL resulta em aumento da meia-vida dos quilom&#237;crons na corrente sangu&#237;nea e, consequentemente, quilomicronemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Existem duas formas distintas de quilomicronemia: a SQF e a SQM. Estas s&#227;o, respectivamente, os prot&#243;tipos das condi&#231;&#245;es monog&#234;nicas e polig&#234;nicas subjacentes &#224; HTG grave de origem gen&#233;tica. Estima-se que a quilomicronemia possa ser encontrada em 1:600 adultos, mas os pacientes com SQF representam apenas 5% desses indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre as duas doen&#231;as pode ser feita pelas caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e/ou laboratoriais de seus portadores. Pacientes com SQF costumam se apresentar geralmente com pancreatite, e os com SQM s&#227;o mais propensos a terem doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica. O diagn&#243;stico precoce e correto das duas entidades &#233; fundamental para o sucesso terap&#234;utico e a preven&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade.</p>
        <p>Devido &#224; sua consider&#225;vel sobreposi&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica, as duas formas s&#227;o dif&#237;ceis de distinguir, e ainda existem v&#225;rias perguntas sem resposta relacionadas &#224; preval&#234;ncia, &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e gen&#233;ticas e ao manuseio cl&#237;nico.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Conceitos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.1. S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
          <p>A SQF &#233; uma doen&#231;a metab&#243;lica grave e muito rara, caracterizada por quilomicronemia associada a epis&#243;dios recorrentes de dor abdominal e/ou pancreatite.</p>
          <p>A estimativa mundial &#233; que a SQF ocorra em 1 para cada 500.000 a 1.000.000 pessoas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Frequentemente, manifesta-se na inf&#226;ncia ou adolesc&#234;ncia e tem sido descrita em todas as etnias, com maior preval&#234;ncia em algumas &#225;reas geogr&#225;ficas, como Quebec, devido ao efeito fundador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Tamb&#233;m chamada de hiperlipoproteinemia tipo I de Fredrickson,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> a SQF &#233; um dist&#250;rbio lip&#237;dico monog&#234;nico, autoss&#244;mico recessivo, cujo diagn&#243;stico &#233; baseado na detec&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es raras, bial&#233;licas (homozigoto ou heterozigoto composto) na LPL (&gt;80% dos casos) e em outros genes que codificam as prote&#237;nas necess&#225;rias para sua atividade, tais como <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> e <italic>LMF1</italic> , levando a uma redu&#231;&#227;o dr&#225;stica da depura&#231;&#227;o dos quilom&#237;crons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Normalmente, esses pacientes t&#234;m pouca resposta a medicamentos para reduzir os triglic&#233;rides plasm&#225;ticos, de modo que seu tratamento representa um desafio cl&#237;nico. A pedra angular da terapia da SQF &#233; representada por uma redu&#231;&#227;o dr&#225;stica da ingest&#227;o de gordura (8 a 10% do total de calorias), terap&#234;utica esta dif&#237;cil de ser mantida ao longo do tempo. A ades&#227;o a restri&#231;&#245;es alimentares dessa magnitude ao longo da vida do paciente &#233; dif&#237;cil, afeta negativamente a qualidade de vida e n&#227;o elimina completamente o risco de pancreatite em todos os pacientes. A pancreatite aguda recorrente ocorre em 50% dos pacientes com SQF; a taxa geral de mortalidade associada &#233; de 5 a 6%, mas aumenta para 30% em subgrupos de pacientes que evoluem com necrose pancre&#225;tica ou fal&#234;ncia persistente de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.2. S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Multifatorial</title>
          <p>A SQM, tamb&#233;m chamada de hiperlipoproteinemia tipo V de Fredrickson, &#233; um dist&#250;rbio lip&#237;dico oligog&#234;nico ou polig&#234;nico agravado pela presen&#231;a de comorbidades conhecidas por aumentar a trigliceridemia (diabetes n&#227;o controlado, hipotireoidismo, gravidez, obesidade), fatores ambientais (consumo abusivo de &#225;lcool e dieta rica em gorduras e a&#231;&#250;cares simples) e certos medicamentos, como glicocorticoides, etinilestradiol e neurol&#233;pticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> A ocorr&#234;ncia de SQM tende a crescer de forma linear com o aumento da preval&#234;ncia de obesidade, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e diabetes tipo 2 na popula&#231;&#227;o mundial. Nos portadores dessa s&#237;ndrome, a quilomicronemia &#233; flutuante e, na grande maioria, se manifesta tardiamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Respondem bem a modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida e ao tratamento de fatores secund&#225;rios, com boa resposta &#224;s farmacoterapias redutoras de triglic&#233;rides. Caracteriza-se por um risco aumentado de pancreatite aguda, mas o <italic>odds ratio</italic> estimado em 50 &#233; claramente menor que o <italic>odds ratio</italic> de 360 relatado em pacientes com SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>&#201; poss&#237;vel diferenciar essas duas formas de quilomicronemia com base na eletroforese de lipoprote&#237;nas ou na ultracentrifuga&#231;&#227;o (presen&#231;a de lipoprote&#237;na de densidade muito baixa [VLDL] e quilom&#237;crons na SQM; apenas quilom&#237;crons na SQF). O procedimento padr&#227;o-ouro atual para identificar pacientes com SQF continua sendo o teste gen&#233;tico ou a atividade da LPL p&#243;s-heparina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Como o tratamento dessas duas formas de quilomicronemia &#233; muito diferente, &#233; importante fazer um diagn&#243;stico apropriado. Novas terapias, como inibidores da APOC3, est&#227;o em desenvolvimento para diminuir os triglic&#233;rides em indiv&#237;duos com SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. Epidemiologia da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar no Mundo e no Brasil</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.1. Defini&#231;&#227;o de S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar e Aspectos Cl&#237;nicos</title>
        <p>A SQF &#233; uma doen&#231;a herdada, muito rara, acometendo cerca de 1-2:1.000.000 de indiv&#237;duos, com modo de transmiss&#227;o autoss&#244;mico recessivo, caracterizada por concentra&#231;&#245;es muito elevadas de triglic&#233;rides (em geral, muito acima de 1.000mg/dL), acompanhada de soro lip&#234;mico com aspecto cremoso, lipemia <italic>retinalis</italic> , dores abdominais recorrentes, xantomas eruptivos, epis&#243;dios de pancreatites de repeti&#231;&#227;o, dist&#250;rbios cognitivos e neurol&#243;gicos e comprometimento da qualidade de vida e da sociabilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, no entanto, aparecem em frequ&#234;ncia vari&#225;vel nos portadores de SQF. Os xantomas eruptivos foram descritos em 17 a 23%; a lipemia <italic>retinalis</italic> , em 4 a 36%; hepatoesplenomegalia ou esplenomegalia isolada, em 12% a 25%; dor abdominal, em 26 a 63%; pancreatite, em 60% a 88%; com m&#250;ltiplas pancreatites, em 17 a 48% dos pacientes com SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> O aspecto do soro &#233; importante para diferenciar situa&#231;&#245;es que causam o aumento do glicerol livre no sangue, levando a uma superestima&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides, sem a turva&#231;&#227;o do soro, observado ap&#243;s permanecer por 12h em geladeira e excluindo-se causas de aumento de hiperglicerolemia (exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico recente, ingest&#227;o alc&#243;olica, doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica aguda, diabetes descompensado, nutri&#231;&#227;o parenteral ou medica&#231;&#227;o intravenosa contendo glicerol).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na SQF, a HTG grave resulta da incapacidade da metaboliza&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides e outras gorduras. As gorduras s&#227;o absorvidas pelo intestino delgado, no qual os quilom&#237;crons s&#227;o formados. Quando a LPL tem sua atividade normal, ela participa da hidr&#243;lise dos triglic&#233;rides de quilom&#237;crons em &#225;cidos graxos livres, por meio da via dependente da LPL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Na SQF, os quilom&#237;crons, os quilom&#237;crons remanescentes e as lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em triglic&#233;rides n&#227;o podem ser metabolizados e se acumulam no plasma. Dessa forma, o ac&#250;mulo de triglic&#233;rides pode prejudicar o fluxo sangu&#237;neo pancre&#225;tico e ativar processos inflamat&#243;rios, resultando em pancreatite aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O papel da LPL e de seus cofatores &#233; crucial para se entender o metabolismo das lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A s&#237;ntese de LPL ocorre no intracelular de adip&#243;citos e c&#233;lulas musculares lisas. Ela &#233; produzida como um mon&#244;mero, e o fator de matura&#231;&#227;o da lipase (LMF-1) &#233; necess&#225;rio para que ocorra a correta homodimeriza&#231;&#227;o da LPL. Ap&#243;s esse passo, a GPIHBP1, uma glicoprote&#237;na envolvida no transporte da LPL no l&#250;men dos capilares, facilita a ancoragem da LPL aos capilares endoteliais, em que hidrolisa os triglic&#233;rides dos quilom&#237;crons e de VLDL (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>very-low-density lipopprotein</italic> ). As apolipoprote&#237;nas C2 e A5 participam como cofatores na ativa&#231;&#227;o da LPL. A hidr&#243;lise dos triglic&#233;rides dessas lipoprote&#237;nas libera &#225;cidos graxos livres e monoglicer&#237;deos, que s&#227;o transportados aos mi&#243;citos ou adip&#243;citos, em que s&#227;o utilizados para produ&#231;&#227;o de energia ou para estocar l&#237;pides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Muta&#231;&#245;es em 5 genes diferentes t&#234;m sido implicadas no desenvolvimento de SQF, todas com efeito sobre a atividade da LPL, respons&#225;vel pela remo&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides dos quilom&#237;crons e de outras lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em triglic&#233;rides na circula&#231;&#227;o, quebrando-os em &#225;cidos graxos livres. Pacientes com SQF t&#234;m perda de fun&#231;&#227;o do gene <italic>LPL</italic> levando a n&#237;veis de quilom&#237;crons extremamente elevados na circula&#231;&#227;o e, portanto, HTG grave. Outros genes tamb&#233;m foram descritos como cofatores na ativa&#231;&#227;o da LPL, a saber: <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>LMF1</italic> e <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1.1. Primeiros Casos de S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
          <p>A primeira descri&#231;&#227;o da SQF foi feita por Gaskins <italic>et al</italic> .,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> em 1953, quando acompanhou tr&#234;s casos em uma fam&#237;lia de oito pessoas, com diagn&#243;stico de hiperlipoproteinemia familiar idiop&#225;tica. Os pacientes apresentavam soro leitoso, com triglic&#233;rides muito elevados, e a dieta restrita em gorduras, seguida da administra&#231;&#227;o de heparina endovenosa, reduzia muito os triglic&#233;rides, sugerindo que o defeito fosse relacionado &#224; remo&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides da circula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em 1960, essa fam&#237;lia foi estudada e suspeitou-se que a LPL, enzima ancorada ao endot&#233;lio vascular e liberada da parede pela heparina, seria a respons&#225;vel pelo defeito lip&#237;dico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Ao estudar tr&#234;s irm&#227;os afetados pela condi&#231;&#227;o, os autores tamb&#233;m sugeriram que outro defeito, al&#233;m da LPL, poderia causar a ent&#227;o chamada s&#237;ndrome da hiperlipoproteinemia familiar idiop&#225;tica.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.2. Epidemiologia da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar no Mundo</title>
      <p>Por ser uma doen&#231;a muito rara, os relatos de especialistas contribuem grandemente nas estimativas de preval&#234;ncia. Hegele <italic>et al</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> reportaram que, de uma s&#233;rie de amostras biol&#243;gicas de 381 pacientes com triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, quatro pacientes (ou 1%) apresentavam duas muta&#231;&#245;es com largo efeito por perda de fun&#231;&#227;o em ambos os alelos do gene da <italic>LPL</italic> , caracterizando a cl&#225;ssica defici&#234;ncia da LPL autoss&#244;mica recessiva. Quando foram considerados pacientes com muta&#231;&#245;es em ambos os alelos dos quatro genes ditos menores (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>minor</italic> ), que modulam a atividade da LPL &#8211; a saber, apolipoprote&#237;na C2 ( <italic>APOC2</italic> ), apolipoprote&#237;na A5 ( <italic>APOA5</italic> ), fator de matura&#231;&#227;o da lipase 1 ( <italic>LMF1</italic> ), e no gene <italic>glycoprotein-inositol high-density lipoprotein&#8211;binding protein 1</italic> ( <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> ) &#8211;, foram encontrados outros quatro pacientes, ou seja, mais 1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Pacientes com duas muta&#231;&#245;es no gene <italic>LPL</italic> ou em seus genes reguladores, os heterozigotos compostos, possuem duas muta&#231;&#245;es diferentes com perda de fun&#231;&#227;o, e aqueles com duas muta&#231;&#245;es em heterozigose em dois genes causais distintos, ou seja, heterozigotos duplos, somaram mais 1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Assim, estimou-se que cerca de 3% dos pacientes com HTG grave (triglic&#233;rides &#8805;1.000mg/dL) dessa amostra tinham muta&#231;&#245;es em ambos os alelos dos genes que codificam a LPL ou uma das prote&#237;nas moduladoras de sua atividade. Esses pacientes podem ser homozigotos, heterozigotos compostos ou heterozigotos duplos. Essas condi&#231;&#245;es foram descritas entre os franco-canadenses da prov&#237;ncia de Quebec, onde a porcentagem de pacientes com dois alelos mutantes &#233; maior devido a efeito fundador. Tal preval&#234;ncia pode parecer pequena se comparada &#224; imensa maioria de pacientes com HTG grave. Contudo, na aus&#234;ncia de teste gen&#233;tico, n&#227;o se pode separar a SQF (tipo I) da SQM (ou tipo V) em pacientes com triglic&#233;rides &#8805;1.000mg/dL. Na verdade, a maioria dos pacientes com HTG grave (97%) apresenta uma base gen&#233;tica, ainda n&#227;o muito bem esclarecida, que inclui heterozigose para uma muta&#231;&#227;o com perda de fun&#231;&#227;o no gene <italic>LPL</italic> ou seus cofatores e outras variantes de menor impacto, ou, ainda, possuem forte componente de fatores ambientais. H&#225;, assim, uma base polig&#234;nica com muitas variantes poss&#237;veis em diferentes combina&#231;&#245;es que est&#227;o super-representadas entre esses pacientes com HTG graves, que perfazem a forma multifatorial (SQM).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os dados de Surendran <italic>et al</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> mostram que dos cinco genes causais, 34% das muta&#231;&#245;es encontradas foram no gene <italic>LPL</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Comparando-se os dados cl&#237;nicos e laboratoriais de pacientes com SQF de v&#225;rias etiologias gen&#233;ticas, as SQF decorrentes de defeito no gene <italic>LPL</italic> s&#227;o fenotipicamente muito semelhantes aos defeitos n&#227;o relacionados ao gene <italic>LPL</italic> . No entanto, pacientes com defeito no gene <italic>LPL</italic> apresentam menor atividade da lipase p&#243;s-heparina e tendem a ter triglic&#233;rides mais elevados. J&#225; as concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL-C s&#227;o, em geral, maiores entre os portadores de defeitos em genes que n&#227;o a <italic>LPL</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Utilizando-se dos dados do <italic>National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</italic> (NHANES) de 2001 a 2006, estimou-se a preval&#234;ncia de HTG grave entre 5.680 adultos com mais de 20 anos, que dispunham de resultados de triglic&#233;rides obtidos em jejum. Nesses, a preval&#234;ncia de triglic&#233;rides entre 500 e 2.000mg/dL foi de 1,7% (87 indiv&#237;duos), e &gt;2.000mg/dL, encontrou-se apenas em tr&#234;s indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Esses dados extrapolados para a popula&#231;&#227;o norte-americana dariam uma estimativa de 3.357.214 de adultos com HTG grave com triglic&#233;rides entre 500 e 2.000mg/dL e 81.877 &#8805;2.000mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um estudo retrospectivo transversal avaliou pacientes da <italic>Oregon Health &amp; Science University</italic> de julho de 2012 a julho de 2017.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Foram revisados os dados eletr&#244;nicos dos pacientes atendidos naquele per&#237;odo baseando-se em quatro crit&#233;rios: triglic&#233;rides &#8805;880mg/dL, hist&#243;ria de pancreatite aguda, aus&#234;ncia de causas secund&#225;rias de HTG e resposta insuficiente (&lt;20%) &#224; terapia redutora de triglic&#233;rides. Quando tr&#234;s desses quatro crit&#233;rios eram preenchidos, considerava-se prov&#225;vel SQF. Na presen&#231;a de quatro crit&#233;rios, ou se houvesse confirma&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a de muta&#231;&#227;o em genes causais, considerava-se diagn&#243;stico definitivo de SQF. Dos 2.342.136 dados eletr&#244;nicos avaliados, 578 pacientes tinham triglic&#233;rides &#8805;880mg/dL (0,025%), dos quais 86 tinham hist&#243;ria documentada de pancreatite. Cinco pacientes que preencheram os crit&#233;rios de SQF foram identificados e tr&#234;s obtiveram confirma&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica, resultando em uma preval&#234;ncia estimada de 1-2 por 1.000.000 de pessoas. J&#225; a SQM foi identificada em 186 pacientes, correspondendo a uma preval&#234;ncia estimada de 1 em 12.000 pessoas. Houve 5.181 casos de pancreatite (0,22% de toda a coorte), 86 destes ocorreram em indiv&#237;duos com triglic&#233;rides &#8805;880mg/dL (1,7% dos casos de pancreatite). As taxas de pancreatite nesta subamostra se elevaram para 6,5%, 100%, e 17,8% entre pacientes com SQM, SQF e HTG de causas secund&#225;rias, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em outro estudo retrospectivo, com dados de 70.201 pacientes atendidos na <italic>Cleveland Clinic Lipid Center</italic> de janeiro a dezembro de 2006, usando o valor de corte de triglic&#233;rides &#8805;750mg/dL e a presen&#231;a de pancreatite pr&#233;via como crit&#233;rios, foram encontrados 369 indiv&#237;duos que perfaziam essas condi&#231;&#245;es. Desses, 333 correspondiam a causas secund&#225;rias, ou os dados eram inconsistentes ou faltantes e foram exclu&#237;dos. Dos 36 participantes restantes, 14 tinham crit&#233;rios de SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Segundo os autores, nessa coorte de SQF, a preval&#234;ncia encontrada foi de pelo menos 1:5.000, com base em crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos estabelecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Esses dados representam uma preval&#234;ncia &gt;20-200 vezes os dados de preval&#234;ncia de relatos anteriores. Um rastreamento de pacientes com triglic&#233;rides &#8805;1.000mg/dL e hist&#243;ria de pancreatite a partir dos dados eletr&#244;nicos da <italic>North Texas Division of the Baylor Scott &amp; White Health System</italic> , no per&#237;odo de setembro de 2015 a setembro de 2016, evidenciou que de 297.891 pacientes adultos com valores dispon&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides, 334 (0,11%) tinham valores de triglic&#233;rides &#8805;1.000mg/dL, e 30 (9%) desses tiveram pancreatite. Desses, seis casos foram exclu&#237;dos devido a causas secund&#225;rias. Dos 24 casos restantes, os maiores valores m&#233;dios de triglic&#233;rides encontrados foram de 3.085 +/- 1.211mg/dL. Assim, o rastreio eletr&#244;nico dos triglic&#233;rides &#8805;1.000mg/dL e a hist&#243;ria de pancreatite permitiram afastar 99,99% das HTG graves, restando 24 casos em que a SQF n&#227;o p&#244;de ser exclu&#237;da, sugerindo uma preval&#234;ncia de 1 em 12.413 pessoas. Uma importante limita&#231;&#227;o aos dados desses dois estudos foi a indisponibilidade de confirma&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outro estudo em Quebec avaliou a apar&#234;ncia do plasma e classificou os pacientes de acordo com os valores de triglic&#233;rides, a prov&#225;vel etiologia e as caracter&#237;sticas bioqu&#237;micas. Um total de 354 pessoas com plasma lactescente foi comparado a 482 pacientes com plasma claro, mas com triglic&#233;rides &gt;5mmol/L (cerca de 440mg/dL) e com 364 controles normolipid&#234;micos (triglic&#233;rides &lt;2mmol/L, ou &lt;176mg/dL). Os autores observaram que o plasma lactescente representava um grupo heterog&#234;neo de pacientes de alto risco e, entre aqueles, foram encontrados 28 pacientes com SQF, 62 com disbetalipoproteinemia (por defeitos no gene <italic>APOE</italic> , E2E2), 182 com HTG tipo IV e 82 pacientes com HTG tipo V. Do ponto de vista cl&#237;nico, quanto maiores as concentra&#231;&#245;es de triglic&#233;rides e quanto mais leitoso o plasma, houve maior risco de pancreatites. O exame visual do plasma e o fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico foram &#250;teis para estabelecer o risco cardiometab&#243;lico dos pacientes, sendo o reconhecimento do plasma lactescente uma ferramenta diagn&#243;stica simples que pode auxiliar na identifica&#231;&#227;o daqueles de maior risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
      <p>J&#225; os dados de Dron et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> sugeriram que apenas 1 a 2% dos pacientes com HTG &#8805;1.000mg/dL tinham SQF, sendo a maioria dos demais SQM. Analisando variantes raras e comuns em duas coortes independentes de 251 e 312 pacientes caucasianos com HTG grave e, sequenciando-se por NGS ( <italic>next generation sequencing</italic> ) 73 genes e 185 polimorfismos de nucleot&#237;deo &#250;nico (SNPs) associados com hiperlipidemia, al&#233;m dos cinco genes causais para SQF ( <italic>LPL</italic> , <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , e <italic>LMF1</italic> ), encontrou-se que 1,1% tinha variantes bial&#233;licas raras, 14,4% tinham variantes raras em heterozigose e 32% dispunham de um ac&#250;mulo de variantes comuns, ou seja, um escore polig&#234;nico elevado, e 52% permaneceram n&#227;o identificados. Os pacientes com HTG grave eram 5,77 vezes mais propensos a carrear uma dessas variantes de suscetibilidade do que os controles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um relato de SQF em uma fam&#237;lia com tr&#234;s membros afetados que apresentavam HTG grave e epis&#243;dios de pancreatite teve seu painel gen&#233;tico analisado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> O caso &#237;ndice era de uma mulher com m&#250;ltiplos epis&#243;dios de pancreatite, um deles durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o e que necessitou de plasmaf&#233;rese. Foi tamb&#233;m avaliada a preval&#234;ncia de HTG grave a partir de dados populacionais obtidos de um laborat&#243;rio de refer&#234;ncia onde foram afastadas causas secund&#225;rias (207.926 participantes, com idade de 58 anos, 52% mulheres) e diabetes. A mulher de 28 anos tinha HTG e pancreatites recorrentes, com in&#237;cio aos 3 meses de idade. Obtinha controle razo&#225;vel dos triglic&#233;rides com dieta pobre em gorduras at&#233; os 20 anos, quando passou a apresentar epis&#243;dios recorrentes de pancreatites, e triglic&#233;rides em jejum &gt;2.000mg/dL, necessitando de m&#250;ltiplas hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es, a despeito do tratamento. Al&#233;m da dieta restrita, recebeu fenofibrato, triglic&#233;rides de cadeia m&#233;dia, &#225;cido nicot&#237;nico e &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3, sem resposta satisfat&#243;ria. Durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o, aos 30 anos, necessitou de plasmaf&#233;rese semanal ou a cada 2 semanas, at&#233; o parto. Seus pais e uma irm&#227; tinham HTG e hist&#243;ria de pancreatite. A paciente era heterozig&#243;tica composta para muta&#231;&#245;es no gene <italic>LPL</italic> (dele&#231;&#227;o c.708delA [p.G237fs*15] e variante <italic>missense</italic> c.644G.A [p.G215E]), que comprometem a fun&#231;&#227;o da LPL. O pai apresentava a variante com dele&#231;&#227;o c.708delA (p.G237fs*15), a m&#227;e e a irm&#227;, a variante c.644G.A (p.G215E). A an&#225;lise de 207.926 indiv&#237;duos da popula&#231;&#227;o encontrou 25 com triglic&#233;rides em jejum &gt;2.000mg/dL, sem evid&#234;ncias de causas secund&#225;rias, estimando-se uma preval&#234;ncia de 120/1 milh&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em outro estudo, a preval&#234;ncia de SQF foi avaliada em uma &#225;rea basicamente rural na regi&#227;o central do estado de Nova York com uma popula&#231;&#227;o estimada em 870.000 habitantes. Analisando-se os dados de prontu&#225;rios eletr&#244;nicos de 385.000 pacientes, foram encontrados 998 com triglic&#233;rides &gt;750mg/dL, sendo que 994 foram eliminados por causas secund&#225;rias de HTG, resposta satisfat&#243;ria ao tratamento ou por dados incompletos. Restaram 4 pacientes com crit&#233;rios de SQF. Assim, a chance de encontrar 4 casos em 870.000 seria de 0,01, o que sugere que a preval&#234;ncia de 1/1.000.000 seja subestima&#231;&#227;o. Atribuiu-se a alta preval&#234;ncia a um prov&#225;vel efeito fundador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia de SQF foi tamb&#233;m avaliada de maneira retrospectiva a partir de dados de prontu&#225;rios eletr&#244;nicos de 7.699.288 pacientes da Universidade da Calif&#243;rnia do Sul, com triglic&#233;rides &gt;880mg/dL, pelo menos um epis&#243;dio de pancreatite, resposta &#224; terapia hipolipemiante &lt;20% e afastadas causas secund&#225;rias. Essa an&#225;lise mostrou uma preval&#234;ncia de SQF de 0,26 a 0,65 por milh&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Finalmente, a preval&#234;ncia de SQF foi determinada em um centro de aten&#231;&#227;o quatern&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Foram revistos dados de 1.627.763 pacientes atendidos no Hospital Johns Hopkins de 2013 a 2017. O crit&#233;rio para SQF incluiu pacientes com a) triglic&#233;rides &gt;750mg/dL em pelo menos uma dosagem, b) hist&#243;ria de pancreatite aguda, dores abdominais recorrentes n&#227;o explicadas e/ou hist&#243;ria familiar de HTG e c) aus&#234;ncia de causas secund&#225;rias de HTG. Foram encontrados 21 casos de SQF e 89 de causas secund&#225;rias de HTG. A preval&#234;ncia de SQF nesse estudo foi de 13:1.000.000 (IC95% 8-20).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.3. Epidemiologia da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar em Crian&#231;as</title>
      <p>Em crian&#231;as, n&#227;o existem dados acerca da preval&#234;ncia de HTG grave e de SQF. An&#225;lise retrospectiva de prontu&#225;rios eletr&#244;nicos de um hospital pedi&#225;trico terci&#225;rio ( <italic>Children&#8217;s Medical Center</italic> , <italic>Dallas</italic> ) e dos dados do NHANES de 2000-2015 foram pesquisados. De 30.623 crian&#231;as do <italic>Children&#8217;s Medical Center</italic> , 36 (1 em 1.000) tinham triglic&#233;rides com eleva&#231;&#227;o extrema (&#8805;2.000mg/dL), e um ter&#231;o dessas desenvolveu pancreatite aguda. A maioria desses casos correspondia a causas secund&#225;rias de HTG, sendo a preval&#234;ncia estimada de SQF em crian&#231;as de 1:6.000 em um centro de aten&#231;&#227;o terci&#225;ria e de 1:300.000 em crian&#231;as da popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Dos dados do NHANES 2.000-2015, nenhuma das 2.362 crian&#231;as preencheu os crit&#233;rios de HTG extrema, enquanto, nos adultos do NHANES, a preval&#234;ncia estimada era de 0,02%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.4. Epidemiologia da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar no Brasil</title>
      <p>Em nosso pa&#237;s, os relatos de casos de SQF s&#227;o muito escassos. S&#227;o descritos casos de SQF em v&#225;rias regi&#245;es do pa&#237;s, com maior concentra&#231;&#227;o de casos em regi&#245;es onde existe efeito fundador, especialmente na regi&#227;o Nordeste, por&#233;m n&#227;o foram encontradas publica&#231;&#245;es sobre o tema. Foram identificadas apresenta&#231;&#245;es em congressos, com publica&#231;&#245;es em anais dos eventos.</p>
      <p>O primeiro relato de caso foi de uma crian&#231;a do sexo masculino, com 3 anos de idade, que apresentou soro lip&#234;mico e concentra&#231;&#245;es de triglic&#233;rides plasm&#225;ticos de 25.000mg/dL aos 3 meses de idade com aleitamento materno exclusivo. Aos 3 anos, apresentava hepatoesplenomegalia e, ap&#243;s dieta restrita em gorduras e leite desnatado, os triglic&#233;rides foram para 990mg/dL. Apresentava atividade da LPL nula e foi detectada a muta&#231;&#227;o G188E no &#233;xon 5 da lipoprote&#237;na lipase em homozigose na crian&#231;a, e em heterozigose nos pais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outro relato consiste em dois casos de crian&#231;as, uma com 21 dias e a outra com 4 meses e 15 dias de vida. Em ambos os casos, a HTG foi achado casual realizado a partir do aspecto descrito como xantocr&#244;mico do sangue durante coleta de exames. Os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides ao diagn&#243;stico eram de 18.019mg/dL e 5.333mg/dL, respectivamente. Ap&#243;s interven&#231;&#227;o diet&#233;tica hospitalar e ambulatorial, os menores n&#237;veis alcan&#231;ados de triglic&#233;rides foram de 602mg/dL e 615mg/dL. Um dos pacientes evoluiu com epis&#243;dios recorrentes de pancreatite aguda, relacionados a n&#237;veis elevados de triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outro caso descrito &#233; de uma crian&#231;a de 15 meses com quilot&#243;rax e perfil lip&#237;dico sugestivo de SQF, com triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, sem epis&#243;dios de pancreatite, em paciente oriundo de regi&#227;o no Rio Grande do Norte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Outro caso identificado foi o de uma mulher de 45 anos com HTG grave e diabetes e xantomas eruptivos exuberantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Dois outros casos de irm&#227;os com SQF com confirma&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica de muta&#231;&#227;o no gene <italic>LPL</italic> foram identificados, oriundos de regi&#227;o do interior da Para&#237;ba.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Outro relato de caso &#233; de uma crian&#231;a de 45 dias de vida com queixa de v&#244;mitos e irritabilidade, triglic&#233;rides de 6541mg/dL e com an&#225;lise molecular alterada em 3 variantes: Chr8:19.811.733 G&gt;A, promovendo a substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido glicina no c&#243;don 215 por glutamato (p.Gly215Glu); Chr8:19.813.385 G&gt;A, promovendo a substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido arginina no c&#243;don 270 por histidina (p.Arg270His); e Chr8:19.811.823 T&gt;C, promovendo a substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido isoleucina no c&#243;don 245 por treonina (p.Ile245Thr). A conduta diet&#233;tica foi leite desnatado, triglic&#233;rides de cadeia m&#233;dia (TCM) e vitaminas A, D, E e K. Ap&#243;s a alta, foi mudada a dieta, recebendo f&#243;rmula l&#225;ctea que levou a aumento dos triglic&#233;rides (11760mg/dL). Foi institu&#237;do jejum e restitu&#237;da a conduta diet&#233;tica anterior, o que permitiu controle razo&#225;vel da trigliceridemia, crescimento e ganho ponderal adequados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Lima et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> publicaram recentemente 12 casos de SQF em pacientes com muta&#231;&#227;o em homozigose em regi&#227;o intr&#244;nica do gene <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , todos com HTG grave (2351mg/dL [885-20600mg/dL]), HDL-c baixo (18mg/dL [5-41mg/dL]) e 33% com epis&#243;dios de pancreatite aguda. Todos os pacientes eram oriundos de cidades do Nordeste do pa&#237;s, sugerindo um efeito fundador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A falta de crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos padronizados, a semelhan&#231;a com a SQM, a escassez de testes gen&#233;ticos confirmat&#243;rios, a falta de registros nacionais e internacionais e, ainda, o efeito fundador dos genes causais fazem com que os dados de preval&#234;ncia da SQF sejam t&#227;o vari&#225;veis de estudo para estudo.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas mais frequentes na s&#237;ndrome da quilomicronemia familiar</title>
      <sec>
        <title>7.1. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas na S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
        <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas das formas monog&#234;nicas de quilomicronemia, em geral, ocorrem na inf&#226;ncia ou in&#237;cio da vida adulta. Entretanto, por se tratar de uma doen&#231;a relativamente rara, atrasos no diagn&#243;stico s&#227;o comuns, fazendo com que o mesmo ocorra na vida adulta, quando as complica&#231;&#245;es j&#225; est&#227;o estabelecidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma revis&#227;o de base de dados do estudo APPROACH demonstrou que a m&#233;dia de idade ao diagn&#243;stico era 24 anos, com mais da metade dos 66 pacientes tendo sido diagnosticados ap&#243;s os 20 anos de idade. Ao diagn&#243;stico, 75% j&#225; haviam apresentado o primeiro epis&#243;dio de pancreatite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Outras s&#233;ries descrevem uma m&#233;dia de avalia&#231;&#227;o por cinco m&#233;dicos diferentes antes de o diagn&#243;stico vir a ser estabelecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estes refor&#231;am a import&#226;ncia do diagn&#243;stico precoce e oportuno. As principais manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da SQF est&#227;o descritas a seguir.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.1. Hipertrigliceridemia</title>
          <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial, os pacientes afetados t&#234;m hiperquilomicronemia, apresentando-se com grande aumento dos triglic&#233;rides &#8211; em geral, na faixa de 1.500 a 5.000mg/dL &#8211;, &#224;s custas de aumento de VLDL-colesterol ( <italic>very low-density lipoproteins</italic> ) e, principalmente, quilom&#237;crons circulantes. Como uma pequena quantidade de colesterol tamb&#233;m &#233; transportada e encontra-se presente nos quilom&#237;crons, o colesterol total pode estar elevado, em geral em uma propor&#231;&#227;o triglic&#233;rides/colesterol &lt;5:1. Muitos pacientes t&#234;m aumento moderado da VLDL-c, mas com n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol e apolipoprote&#237;na B &lt;100mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Na Classifica&#231;&#227;o de Friedrickson, apesar de o fen&#243;tipo do tipo V ser o mais comum, o tipo I parece ser mais espec&#237;fico para o diagn&#243;stico de SQF em adultos. Em crian&#231;as, o fen&#243;tipo tipo 1 &#233; mais frequentemente observado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Habitualmente, a HTG grave dos pacientes com SQF apresenta pouca resposta a fibratos e/ou demais medica&#231;&#245;es hipolipemiantes. Para esses casos, que constituem enorme desafio na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria, a principal arma terap&#234;utica &#233; a dieta com redu&#231;&#227;o dr&#225;stica de ingest&#227;o de gordura (8 a 10% do total de calorias di&#225;rias). N&#227;o raramente, a severidade da dieta dificulta a ades&#227;o dos pacientes ao tratamento a longo prazo e impacta de forma significativa a sua qualidade de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.2. Dor Abdominal e Pancreatite Aguda</title>
          <p>Dor abdominal recorrente &#233; uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o presente em at&#233; 50% dos pacientes e n&#227;o &#233; necessariamente associada com os quadros de pancreatite aguda, podendo ser incapacitante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em m&#233;dia, a partir do n&#237;vel de triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, ocorre aumento da incid&#234;ncia de 3% no risco de pancreatite a cada eleva&#231;&#227;o de 100mg/dL de triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Um estudo canadense comparou um grupo de 25 indiv&#237;duos com SQF e outro com 36 pacientes com SQM e demonstrou que, apesar de apresentarem mesmos n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de triglic&#233;rides, o grupo com SQF apresentou 10 vezes mais risco (60 x 6%) de pancreatite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Provavelmente, isso decorre de um maior tempo de exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; hiperquilomicronemia, que, no caso da SQF, tende a ocorrer nos primeiros anos de vida.</p>
          <p>Os m&#250;ltiplos epis&#243;dios de pancreatite aguda e a severidade das restri&#231;&#245;es alimentares impactam de forma negativa a qualidade da vida do paciente e aumentam consideravelmente a morbimortalidade pela doen&#231;a. Pancreatite recorrente ocorre em 50% dos pacientes com SQF; a taxa geral de mortalidade associada &#233; de 5 a 6%, podendo chegar a 30% em subgrupos de pacientes que evoluem com necrose pancre&#225;tica ou fal&#234;ncia persistente de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.3. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Neurol&#243;gicas</title>
          <p>Fadiga, confus&#227;o mental, irritabilidade e d&#233;ficits cognitivos &#8211; descritos como &#8220; <italic>mental fog</italic> &#8221; &#8211; est&#227;o entre os sintomas mais comumente descritos entre os pacientes acometidos com SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.4. Hepatosplenomegalia</title>
          <p>A hepatosplenomegalia &#233; um dos achados revers&#237;veis com o tratamento e resulta do ac&#250;mulo do excesso de quilom&#237;crons nos macr&#243;fagos do sistema reticuloendotelial na SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.5. Xantomas Eruptivos</title>
          <p>Os xantomas correspondem a les&#245;es cut&#226;neas eruptivas, de colora&#231;&#227;o amarelada, geralmente com halo eritematoso e cerca de 2 a 5 mm de di&#226;metro. S&#227;o encontrados em superf&#237;cies extensoras (cotovelos e joelhos) e n&#225;degas. Sua preval&#234;ncia &#233; baixa (acomete de 17 a 33% dos pacientes), e nem sempre se correlacionam com a ocorr&#234;ncia dos epis&#243;dios de pancreatite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.6. Lipemia Retinalis</title>
          <p>Trata-se da apar&#234;ncia leitosa do sangue nos vasos retinianos ao fundo de olho, e pode ser observada em at&#233; 30% dos pacientes, correlacionando-se com n&#237;veis maiores de triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.7. Qualidade de Vida</title>
          <p>O estudo IN-FOCUS, com 166 pacientes com SQF, mostrou o importante impacto da doen&#231;a na qualidade de vida. As taxas de interna&#231;&#227;o podem interferir nas condi&#231;&#245;es sociais e possibilidades de emprego, e mais de 22% referiram depress&#227;o ou ansiedade relacionada &#224; dor ou a epis&#243;dios de pancreatite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.8. Escore Diagn&#243;stico</title>
          <p>Algumas escalas ou escores de pontua&#231;&#227;o a partir das manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas t&#234;m sido propostas para diagn&#243;stico de SQF; entretanto, sua valida&#231;&#227;o precisa ser feita em maiores amostras de popula&#231;&#245;es com HTG grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Adicionalmente, sua aplicabilidade &#233; question&#225;vel, visto que utilizam a presen&#231;a de epis&#243;dios de pancreatite pr&#233;vios nos seus crit&#233;rios de pontua&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Fundamentalmente, o objetivo de utiliza&#231;&#227;o de escores de diagn&#243;stico consiste em rastreamento de pacientes assintom&#225;ticos e preven&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es como a pancreatite aguda. A avalia&#231;&#227;o de bases de dados com maior n&#250;mero de pacientes com SQF e o detalhamento de formas cl&#237;nicas dever&#227;o contribuir para elabora&#231;&#227;o de crit&#233;rios com melhor sensibilidade e especificidade para o diagn&#243;stico da SQF.</p>
          <p>O escore mais utilizado &#233; o de Moulin et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> que utiliza como crit&#233;rio de sele&#231;&#227;o a presen&#231;a de HTG grave (&gt;1.000mg/dL em jejum e fora da fase aguda), e pontua quando h&#225; presen&#231;a de valores elevados de triglic&#233;rides, afastadas causas secund&#225;rias, hist&#243;ria de pancreatite, dor abdominal recorrente, falta de resposta ao tratamento usual para redu&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides, al&#233;m de idade de in&#237;cio dos sintomas ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">Quadro 1</xref> ). Esse escore foi testado em coortes de pacientes com confirma&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica de SQF e na SQM, tendo sido validado em outras coortes mostrando uma &#225;rea sob a curva de 0,91. Tal posicionamento recomenda que seja utilizado na triagem para o teste gen&#233;tico.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t12">
              <label>Quadro 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Escore cl&#237;nico para suspei&#231;&#227;o de s&#237;ndrome da quilomicronemia familiar</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Crit&#233;rio</th>
                    <th>Pontua&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>TG em jejum <underline>&gt;</underline> 1.000mg/dL em 3 dosagens n&#227;o necessariamente consecutivas</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>* TG em jejum pelo menos uma vez <underline>&gt;</underline> 1.760mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>TG pr&#233;vio &lt;200mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">- 5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sem fatores secund&#225;rios, exceto gesta&#231;&#227;o e etinilestradiol</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hist&#243;ria de pancreatite</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dor abdominal recorrente sem outra causa</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sem hist&#243;ria de hiperlipidemia familiar combinada</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sem resposta ao tratamento hipolipemiante (redu&#231;&#227;o de TG &lt;20%)</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Idade de in&#237;cio dos sintomas:</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&lt;40 anos</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&lt; 20 anos</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&lt; 10 anos</td>
                    <td align="center">+ 3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Escore SQF</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Muito prov&#225;vel</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805;10</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Improv&#225;vel</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&#8804; 9</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="simple">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Muito improv&#225;vel</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">&#8804; 8</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN4">
                  <p>
                    <italic>TG: triglic&#233;rides; SQF: s&#237;ndrome da quilomicronemia familiar. *Apenas se o crit&#233;rio anterior (TG em jejum <underline><italic>&gt;</italic></underline> 1.000mg/dL em 3 dosagens n&#227;o necessariamente consecutivas) for sim. Adaptado de Moulin et al. Atherosclerosis 2018;275:265-272. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup><italic>21</italic></sup></xref></italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7.2. Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial</title>
      <sec>
        <title>7.2.1. S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Multifatorial</title>
        <p>Em adultos, o principal diagn&#243;stico diferencial da SQF &#233; com a SQM. Anteriormente denominada hiperlipoproteinemia tipo V de Fredrickson ou HTG severa polig&#234;nica, a HTG multifatorial &#233; um dist&#250;rbio polig&#234;nico, que inclui variantes heterozigotas raras nos cinco genes SQF ou variantes comumente associadas a hipetrigliceridemia, agravado pela presen&#231;a de comorbidades ou causas secund&#225;rias de aumento dos triglic&#233;rides como diabetes n&#227;o controlado, hipotireoidismo, obesidade e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Fatores diet&#233;ticos, como uso abusivo de &#225;lcool, dieta rica em gorduras, a&#231;&#250;cares simples e outros carboidratos de elevado &#237;ndice glic&#234;mico s&#227;o causas comuns de exacerba&#231;&#227;o da hipetrigliceridemia. Entre as causas ambientais, destaca-se, ainda, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de certos medicamentos (glicocorticoides, estr&#243;genos orais, diur&#233;ticos tiaz&#237;dicos, betabloqueadores n&#227;o cardiosseletivos, antipsic&#243;ticos de segunda gera&#231;&#227;o, inibidores de protease, ciclofosfamida, sequestrantes de &#225;cidos biliares, amiodarona, &#225;cido retinoico, isotretino&#237;na, sirolimo, L-asparaginase e imunossupressores, como interferon e ciclosporina) e condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas como gesta&#231;&#227;o, principalmente no terceiro trimestre.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Em geral, a preval&#234;ncia de SQM tende a crescer de forma linear com o aumento da preval&#234;ncia das causas secund&#225;rias mais comuns (obesidade, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e diabetes tipo 2). Entre os portadores da SQM, a quilomicronemia &#233; flutuante e se manifesta em fases mais tardias da vida quando comparada &#224; SQF. Adicionalmente, a SQM tende a apresentar melhor resposta terap&#234;utica &#224;s modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida e ao tratamento dos fatores secund&#225;rios, bem como &#224;s farmacoterapias redutoras de triglic&#233;rides. A SQM caracteriza-se por um risco aumentado de pancreatite, por&#233;m menor que aquele relatado em pacientes com SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.2.2. Lipodistrofias</title>
        <p>Outro relevante diagn&#243;stico diferencial da SQF s&#227;o as lipodistrofias, um grupo heterog&#234;neo de enfermidades caracterizadas pela perda seletiva de tecido adiposo e que podem cursar com HTG grave e pancreatite. As lipodistrofias podem ser herdadas ou adquiridas e, quanto &#224; extens&#227;o do acometimento, generalizadas ou parciais, sendo as formas parciais associadas &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV as mais comuns. As lipodistrofias herdadas s&#227;o dist&#250;rbios raros, que podem se manifestar no nascimento ou apresentar perda de gordura em fases mais tardias da vida. Tais condi&#231;&#245;es ainda s&#227;o um desafio diagn&#243;stico, principalmente as formas parciais, que devem ter sua suspeita diagn&#243;stica considerada na presen&#231;a de HTG moderada a grave associada &#224; medida de prega cut&#226;nea da coxa &lt;22mm em mulheres, ou menor que 10 mm em homens, e/ou casos de diabetes com necessidade de uso de insulina subcut&#226;nea em doses di&#225;rias &gt;2UI/kg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7.3. Abordagem das Complica&#231;&#245;es da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
      <sec>
        <title>7.3.1. Pancreatite Aguda</title>
        <p>Pancreatite aguda &#233; um evento relativamente frequente, com diferentes causas, incluindo a HTG. Identificar a causa espec&#237;fica &#233; fundamental para estabelecer o tratamento e prevenir futuros epis&#243;dios. Nas diversas s&#233;ries, colelit&#237;ase &#233; a principal causa, seguida por consumo de &#225;lcool e HTG (menos de 10%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Apesar de ser uma causa menos frequente, valores elevados de trigliceridemia em pacientes com pancreatite se associam com maior mortalidade e pior progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Na gesta&#231;&#227;o, o estr&#243;geno estimula a produ&#231;&#227;o de VLDL hep&#225;tico e reduz a remo&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides pela LPL no f&#237;gado e tecido adiposo, de modo que a HTG passa a ser a causa mais frequente de pancreatite aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os epis&#243;dios de pancreatite em decorr&#234;ncia de HTG geralmente acontecem com valores de trigliceridemia &gt;1.000mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Esse risco, bem como a severidade, aumenta mais ainda naqueles pacientes com valores &gt;2.000mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Isso independe de a causa b&#225;sica da HTG ser prim&#225;ria (gen&#233;tica) ou secund&#225;ria. Contudo, as causas gen&#233;ticas geralmente cursam com valores mais elevados de trigliceridemia e, consequentemente, apresentam risco mais elevado de pancreatite.</p>
        <p>Na classifica&#231;&#227;o de Fredrickson, os tipos I (quilom&#237;cron), IV (VLDL) e V (quilom&#237;cron e VLDL) apresentam HTG, sendo que a SQF (tipo I) apresenta valores mais elevados e podem evoluir com pancreatites independentemente de fatores desencadeantes (diabetes descompensado, obesidade, uso de corticoide, estr&#243;genos ou outras drogas que causam HTG).</p>
        <p>O mecanismo causador da pancreatite n&#227;o &#233; totalmente conhecido, mas os triglic&#233;rides, por si s&#243;, n&#227;o parecem atuar diretamente no p&#226;ncreas. O ac&#250;mulo de &#225;cidos graxo livre nas c&#233;lulas pancre&#225;ticas acontece na presen&#231;a de lipase pancre&#225;tica e desencadeia a les&#227;o celular e a inflama&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Outro potencial mecanismo &#233; decorrente do ac&#250;mulo de GAD (descarboxilase do &#225;cido glut&#226;mico). Na falta de a&#231;&#227;o da LPL e consequente ac&#250;mulo de quilom&#237;crons, h&#225; tamb&#233;m aumento de GAD que desencadeia inflama&#231;&#227;o mediada por TNF-alfa e IL6. Tamb&#233;m, o pr&#243;prio quilom&#237;cron pode obstruir a circula&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica distal e causar isquemia.</p>
        <p>Independentemente da etiologia, a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da pancreatite &#233; semelhante. N&#227;o raramente, pacientes com SQF apresentam epis&#243;dios repetidos de pancreatite, e alguns referem na anamnese que n&#227;o sabem quantos foram, mas que foram muitos. Isso desencadeia altera&#231;&#245;es psicol&#243;gicas, comprometendo a qualidade de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Alguns pacientes at&#233; evitam ir para festas e reuni&#245;es, porque temem comer e desencadear a pancreatite. Crian&#231;as precisam de vigil&#226;ncia constante dos pais, pois, uma vez que n&#227;o entendem adequadamente a doen&#231;a, querem comer como os colegas que n&#227;o apresentam a doen&#231;a. Ap&#243;s apresentarem um primeiro epis&#243;dio de pancreatite (muitas vezes na adolesc&#234;ncia, ap&#243;s a menarca), a dor do quadro agudo e a necessidade do internamento hospitalar s&#227;o fatores que motivam seguir mais rigorosamente a dieta restritiva exigida para o controle da HTG severa.</p>
        <p>Xantomas eruptivos n&#227;o s&#227;o frequentes, mesmo com a HTG severa. No entanto, quando presentes em um paciente com pancreatite aguda, sugerem a HTG como causa etiol&#243;gica. Superf&#237;cies extensoras de bra&#231;os e pernas s&#227;o os locais mais frequentes. Infiltra&#231;&#227;o gordurosa de f&#237;gado e ba&#231;o, levando &#224; hepatoesplenomegalia, tamb&#233;m pode acontecer, mas &#233; mais inespec&#237;fica.</p>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico da pancreatite aguda deve se iniciar com uma suspeita cl&#237;nica (dor abdominal aguda e persistente, que se irradia para o dorso), sendo confirmada por exames laboratoriais (amilase ou lipase tr&#234;s vezes ou mais o limite superior de normalidade) e de imagem (ultrassonografia, tomografia ou resson&#226;ncia). Pelo menos dois desses tr&#234;s achados devem estar presentes para confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, e isso independe da etiologia da pancreatite. N&#227;o raramente, pacientes podem apresentar dor abdominal isolada, sem altera&#231;&#245;es laboratoriais ou de imagem. Na aus&#234;ncia de um quadro cl&#237;nico sugestivo, dosagens de lipase e amilase podem mais confundir que ajudar. Valores de triglic&#233;rides &lt;1.000mg/dL durante o epis&#243;dio cl&#237;nico sugestivo de pancreatite deixam a HTG como causa improv&#225;vel da pancreatite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma vez confirmado o diagn&#243;stico, o tratamento dever&#225; objetivar reduzir/eliminar a dor, bem como manter hidrata&#231;&#227;o adequada e, mesmo com dieta oral suspensa, permitir nutri&#231;&#227;o adequada ao quadro agudo. A redu&#231;&#227;o da trigliceridemia &#233; fundamental para reverter o processo inflamat&#243;rio e, sendo ela &#224;s custas de quilom&#237;cron, responder&#225; mais facilmente &#224; restri&#231;&#227;o da dieta oral. Nos casos mais severos (temperatura corporal &gt;38,5 ou &lt;35,0; frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &gt;90bpm; frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria &gt;20/min ou pCO2&lt;32mmHg; leuc&#243;citos &gt;12.000 ou &lt;4000/mL), com necessidade de uma redu&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida da trigliceridemia, plasmaf&#233;rese pode ser utilizada. Se uma dieta adequada n&#227;o for institu&#237;da ou fator desencadeante n&#227;o forem controlados, a remiss&#227;o do quadro &#233; mais dif&#237;cil. Insulina estimula LPL e tamb&#233;m pode ser utilizada em alguns casos (insulina regular 0,1 a 0,3U/kg/h). Da mesma forma, heparina tamb&#233;m atua estimulando a LPL, mas seu uso deve ser avaliado, pois pode n&#227;o trazer benef&#237;cios ao m&#233;dio prazo (aumenta risco de sangramento e de libera&#231;&#227;o de componentes t&#243;xicos dos triglic&#233;rides).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma vez que o paciente saia do quadro agudo da pancreatite, deve-se avaliar e tratar o fator que desencadeou o processo inflamat&#243;rio. Manter peso adequado, praticar exerc&#237;cios regularmente e evitar medica&#231;&#245;es ou outros fatores desencadeantes de HTG ajudam a prevenir novos eventos de pancreatite.</p>
        <p>Diferentemente de outras causas de HTG que respondem bem aos fibratos, a SQF, caracteristicamente, n&#227;o apresenta redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da trigliceridemia com essas medica&#231;&#245;es, n&#227;o sendo utilizada com finalidade de prevenir pancreatites nesses pacientes. A apo C3 &#233; um fator inibit&#243;rio da LPL, e sua inibi&#231;&#227;o com o volanesorsen (um oligonucleot&#237;deo antissentido da apo C3), com uma aplica&#231;&#227;o por semana, reduziu significativamente (77%) a trigliceridemia e, consequentemente, a chance de pancreatite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Do ponto de vista fisiopatol&#243;gico e considerando os benef&#237;cios demonstrados nos estudos cl&#237;nicos, pacientes com SQF se beneficiam do uso de volanesorsen. Entretanto, aqueles pacientes com pancreatites frequentes (geralmente um ou mais epis&#243;dios por ano) e com dificuldade para controlar a trigliceridemia com o tratamento usual diet&#233;tico teriam maior benef&#237;cio.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8. Diagn&#243;stico Laboratorial da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
      <p>O laborat&#243;rio cl&#237;nico tem um papel coadjuvante no diagn&#243;stico da SQF. O aspecto do soro leitoso &#233; o principal indicador da presen&#231;a de quilom&#237;crons e acompanha os altos n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides. Algumas considera&#231;&#245;es devem ser observadas para que o diagn&#243;stico laboratorial seja eficaz no rastreamento da SQF. As fases respons&#225;veis pelo resultado da an&#225;lise laboratorial dos exames que fazem parte da investiga&#231;&#227;o da SQF s&#227;o: pr&#233;-anal&#237;tica, anal&#237;tica e p&#243;s-anal&#237;tica.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>8.1. Fase Pr&#233;-anal&#237;tica (Orienta&#231;&#245;es para Pacientes)</title>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1.1. Instru&#231;&#245;es para Coleta</title>
          <p>O jejum deixou de ser obrigat&#243;rio para o exame do perfil lip&#237;dico; no entanto, em situa&#231;&#245;es como nos dist&#250;rbios no metabolismo dos triglic&#233;rides, ele se imp&#245;e para a confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da SQF. Nesses casos, o jejum deve ser de 12 horas para os adultos acima de 20 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> Para crian&#231;as, o tempo varia de acordo com a faixa et&#225;ria. Para lactentes, at&#233; 1 ano, o jejum &#233; de 3 horas ou imediatamente antes da pr&#243;xima mamada; em n&#227;o lactentes, de 2 a 5 anos, o jejum &#233; de 6 horas. E para crian&#231;as acima de 5 anos e adolescentes, o jejum &#233; de 12 horas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1.2. Interferentes Pr&#233;-anal&#237;ticos para An&#225;lise dos Triglic&#233;rides</title>
          <p>O preparo para a coleta da amostra para o exame dos triglic&#233;rides para o adulto (&gt;20 anos) consta de jejum pr&#233;vio de 12 horas, em que o paciente deve estar com a sua alimenta&#231;&#227;o habitual mantida; o consumo de &#225;lcool deve ser evitado nas 72 horas antes, e n&#227;o deve realizar exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos extenuantes nas 24 horas anteriores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Algumas situa&#231;&#245;es causam o aumento do glicerol livre no sangue, levando a uma superestima&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides, sem o acompanhamento de turva&#231;&#227;o do soro. Nesses casos, deve ser observado se o paciente teve um dos eventos descritos na literatura: exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico recente, ingest&#227;o alc&#243;olica, doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica aguda, diabetes descompensado, nutri&#231;&#227;o parenteral ou medica&#231;&#227;o intravenosa contendo glicerol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1.3. Orienta&#231;&#245;es para o Laborat&#243;rio (Per&#237;odo Pr&#233;-anal&#237;tico)</title>
          <p>Na HTG, o aspecto do soro varia de turvo para leitoso. Grau I &#8211; levemente turvo; Grau 2 &#8211; turvo; Grau 3 &#8211; muito turvo; Grau 4 &#8211; leitoso. Como o aspecto do soro &#233; subjetivo, somente ap&#243;s a dosagem de triglic&#233;rides e o repouso de 12 horas do soro em geladeira teremos a informa&#231;&#227;o da observa&#231;&#227;o visual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8.2. Fase Anal&#237;tica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>8.2.1. Metodologias que Avaliam os Quilom&#237;crons</title>
        <p>As metodologias que podem ser utilizadas para indicar a presen&#231;a de quilom&#237;crons (Q) no soro s&#227;o mostradas a seguir.</p>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.1.1. Ultracentrifuga&#231;&#227;o</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>&#201; o m&#233;todo padr&#227;o-ouro que separa as fra&#231;&#245;es de lipoprote&#237;nas de acordo com o teor de l&#237;pides e a sua densidade. Contudo, esse m&#233;todo apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es inerentes, entre as quais falta de disponibilidade em laborat&#243;rios cl&#237;nicos, alto custo e morosidade para a realiza&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica, tornando-se invi&#225;vel nos laborat&#243;rios brasileiros.</p>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.1.2. Aspecto do Soro</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>Para a observa&#231;&#227;o de quilom&#237;crons no soro leitoso, recomendamos o uso de tubo coletor de sangue total com sistema de separa&#231;&#227;o de fases na centrifuga&#231;&#227;o e obten&#231;&#227;o do soro no sobrenadante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> Quando n&#227;o for poss&#237;vel, depois da centrifuga&#231;&#227;o e da retirada do volume para as an&#225;lises laboratoriais, fazer a transfer&#234;ncia de 1mL de soro para um tubo de hem&#243;lise descart&#225;vel transparente (cristal). O soro leitoso obtido, em qualquer situa&#231;&#227;o, dever&#225; ficar em repouso na geladeira por 12 horas para ser observada a forma&#231;&#227;o de uma capa cremosa, na superf&#237;cie do tubo, indicando a presen&#231;a de quilom&#237;crons que deve ser reportada no laudo do paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.1.3. Eletroforese de Lipoprote&#237;nas</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>O teste de eletroforese de lipoprote&#237;nas, tamb&#233;m chamado de lipidograma, pode auxiliar na confirma&#231;&#227;o de presen&#231;a de quilom&#237;crons com uma banda colorida no ponto de aplica&#231;&#227;o da amostra.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Contudo, esse m&#233;todo de separar as fra&#231;&#245;es lip&#237;dicas no soro deixou de ser utilizado na rotina cl&#237;nica por ser semiquantitativo e porque as fra&#231;&#245;es de colesterol foram adotadas como marcadores de risco para a doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV), n&#227;o sendo recomendado o uso dessa metodologia por este documento.</p>
        <p>Das tr&#234;s metodologias mencionadas, a mais acess&#237;vel em todos os laborat&#243;rios &#233; o aspecto do soro, que &#233; a recomendada por este documento.</p>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.2. Metodologias que Avaliam os Triglic&#233;rides</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>A metodologia para dosar os triglic&#233;rides pode ser por rea&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica colorim&#233;trica e ou enzim&#225;tica UV. Os m&#233;todos s&#227;o precisos e de baixo custo. A rea&#231;&#227;o inicia com a hidrolise de triglic&#233;rides em tr&#234;s &#225;cidos graxos e um glicerol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> Portanto, para cada mol&#233;cula de triglic&#233;rides, teremos uma mol&#233;cula de glicerol que ir&#225; reagir e dar a concentra&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides naquela amostra. Qualquer situa&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica que elevar o glicerol no soro ir&#225; superestimar os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides. Est&#225; descrita uma doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica rara, <italic>glycerol kinase deficiency</italic> (GKD), tamb&#233;m chamada de pseudo-hipertrigliceridemia, que causa a hiperglicerolemia e a HTG sem observa&#231;&#227;o de soro lip&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.2.3. Interfer&#234;ncia no Resultado dos Triglic&#233;rides</title>
        <p>A lipemia, dependendo da sua intensidade, acarreta concentra&#231;&#245;es falsamente elevadas de triglic&#233;rides devido &#224; associa&#231;&#227;o da colora&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo e a turbidez do soro. Nesse caso, para obten&#231;&#227;o de resultado fidedigno, ser&#225; necess&#225;ria uma dilui&#231;&#227;o da amostra, em salina tamponada (pH 7,4) ou com o diluente da automa&#231;&#227;o, que &#233; plataforma-dependente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A dilui&#231;&#227;o do soro pode seguir uma escala em rela&#231;&#227;o aos valores de triglic&#233;rides e ao intervalo anal&#237;tico do m&#233;todo. Por exemplo, se o intervalo anal&#237;tico for de 8 a 885mg/dL, pode-se estipular as dilui&#231;&#245;es sugeridas: diluir 1:4 (triglic&#233;rides 400 a 600), 1:6 (triglic&#233;rides 601 a 1.000), 1:10 (triglic&#233;rides 1.001 a 2.000), ou 1:20 (triglic&#233;rides &#8805;2.001).</p>
        <p>FUNDAMENTAL: Mesmo ap&#243;s realizar a dilui&#231;&#227;o, deve-se manter os resultados obtidos inseridos na faixa din&#226;mica; isso &#233; indispens&#225;vel para mantermos a linearidade e/ou reprodutibilidade do m&#233;todo em uso.</p>
        <p>IMPORTANTE: A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um branco da amostra, usando-se a amostra dilu&#237;da, para descontar a turva&#231;&#227;o mesmo ap&#243;s dilui&#231;&#227;o. Usar a diferen&#231;a (delta) das leituras = amostra dilu&#237;da &#8211; branco amostra dilu&#237;da, multiplicando esse &#8220;delta&#8221; pela dilui&#231;&#227;o utilizada, e somente ap&#243;s isso associ&#225;-la aos controles e/ou calibradores da plataforma.</p>
        <p>EXEMPLO: Se o resultado do soro dilu&#237;do 1:4 foi de 250mg/dL, multiplica-se por 4, e o resultado ser&#225; de 1.000mg/dL de triglic&#233;rides. Por&#233;m, ao realizar o branco da amostra e obtiver 50mg/dL, subtrair esse valor do soro dilu&#237;do 1:4 (250 &#8211; 50 = 200) e, multiplicando por 4, o resultado ser&#225; de 800mg/dL de triglic&#233;rides. Portanto, &#233; fundamental descontar a turva&#231;&#227;o no soro dilu&#237;do. Quanto maior a dilui&#231;&#227;o, maior poder&#225; ser a superestima&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides, caso o branco da amostra n&#227;o seja utilizado.</p>
        <p>Assim, &#233; indispens&#225;vel analisarmos a descri&#231;&#227;o t&#233;cnica da metodologia em uso para obtermos informa&#231;&#245;es e indica&#231;&#245;es, tais como intervalo anal&#237;tico (faixa din&#226;mica), rela&#231;&#227;o da dilui&#231;&#227;o a ser utilizada, material diluente, uso de branco da amostra ou mesmo altera&#231;&#227;o na programa&#231;&#227;o em uso (automa&#231;&#227;o). Essas descri&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o m&#233;todo-plataforma e fabricante-dependentes, e devem ser seguidas de acordo com as suas informa&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.2.4. Interfer&#234;ncia dos Triglic&#233;rides em Outros Analitos</title>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.4.1. LDL-C</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise laboratorial do LDL-C &#233; prejudicada pela elevada quantidade de triglic&#233;rides no soro lip&#234;mico. O c&#225;lculo do LDL-C pela f&#243;rmula de Friedewald, de uso comum, al&#233;m de ser limitado aos n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides at&#233; 400mg/dL, tamb&#233;m pode ser subestimado, e deixa-se de tratar o paciente pela interfer&#234;ncia de triglic&#233;rides. No entanto, a f&#243;rmula de Martin aplica fatores de corre&#231;&#227;o na f&#243;rmula de Friedewald que permitem estimar com maior fidedignidade o LDL-C e pode ser aplicada com valores de triglic&#233;rides de at&#233; 13.975mg/dL. Al&#233;m disso, a dosagem pela metodologia direta pode ser usada, mas ir&#225; apresentar uma limita&#231;&#227;o, a depender do grau da lipemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na SQF, ou na SQM, a HTG &#233; severa pela presen&#231;a de Q, VLDL e seus remanescentes. O paciente apresenta uma redu&#231;&#227;o da hidr&#243;lise da lipoprote&#237;na VLDL que leva a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o da lipoprote&#237;na LDL no plasma e elevada quantidade de part&#237;culas grandes e ricas em triglic&#233;rides (Q e VLDL), quando comparado no mesmo volume de amostra do indiv&#237;duo normal. Nesse caso, n&#227;o importa a metodologia, o LDL-C calculado ou dosado pelo m&#233;todo direto, os valores sempre se apresentam inferiores &#224; sensibilidade anal&#237;tica do m&#233;todo. Recomendamos para os laborat&#243;rios liberarem os valores de LDL-C muito baixo ou negativos como sendo &lt;10mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.4.2. Plaquetas</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>A contagem das plaquetas em automa&#231;&#245;es de hematologia &#233; realizada com o efeito de imped&#226;ncia e, no caso da lipemia, a interfer&#234;ncia possivelmente acarretar&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o de sua contagem. Essa mesma associa&#231;&#227;o ocorre com a determina&#231;&#227;o do hemat&#243;crito &#8211; nesse caso, com uma importante informa&#231;&#227;o, e seus resultados s&#227;o calculados a partir da associa&#231;&#227;o entre determina&#231;&#227;o da hemoglobina e a contagem de eritr&#243;citos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.4.3. Analitos com Avalia&#231;&#227;o Colorim&#233;trica</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>Os m&#233;todos com leituras colorim&#233;tricas de &#8220;ponto final&#8221; geralmente apresentam maiores restri&#231;&#245;es frente &#224; lipemia. Isso tamb&#233;m pode ocorrer, mesmo em menor intensidade, nos sistemas de leitura em UV. Tal interfer&#234;ncia &#233; diretamente proporcional &#224; turbidez do soro, mas nem sempre proporcional &#224; concentra&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides. Deve-se considerar que as lipoprote&#237;nas apresentam diferentes tamanhos e percentuais de triglic&#233;rides em sua constitui&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.4.4. Enzimas</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>As rea&#231;&#245;es enzim&#225;ticas cin&#233;ticas, colorim&#233;tricas e/ou UV podem sofrer interfer&#234;ncia da lipemia, dependendo da sua intensidade. Assim, temos fosfatase alcalina e a gama GT que se apresentam com maiores limita&#231;&#245;es, pois empregam em seus ensaios o p-nitrofenilfosfato (m&#233;todo colorim&#233;trico). Contudo, o uso de m&#233;todos exclusivamente UV tamb&#233;m pode ter restri&#231;&#245;es com a lipemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.4.5. Eletr&#243;litos</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>Na determina&#231;&#227;o do s&#243;dio, no soro e/ou plasma, com valores elevados de triglic&#233;rides, o resultado ser&#225; falsamente baixo. Nesse caso, pode-se usar um c&#225;lculo para corre&#231;&#227;o do valor do s&#243;dio: triglic&#233;rides (g/dL) x 4 &#8211; 0,60 = fator percentual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Exemplo: Na+ 122 mmol/L e triglic&#233;rides 2.100mg/dL, ter&#237;amos: <inline-formula><mml:math><mml:mn>2</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>10</mml:mn><mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo><mml:mn>4</mml:mn><mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo><mml:mn>0</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>60</mml:mn><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>7</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>8</mml:mn><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">%</mml:mi></mml:math></inline-formula> </p>
        <disp-formula id="e1">
          <mml:math>
            <mml:mrow>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">N</mml:mi>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">a</mml:mi>
            </mml:mrow>
            <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
            <mml:mn>122</mml:mn>
            <mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo>
            <mml:mn>7</mml:mn>
            <mml:mo>,</mml:mo>
            <mml:mn>8</mml:mn>
            <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">%</mml:mi>
            <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
            <mml:mn>131</mml:mn>
            <mml:mo>,</mml:mo>
            <mml:mn>5</mml:mn>
            <mml:mrow>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">m</mml:mi>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">m</mml:mi>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">o</mml:mi>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">l</mml:mi>
            </mml:mrow>
            <mml:mrow>
              <mml:mo>/</mml:mo>
            </mml:mrow>
            <mml:mrow>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">L</mml:mi>
            </mml:mrow>
            <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo>
            <mml:mrow>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">N</mml:mi>
              <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">a</mml:mi>
            </mml:mrow>
            <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
            <mml:mtext>corrigido)</mml:mtext>
          </mml:math>
        </disp-formula>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.2.5. An&#225;lises Laboratoriais para Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial</title>
        <p>
          <italic>
            <bold>8.2.5.1. Atividade da LPL com Heparina</bold>
          </italic>
        </p>
        <p>A atividade da LPL n&#227;o &#233; realizada em rotina laboratorial, mas pode ser &#250;til em triagem para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico da SQF. Quando o laborat&#243;rio permite que o ensaio de atividade de LPL seja realizado antes e 10 minutos ap&#243;s a inje&#231;&#227;o de heparina (heparina IV [50UI/kg]), o sangue total deve ser obtido do outro bra&#231;o, em tubo heparinizado, e transportado em gelo &#250;mido para o laborat&#243;rio. O tubo da coleta dever&#225; ser centrifugado durante 10 minutos, 3.000 rpm a 4<sup>o</sup>C, e o plasma dever&#225; ser separado imediatamente. Armazenar o tubo com o plasma a -80<sup>o</sup>C at&#233; o dia da realiza&#231;&#227;o da an&#225;lise, seguindo o protocolo adotado ou enviar para um laborat&#243;rio de refer&#234;ncia em dislipidemias.</p>
        <p>A atividade de LPL &#233; encontrada drasticamente diminu&#237;da em SQF pela altera&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica da LPL em homozigose, e frequentemente reduzida quando as altera&#231;&#245;es ocorrem em cofatores da LPL (APOC2, APOA5, GPIHBP1 e LMF1), em casos de homozigose ou em heterozigose composta. No entanto, foi demonstrado por pesquisadores que a capacidade discriminativa desse teste na identifica&#231;&#227;o de portadores de variantes comuns nos genes LPL &#233; limitada, o que justifica n&#227;o ser recomendado neste documento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <bold>
            <italic>8.2.5.2. Dosagem de Apolipoprote&#237;na C3 Plasm&#225;tica</italic>
          </bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos elevados de apolipoprote&#237;na C3 (APOC3) s&#227;o um importante fator de risco para HTG. Estudos recentes conclu&#237;ram que APOC3 tamb&#233;m inibe uma via independente de LPL de lipoprote&#237;na rica em triglic&#233;rides. A dosagem de APOC3 &#233; vi&#225;vel nos laborat&#243;rios cl&#237;nicos de grande porte ou nos laborat&#243;rios de apoio aos demais laborat&#243;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8.3. Fase P&#243;s-anal&#237;tica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>8.3.1. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para as NOTAS nos Laudos Laboratoriais21,23</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p>- Em adultos, valores de triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, avaliados ap&#243;s jejum de 12 horas, em tr&#234;s coletas diferentes e descartadas causas secund&#225;rias de HTG, o diagn&#243;stico de hiperquilomicronemia deve ser considerado.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Em crian&#231;as e adolescentes, valores de triglic&#233;rides &gt;880mg/dL, independentemente do tempo de jejum, em tr&#234;s coletas diferentes e descartadas causas secund&#225;rias de HTG, o diagn&#243;stico de hiperquilomicronemia deve ser considerado.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Em crian&#231;as ou adultos, a presen&#231;a de uma dosagem de triglic&#233;rides &lt;170mg/dL EXCLUI a investiga&#231;&#227;o de hiperquilomicronemia.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p><bold>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o:</bold> O adulto deve ficar em jejum de 12h, alimenta&#231;&#227;o habitual, sem &#225;lcool (72 horas) e sem exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos (24 horas). Para crian&#231;as, o tempo varia de acordo com a faixa et&#225;ria. Para lactentes, at&#233; 1 ano, o jejum &#233; de 3 horas ou imediatamente antes da pr&#243;xima mamada; n&#227;o lactentes, de 2 a 5 anos, o jejum &#233; de 6 horas. E para crian&#231;as acima de 5 anos e adolescentes, o jejum &#233; de 12 horas. O excesso de glicerol livre no sangue superestima os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides. O soro leitoso deve ficar na geladeira por 12 horas para verificar a presen&#231;a de quilom&#237;crons. Na dosagem dos triglic&#233;rides, observar o intervalo anal&#237;tico, a rela&#231;&#227;o da dilui&#231;&#227;o, o material diluente e o uso de branco da amostra ou a altera&#231;&#227;o na automa&#231;&#227;o. Na HTG severa, SQF ou SQM, os valores do LDL-C calculado ou dosado pelo m&#233;todo direto, muito baixo ou negativos, devem ser liberados como sendo &lt;10mg/dL. A lipemia, dependendo da sua intensidade, interfere na contagem das plaquetas, nos m&#233;todos colorim&#233;tricos, nas rea&#231;&#245;es enzim&#225;ticas (cin&#233;ticas, colorim&#233;tricas e/ou UV) e na determina&#231;&#227;o do s&#243;dio. A atividade da LPL com heparina n&#227;o &#233; recomendada neste documento. A dosagem de APOC3 &#233; vi&#225;vel nos laborat&#243;rios cl&#237;nicos. Recomendamos constar nos laudos laboratoriais que o diagn&#243;stico de SQF, ap&#243;s descartadas as causas secund&#225;rias de HTG, deve ser considerado nas situa&#231;&#245;es: 1) adultos em jejum de 12 horas com triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, em tr&#234;s coletas diferentes; 2) crian&#231;as e adolescentes, com valores de triglic&#233;rides &gt;880mg/dL, independentemente do tempo de jejum, em tr&#234;s coletas diferentes; 3) em crian&#231;as e adultos, a presen&#231;a de uma dosagem de triglic&#233;rides &lt;170mg/dL EXCLUI a investiga&#231;&#227;o de hiperquilomicronemia. (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia C).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>9. Aconselhamento Gen&#233;tico e as Etapas no Diagn&#243;stico e Acompanhamento das Hipertrigliceridemias Graves</title>
      <p>A Sociedade Americana de Gen&#233;tica Humana define o aconselhamento gen&#233;tico como um processo de comunica&#231;&#227;o que lida com problemas humanos associados com a ocorr&#234;ncia, o risco de ocorr&#234;ncia ou de recorr&#234;ncia de uma determinada doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica em uma fam&#237;lia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O termo aconselhamento gen&#233;tico surgiu pela primeira vez em 1947, utilizado por Sheldon Reed,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> como uma forma de, em um mundo p&#243;s-segunda guerra mundial, enfrentar os conceitos eugenistas que permeavam muito a sociedade cient&#237;fica e m&#233;dica quanto &#224;s doen&#231;as gen&#233;ticas e &#224;s defici&#234;ncias de modo geral. A partir de ent&#227;o, passou a munir-se dos princ&#237;pios do modelo psicossocial de abordagem ao paciente, utilizando como base a empatia e as habilidades da comunica&#231;&#227;o humana, de reconhecer o processo do luto e dos procedimentos de autodefesa. O profissional utiliza a neutralidade moral e a n&#227;o diretividade &#8211; dois princ&#237;pios fundamentais do Aconselhamento Gen&#233;tico &#8211; para orientar o paciente e a fam&#237;lia, fornecendo respostas e informa&#231;&#245;es mais completas poss&#237;veis para que o pr&#243;prio consulente possa tomar suas decis&#245;es, consciente dos riscos e das alternativas.</p>
      <p>O termo Aconselhamento, na realidade, n&#227;o exp&#245;e o verdadeiro objetivo da orienta&#231;&#227;o, pois a etimologia do verbo aconselhar indica &#8220;dar conselhos&#8221;, quando, na realidade, n&#227;o &#233; esse o objetivo do procedimento. O mais pr&#243;ximo da tradu&#231;&#227;o original, <italic>genetic counseling</italic> ,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> seria <italic>consultoria gen&#233;tica</italic>:  o objetivo &#233;, como dito, orientar para que o paciente sinta seguran&#231;a na tomada de decis&#245;es, entendendo que n&#227;o existe certo ou errado, t&#227;o qual n&#227;o deve existir uma sugest&#227;o de conduta. Dito isso, &#233; importante entender que ao realizar o aconselhamento gen&#233;tico, o profissional deve respeitar os valores &#233;ticos e religiosos da fam&#237;lia, seguindo sempre os tr&#234;s princ&#237;pios que regem a &#233;tica m&#233;dica: autonomia, benefic&#234;ncia e n&#227;o malefic&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Vale observar que, o que muitos chamam de aconselhamento gen&#233;tico, &#233; uma etapa do processo como um todo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup> O Aconselhamento Gen&#233;tico envolve, no total, cinco fases:</p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Estabelecimento e/ou confirma&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico, que envolve a realiza&#231;&#227;o de anamnese, exame f&#237;sico, elabora&#231;&#227;o de hip&#243;tese diagn&#243;stica, solicita&#231;&#227;o e interpreta&#231;&#227;o de exames complementares, podendo levar semanas, meses ou anos at&#233; o diagn&#243;stico;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>C&#225;lculo do risco gen&#233;tico, uma fase mais te&#243;rica e muitas vezes fora do contato familiar, cujo objetivo &#233; calcular o risco de ocorr&#234;ncia ou de recorr&#234;ncia de uma determinada condi&#231;&#227;o de origem gen&#233;tica. Essa condi&#231;&#227;o pode ter etiologia monog&#234;nica, cromoss&#244;mica, multifatorial ou, ainda, desconhecida. Para cada situa&#231;&#227;o, um risco diferente pode ser calculado, e a necessidade de conhecer a etiologia &#233; fundamental para estabelecer o risco mais preciso poss&#237;vel;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Comunica&#231;&#227;o, a fase no qual se orienta sobre os riscos, muitas vezes envolvendo tamb&#233;m conversas sobre op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas e progn&#243;sticos. A combina&#231;&#227;o entre a fase 2 e a fase 3 &#233; aquela que comumente as pessoas se referem quando usam o termo Aconselhamento Gen&#233;tico;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Decis&#245;es e A&#231;&#227;o, fase que envolve auxiliar a fam&#237;lia e o paciente frente &#224;s decis&#245;es tomadas na fase de comunica&#231;&#227;o, tanto em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento como poss&#237;veis decis&#245;es quanto a m&#233;todos contraceptivos;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Seguimento, representando uma fase cont&#237;nua no qual o paciente ou a fam&#237;lia s&#227;o acompanhados, observando as necessidades individuais e a hist&#243;ria natural da condi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica diagnosticada.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Dito isso, vale a pena observar que algumas etapas do aconselhamento gen&#233;tico envolvem condutas m&#233;dicas, enquanto outras podem ser realizadas por diversos profissionais da sa&#250;de, desde que devidamente treinados nas habilidades de comunica&#231;&#227;o citadas anteriormente e nos conhecimentos de gen&#233;tica humana e m&#233;dica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As duas fases que mais representam o aconselhamento gen&#233;tico, sem d&#250;vida, s&#227;o as fases de c&#225;lculo de risco gen&#233;tico e a de comunica&#231;&#227;o. Apesar de parecerem simples, concluir o risco de ocorr&#234;ncia ou de recorr&#234;ncia de determinada condi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica envolve um amplo conhecimento sobre as bases da gen&#233;tica e da hereditariedade. Falar de um risco de recorr&#234;ncia compat&#237;vel com uma heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica dominante ou autoss&#244;mica recessiva parece simples quando pensamos nas Leis da Hereditariedade de Mendel, mas basta lembrarmos de alguns fatores confundidores para as leis da hereditariedade, como os conceitos de penetr&#226;ncia incompleta, expressividade vari&#225;vel, mosaicismo ou a heterogeneidade g&#234;nica. Cada um desses fatores pode dificultar o diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico entre formas diferentes da doen&#231;a, tornando a orienta&#231;&#227;o sobre o risco um desafio.</p>
      <p>A confirma&#231;&#227;o de uma variante patog&#234;nica que explique o fen&#243;tipo pode ser fundamental para considerar o risco correto nesses casos. Tamb&#233;m &#233; importante observar que diferentes modos de heran&#231;a, fora ao mendelismo, podem apresentar riscos mais complexos de serem calculados. Por exemplo, no risco multifatorial, devemos levar em considera&#231;&#227;o o n&#250;mero de afetados na fam&#237;lia, a proximidade com o probando, al&#233;m de fatores que podem variar caso a caso, como idade de in&#237;cio dos sintomas, gravidade e fatores ambientais envolvidos. Em um contexto de heran&#231;a multifatorial, identificar esses riscos e considerar o quanto eles influenciam no risco total pode ser totalmente imposs&#237;vel, e, por isso, consideramos um risco de recorr&#234;ncia sempre aproximado ou emp&#237;rico, levando em conta o conhecimento emp&#237;rico e os riscos de recorr&#234;ncia calculados com base em estudos populacionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Assim, fica mais n&#237;tida a compreens&#227;o de que, para falarmos sobre risco de ocorr&#234;ncia ou de recorr&#234;ncia, a defini&#231;&#227;o clara entre SQF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> ou de SQM<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> deve ser conhecida.</p>
      <p>A SQF &#233; herdada de uma maneira autoss&#244;mica recessiva, ou seja, &#233; necess&#225;rio que o indiv&#237;duo tenha uma variante em homozigose ou duas variantes em heterozigose composta, ambas patog&#234;nicas ou provavelmente patog&#234;nicas, para que o indiv&#237;duo apresente o fen&#243;tipo.</p>
      <p>Essa forma de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica recessiva, por muta&#231;&#227;o bial&#233;lica em homozigose (mesma muta&#231;&#227;o nas duas c&#243;pias) ou em heterozigose composta (uma muta&#231;&#227;o em cada c&#243;pia) est&#225; presente tanto nos casos de LPL como dos demais genes envolvidos com as formas monog&#234;nicas: <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> e LMF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Dessa forma, sabemos que os progenitores de um indiv&#237;duo com SQF ter&#227;o uma variante em uma das c&#243;pias do gene afetado cada. Assim sendo, a irmandade de uma pessoa que apresenta SQF tem 25% de risco de tamb&#233;m herdar a s&#237;ndrome. Por fim, um indiv&#237;duo com SQF ir&#225; sempre passar uma das variantes para seus filhos. Caso a(o) companheira(o) tamb&#233;m tenha uma variante no mesmo gene em quest&#227;o, o risco para os filhos &#233; de 50% a partir dessa combina&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Uma vez que foi reconhecido que o fen&#243;tipo de HTG pode tamb&#233;m ser mais causado pela presen&#231;a de variantes comuns raras ou funcionais em genes que aumentam triglic&#233;rides, configurando um modo de heran&#231;a polig&#234;nico, faz-se necess&#225;rio diagn&#243;stico molecular para adequado aconselhamento gen&#233;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As chances de que outras pessoas na fam&#237;lia apresentem tamb&#233;m SQF vai depender da hist&#243;ria familiar; portanto, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um heredograma deve ser sempre considerada para auxiliar no c&#225;lculo do risco. Cabe aqui citar que, embora indiv&#237;duos com variante patog&#234;nica em heterozigose possam apresentar n&#237;veis elevados de triglic&#233;rides, a dosagem individualmente n&#227;o deve ser usada para considerar o estado de portador, visto que indiv&#237;duos com a variante em heterozigose podem apresentar triglic&#233;rides em n&#237;veis normais, ao passo que indiv&#237;duos que n&#227;o tenham a variante podem apresentar varia&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides por fatores ambientais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Apenas 1% dos casos de HTG apresenta muta&#231;&#245;es bial&#233;licas. Por outro lado, estima-se que 14% dos pacientes com HTG sejam portadores de muta&#231;&#245;es raras em heterozigose, o que &#233; 3 a 5 vezes maior que o da popula&#231;&#227;o geral. O uso de calculadoras de risco polig&#234;nico pode ser &#250;til para identificar esses indiv&#237;duos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o de testagem gen&#233;tica avalia pontos (p. ex., hist&#243;ria familiar positiva, presen&#231;a de um padr&#227;o de heran&#231;a reconhecido na fam&#237;lia, fatores secund&#225;rios ausentes, paciente relativamente jovem e altera&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas importantes) que auxiliam na interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos exames e, por conseguinte, no aconselhamento gen&#233;tico acerca do risco de recorr&#234;ncia familiar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10. Orienta&#231;&#227;o Nutricional na Quilomicronemia em Adultos, Crian&#231;as e Adolescentes</title>
      <p>O tratamento da SQF baseia-se no seguimento de dieta com restri&#231;&#227;o severa de gorduras,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> com a finalidade de prevenir a s&#237;ntese de quilom&#237;crons, part&#237;culas formadas exclusivamente no enter&#243;cito e que s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pelo transporte da gordura e colesterol de origem alimentar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup> Pelo fato de os portadores de SQF apresentarem muta&#231;&#245;es associadas &#224; enzima lipoprote&#237;na lipase ou a seus cofatores, a hidr&#243;lise dos triglic&#233;rides alimentares se encontra comprometida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> Por esse motivo, a dieta recomendada &#233; bastante restrita e deve fornecer, no m&#225;ximo, 10% das calorias ou 15 a 20g na forma de gorduras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em fun&#231;&#227;o da gravidade da doen&#231;a, os pacientes devem ser muito bem orientados quanto &#224; import&#226;ncia do seguimento rigoroso das orienta&#231;&#245;es, e o nutricionista deve indicar op&#231;&#245;es alimentares que contribuam com maior ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento. Alguns autores apontam a SQF como condi&#231;&#227;o devastadora para os pacientes e frustrante para m&#233;dicos e nutricionistas, no tocante ao principal alvo da terapia &#8211; o controle da HTG severa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A SQF impacta de forma adversa a qualidade de vida dos pacientes pela dificuldade em seguir dieta com restri&#231;&#227;o rigorosa, o que compromete de maneira significante o conv&#237;vio social.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> O desconhecimento da SQF impede a compreens&#227;o sobre a seriedade da doen&#231;a por amigos e familiares. O estudo IN-FOCUS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> conduzido em 166 portadores de SQF de 10 pa&#237;ses, mostrou que mais de 90% dos participantes apresentaram elevada dificuldade na ader&#234;ncia ao seguimento da dieta. A avalia&#231;&#227;o do banco de dados de um subgrupo (n=60) de participantes do mesmo estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> mostrou que 22% dos participantes relataram ansiedade, medo e preocupa&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; quantidade e qualidade dos alimentos que devem ser consumidos, especialmente em situa&#231;&#245;es sociais e de trabalho. Esses sintomas foram experimentados pelo menos uma vez ao m&#234;s, ou v&#225;rias vezes durante a semana.</p>
      <p>A equipe de sa&#250;de pode utilizar entrevistas motivacionais para auxiliar os conflitos internos dos portadores de SQF e promover maior ader&#234;ncia ao seguimento de dieta restrita em gorduras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Isso auxiliar&#225; o paciente a elaborar seu plano alimentar com aux&#237;lio do nutricionista e compreender sua responsabilidade no autogerenciamento da doen&#231;a.</p>
      <p>Embora a restri&#231;&#227;o de gorduras seja o ponto mais importante no tratamento da SQF, a dieta tamb&#233;m deve ser isenta de a&#231;&#250;cares de adi&#231;&#227;o, como sacarose e xarope de milho,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> por induzirem vias lipog&#234;nicas hep&#225;ticas. A dieta tamb&#233;m deve ser isenta de &#225;lcool, cujo consumo se associa de forma linear &#224; concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o monitoramento da ingest&#227;o de vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis, minerais e &#225;cidos graxos essenciais &#233; recomendado, e a sua suplementa&#231;&#227;o pode ser necess&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> Especificamente em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s gorduras da dieta, &#233; fundamental considerar o tipo e o comprimento de cadeia dos &#225;cidos graxos, uma vez que apresentam formas distintas de absor&#231;&#227;o e influenciam a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides e a produ&#231;&#227;o de quilom&#237;crons.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>10.1. Classifica&#231;&#227;o e Absor&#231;&#227;o dos &#193;cidos Graxos</title>
        <p>Os &#225;cidos graxos saturados (SAT) s&#227;o classificados em fun&#231;&#227;o do tamanho da cadeia carbox&#237;lica em curta, m&#233;dia ou longa, caracter&#237;sticas que influenciam seu processo de absor&#231;&#227;o. Os &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia curta s&#227;o acetato (C2:0), propionato (C3:0) e butirato (C4:0), e os de cadeia m&#233;dia classificam-se em caproico (C6:0), capr&#237;lico (C8:0) e c&#225;prico (C10:0). J&#225; os &#225;cidos graxos com mais de 12 carbonos s&#227;o classificados como de cadeia longa: l&#225;urico (C12:0), mir&#237;stico (C14:0), palm&#237;tico (C16:0) e este&#225;rico (C18:0).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> Os &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia curta s&#227;o provenientes da fermenta&#231;&#227;o bacteriana no intestino, enquanto os de cadeia m&#233;dia s&#227;o encontrados nos &#243;leos de coco e de palma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> A principal fonte do &#225;cido l&#225;urico na dieta &#233; a gordura de coco, e &#233; encontrada em m&#237;nimas quantidades em outros alimentos. O &#225;cido graxo mais abundante na dieta &#233; o palm&#237;tico, cujas principais fontes s&#227;o as carnes vermelhas e o &#243;leo de palma. Por ser uma gordura estruturalmente est&#225;vel, tornou-se muito utilizada nos alimentos industrializados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup> As principais fontes de &#225;cido mir&#237;stico s&#227;o gordura de coco, leite e derivados, enquanto o &#225;cido este&#225;rico tem o cacau como fonte refer&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> Todos os &#225;cidos graxos insaturados apresentam cadeia longa e s&#227;o classificados em monoinsaturados (MONO) ou poli-insaturados (POLI). Os principais &#225;cidos graxos monoinsaturados s&#227;o o palmitoleico (C16:1 &#969;7) e oleico (18:1, &#969;9), com apenas uma dupla liga&#231;&#227;o em sua estrutura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> A principal fonte alimentar de palmitoleico &#233; a macad&#226;mia, enquanto o oleico &#233; encontrado principalmente nos &#243;leos de oliva e canola, e tamb&#233;m em oleaginosas como amendoim, avel&#227;, macad&#226;mia, am&#234;ndoas e castanha-de-caju.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> Encontram-se presentes tamb&#233;m nas gorduras da carne de boi, frango e porco, podendo representar entre 40% e 50% das gorduras totais desses alimentos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os &#225;cidos graxos poli-insaturados cont&#234;m duas ou mais duplas liga&#231;&#245;es e fazem parte das s&#233;ries &#244;mega-6 (&#969;6) ou &#244;mega-3 (&#969;3), em fun&#231;&#227;o da localiza&#231;&#227;o da primeira dupla liga&#231;&#227;o na cadeia carb&#244;nica a partir do terminal metila. &#193;cidos graxos da s&#233;rie &#969;6 s&#227;o representados pelo linoleico (C18:2), cujas principais fontes s&#227;o &#243;leos vegetais (girassol, milho e soja), nozes e castanhas. O &#225;cido araquid&#244;nico (C20:4), outro representante &#969;6, &#233; sintetizado endogenamente por meio de a&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica a partir do &#225;cido linoleico. O &#225;cido alfalinol&#234;nico (ALA [C18:3]), da s&#233;rie &#969;3, tem origem nos &#243;leos vegetais, principalmente nos &#243;leos de canola e soja, e tamb&#233;m na linha&#231;a e chia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup> Os &#225;cidos graxos &#969;3 de origem animal s&#227;o o eicosapentaenoico (EPA [C20:5]) e docosaexaenoico (DHA [C22:6]), encontrados nos &#243;leos de peixes e crust&#225;ceos, principalmente nos <italic>habitats</italic> de &#225;guas frias e profundas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup> Os &#225;cidos graxos linoleico e linol&#234;nico s&#227;o considerados essenciais, pois n&#227;o s&#227;o sintetizados no organismo de humanos, raz&#227;o pela qual devem ser providos pela dieta, e, em condi&#231;&#245;es especiais de car&#234;ncia, recomenda-se sua suplementa&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os &#225;cidos graxos <italic>trans</italic> tamb&#233;m apresentam cadeia longa, categoria representada principalmente pelo &#225;cido ela&#237;dico (18:1, n-9 <italic>t</italic> ), encontrado em gorduras vegetais, provenientes da hidrogena&#231;&#227;o parcial de &#243;leos vegetais durante sua confec&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup> Os &#225;cidos graxos <italic>trans</italic> s&#227;o encontrados em m&#237;nimas quantidades nas carnes e leite sob a forma de &#225;cido vac&#234;nico (18:1, n-11 <italic>t</italic> ), que &#233; produzido por meio da bio-hidrogena&#231;&#227;o de gorduras sob a&#231;&#227;o da microbiota do r&#250;men de animais ruminantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.2. Absor&#231;&#227;o das Gorduras</title>
        <p>As gorduras presentes nos alimentos s&#227;o compostas por triglic&#233;rides (90 a 95%), fosfol&#237;pides, colesterol e vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis. Embora o principal local para digest&#227;o das gorduras seja o intestino, esse processo inicia-se minimamente na boca, por meio da lipase lingual, seguindo ao est&#244;mago, no qual ocorre a libera&#231;&#227;o de 10 a 30% de &#225;cidos graxos, com in&#237;cio do processo de emulsifica&#231;&#227;o das gorduras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup> O processo tem continuidade no intestino, que, sob a&#231;&#227;o da lipase pancre&#225;tica, induz hidr&#243;lise dos triglic&#233;rides remanescentes, liberando &#225;cidos graxos e monoacilglicerol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O mecanismo de absor&#231;&#227;o dos &#225;cidos graxos &#233; complexo, pois conta com m&#250;ltiplos sistemas absortivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> Os &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia curta (acetato, propionato e butirato) s&#227;o primariamente absorvidos por transporte ativo dependente ou n&#227;o de s&#243;dio, por meio de transportadores monocarbox&#237;licos. Contudo, receptores acoplados &#224; prote&#237;na G (GPCRs), como os GPR41 e GPR43, tamb&#233;m podem participar do processo absortivo desses &#225;cidos graxos. Os &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia m&#233;dia (c&#225;prico, capr&#237;lico e caproico) s&#227;o absorvidos predominantemente por transporte passivo, mas o GPR84 tamb&#233;m pode participar de sua incorpora&#231;&#227;o na superf&#237;cie do enter&#243;cito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s absor&#231;&#227;o, s&#227;o conjugados &#224; albumina, direcionados ao f&#237;gado, via sistema porta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> Por outro lado, os &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia longa, saturados, insaturados ou <italic>trans</italic> , necessitam de mecanismos mais complexos envolvidos no processo de absor&#231;&#227;o, e seu transporte no plasma depende da forma&#231;&#227;o de quilom&#237;crons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> Podem ser absorvidos por difus&#227;o passiva, quando a concentra&#231;&#227;o do l&#250;men &#233; superior que a intracelular, ou por meio de receptores/transportadores de membrana. Por exemplo, o transportador CD36 ( <italic>cluster of differentiation</italic> 36) possibilita capta&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia longa, mesmo quando suas concentra&#231;&#245;es luminais s&#227;o menores que as intracelulares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> A prote&#237;na FATP4 (prote&#237;na-4 transportadora de &#225;cidos graxos) &#233; amplamente distribu&#237;da no intestino, sendo um dos principais transportadores de &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia longa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup> No interior dos enter&#243;citos, os AGs s&#227;o transportados pelas prote&#237;nas FABP1 e 2 (prote&#237;na ligadora de &#225;cido graxo 1 e 2)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> e reesterificados, retornando ao formato de triglic&#233;rides por meio da enzima diacilglicerol aciltransferase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> A seguir, os triglic&#233;rides s&#227;o incorporados &#224;s apolipoprote&#237;nas B48 (ApoB48) por meio da prote&#237;na microssomal de transfer&#234;ncia de triglic&#233;rides (MTP), que d&#225; in&#237;cio &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o dos quilom&#237;crons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> Os quilom&#237;crons s&#227;o processados no complexo de Golgi e, posteriormente, secretados na linfa e direcionados &#224; circula&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, via ducto tor&#225;cico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, os triglic&#233;rides dos quilom&#237;crons s&#227;o hidrolisados pela enzima LPL, que se encontra aderida ao endot&#233;lio dos tecidos extra-hep&#225;ticos, liberando &#225;cidos graxos livres, posteriormente ligados &#224; albumina, que seguem para armazenamento no tecido adiposo e minimamente no tecido muscular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup> Com a hidr&#243;lise dos quilom&#237;crons, s&#227;o formados os remanescentes de quilom&#237;crons (remQM), que s&#227;o removidos da circula&#231;&#227;o por meio de sua intera&#231;&#227;o com receptores hep&#225;ticos do tipo B/E e LRP (prote&#237;na relacionada ao receptor de LDL).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.3. Tratamento Nutricional</title>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.1. Gorduras</title>
          <p>Como na SQF ocorre comprometimento da lip&#243;lise dos triglic&#233;rides pela presen&#231;a de muta&#231;&#245;es na LPL ou de seus cofatores ( <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , <italic>LMF1</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> ou <italic>APOC2</italic> ), os &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia longa devem ser minimamente consumidos, com finalidade de prevenir a eleva&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de quilom&#237;cron.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Recomenda-se, assim, o consumo de 10% do valor cal&#243;rico total (VCT), na forma de gorduras da dieta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> No entanto, dependendo da gravidade da doen&#231;a, a restri&#231;&#227;o pode ser ainda mais severa, chegando &#224; recomenda&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima de 5% na forma de gorduras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Al&#233;m de manter limite severo com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; quantidade total de gorduras, alimentos ricos em &#225;cidos graxos saturados devem ser consumidos em menor quantidade. Os &#225;cidos graxos saturados est&#227;o envolvidos em importantes vias lipog&#234;nicas hep&#225;ticas ao ativarem a prote&#237;na ligadora ao elemento responsivo ao esterol-1c (SREBP1c), que atua como fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o codificador dos genes da acetil-CoA carboxilase (ACC), &#225;cido graxo sintase (FAS) e estearoil-CoA-dessaturase (SCD1),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup> enzimas envolvidas na s&#237;ntese de &#225;cidos graxos, precursores para a s&#237;ntese dos triglic&#233;rides, por meio da enzima diacilglicerol aciltransferase (DGAT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Importante salientar que, embora os &#225;cidos graxos insaturados do tipo &#969;3 regulem a s&#237;ntese de triglic&#233;rides ao bloquearem a SREBP1c, n&#227;o s&#227;o recomendados para o tratamento da SQF, mesmo em doses elevadas, pois os indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o apresentam defeito na s&#237;ntese hep&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides, mas, sim, em sua hidr&#243;lise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Por outro lado, por serem considerados essenciais, pode ser necess&#225;ria a suplementa&#231;&#227;o tanto do &#225;cido alfalinol&#234;nico (&#969;3) como do &#225;cido linoleico (&#969;6) para portadores de SQF, com a finalidade de evitar sua defici&#234;ncia. O <italic>Global Burden of Disease Study,</italic> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup> estudo conduzido em 197 pa&#237;ses, sugere consumo ideal de &#969;6 de 11% do VCT, embora o consumo m&#233;dio global seja de 4,5% do VCT. Quanto ao &#969;3, o consumo &#243;timo indicado &#233; de 0,25g/d, sendo o consumo m&#233;dio global de 0,1g/d.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup> J&#225; o <italic>Recommended Dietary Allowences</italic> (RDA) preconiza o consumo di&#225;rio de w3 entre 0,5g e 1,4g, dependendo da faixa et&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.2. Triglic&#233;rides de Cadeia M&#233;dia</title>
          <p>Os triglic&#233;rides de cadeia m&#233;dia s&#227;o constitu&#237;dos por &#225;cidos graxos saturados caproico (C6:0), capr&#237;lico (C8:0) ou c&#225;prico (C10:0), obtidos pelo fracionamento do &#243;leo de coco ou palma e s&#227;o encontrados comercialmente, juntos ou isolados. Podem apresentar pequena quantidade de &#225;cido l&#225;urico (no m&#225;ximo, 1 a 2%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> O uso de TCM &#233; permitido para indiv&#237;duos portadores de SQF, uma vez que esses &#225;cidos graxos s&#227;o absorvidos quase em sua totalidade via sistema portal, sendo minimamente incorporados aos quilom&#237;crons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref></sup> &#201; importante refor&#231;ar a ideia de que o &#225;cido l&#225;urico (C12:0) &#233; considerado de cadeia longa, e seu transporte ocorre principalmente via quilom&#237;cron. Somente ocorre via porta quando excede a sua capacidade de armazenamento nessa lipoprote&#237;na.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup> Assim, &#233; fundamental observar com aten&#231;&#227;o a composi&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos do produto, devendo este, preferencialmente, ser isento ou conter concentra&#231;&#245;es m&#237;nimas de l&#225;urico, a fim de evitar o incremento nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de quilom&#237;crons.</p>
          <p>O uso de TCM para portadores de SQF &#233; indicado com a finalidade de contribuir com aporte cal&#243;rico tanto para lactentes, crian&#231;as e adultos, sendo coadjuvante ao tratamento, mas sua tolerabilidade deve ser testada, visto que diversas pessoas relatam desconforto gastrintestinal com seu uso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.3. Carboidratos</title>
          <p>Recomenda-se consumo de alimentos fontes de carboidratos complexos, ricos em fibras, como (arroz integral, feij&#227;o, ervilha, lentilha, gr&#227;o de bico). A ingest&#227;o de frutas &#233; recomendada em quantidades adequadas, sendo, no m&#225;ximo, 3 a 4 por&#231;&#245;es ao dia, para n&#227;o extrapolar o consumo de a&#231;&#250;car. Alguns autores preconizam o limite de 60% das calorias na forma de carboidratos totais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Quanto aos a&#231;ucares de adi&#231;&#227;o (sacarose e xarope de milho), devem ser exclu&#237;dos totalmente, por induzirem aumento da s&#237;ntese hep&#225;tica de &#225;cidos graxos, contribuindo &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides. Os a&#231;ucares s&#227;o constitu&#237;dos por glicose e frutose, sendo que a frutose promove intensa lipog&#234;nese hep&#225;tica, n&#227;o somente por servir como substrato &#224; s&#237;ntese de &#225;cidos graxos, mas por estimular express&#227;o de enzimas envolvidas na <italic>de novo</italic> lipog&#234;nese via ativa&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na ligadora ao elemento responsivo a carboidratos (ChREBP) e esterol (SREBP1c).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o excesso de frutose diminui a betaoxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos, por induzir modifica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-traducionais nas prote&#237;nas mitocondriais, diminuindo o n&#250;mero e o tamanho dessas organelas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em virtude da intensa atividade lipog&#234;nica induzida pela frutose, sucos de frutas concentrados devem ser exclu&#237;dos para portadores de SQF.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.4. &#193;lcool</title>
          <p>As bebidas alco&#243;licas devem ser totalmente exclu&#237;das por elevarem a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides. O processo de metaboliza&#231;&#227;o do &#225;lcool se inicia minimamente no est&#244;mago pela a&#231;&#227;o da enzima &#225;lcool desidrogenase (ADH), mas &#233; principalmente metabolizado no f&#237;gado, por meio de tr&#234;s vias: citocromo P450 2E1, catalase e ADH. Durante o processo de metaboliza&#231;&#227;o do &#225;lcool, ocorre forma&#231;&#227;o de acetalde&#237;do, que &#233; convertido em acetado, pela enzima alde&#237;do desidrogenase (ALDH), com participa&#231;&#227;o principal da ADH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup> O acetato pode ser convertido a &#225;cidos graxos, precursor da s&#237;ntese de triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.5. Lactentes e Primeira Inf&#226;ncia</title>
          <p>A alimenta&#231;&#227;o nos 2 primeiros anos de vida com quantidade e qualidade adequados de nutrientes &#233; imprescind&#237;vel para promover crescimento e desenvolvimento cognitivo adequados, al&#233;m de consolidar h&#225;bitos alimentares saud&#225;veis. No entanto, a elabora&#231;&#227;o do plano alimentar para lactentes e crian&#231;as portadoras de SQF &#233; desafiadora para o nutricionista e para a fam&#237;lia, a fim de garantir quantidades recomendadas de macro e micronutrientes, em fun&#231;&#227;o da rigorosa restri&#231;&#227;o de gorduras. A capacita&#231;&#227;o do nutricionista nessa &#225;rea &#233; de fundamental import&#226;ncia para harmonizar a dieta, oferecer sugest&#245;es de card&#225;pios para a fam&#237;lia e acompanhar de forma intensiva a implementa&#231;&#227;o dos novos h&#225;bitos alimentares. A fam&#237;lia deve estar ciente de que o consumo de gorduras al&#233;m do permitido, mesmo em quantidades m&#237;nimas, pode provocar eleva&#231;&#227;o indesej&#225;vel da concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de quilom&#237;crons.</p>
          <p>Para beb&#234;s portadores de SQF em aleitamento materno, a amamenta&#231;&#227;o deve ser interrompida assim que o diagn&#243;stico for confirmado, o que traz frusta&#231;&#227;o e tristeza para o lactente e a m&#227;e. O leite materno tem aproximadamente 3,2% de gorduras, com fra&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica composta em aproximadamente 98% de triglic&#233;rides. A composi&#231;&#227;o exata em &#225;cidos graxos depende da alimenta&#231;&#227;o materna e varia significativamente durante o per&#237;odo de amamenta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> Os triglic&#233;rides do leite s&#227;o formados predominantemente por &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia longa saturados (35 a 40%), monoinsaturados (45 a 50%) e poli-insaturados (15%), com predom&#237;nio do palm&#237;tico, oleico e linoleico, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> &#193;cidos graxos insaturados com mais de 20 carbonos na cadeia, contendo duas ou mais duplas liga&#231;&#245;es, representam apenas 2% do total de &#225;cidos graxos do leite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> &#193;cidos graxos da s&#233;rie &#969;3 encontram-se em pequenas quantidades no leite materno: alfalinol&#234;nico (0,019g/100mL), EPA (0,003g/100mL) e DHA (0,008g/100mL).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Importante estudo conduzido na Europa ( <italic>European Childhood Obesity Project)</italic> acompanhou 174 crian&#231;as desde o nascimento at&#233; completarem 1 ano, e contribuiu para melhor compreender o consumo cal&#243;rico de l&#237;pides, carboidratos e prote&#237;nas nesse est&#225;gio de vida, cujos resultados podem ser extrapolados para orienta&#231;&#227;o alimentar de crian&#231;as impossibilitadas de receber leite materno.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> O consumo cal&#243;rico di&#225;rio m&#233;dio foi de 419kcal no primeiro m&#234;s, 589kcal no sexto m&#234;s e 860kcal em 12 meses. O consumo de gorduras foi de 21g/dia at&#233; os 6 primeiros meses, com aumento gradativo at&#233; 34,2g no final de 12 meses. Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos &#225;cidos graxos essenciais, at&#233; o terceiro m&#234;s com aleitamento materno praticamente exclusivo, o consumo m&#233;dio di&#225;rio de alfalinol&#234;nico (&#969;3) foi de 0,118g, e linoleico (&#969;6) de 2,40g. Quanto aos &#225;cidos graxos marinhos, o consumo de EPA foi de 0,022g e de DHA foi de 0,048g.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> De acordo com a <italic>Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics</italic> , a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos &#969;3 para lactentes e crian&#231;as de 0 a 12 meses &#233; de 0,5g e, para crian&#231;as de 1 a 3 anos, &#233; de 0,7g/dia, enquanto para os &#225;cidos graxos &#969;6, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; de 4,6g para crian&#231;as de 0 a 6 meses, e 7g/dia para a faixa de 7 a 12 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em virtude da intensa restri&#231;&#227;o de gorduras na dieta, recomenda-se o monitoramento do consumo de vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis (A, E, D e K),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> cuja recomenda&#231;&#227;o para lactentes e crian&#231;as encontra-se dispon&#237;vel na tabela da Dietary Reference Intake.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em substitui&#231;&#227;o ao leite materno, recomendam-se f&#243;rmulas l&#225;cteas especiais, que se assemelham parcialmente &#224; composi&#231;&#227;o nutricional do leite materno.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao teor de gorduras, as f&#243;rmulas devem ser exclusivamente preparadas com &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia m&#233;dia (c&#225;prico, capr&#237;lico e caproico), al&#233;m de fornecer vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis e quantidades permitidas de &#225;cidos graxos essenciais. Al&#233;m disso, o TCM pode ser recomendado para alcance do aporte cal&#243;rico ideal, de acordo com a toler&#226;ncia, uma vez que s&#227;o minimamente transportados pelos quilom&#237;crons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A inclus&#227;o de alimentos s&#243;lidos como hortali&#231;as, frutas, carnes magras (peixe, frango sem pele, cortes magros de carne de vaca) gr&#227;os etc. deve seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es das sociedades nacionais e internacionais de Pediatria, mantendo, no m&#225;ximo, 10% das calorias na forma de gordura.</p>
          <p>Recomenda-se consumo de l&#237;quidos em quantidades adequadas e suficientes para manuten&#231;&#227;o do balan&#231;o h&#237;drico, que ir&#225; contribuir com a fun&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica. &#201; sabido que desidrata&#231;&#227;o prolongada induzida por v&#244;mitos e diarreia pode aumentar o risco para pancreatite associada &#224; SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A orienta&#231;&#227;o alimentar deve ser individualizada e agrad&#225;vel, respeitar h&#225;bitos culturais e ser sustent&#225;vel a longo prazo. Crian&#231;as devem ser aconselhadas quanto &#224; import&#226;ncia da leitura dos r&#243;tulos dos alimentos, e a fam&#237;lia deve ser orientada quanto a prepara&#231;&#245;es contendo quantidades m&#237;nimas de gordura, al&#233;m de informar sobre a import&#226;ncia de refei&#231;&#245;es/alimentos preparados em casa.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.6. Gestantes</title>
          <p>Durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o, sobretudo ao final do 2&#186; e 3&#186; trimestre, o aumento das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de l&#237;pides &#233; esperado, com concentra&#231;&#245;es de triglic&#233;rides aumentadas de 2 a 4 vezes, mas bem toleradas. Nessa fase, o aumento da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e a a&#231;&#227;o de horm&#244;nios placent&#225;rios contribuem para maior lip&#243;lise do adiposo. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; maior produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica de VLDL e diminui&#231;&#227;o da atividade da lipase hep&#225;tica. A atividade da LPL tamb&#233;m se encontra diminu&#237;da, o que prejudica a hidr&#243;lise de triglic&#233;rides das lipoprote&#237;nas. Em virtude dessas altera&#231;&#245;es, as lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em triglic&#233;rides t&#234;m seu <italic>clearance</italic> reduzido, consecutivamente, permitindo eleva&#231;&#227;o nas concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O aumento de triglic&#233;rides durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o implica maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es para m&#227;e e beb&#234;, pois eleva o risco de pancreatite aguda, podendo induzir antecipa&#231;&#227;o do parto, aborto e mortalidade. Na gesta&#231;&#227;o, apesar de rara, a pancreatite aguda &#233; normalmente causada por lit&#237;ase biliar. A eleva&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es de colesterol e a hipomotilidade da ves&#237;cula biliar ocasionada pelo perfil hormonal caracter&#237;stico da gesta&#231;&#227;o predisp&#245;em &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lculos que podem vir a obstruir o ducto pancre&#225;tico. Por outro lado, mulheres portadoras de SQF apresentam eleva&#231;&#227;o pronunciada das concentra&#231;&#245;es de triglic&#233;rides, que pode desencadear pancreatite aguda. Gestantes portadoras de SQF apresentam eleva&#231;&#227;o de 4% no risco para pancreatite aguda, com concentra&#231;&#245;es de triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, bem como aumento de 14% quando &gt;2.600mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O tratamento dietoter&#225;pico de gestantes portadoras de SQF tem como objetivo manter as concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de triglic&#233;rides inferiores a 500mg/dL ao longo da gesta&#231;&#227;o. Para isso, &#233; necess&#225;rio o seguimento de dieta, com restri&#231;&#227;o de gorduras (inferior a 20g/dia), adequa&#231;&#227;o do consumo de vitaminas, minerais e &#225;cidos graxos essenciais, de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es de ingest&#227;o para o est&#225;gio de vida, incluindo monitoramento do ganho de peso. Dietas com restri&#231;&#227;o severa do consumo de gorduras devem ser constantemente monitoradas, para garantir adequa&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o de calorias, macro e micronutrientes, em especial os &#225;cidos graxos essenciais<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> e vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O uso de TCM (livre de &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia longa) pode ser indicado a fim de alcan&#231;ar aporte de calorias, quando necess&#225;rio. Al&#233;m disso, recomenda-se salientar a import&#226;ncia do consumo adequado de l&#237;quidos a fim de se manter o balan&#231;o hidroeletrol&#237;tico adequado. Gestantes com SQF associada ao diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic> tipo 2 ou ao diabetes gestacional necessitam maior aten&#231;&#227;o na adequa&#231;&#227;o da dieta, requerendo acompanhamento multidisciplinar, a fim de controlar as concentra&#231;&#245;es lip&#237;dicas e glic&#234;micas, bem como desenvolvimento fetal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
          <p>At&#233; o momento, tratamento dietoter&#225;pico da SQF &#233; a &#250;nica ferramenta dispon&#237;vel para controle das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de triglic&#233;rides nesta condi&#231;&#227;o, conforme demonstrado em recente publica&#231;&#227;o do acompanhamento de gestante que apresentava concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de triglic&#233;rides de 8.683mg/dL e que referia epis&#243;dios de pancreatites anteriores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O nutricionista deve auxiliar a paciente a elaborar o plano alimentar, fornecendo aux&#237;lio com receitas e estrat&#233;gias que facilitem o seguimento da dieta. Prefer&#234;ncias alimentares, h&#225;bitos culturais e estilo de vida devem ser considerados, bem como adequa&#231;&#227;o nutricional e de calorias. A severa restri&#231;&#227;o de alimentos dificulta o seguimento da dieta; assim, &#233; de extrema import&#226;ncia que haja acompanhamento por equipe multidisciplinar para que se mantenha o controle das concentra&#231;&#245;es de l&#237;pides e minimize o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.7. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es Gerais</title>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Restringir a ingest&#227;o de gordura na dieta (10% a 15% do VCT);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Exclus&#227;o de a&#231;&#250;cares de adi&#231;&#227;o (sacarose e xarope de milho);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Exclus&#227;o de sucos de frutas concentrados;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Exclus&#227;o de bebidas alco&#243;licas;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Consumo de carboidratos complexos em quantidades adequadas;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Garantia da adequa&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos essenciais;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Monitoramento do consumo de vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis, com suplementa&#231;&#227;o quando necess&#225;rio;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Inclus&#227;o de TCM com a finalidade de aporte cal&#243;rico, de acordo com toler&#226;ncia.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10.4. Exemplos de Card&#225;pios</title>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Card&#225;pio 1.500kcal</th>
                <th>Por&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>L&#237;pides</th>
                <th>kcal</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Caf&#233; da manh&#227;</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leite desnatado</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">61</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>P&#227;o integral</td>
                <td align="center">2 fatias</td>
                <td align="center">1,6</td>
                <td align="center">120</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Queijo <italic>cottage</italic></td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0,8</td>
                <td align="center">28</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Papaia</td>
                <td align="center">&#189; unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">46</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Aveia</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">1,7</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Lanche da manh&#227;</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Figo</td>
                <td align="center">3 unidades</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">80</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Almo&#231;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de folhas verdes, tomate, palmito, pepino</td>
                <td align="center">1 prato raso</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Molho</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Arroz cozido sem &#243;leo</td>
                <td align="center">3 colheres sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0,2</td>
                <td align="center">100</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Feij&#227;o (50% caldo) sem &#243;leo</td>
                <td align="center">1 concha</td>
                <td align="center">0,4</td>
                <td align="center">65,3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ca&#231;&#227;o em posta com molho de tomate e manjeric&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">200g</td>
                <td align="center">1,6</td>
                <td align="center">232</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Br&#243;colis refogados com alho e cebola</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de servir</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Abacaxi</td>
                <td align="center">1 fatia</td>
                <td align="center">0,1</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Lanche da tarde</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Iogurte desnatado</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0,6</td>
                <td align="center">88</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>P&#227;o integral</td>
                <td align="center">1 fatia</td>
                <td align="center">1,9</td>
                <td align="center">60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Geleia sem a&#231;&#250;car</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sobremesa</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Creme de ricota <italic>light</italic></td>
                <td align="center">1,5 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">2,1</td>
                <td align="center">44</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Jantar</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de folhas verdes, tomate, palmito, pepino</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Molho</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Omelete de clara recheado com espinafre tomate e abobrinha</td>
                <td align="center">2 claras</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">80</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Batata assada com alho, sal grosso e alecrim</td>
                <td align="center">1 unidade m&#233;dia</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">100</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Banana assada com canela</td>
                <td align="center">1 unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Ceia</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Iogurte desnatado</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0,6</td>
                <td align="center">88</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Total em gramas</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">11,6</td>
                <td align="center">1462,3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>% kcal</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">7,1</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Card&#225;pio 1.800kcal</th>
                <th>Por&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>L&#237;pides</th>
                <th>kcal</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Caf&#233; da manh&#227;</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leite desnatado</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">61</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>P&#227;o integral</td>
                <td align="center">2 fatias</td>
                <td align="center">1,6</td>
                <td align="center">120</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Queijo minas frescal <italic>light</italic></td>
                <td align="center">1 fatia</td>
                <td align="center">2,3</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Banana</td>
                <td align="center">1 unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Aveia em flocos</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">1,7</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Lanche da manh&#227;</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Caqui</td>
                <td align="center">1 unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0,2</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tapioca</td>
                <td align="center">3 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">100</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Creme de ricota <italic>light</italic></td>
                <td align="center">1,5 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">2,1</td>
                <td align="center">44</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Almo&#231;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de folhas verdes, tomate, palmito, pepino</td>
                <td align="center">1 prato raso</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Molho</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Arroz com legumes</td>
                <td align="center">4 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0,3</td>
                <td align="center">128</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lentilha (50% caldo)</td>
                <td align="center">1 concha</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">93</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pescadinha mediterr&#226;nea</td>
                <td align="center">120g</td>
                <td align="center">1,3</td>
                <td align="center">91</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Legumes assados com alecrim</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de servir</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">80</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Goiaba</td>
                <td align="center">1 unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0,5</td>
                <td align="center">60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Lanche da tarde</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leite desnatado batido com papaia e ma&#231;&#227;</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">150</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>P&#227;o integral</td>
                <td align="center">1 fatia</td>
                <td align="center">1,9</td>
                <td align="center">60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ricota com tomate e or&#233;gano no forno</td>
                <td align="center">30g</td>
                <td align="center">2,4</td>
                <td align="center">53</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Jantar</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de folhas verdes, tomate, palmito, pepino</td>
                <td align="center">1 prato raso</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Molho</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Macarr&#227;o com molho de tomate cozido sem &#243;leo</td>
                <td align="center">150g</td>
                <td align="center">0,7</td>
                <td align="center">185</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Frango grelhado com alecrim</td>
                <td align="center">80g</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">127</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de frutas</td>
                <td align="center">150mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">120</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Ceia</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Iogurte desnatado</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0,6</td>
                <td align="center">88</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Total em gramas</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">17,6</td>
                <td align="center">1820</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>% kcal</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">8,7</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Card&#225;pio gestante 1.800kcal</th>
                <th align="left">Por&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left">L&#237;pides</th>
                <th align="left">kcal</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Caf&#233; da manh&#227;</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1 copo de leite desnatado</td>
                <td align="center">250mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">75</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>P&#227;o integral <italic>light</italic></td>
                <td align="center">2 fatias</td>
                <td align="center">0,5</td>
                <td align="center">96</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Queijo minas frescal <italic>ligjt</italic></td>
                <td align="center">1 fatia</td>
                <td align="center">2,3</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Banana</td>
                <td align="center">1 unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Farelo de aveia</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">1,1</td>
                <td align="center">49</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Lanche da manh&#227;</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Iogurte desnatado</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">88</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Morango</td>
                <td align="center">10 unidades</td>
                <td align="center">0,3</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Almo&#231;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de folhas verdes, tomate, palmito, pepino</td>
                <td align="center">1 prato raso</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Molho</td>
                <td align="center">2 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Arroz integral cozido sem &#243;leo</td>
                <td align="center">4 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0,6</td>
                <td align="center">120</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Feij&#227;o (50% caldo) sem &#243;leo</td>
                <td align="center">1 concha</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pescadinha ao molho de maracuj&#225;</td>
                <td align="center">150g</td>
                <td align="center">1,7</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Legumes assados com alecrim</td>
                <td align="center">1 colheres de servir</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
                <td align="center">120</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mel&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">2 fatias</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Lanche da tarde</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leite desnatado batido com</td>
                <td align="center">250mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">75</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Frutas vermelhas</td>
                <td align="center">50g</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">28</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ricota</td>
                <td align="center">30g</td>
                <td align="center">2,4</td>
                <td align="center">53</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tapioca</td>
                <td align="center">2 colheres d sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">74</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Geleia sem a&#231;&#250;car</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sobremesa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Jantar</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de folhas verdes, tomate, palmito, pepino</td>
                <td align="center">1 prato raso</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Molho</td>
                <td align="center">2 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Macarr&#227;o com molho de tomate cozido sem &#243;leo</td>
                <td align="center">150g</td>
                <td align="center">0,7</td>
                <td align="center">185</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Atum no forno com ervas</td>
                <td align="center">150g</td>
                <td align="center">1,1</td>
                <td align="center">180</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Papaia</td>
                <td align="center">&#189; unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">46</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Ceia</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Iogurte desnatado</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0,6</td>
                <td align="center">88</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Aveia em flocos</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">1,7</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Total em gramas</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">14</td>
                <td align="center">1.751</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>% kcal</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">7,2</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Card&#225;pio infantil 1.400kcal</th>
                <th>Por&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>L&#237;pides</th>
                <th>kcal</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Caf&#233; da manh&#227;</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mingau de aveia com banana</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1 copo de leite desnatado + vitaminas A+D+E</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">67</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Banana</td>
                <td align="center">1 unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Farelo de aveia</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">1,1</td>
                <td align="center">49</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>P&#227;o integral</td>
                <td align="center">1 fatia</td>
                <td align="center">0,8</td>
                <td align="center">60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Creme de ricota <italic>light</italic></td>
                <td align="center">15g</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
                <td align="center">22</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Lanche da manh&#227;</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Iogurte desnatado batido com</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">99</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>papaia e com</td>
                <td align="center">1/2 unidade</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">46</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leite desnatado em p&#243; enriquecido com vitaminas A+D+E</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Almo&#231;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de folhas verdes, tomate, palmito, milho e ervilha</td>
                <td align="center">1 prato de sobremesa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">28</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Molho</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Arroz integral</td>
                <td align="center">3 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0,6</td>
                <td align="center">75</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Feij&#227;o (50% caldo)</td>
                <td align="center">3 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Peito de frango desfiado com molho de tomate</td>
                <td align="center">4 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">127</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Abobrinha refogada</td>
                <td align="center">3 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mel&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">1 fatia</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">28</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Lanche da tarde</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tapioca com</td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">108</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Queijo minas frescal <italic>light</italic></td>
                <td align="center">30</td>
                <td align="center">2,3</td>
                <td align="center">50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tomate e or&#233;gano</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Suco de maracuj&#225; sem a&#231;&#250;car</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Jantar</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salada de folhas verdes, tomate, palmito, pepino</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Molho</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Arroz com legumes</td>
                <td align="center">2 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">0,15</td>
                <td align="center">75</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lentilha</td>
                <td align="center">3 colheres de sopa</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">45</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Peito de peru com alecrim</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
                <td align="center">2,5</td>
                <td align="center">130</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>T&#226;mara</td>
                <td align="center">2 unidades</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">70</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Ceia</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leite desnatado morno (enriquecido com vitaminas A+D+E) com cravo e canela</td>
                <td align="center">200mL</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">67</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cacau em p&#243;</td>
                <td align="center">1 colher de sopa</td>
                <td align="center">1,4</td>
                <td align="center">26</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Total em gramas</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">11,85</td>
                <td align="center">1382</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>% kcal</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">7,7</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Alimentos com baixo teor de gordura (&lt; 5g por por&#231;&#227;o)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="14%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3" rowspan="1">
                  <bold>EM 100g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3" rowspan="1">
                  <bold>Por por&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>qtd de gordura</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>gordura</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g alimento</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g de gordura</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>PEIXES</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">fil&#233; de abadejo cru</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,4</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">ca&#231;&#227;o em posta cru</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,67</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">6</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">atum cru</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,9</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">20</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">pescadinha crua</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,1</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">pintado cru, sem pele</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,3</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,02</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,02</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">corvina crua</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,6</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,02</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">65</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">merluza crua</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0,03</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0,05</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">fil&#233; de linguado</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">fil&#233; de pescada cru</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,03</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,04</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">48</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">120</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4,8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>EM 100g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>Por por&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>CARNES</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>gordura</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g alimento</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g de gordura</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">maminha grelhada</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2,4</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,19</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,04</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">80</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">peito de frango sem pele grelhado</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2,5</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0,31</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">80</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">lagarto cru</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">5,2</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0,06</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">80</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">4,2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">patinho sem gordura grelhado</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">7,3</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,17</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,03</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5,8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">lagarto cozido</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">9,1</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,12</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,02</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">2</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">7,3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">paleta sem gordura cozida</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">7,4</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,16</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5,9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">coxa de frango sem pele cozida</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5,8</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">1,1</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,05</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">m&#250;sculo sem gordura cozido</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">6,7</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,09</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,03</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">2</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>EM 100g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>Por por&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>L&#193;CTEOS</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>gordura</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g alimento</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g de gordura</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">Iogurte desnatado</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,3</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">200</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">leite desnatado</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">200</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">queijo cottage light</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">queijo cottage</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2,6</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">creme de ricota light</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">7,1</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">ricota</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">8,1</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0,14</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0,02</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">53</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">requeij&#227;o light</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">13</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">20</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">queijo minas frescal light</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">7,7</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2,3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">creme de queijo minas light</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">14,7</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">15</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2,2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">queijo mu&#231;arela light</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">17</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">queijo mu&#231;arela</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">25,2</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,31</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,08</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">109</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">7,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">queijo minas frescal</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">20,2</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,28</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,06</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">161</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">6,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>EM 100g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>Por por&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>OVOS</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>gordura</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>retinol(ug)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g alimento</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g de gordura</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">clara de ovo cozida</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,1</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">3,2</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">ovo inteiro de galinha</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">9,5</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,94</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0,02</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">32</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">50</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4,8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>EM 100g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>Por por&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>P&#195;ES E MASSAS</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>gordura</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>retinol(ug)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g alimento</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g de gordura</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">tapioca</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">45</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">espaguete cozido</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,9</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">100</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">macarr&#227;o trigo cru</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,3</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">50</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">p&#227;o integral com fibras</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">3,31</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">25</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">p&#227;o integral light</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">50</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>EM 100g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>Por por&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>CEREAIS</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>gordura</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>retinol(ug)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g alimento</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g de gordura</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">quinoa flocos</td>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">arroz cozido sem &#243;leo</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,41</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,31</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,01</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">60</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">arroz integral cozido sem &#243;leo</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,2</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,06</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">60</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">milho de pipoca</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">4</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">16</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">aveia em farelo</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">7</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">20</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">aveia em flocos crua</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">8,5</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2,95</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,06</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">20</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">linha&#231;a</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">32,3</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">5,42</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">19,81</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">10</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3,2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">chia</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">34,4</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">17,36</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">62,02</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">10</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>EM 100g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>Por por&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>LEGUMINOSAS</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>gordura</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>retinol(ug)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g alimento</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>g de gordura</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">gr&#227;o-de-bico cozido</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2,6</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2,71</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,13</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">65</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">lentilha cozida</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,5</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,21</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,04</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">50</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">feij&#227;o cozido com caldo</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,5</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,16</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,14</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">86</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F8F899">cacau em p&#243; sem a&#231;&#250;car</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">13,5</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">10</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>frutas proibidas</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>gordura por por&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">pequi</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">18</td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">60</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">10,8</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">abacate</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">8,4</td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">100</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">8,4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">coco</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4</td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">30</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">12,6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">a&#231;a&#237;</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">3,9</td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">250</td>
                <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">9,8</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>nd: n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel; tr: tra&#231;os; l&#237;pides (g) por por&#231;&#227;o. <alternatives><inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/MQCLBy6rq9kKm6MJbGT9bvh/3412a95ab3ceeeb4fbcf2f04361222d6ff99e706.tif"/><inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/MQCLBy6rq9kKm6MJbGT9bvh/5428cbd9ea54dd737166092c81f5e359648b9bb3.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/></alternatives></italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>11. Af&#233;rese</title>
      <p>Valores de triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL aumentam o risco de pancreatite nos pacientes com SQF. Classe IIA, N&#237;vel C.</p>
      <p>Nos pacientes com SQF, a pancreatite aguda (PA) &#225; a complica&#231;&#227;o mais frequente, com preval&#234;ncia de 60 a 88%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> Valores de triglic&#233;rides plasm&#225;ticos &gt;1.000mg/dL aumentam, em muito, o risco, ou podem ser indicativos da presen&#231;a de pancreatite hipertriglicrid&#234;mica (PH).</p>
      <p>A mortalidade da PA nesses pacientes &#233; em torno de 6%, podendo chegar at&#233; 30%, conforme a presen&#231;a de complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Estudos de coorte t&#234;m demonstrado evolu&#231;&#227;o mais grave desses pacientes, com preval&#234;ncia maior de complica&#231;&#245;es (choque, insufici&#234;ncia renal, respirat&#243;ria, sepse), quando comparados a outras etiologias de PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>11.1. Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento</title>
        <p>Os procedimentos diagn&#243;sticos e terap&#234;uticos iniciais da PH devem seguir as mesmas recomenda&#231;&#245;es de pr&#225;ticas estabelecidas para quadros de PA em geral (incluindo hidrata&#231;&#227;o intravenosa intensiva, tratamento analg&#233;sico e jejum). A determina&#231;&#227;o mais precoce poss&#237;vel dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de triglic&#233;rides &#233; crucial, pois esses podem diminuir seus n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos nas primeiras 48 horas, ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da pancreatite, pelo jejum inicialmente estabelecido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nos pacientes com SQF, a PH pode ocorrer espontaneamente, sem causa aparente, ou ser desencadeada por fatores secund&#225;rios que incluem: diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic> n&#227;o controlado, uso abusivo de &#225;lcool, gravidez e medicamentos (estrog&#234;nios orais, tamoxifeno, propofol, &#225;cido valproico, isotretino&#237;na, clomifeno, betabloqueadores, inibidores de protease e mirtazapina).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11.2. Tratamento N&#227;o Medicamentoso</title>
        <p>A base da terapia inicial da pancreatite aguda consiste em interna&#231;&#227;o em unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI), bem como a restri&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o oral, de fluidos intravenosos e analgesia.</p>
        <p>A evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; dependente da redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides plasm&#225;ticos nas primeiras 24 a 48 horas.</p>
        <p>A maioria dos pacientes com PH apresenta curso cl&#237;nico n&#227;o complicado, com bom progn&#243;stico. Em geral, os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de triglic&#233;rides diminuem nas 24 a 48 horas e alcan&#231;am valores &lt;500mg/dL, no quarto ou quinto dia, apenas com medidas de suporte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> Uma vez que a dor desapare&#231;a e o tr&#226;nsito intestinal esteja estabelecido, uma dieta oral sem gordura pode ser reiniciada.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11.3. Tratamento Farmacol&#243;gico</title>
        <p>
          <bold>A infus&#227;o de heparina endovenosa na PH nos pacientes com SQF n&#227;o &#233; recomendada. Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o: III, N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia: C.</bold>
        </p>
        <p>As infus&#245;es de heparina e insulina t&#234;m sido usadas como terapia principal para PH. A maioria das evid&#234;ncias para ambas as drogas vem de casos isolados ou s&#233;ries de casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A infus&#227;o de heparina n&#227;o fracionada &#233; capaz de liberar a lipase lipoproteica (LLP) ligada &#224;s c&#233;lulas endoteliais, com redu&#231;&#227;o transit&#243;ria dos triglic&#233;rides s&#233;ricos. Nos quadros de PH grave, a infus&#227;o de heparina endovenosa a longo prazo pode esgotar a LLP da superf&#237;cie das c&#233;lulas endoteliais, permitindo que os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides s&#233;ricos se elevem novamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, alguns autores relutam em usar heparina endovenosa em pacientes com necrose pancre&#225;tica, pelo risco de transforma&#231;&#227;o hemorr&#225;gica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <bold>O uso de heparina de baixo peso molecular est&#225; indicado como profilaxia para trombose venosa profunda na PH nos pacientes com SQF. Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIa, N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia: C.</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; contraindica&#231;&#227;o para o uso de heparina de baixo peso molecular<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup> como profilaxia para trombose venosa profunda na PH.</p>
        <p><bold>A insulina endovenosa deve ser utilizada apenas em pacientes com diabetes tipo 1 e 2 descompensado, para controle glic&#234;mico, na PH nos pacientes com SQF</bold> . <bold>Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIa, N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia: C.</bold></p>
        <p>A insulina aumenta a atividade da LLP e ajuda a reverter os efeitos hep&#225;ticos da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina. A infus&#227;o de insulina &#233; especialmente &#250;til em pacientes com diabetes n&#227;o controlado e hiperglicemia, al&#233;m da HTG. N&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia clara do benef&#237;cio de insulina nos pacientes com PH, que n&#227;o sejam diab&#233;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A terap&#234;utica com insulina intravenosa &#233; obrigat&#243;ria para pacientes com diabetes tipo 1 descompensado e HTG grave com PH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> A insulina endovenosa deve ser usada em pacientes com HTG grave e PH, com diabetes tipo 2 descompensado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11.4. Af&#233;rese</title>
        <p>
          <bold>A plasmaf&#233;rese deve ser indicada para pacientes com PH nos portadores de SQF de forma individualizada. Os candidatos potenciais seriam os pacientes que apresentam PH grave, ou que persistem com valores de triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, ap&#243;s as primeiras 24 a 48 horas. Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIb, N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia: C.</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Relatos e s&#233;ries de casos t&#234;m demonstrado efic&#225;cia da plasmaf&#233;rese na remo&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides da circula&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com PH, com redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia dos valores de triglic&#233;rides entre 65 e 85% ap&#243;s uma ou duas sess&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pelo fato de a PH ser uma condi&#231;&#227;o com risco de vida, alguns centros utilizam a plasmaf&#233;rese como procedimento de escolha na redu&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida dos quilom&#237;crons circulantes, t&#227;o logo seja estabelecido o diagn&#243;stico, removendo assim o agente causador do dano pancre&#225;tico. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o desse procedimento precocemente na redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides plasm&#225;ticos preveniria a gera&#231;&#227;o e o ac&#250;mulo de &#225;cidos graxos livres, diminuindo seus efeitos locais e sist&#234;micos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref></sup> O mecanismo da pancreatite aguda induzida por HTG &#233; provavelmente causado pelo excesso de triglic&#233;rides, que, ao sofrerem hidr&#243;lise pela lipase pancre&#225;tica, extravasam das c&#233;lulas acinares para o leito vascular do p&#226;ncreas, resultando em ac&#250;mulo de &#225;cidos graxos livres e lisolecitina. Os &#225;cidos graxos livres s&#227;o t&#243;xicos e podem causar danos &#224;s c&#233;lulas acinares e ao endot&#233;lio capilar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, as concentra&#231;&#245;es elevadas de quilom&#237;crons aumentam a viscosidade sangu&#237;nea das veias com preju&#237;zo do fluxo sangu&#237;neo local, resultando em isquemia pancre&#225;tica e piora da les&#227;o tecidual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup> Os &#225;cidos graxos livres ativam o tripsinog&#234;nio que inicia o edema local e a pancreatite necrotizante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup> Em s&#233;rie de casos publicada em hospital terci&#225;rio da Turquia, com 33 pacientes admitidos com pancreatite aguda relacionada &#224; HTG, foi demonstrada redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de triglic&#233;rides de 54,4% ap&#243;s uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o. Ap&#243;s uma segunda sess&#227;o, houve redu&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides de 79,4%. Durante a evolu&#231;&#227;o, 13 pacientes apresentaram cole&#231;&#227;o pancre&#225;tica; 1 paciente com pancreatite necrotizante, n&#227;o sendo observados casos de pseudocisto. A mortalidade nos pacientes com PH grave foi de 33,3%, e a mortalidade geral foi de 3%, sem casos relacionados ao procedimento de plasmaf&#233;rese. Esse estudo demonstrou que a plasmaf&#233;rese &#233; um tratamento seguro e eficaz para pacientes com PH. S&#227;o necess&#225;rios mais estudos que comparem af&#233;rese + tratamento conservador e apenas tratamento conservador nos pacientes com PH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Chen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup> analisaram retrospectivamente os resultados cl&#237;nicos em pacientes com PH antes (n = 34) e ap&#243;s (n = 60) a disponibilidade de af&#233;rese na institui&#231;&#227;o. Esses grupos apresentavam caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas semelhantes. Nos 20 pacientes do &#250;ltimo grupo, foi optado por plasmaf&#233;rese, com tempo m&#233;dio de 3 dias para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento, ap&#243;s os sintomas iniciais. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as significativas quanto &#224; mortalidade e complica&#231;&#245;es entre os pacientes submetidos ou n&#227;o &#224; plasmaf&#233;rese. As limita&#231;&#245;es desse estudo se devem ao seu desenho retrospectivo, experi&#234;ncia de um &#250;nico centro e pequeno tamanho da amostra.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Alguns centros realizam plasmaf&#233;rese na admiss&#227;o, pouco antes de 24 horas, enquanto outros incluem pacientes entre 24 e 72 horas da admiss&#227;o. Estudos t&#234;m enfatizado a import&#226;ncia do in&#237;cio precoce da plasmaf&#233;rese na PH, enquanto outros n&#227;o detectaram qualquer diferen&#231;a na morbidade ou mortalidade relativa a um in&#237;cio precoce ou tardio do procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um benef&#237;cio claro da plasmaf&#233;rese na redu&#231;&#227;o da gravidade de pacientes com PH ainda n&#227;o foi demonstrado de forma conclusiva.</p>
        <p>A plasmaf&#233;rese n&#227;o &#233; isenta de riscos, al&#233;m de ser um procedimento com custo elevado. Requer acesso intravenoso central e anticoagula&#231;&#227;o transit&#243;ria com complica&#231;&#245;es associadas que incluem bacteremia, trombose venosa e sangramento. Os candidatos potenciais seriam os que apresentam PH grave, ou os que continuam com n&#237;veis persistentes de triglic&#233;rides maiores que 1.000mg/dL ap&#243;s as primeiras 24 a 48 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pela falta de evid&#234;ncias, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o procedimento de plasmaf&#233;rese em adultos com PH nos portadores de SQF devem ser individualizadas.</p>
        <p>Nas recentes diretrizes da American Society for Apheresis (ASFA), a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de plasmaf&#233;rese em pacientes com PH &#233; de 2C (recomenda&#231;&#227;o fraca) com n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia III.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11.5. Gesta&#231;&#227;o e PH nos Pacientes com S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
        <p>
          <bold>A indica&#231;&#227;o de plasmaf&#233;rese na gesta&#231;&#227;o, apesar de segura e eficaz, deve ser individualizada, pela escassez de evid&#234;ncias at&#233; o momento. Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIb, N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia: C.</bold>
        </p>
        <p>A gravidez normal &#233; caracterizada por altera&#231;&#245;es adaptativas do metabolismo lip&#237;dico, destinadas a garantir as necessidades da placenta e as necessidades de glicose e lip&#237;dios para o crescimento fetal, incluindo aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de glicose, s&#237;ntese de progesterona, lipog&#234;nese e redu&#231;&#227;o da lip&#243;lise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref></sup> Pacientes com altera&#231;&#245;es do metabolismo lip&#237;dico geneticamente determinadas, caracterizadas por redu&#231;&#227;o da lip&#243;lise intravascular, podem evoluir durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o com HTG grave e pancreatite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O quadro de PH aparece no terceiro trimestre da gesta&#231;&#227;o ou no in&#237;cio do per&#237;odo p&#243;s-parto, com impacto elevado na morbidade e mortalidade materno-fetal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref></sup></p>
        <p>J&#225; foram descritas taxas de mortalidade materna consequente a quadros de PH de 37% e de mortalidade fetal de 60%, mas, atualmente, esses n&#250;meros est&#227;o em decl&#237;nio pelos avan&#231;os diagn&#243;sticos e terap&#234;uticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181">181</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quadros de pancreatite associada &#224; gravidez podem ocorrer no contexto de doen&#231;a do c&#225;lculo biliar, uso abusivo de &#225;lcool e HTG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup> Nos casos de PH, o escore de gravidade e o pior progn&#243;stico s&#227;o mais prevalentes que as outras etiologias de PA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Relatos de casos cl&#237;nicos t&#234;m demonstrado que o uso de plasmaf&#233;rese em gestantes tem se mostrado eficaz e seguro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup> Pela escassez de evid&#234;ncias, a indica&#231;&#227;o de plasmaf&#233;res na gesta&#231;&#227;o complicada com PH, em pacientes com SQF, deve ser individualizada.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>12. Novas Terap&#234;uticas para o Tratamento da S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
      <p>Os tratamentos dispon&#237;veis para tratamento da SQF, visando &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da trigliceridemia, n&#227;o s&#227;o efetivos para controle da quilomicronemia nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> O uso de terapia g&#234;nica com AAV1-LPL(S447X) utilizando um v&#237;rus adenoassociado foi testado na SQF (Glybera, alipogene tiparvovec), visando expressar a LPL(S447X). No entanto, a despeito de resultados promissores, seu uso comercial n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel devido ao elevado custo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup> Assim, a &#250;nica terap&#234;utica que reduz os triglic&#233;rides &lt;880mg/dL, ou 10mmol/L, nesses pacientes, e que parece reduzir o risco de pancreatite, &#233; a dieta com grande restri&#231;&#227;o de gordura associada &#224; restri&#231;&#227;o de &#225;lcool e certas medica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> A ades&#227;o ao longo da vida a essas restri&#231;&#245;es &#233; dif&#237;cil, e epis&#243;dios de quilomicronemia, dores abdominais e pancreatites recorrentes s&#227;o comuns. Assim, terapias adicionais s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para manter os triglic&#233;rides &lt;880mg/dL.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>12.1. ApoC3</title>
        <p>A APOC3 &#233; uma glicoprote&#237;na que consiste em 79 amino&#225;cidos, sintetizada principalmente no f&#237;gado e, em menor propor&#231;&#227;o, no intestino, e est&#225; associada &#224;s lipoprote&#237;nas contendo ApoB, incluindo os quilom&#237;crons e as VLDLs ( <italic>very-low density lipoprotein</italic> ), bem como as HDLs ( <italic>high-density lipoprotein</italic> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> Em estudos gen&#233;ticos, pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos e estudos de fase 1, a APOC3 surgiu como um regulador das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> A APOC3 &#233; um inibidor da atividade da LPL,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup> sendo um potente inibidor da ativa&#231;&#227;o da LPL, que &#233; mediada pela APOC2, resultando em inibi&#231;&#227;o da lip&#243;lise de lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup> A APOC3 inibe a atividade da lipase hep&#225;tica, para promover a montagem e a secre&#231;&#227;o da VLDL<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> e inibir o clareamento das lipoprote&#237;nas remanescentes ricas em triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup> Contudo, a import&#226;ncia desses mecanismos independentes da LPL n&#227;o &#233; bem compreendida.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>12.1.1 Antissentido Anti-APOC3</title>
          <p>A volanesorsena &#233; uma droga antissentido de segunda gera&#231;&#227;o, inibidora da s&#237;ntese da APOC3 modificado. O ISIS 304801 cont&#233;m uma termina&#231;&#227;o 2&#8242;-O-(2- metoxietil).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> A inibi&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ntese da APOC3 no f&#237;gado ocorre por uma liga&#231;&#227;o sequ&#234;ncia-espec&#237;fica do ISIS 304801 ao mRNA da <italic>APOC3</italic> , o qual, por sua vez, leva &#224; degrada&#231;&#227;o do mRNA da <italic>APOC3</italic> por uma RNase H1, uma ribonuclease end&#243;gena expressa em c&#233;lulas de mam&#237;feros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> Em estudos de fase 1 com volunt&#225;rios saud&#225;veis, o ISIS 304801 promoveu redu&#231;&#227;o dose-dependente e prolongada das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de APOC3 com concomitante redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> Em estudos de fase 2, o ISIS 304801 foi efetivo na redu&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides em pacientes com VLDL elevado por uma s&#233;rie de condi&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Como os pacientes com SQF apresentam atividade da LPL muito baixa e por ser um modo de a&#231;&#227;o da APOC3, a inibi&#231;&#227;o da lip&#243;lise pela via LPL-dependente, seria predito que o ISIS 304801 seria inefetivo na redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides ou tivessem um efeito m&#237;nimo na redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides em portadores dessa s&#237;ndrome. No entanto, deve existir um mecanismo de escape independente da via da LPL para a sobreviv&#234;ncia desses pacientes. Estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos sugerem que a APOC3 modula os n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides por uma via independente da LPL. Para isso, foi feito um estudo com o ISIS 304801 em pacientes com SQF e triglic&#233;rides de 1.406 a 2.083mg/dL. Ap&#243;s 13 semanas de tratamento com 300mg de volanesorsena, as concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de APOC3 foram reduzidas de 71 a 90% e os triglic&#233;rides, de 56 a 86%. Durante o tratamento, todos os pacientes apresentaram triglic&#233;rides &lt;500mg/dL. Os dados iniciais mostraram o papel da APOC3 como um regulador na via LPL-independente no metabolismo dos triglic&#233;rides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Esses dados foram replicados no estudo cl&#237;nico Approach,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> um estudo de fase 3 duplo-cego, randomizado, com dura&#231;&#227;o de 52 semanas, que avaliou a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a de volanesorsena em 66 pacientes com SQF. Os pacientes foram randomizados em uma propor&#231;&#227;o de 1:1 para receber volanesorsena ou placebo. O desfecho prim&#225;rio foi a varia&#231;&#227;o percentual dos triglic&#233;rides em jejum do per&#237;odo basal aos 3 meses (na semana 12 ou na semana 13). Nove desfechos secund&#225;rios foram priorizados e analisados em ordem hier&#225;rquica. Se a an&#225;lise do primeiro desfecho fosse significante, o segundo desfecho seria analisado quanto &#224; signific&#226;ncia em ordem hier&#225;rquica, e assim por diante. Se, na sequ&#234;ncia hier&#225;rquica, um desfecho n&#227;o fosse significante, os seguintes teriam an&#225;lise explorat&#243;ria. As varia&#231;&#245;es percentuais entre o per&#237;odo basal e os 6 e os 12 meses foram comparadas entre os tratamentos por ANCOVA.</p>
          <p>Foram selecionados 130 pacientes e, destes, 67 foram randomizados, e 1 no grupo placebo retirou o consentimento. Dos 66 pacientes randomizados, 41 eram homozigotos ou heterozigotos compostos para uma das 25 muta&#231;&#245;es inativadoras do gene <italic>LPL</italic> , e 11 pacientes apresentavam muta&#231;&#245;es bial&#233;licas em prote&#237;nas acess&#243;rias ou eram heterozigotos duplos para muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes <italic>LPL</italic> e <italic>APOA5</italic> ou <italic>LMF1</italic> ; 14 pacientes n&#227;o apresentavam muta&#231;&#245;es definidas, mas foram inclu&#237;dos com base no seu fen&#243;tipo e na baixa atividade da LPL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os pacientes inclu&#237;dos tinham entre 20 e 75 anos, 80% brancos, 55% mulheres, e o &#237;ndice de massa corporal foi de 25,0 &#177; 5,7, O diagn&#243;stico de SQF foi feito com idades entre 1 e 75 anos. Lipemia <italic>retinalis</italic> estava presente em 21%, e xantomas eruptivos em 23; 76% tinham hist&#243;ria de pancreatite documentada e, destes, 23 pacientes tiveram 53 epis&#243;dios adjudicados nos 5 anos anteriores. Sete pacientes tinham pancreatite cr&#244;nica. No per&#237;odo basal, 53% usavam fibratos, &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3 ou ambos, e 20% recebiam estatinas. Sete pacientes tinham sido tratados previamente com alipogene tiparvovec (Glybera) mais de 2 anos antes da inclus&#227;o no estudo. Os valores basais de triglic&#233;rides eram elevados e n&#227;o diferiram entre o grupo recebendo a medica&#231;&#227;o e o placebo (2.209&#177;1.199mg/dL), bem como os quilom&#237;crons de VLDL (1.849&#177;1.176mg/dL) e APOB48 (10,2&#177;6,6mg/dL). A APOC3 era elevada (30,2 &#177; 14,2mg/dL). O tratamento com volanesorsena reduziu os n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de APOC3 em 84% do basal aos 3 meses, e em 83% ao sexto m&#234;s (p&lt;0,001 para ambas compara&#231;&#245;es), com correspondente redu&#231;&#227;o de 25,7 e 25,6mg/dL, respectivamente. Houve aumento de APOC3 de 6,1% (1,9mg/dL) ap&#243;s 3 meses e redu&#231;&#227;o de 5,2% (1,7mg/dL) ap&#243;s 6 meses entre os pacientes que receberam placebo. O desfecho prim&#225;rio de efic&#225;cia, ou seja a varia&#231;&#227;o percentual dos triglic&#233;rides entre o per&#237;odo basal e 3 meses, foi a redu&#231;&#227;o de 77% no grupo volanesorsena <italic>versus</italic> aumento de 18% no grupo placebo (p&lt;0,001), o que correspondeu &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de 1.712mg/dL, intervalo de confian&#231;a &#8211; IC 95% 1.330 a 2.094mg/dL no grupo recebendo a volanesorsena, comparado a um aumento de 92,0mg/dL (IC 95%: 301 a 486mg/dL) no grupo placebo (p&lt;0,001). Foram significantes os resultados da an&#225;lise do primeiro desfecho secund&#225;rio, ou seja, a taxa de resposta, definidos como alcance de triglic&#233;rides em jejum &lt;750mg/dL aos 3 meses. No grupo volanesorsena, 77% dos pacientes, em compara&#231;&#227;o a 10% dos pacientes que receberam placebo, alcan&#231;aram n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides &lt;750mg/dL ( <italic>odds ratio</italic> , OR 186,16; IC 95%, 12,86 a um valor que n&#227;o pode ser estimado; p&lt;0,001). O desfecho secund&#225;rio subsequente, varia&#231;&#227;o percentual dos triglic&#233;rides em jejum do basal aos 6 meses, tamb&#233;m foi significante, com redu&#231;&#227;o de 53% nos triglic&#233;rides correspondendo a 1.380mg/dL, comparado ao placebo com aumento de 25% ou 224mg/dL. A diferen&#231;a entre os grupos foi de &#8722;77,8% (IC 95%, &#8722;106,4 a &#8722;49,1; p&lt;0,001). A an&#225;lise do terceiro desfecho secund&#225;rio, varia&#231;&#227;o percentual dos triglic&#233;rides em jejum do basal aos 12 meses, foi significante, e a volanesorsena reduziu triglic&#233;rides em 40% (986mg/dL) e o placebo teve aumento de 9%, ou 39mg/dL, com uma diferen&#231;a entre os grupos de &#8722;49,1% (IC 95%, &#8722;94,7 a &#8722;3,5; p=0,03). O desfecho subsequente, a m&#233;dia da m&#225;xima intensidade das dores abdominais autorreferidas pelos pacientes durante o tratamento na an&#225;lise hier&#225;rquica, n&#227;o foi significante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Entre os pacientes do grupo recebendo volanesorsena, 19 completaram as 52 semanas de tratamento. Seis receberam 300mg por semana por todo o per&#237;odo de tratamento; entre os 13 restantes, a frequ&#234;ncia das doses foi reduzida para 300mg a cada 2 semanas, foi pausada, ou ambas. Entre os pacientes que n&#227;o tiveram redu&#231;&#227;o de dose, a redu&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides do basal ao terceiro m&#234;s foi de 79%, de 80% aos 6 meses e 72% aos 12 meses (redu&#231;&#245;es absolutas com rela&#231;&#227;o ao basal de 1.670mg/dL, 1.656mg/dL e 1.454mg/dL, respectivamente, enquanto as redu&#231;&#245;es absolutas dos triglic&#233;rides entre os 13 pacientes que tiveram redu&#231;&#227;o de dose foram de 71% aos 3 meses, 52% aos 6 meses, e 54% aos 12 meses (redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia do basal de 1.933mg/dL, 1.564mg/dL e 1.400mg/dL, respectivamente). Entre os seis pacientes cujas doses n&#227;o foram reduzidas, 5 alcan&#231;aram triglic&#233;rides &lt;750mg/dL aos 6 meses, e 4 alcan&#231;aram n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides &lt;750mg/dL aos 12 meses. Dos 13 pacientes que tiveram redu&#231;&#227;o de doses, 6 alcan&#231;aram valores de triglic&#233;rides &lt;750mg/dL aos 6 meses e 6 alcan&#231;aram triglic&#233;rides &lt;750mg/dL aos 12 meses; 3 pacientes alcan&#231;aram triglic&#233;rides &lt;750mg/dL aos 6 e aos 12 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em an&#225;lise explorat&#243;ria, os pacientes que receberam volanesorsena reduziram os triglic&#233;rides dos quilom&#237;crons em 83%, APOB48 em 76%, n&#227;o HDL-c em 46%, e VLDL-c em 58%, e aumento de HDL-c em 46%, APOA1 em 14%, LDL-c em 136%, e APOB em 20%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A volanesorsena reduziu os triglic&#233;rides independentemente do diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico ou do tipo de muta&#231;&#227;o. Aos 3 meses, os valores m&#233;dios de triglic&#233;rides foram reduzidos em 65% em 17 pacientes com muta&#231;&#245;es bial&#233;licas no gene <italic>LPL</italic> , e em 75% nos 9 pacientes com defeitos gen&#233;ticos n&#227;o relacionados &#224; <italic>LPL</italic> . Pacientes com muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes <italic>APOC2, GPIHBP1, APOA5</italic> e <italic>LMF1</italic> , todos, mostraram redu&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides de 69 a 88%. O tratamento foi efetivo independentemente dos valores basais de triglic&#233;rides, e foi igualmente efetivo nos pacientes recebendo terapia concomitante com fibratos, &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3 ou ambos, e os pacientes n&#227;o recebendo essas terapias (redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia do basal aos 3 meses de 76 e 73%, respectivamente).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Devido ao tamanho do estudo, por tratar-se de doen&#231;a rara, a mudan&#231;a no n&#250;mero de epis&#243;dios de pancreatite n&#227;o foi um desfecho pr&#233;-especificado. No entanto, foi feita an&#225;lise explorat&#243;ria dos epis&#243;dios de pancreatite adjudicados que ocorreram durante o estudo. No per&#237;odo de tratamento, tr&#234;s pacientes no grupo placebo tiveram quatro epis&#243;dios de pancreatite, enquanto um paciente no grupo volanesorsena teve um epis&#243;dio 9 dias ap&#243;s ter recebido a &#250;ltima dose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os efeitos adversos mais comuns durante o per&#237;odo de tratamento foram as rea&#231;&#245;es no local da inje&#231;&#227;o e plaquetopenia.</p>
          <p>No grupo volanesorsena, 20 (61%) pacientes tiveram pelo menos uma rea&#231;&#227;o no local da inje&#231;&#227;o, em grau leve a moderado e, em m&#233;dia, 12% das aplica&#231;&#245;es de volanesorsena versus zero% das inje&#231;&#245;es de placebo foram associadas com essas rea&#231;&#245;es. Um paciente foi retirado do estudo devido &#224; rea&#231;&#227;o no local da inje&#231;&#227;o. Plaquetopenia confirmada &lt;140.000 por microlitro foi observada em 25 (76%) pacientes no grupo recebendo a volanesorsena e em 8 (24%) pacientes no grupo placebo; plaquetopenia confirmada &lt;100.000 por microlitro foi observada em 16 pacientes (48%) que receberam volanesorsena, mas em nenhum dos que receberam placebo. Como n&#227;o havia hist&#243;ria documentada de plaquetopenia importante em humanos tratados com essa classe de drogas antissentido,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> o protocolo inicial requeria monitoramento da contagem de plaquetas a intervalos de 4 a 6 semanas. Entretanto, durante o estudo, trombocitopenia grau 4 (&lt;25.000 plaquetas por microlitro) foi observada em dois pacientes no grupo volanesorsena, e o tratamento foi descontinuado. N&#227;o houve sangramentos maiores em nenhum desses pacientes, e ambos alcan&#231;aram valores normais de plaquetas em 23 e 33 dias ap&#243;s descontinua&#231;&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco. Um paciente recebeu prednisona oral na dose de 60mg por 23 dias. O outro paciente recebeu metilprednisolona na dose de 125mg por 11 dias, seguida de prednisona oral na dose de 70mg, reduzida para 50mg por 21 dias, bem como imunoglobulina na dose de 60g e 80g em dias sucessivos, seguida de 4 dias de imunoglobulina na dose 40g diariamente por mais 5 dias. Tr&#234;s outros pacientes com menor grau de plaquetopenia (grau 1 ou 2) foram retirados do estudo por parte dos investigadores. Ap&#243;s os dois casos de trombocitopenia, um protocolo de monitoramento de plaquetas com dosagens a cada 2 semanas foi estabelecido, com um limiar de &lt;100.000 plaquetas para redu&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia das doses para cada 2 semanas, e um novo limiar passando de 75.000 para 50.000 plaquetas por microlitro para interrup&#231;&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o. Ap&#243;s essas medidas, nenhum paciente apresentou decl&#237;nio de plaquetas &lt;50.000 por microlitro, e n&#227;o ocorreu descontinua&#231;&#227;o das doses relacionada &#224; plaquetopenia. Ocorreu redu&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia das doses de volanesorsena em 13 pacientes, sendo que, em 9 pacientes, estas foram relacionadas &#224; plaquetopenia. Houve 14 pacientes randomizados para volanesorsena <italic>versus</italic> 2 no grupo placebo que n&#227;o completaram as 52 semanas de tratamento. Nove descontinuaram por eventos adversos, sendo 5 por plaquetopenia e 4 por outros efeitos adversos relacionados &#224; volanesorsena. Outros 4 retiraram voluntariamente o consentimento. N&#227;o houve morte durante o estudo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O estudo Re-FOCUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> foi uma pesquisa retrospectiva global, aberta, realizada com pacientes com SQF que receberam volanesorsena por 3 meses ou mais na fase de extens&#227;o aberta do estudo. A pesquisa incluiu quest&#245;es sobre experi&#234;ncias dos pacientes antes e ap&#243;s o tratamento com volanesorsena. Vinte e dois participantes tinham recebido volanesorsena por uma mediana de 222 dias. Volanesorsena reduziu significantemente o n&#250;mero de sintomas por paciente nos dom&#237;nios f&#237;sico, emocional e cognitivo. Houve redu&#231;&#227;o significante nos epis&#243;dios de esteatorreia, dor pancre&#225;tica, e constante preocupa&#231;&#227;o sobre um ataque de dor ou de pancreatite. Os participantes reportaram, ainda, que volanesorsena melhorou o manejo dos sintomas e reduziu a interfer&#234;ncia da SQF nas responsabilidades do trabalho, ou na vida escolar. Houve redu&#231;&#245;es no impacto negativo da SQF na vida pessoal, profissional ou social. O tratamento com volanesorsena teve o potencial de reduzir a carga da doen&#231;a em pacientes com SQF pela modula&#231;&#227;o nos m&#250;ltiplos dom&#237;nios de sintomas.</p>
          <p>A volanesorsena foi aprovada pela Anvisa em 23 de agosto de 2021com base nos dados do estudo Approach e Compass, e tem indica&#231;&#227;o para pacientes adultos (acima de 18 anos) com confirma&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica de SQF e alto risco de pancreatite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref></sup> O f&#225;rmaco tem aprova&#231;&#227;o da ag&#234;ncia europeia (European Medicines Agency) para uso em adultos com SQF desde 2014.</p>
          <p>A volanesorsena n&#227;o foi aprovada pela Food and Drug Administration (FDA), embora tenha sido avaliada no estudo Approach em pacientes com SQF. A doen&#231;a &#233; considerada ultrarrara e debilitante. A SQF causa pancreatites de ocorr&#234;ncia imprevis&#237;vel e potencialmente fatais, complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas decorrentes de dano permanente ao &#243;rg&#227;o e impacto severo na vida di&#225;ria dos pacientes. A caracter&#237;stica t&#237;pica da SQF consiste nos n&#237;veis muito elevados de triglic&#233;rides. Os resultados do estudo de fase 3 Approach &#8211; o maior estudo conduzido com pacientes portadores de SQF &#8211; mostraram que, em compara&#231;&#227;o ao placebo, o tratamento com a volanesorsena reduziu os triglic&#233;rides em 77% (-94% quando comparado ao placebo). As recomenda&#231;&#245;es das sociedades m&#233;dicas s&#227;o para a redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglic&#233;rides como alvo do tratamento dos pacientes com SQF. Os eventos adversos mais comuns foram as rea&#231;&#245;es no local de inje&#231;&#227;o e redu&#231;&#227;o na contagem de plaquetas.</p>
          <p>A alega&#231;&#227;o do FDA foram quest&#245;es de seguran&#231;a, especialmente risco de sangramento devido &#224; plaquetopenia, apesar das recomenda&#231;&#245;es para mitigar efeitos adversos. Durante o estudo, quando foi detectada a possibilidade de ocorr&#234;ncia de plaquetopenia, o manejo desse evento adverso foi feito com monitoramento de plaquetas a cada 15 dias, podendo ser mais frequente conforme os exames subsequentes. Da mesma maneira, foi recomendado o espa&#231;amento de doses de acordo com a contagem de plaquetas.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>13. Aspectos Sociais, Psicol&#243;gicos e Impacto Econ&#244;mico da Doen&#231;a</title>
      <p>A variabilidade na precocidade, as diferen&#231;as na severidade dos sintomas e as varia&#231;&#245;es no grau de limita&#231;&#245;es funcionais decorrentes do estado f&#237;sico dos pacientes s&#227;o caracter&#237;sticas da express&#227;o da SQF que interagem com outros aspectos, tais como perfil sociodemogr&#225;fico e econ&#244;mico; caracter&#237;sticas de personalidade; fatores psicossociais e sociocognitivos; habilidades pessoais de enfrentamento de situa&#231;&#245;es adversas em sa&#250;de; capacidade de exercer a autorregula&#231;&#227;o e manter o sentido de efic&#225;cia no contexto do adoecimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup> A articula&#231;&#227;o de todos esses aspectos citados e de outros aspectos contextuais agrega complexidade ao manejo da SQF, podendo, al&#233;m de interferir na habilidade adaptativa dos pacientes e cuidadores, demandar diferentes desenhos de interven&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica centrados na singularidade das pessoas afetadas.</p>
      <p>A falta de reverbera&#231;&#227;o da fala dos pacientes na comunica&#231;&#227;o social, causada pela aus&#234;ncia do tema no discurso comum e sua restri&#231;&#227;o no discurso cient&#237;fico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> estabelece um padr&#227;o de sil&#234;ncio acerca da SQF. A falta de familiaridade para com essa condi&#231;&#227;o, na sociedade m&#233;dica, &#233; agravante do estresse biopsicossocial experimentado pelas pessoas afetadas, o que leva a empreender uma peregrina&#231;&#227;o entre especialidades em busca da realiza&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico, que, via de regra, acontece tardiamente e n&#227;o conduz a resposta terap&#234;utica medicamentosa eficaz. As lacunas na comunica&#231;&#227;o e no conhecimento imp&#245;em aos pacientes e cuidadores o desafio de conviver com uma doen&#231;a que provoca limitadas rea&#231;&#245;es emp&#225;ticas, uma vez que n&#227;o apresenta sentido e significado socialmente constru&#237;do e tampouco identidade clinicamente reconhecida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> Nesse panorama, para al&#233;m do grave efeito delet&#233;rio da doen&#231;a no estado de sa&#250;de e na capacidade funcional, &#233; relevante o desdobramento do estado da arte na vida real.</p>
      <p>Estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200">200</xref></sup> sobre a qualidade de vida dos pacientes com SQF, ao demonstrar a validade dos instrumentos de autorrelato, no contexto da doen&#231;a rara, coloca em evid&#234;ncia o forte impacto negativo do tratamento, realizado fundamentalmente por meio de restritivo controle alimentar. Ao dar a conhecer qual a experi&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a no cotidiano,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B201">201</xref></sup> o quanto adoecer prejudica a percep&#231;&#227;o pessoal de satisfa&#231;&#227;o com a qualidade de vida e o estado de sa&#250;de,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref></sup> e deixar entrever o impacto do tratamento na capacidade adaptativa das pessoas afetadas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203">203</xref></sup> amplia a conscientiza&#231;&#227;o acerca dos desdobramentos psicossociais da SQF. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t13">Quadro 2</xref> , est&#227;o listados os aspectos abordados na autoavalia&#231;&#227;o da qualidade de vida por meio de instrumentos de autorrelato.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t13">
          <label>Quadro 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Aspectos elencados na avalia&#231;&#227;o da qualidade de vida relacionada &#224; sa&#250;de (QVRS)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Avalia&#231;&#227;o pessoal do:</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Grau das limita&#231;&#245;es no desempenho de atividades do dia a dia por interfer&#234;ncia do estado cl&#237;nico</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Grau das limita&#231;&#245;es na capacidade funcional para realizar atividades cotidianas de esfor&#231;o leve, moderado e intenso</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Estado geral de sa&#250;de</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Grau de interfer&#234;ncia da dor no cotidiano</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Grau de interfer&#234;ncia da sa&#250;de geral (f&#237;sica e mental) nas rela&#231;&#245;es interpessoais</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Grau de vitalidade no cotidiano (grau de envolvimento e motiva&#231;&#227;o com a vida)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Grau das limita&#231;&#245;es no desempenho de atividades do dia a dia por interfer&#234;ncia do estado emocional ou cognitivo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Estado de humor predominante no tempo definido</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Ao possibilitar a escuta das pessoas afetadas pela doen&#231;a, de modo estruturado e padronizado, o emprego do instrumento psicom&#233;trico de autorrelato permite romper com o padr&#227;o de silenciamento, caracter&#237;stico das doen&#231;as raras ou pouco conhecidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> Embora os estudos de doen&#231;as de baixa preval&#234;ncia contemplem n&#250;mero reduzido de sujeitos, em compara&#231;&#227;o aos realizados no enquadre das doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas e frequentes, s&#227;o capazes de retratar a realidade dos pacientes e cuidadores e apontar tend&#234;ncias, e podem colaborar na orienta&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias comportamentais de enfrentamento.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>13.1. Aspecto Social na S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
        <p>O paciente diagnosticado com doen&#231;a rara, tamb&#233;m nomeada doen&#231;a &#243;rf&#227;, &#233; uma pessoa que, em alguma medida, perde suas refer&#234;ncias sociais e se afasta do modo de cuidado &#224; sa&#250;de usual, de senso comum, passando a depender dos norteamentos t&#233;cnico-cient&#237;ficos na condu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a. A car&#234;ncia de informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a hist&#243;ria da doen&#231;a na vida real e a falta de diretrizes, ou posicionamentos norteadores de condutas e orienta&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas seguras e eficazes, impactam a habilidade pessoal na constru&#231;&#227;o das rotinas, de projetos e manuten&#231;&#227;o das rela&#231;&#245;es interpessoais como idealizadas pelos pacientes. O desconhecimento sobre a doen&#231;a interfere no sentido de pertencimento, sustenta sentimentos de desamparo e isolamento. A invisibilidade da doen&#231;a no cotidiano reduz a chance de os pacientes e cuidadores contarem com suporte social.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup> Estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup> evidencia que o forte sentimento de incompreens&#227;o pode impulsionar os pacientes e cuidadores a criarem respostas adaptativas restauradoras de familiaridade e pertencimento em ambientes religiosos.</p>
        <p>Tem se evidenciado<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup> que as lacunas no conhecimento m&#233;dico sobre a SQF dificultam a comunica&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;xis cl&#237;nica. A falta de entendimento acerca dos objetivos da proposta terap&#234;utica pode conduzir os pacientes a alimentarem expectativas pouco realistas quanto ao alcance do tratamento. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> mostra quais as expectativas mais frequentes dos pacientes relacionadas &#224; ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento na SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Expectativas do paciente com SQF diante da ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20230203-30203-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Evidenciados os aspectos f&#237;sicos e psicossociais mais gravemente afetados pela SQF, na perspectiva do paciente, vale sublinhar que a cren&#231;a de recupera&#231;&#227;o da condi&#231;&#227;o de normalidade experimentada antes da experi&#234;ncia de adoecimento, a esperan&#231;a depositada no tratamento, pode ser melhor manejada conforme os profissionais se encontrem mais atualizados e h&#225;beis a realizar e comunicar o diagn&#243;stico e as evid&#234;ncias que sustentam orienta&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas, e conversar sobre os resultados esperados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>13.2. Aspectos Psicol&#243;gicos na S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
        <p>Sentimento de impot&#234;ncia diante da doen&#231;a, sintomas de fadiga e confus&#227;o mental s&#227;o aspectos de campo interdisciplinar que podem persistir durante toda a vida dos pacientes com SQF. A preocupa&#231;&#227;o quanto ao efeito da doen&#231;a na sa&#250;de e na vida, ao longo do tempo, o desejo de ser capaz de viver uma vida normal e a preocupa&#231;&#227;o com o impacto financeiro da doen&#231;a afetam sobremaneira a estabilidade emocional dos pacientes e cuidadores, podendo produzir sentimentos de baixa autoestima e ansiedade, interferir na habilidade de racioc&#237;nio e de elabora&#231;&#227;o de solu&#231;&#245;es, e reduzir a qualidade do sono.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> Depress&#227;o, sentimentos de constrangimento, vergonha e inadequa&#231;&#227;o social, percep&#231;&#227;o de mudan&#231;as no funcionamento cognitivo, por influ&#234;ncia de dificuldades de concentra&#231;&#227;o e mem&#243;ria, s&#227;o aspectos da doen&#231;a que corroboram para o decl&#237;nio na qualidade de vida pessoal e profissional dos afetados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup> Segundo os pacientes conviver com a SQF consome o tempo e exaure a energia f&#237;sica e mental, tornando-os incapazes de se projetarem na vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup> Revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> indica que os adultos com diagn&#243;stico de SQF podem expressar significativos preju&#237;zos psicol&#243;gicos relacionados &#224; falta de autonomia e de liberdade na condu&#231;&#227;o da vida, para al&#233;m da doen&#231;a. Tal aspecto precisa ser mais bem conhecido na SQF.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>13.2.1. Os Pais das Crian&#231;as com Diagn&#243;stico de S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar</title>
          <p>A SQF &#233; uma doen&#231;a que se apresenta no final da inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia, embora alguns casos sejam encontrados nos primeiros anos de vida e entre neonatos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref></sup> Doen&#231;as raras s&#227;o desafiadoras n&#227;o somente para os pacientes, mas tamb&#233;m para aqueles familiares que lhes oferecem cuidado. Estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref></sup> identifica a elevada frequ&#234;ncia de relatos parentais acerca da falta de suporte social e aus&#234;ncia de empatia por parte dos profissionais de sa&#250;de, o que se expressa em forma de queixas recorrentes de falta de informa&#231;&#227;o e orienta&#231;&#227;o, de modo geral, e de falta de aconselhamento quanto ao modo adequado de interagir/agir com a crian&#231;a doente. Tal estudo mostra que os pais tendem a expressar mais preocupa&#231;&#245;es com o futuro, e as m&#227;es, com o tempo presente. Al&#233;m disso, evidencia que o relato sobre a avalia&#231;&#227;o pessoal de preju&#237;zo na qualidade das rela&#231;&#245;es sociais, familiares e profissionais &#233; mais comum entre as m&#227;es, pois tende a ocupar mais de seu tempo com os cuidados b&#225;sicos e a rotina di&#225;ria. Tais diferen&#231;as, interpretadas com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s quest&#245;es de g&#234;nero, precisam ser melhor conhecidas.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>13.3. Para Reduzir os Impactos da Doen&#231;a: Modos de Enfrentamento</title>
      <p>A ader&#234;ncia &#224;s recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais, usualmente dispostas como consensos m&#233;dicos, &#233; essencial para a promo&#231;&#227;o e a preven&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de em &#226;mbito prim&#225;rio, secund&#225;rio e nos processos de reabilita&#231;&#227;o. Entre os comportamentos em sa&#250;de, a ader&#234;ncia terap&#234;utica &#233; um dos comportamentos de autorregula&#231;&#227;o mais estudados, e refere-se &#224; participa&#231;&#227;o ativa do paciente no manejo da doen&#231;a para fim de preserva&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de e qualidade de vida no contexto do adoecimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref></sup> Vale lembrar que a proposta de ader&#234;ncia terap&#234;utica total e permanente pode gerar conflitos pessoais e sociais, e encontrar resist&#234;ncia por parte dos pacientes ou falta de colabora&#231;&#227;o social, na medida em que pode impactar projetos de vida pactuados/interpessoais ao interferir na decis&#227;o de ter filhos, na capacidade de trabalhar, no tempo livre para aproveitar momentos de lazer etc.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>13.3.1. Modelos Ativos e Passivos de Enfrentamento: Foco no Paciente</title>
        <p>Visando a maior sucesso na ader&#234;ncia terap&#234;utica na SQF, &#233; indispens&#225;vel o envolvimento do paciente nas decis&#245;es. Para tanto, preconiza-se lan&#231;ar m&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias passivas e ativas de enfrentamento. Dados da revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> mostram que s&#227;o exemplos de abordagens passivas de enfrentamento: obten&#231;&#227;o/busca por informa&#231;&#227;o; aconselhamento cl&#237;nico; aconselhamento gen&#233;tico; educa&#231;&#227;o em sa&#250;de. S&#227;o exemplares de abordagens ativas de enfrentamento na atua&#231;&#227;o/a&#231;&#227;o comportamental, no caso da SQF: autocontrole na restri&#231;&#227;o no consumo de gorduras, &#225;lcool e carboidratos; autorregula&#231;&#227;o na ingest&#227;o de rem&#233;dios sem indica&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica, evitando a intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa prejudicial; autoadministra&#231;&#227;o dos f&#225;rmacos indicados para redu&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de triglic&#233;rides; realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames de acompanhamento na frequ&#234;ncia indicada pelo m&#233;dico de refer&#234;ncia.</p>
        <p>Estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref></sup> que investigou o efeito do uso da internet na capacidade adaptativa de pais de crian&#231;as com doen&#231;as raras mostrou que o ganho de conhecimento &#233; essencial para a adapta&#231;&#227;o gradual ao contexto de sa&#250;de. O referido estudo ressalta que a livre busca por <italic>expertise</italic> pelo paciente tanto pode elevar seu sentido de efic&#225;cia como aumentar a express&#227;o de sintomas de ansiedade. Enquanto realidade contempor&#226;nea, o impacto da busca por forma&#231;&#227;o/informa&#231;&#227;o <italic>online</italic> pelos pacientes e cuidadores, no processo adaptativo &#224; SQF, precisa ser mais bem conhecido.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>13.3.2. Modelo Social de Enfrentamento: Foco nos Pares</title>
        <p>Sabe-se que o suporte social obtido em grupos de pares pode contribuir melhorando a percep&#231;&#227;o de bem-estar geral e gerar motiva&#231;&#227;o para o exerc&#237;cio da autorregula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B212">212</xref></sup> O estudo CONNEC<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup> mostra que as pessoas afetadas pela SQF podem se beneficiar ao estabelecer contato com outros portadores da doen&#231;a. Esse estudo sugere que a participa&#231;&#227;o em grupos afins, seja por meio de leitura de textos, participa&#231;&#227;o em <italic>sites</italic> e rodas de conversa presencial ou <italic>online</italic> , interagindo ou apenas observando as narrativas de outros pacientes, pode influenciar positivamente a autopercep&#231;&#227;o de qualidade de vida, a reavalia&#231;&#227;o da severidade dos sintomas f&#237;sicos e a redu&#231;&#227;o da sintomatologia psiqui&#225;trica, al&#233;m de mitigar o estresse psicossocial. Como parte da implanta&#231;&#227;o de medidas amplas de enfrentamento e manejo da doen&#231;a, preconiza-se o preenchimento das lacunas t&#233;cnico-cient&#237;ficas, o incentivo dos pacientes &#224; socializa&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica e a difus&#227;o do conhecimento sobre o efeito psicossocial adverso da SQF, o que pode colaborar acelerando processos de constru&#231;&#227;o da identidade social da doen&#231;a e estabelecimento de <italic>expertise</italic> na aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>13.4. Custo-efetividade do Manejo de Riscos Psicossociais</title>
      <p>Sabendo-se que a avalia&#231;&#227;o custo-efic&#225;cia das interven&#231;&#245;es em sa&#250;de busca apontar solu&#231;&#245;es de menor gasto n&#227;o relacionado &#224; doen&#231;a, por meio das quais, a aloca&#231;&#227;o do investimento para que seja contabilizado o melhor resultado,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> &#233; de se admitir que a aplica&#231;&#227;o em recursos terap&#234;uticos colaborativos, que contemplem interven&#231;&#245;es atentas aos aspectos cl&#237;nicos e sintomas psicoemocionais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref></sup> traga retorno custo-eficaz, visto que manifesta&#231;&#245;es psiqui&#225;tricas, embora n&#227;o espec&#237;ficas da SQF, prejudicam a ader&#234;ncia terap&#234;utica e precipitam recorrentes urg&#234;ncias e interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares. <sup>219</sup> Nesse sentido, corrobora a revis&#227;o de literatura<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup> que mostra haver robusta evid&#234;ncia de que o investimento em a&#231;&#245;es combinadas, de interven&#231;&#227;o nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares junto &#224; interven&#231;&#245;es nos quadros de ansiedade e depress&#227;o, acarreta resultado custo-eficaz positivo. Finalmente, o estudo ReFOCUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> mostra que o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico adequado pode produzir o controle da evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a, reduzir o estresse gerado pelo controle alimentar restritivo severo e, inclusive, modificar expectativas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao futuro. Nessa perspectiva, n&#227;o cabe d&#250;vida acerca da estreita articula&#231;&#227;o da SQF com aspectos psicossociais, e do potencial custo-eficaz projetado nos estudos e interven&#231;&#245;es que buscam desenvolver tratamento medicamentoso efetivo para pacientes diagnosticados para SQF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>14. Resumo das Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t7">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th>Grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>A coleta de sangue para as dosagens de triglic&#233;rides no adulto deve ser feita em jejum de 12 horas, com alimenta&#231;&#227;o habitual, sem &#225;lcool (72 horas) e sem exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos (24 horas). Para crian&#231;as, o tempo varia de acordo com a faixa et&#225;ria. Para lactentes, at&#233; 1 ano, o jejum &#233; de 3 horas ou imediatamente antes da pr&#243;xima mamada. Em n&#227;o lactentes, de 2 a 5 anos, o jejum &#233; de 6 horas; e, em crian&#231;as acima de 5 anos e adolescentes, o jejum &#233; de 12 horas (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Para a suspeita diagn&#243;stica de SQF, ap&#243;s afastadas as causas secund&#225;rias de HTG, recomenda-se que os valores de triglic&#233;rides sejam: 1) adultos em jejum de 12 horas com triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, em tr&#234;s coletas diferentes; 2) crian&#231;as e adolescentes, com valores de triglic&#233;rides &gt;880mg/dL, independentemente do tempo de jejum, em tr&#234;s coletas diferentes; 3) em crian&#231;as e adultos, a presen&#231;a de uma dosagem de triglic&#233;rides &lt;170mg/dL <bold>exclui</bold> a investiga&#231;&#227;o de hiperquilomicronemia (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Valores de triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL aumentam o risco de pancreatite nos pacientes com SQF (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIa, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Os valores de LDL-c na SQF s&#227;o inacurados por qualquer m&#233;todo de dosagem. Se calculados, devem utilizar a f&#243;rmula de Martin ou, preferencialmente, ser dosados pelo m&#233;todo direto (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O escore diagn&#243;stico de SQF &#233; ferramenta &#250;til na suspeita diagn&#243;stica de SQF, sendo recomendado como triagem para o teste gen&#233;tico (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Este documento n&#227;o recomenda a dosagem da atividade da lipoprote&#237;na lipase com heparina, pois esse teste pode ter capacidade discriminativa limitada em portadores de variantes comuns (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: III, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">III</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O sequenciamento gen&#233;tico dos genes <italic>LPL</italic> , <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> e <italic>LMF1</italic> confere diagn&#243;stico de certeza para SQF se houver homozigose, heterozigotos duplos ou compostos para variantes patog&#234;nicas ou provavelmente patog&#234;nicas (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Diante de um caso confirmado de SQF, o aconselhamento gen&#233;tico deve ser realizado visando calcular o risco de ocorr&#234;ncia ou de recorr&#234;ncia da condi&#231;&#227;o, tanto para tomada de decis&#245;es quanto para escolha do m&#233;todo contraceptivo, especialmente em uni&#245;es consangu&#237;neas (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> A terapia nutricional deve ter como recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais: <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Restri&#231;&#227;o do consumo de gorduras (10 a 15% do VCT)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Exclus&#227;o de a&#231;&#250;cares de adi&#231;&#227;o (sacarose e xarope de milho)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Exclus&#227;o de sucos de frutas concentrados</p></list-item><list-item><p>Exclus&#227;o de bebidas alco&#243;licas</p></list-item><list-item><p>Consumo de carboidratos complexos em quantidades adequadas</p></list-item><list-item><p>Garantia da adequa&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos essenciais</p></list-item><list-item><p>Monitoramento do consumo de vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis, com suplementa&#231;&#227;o quando necess&#225;rio</p></list-item><list-item><p>Inclus&#227;o de TCM com a finalidade de aporte cal&#243;rico, de acordo com toler&#226;ncia. (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</p></list-item></list> </td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>A infus&#227;o de heparina endovenosa na pancreatite hipertriglicerid&#234;mica (PH) nos pacientes com SQF n&#227;o &#233; recomendada. (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: III, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">III</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O uso de heparina de baixo peso molecular est&#225; indicado como profilaxia para trombose venosa profunda na PH nos pacientes com SQF. (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIa, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>A insulina endovenosa deve ser utilizada apenas em pacientes com diabetes tipo 1 e 2 descompensado, para controle glic&#234;mico, na PH nos pacientes com SQF. (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIa, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C)</td>
                <td align="center">IIa</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>A plasmaf&#233;rese deve ser indicada para pacientes com PH nos portadores de SQF de forma individualizada. Os candidatos potenciais seriam os pacientes que apresentam PH grave, ou que persistem com valores de triglic&#233;rides &gt;1.000mg/dL, ap&#243;s as primeiras 24 a 48 horas. (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIb, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">IIb</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>A indica&#231;&#227;o de plasmaf&#233;rese na gesta&#231;&#227;o, apesar de segura e eficaz, deve ser individualizada pela escassez de evid&#234;ncias at&#233; o momento. (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: IIb, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: C).</td>
                <td align="center">IIb</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O uso de antissentido anti-APOC3 est&#225; indicado para adultos acima de 18 anos com diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico confirmado de SQF que n&#227;o sejam responsivos ao tratamento usual e sob alto risco de pancreatite (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: B).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O monitoramento de plaquetas durante o tratamento com o antissentido anti-APOC3 deve ser feito inicialmente a cada 2 semanas, e ajustado conforme a contagem de plaquetas (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: B).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>O tratamento com o antissentido anti-APOC3 deve ter suas aplica&#231;&#245;es espa&#231;adas caso as plaquetas estejam &lt;100.000/uL, e o f&#225;rmaco deve ser interrompido se a contagem de plaquetas for &lt;75.000/uL (Grau de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: I, N&#237;vel de Evid&#234;ncia: B).</td>
                <td align="center">I</td>
                <td align="center">B</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <p><bold>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes respons&#225;vel:</bold> Carisi Anne Polanczyk (Coordenadora), Humberto Graner Moreira, M&#225;rio de Seixas Rocha, Jose Airton de Arruda, Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva &#8211; Gest&#227;o 2022-2024</p>
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          <bold>Arq Bras Cardiol. 2023;120(4):e20230203</bold>
        </p>
        <p>No &#8220;Posicionamento Brasileiro sobre S&#237;ndrome da Quilomicronemia Familiar &#8211; 2023&#8221;, com n&#250;mero de DOI: https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20230203, publicado no peri&#243;dico Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, Arq Bras Cardiol. 2023;120(4):e20230203, na p&#225;gina 1, realizar as seguintes corre&#231;&#245;es:</p>
        <p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Incluir o nome da autora Viviane Zorzanelli Rocha Giraldez, cuja institui&#231;&#227;o &#233; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil, n&#250;mero 7 da lista de institui&#231;&#245;es.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Corrigir o nome da autora &#8220;Ana Maria Pitta Lottenberg&#8221; para &#8220;Ana Maria Lottenberg&#8221;.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Statement</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Brazilian Position Statement for Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome &#8211; 2023</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5738-2623</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9860-6582</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Raul Dias dos</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Assad</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Heitor Vieira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4455-6740</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Chagas</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos Palandri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0231-6490</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Toledo</surname>
            <given-names>Alceu de Oliveira</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7869-3826</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Nogueira</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cl&#225;udia Cavalcante</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9202-3546</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souto</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cristina Carneiro Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0598-5529</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lottenberg</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2881-1820</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Chacra</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula Marte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9149-1252</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2296-6098</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Louren&#231;o</surname>
            <given-names>Charles Marques</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10001">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2292-1735</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Valerio</surname>
            <given-names>Cynthia Melissa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7954-5630</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cintra</surname>
            <given-names>Dennys Esper</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12001">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9911-4598</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Antonio Helfenstein</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campana</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Aguiar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13001">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6746-8327</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bianco</surname>
            <given-names>Henrique Tria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1627-7018</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Josivan Gomes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14001">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3816-5612</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Castelo</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Helane Costa Gurgel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15001">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-2639-9982</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Scartezini</surname>
            <given-names>Marileia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16001">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6134-3654</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moretti</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8660-7078</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barreto</surname>
            <given-names>Natasha Slhessarenko Fraife</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15001">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17001">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8574-0168</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Maia</surname>
            <given-names>Rayana Elias</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7287-8726</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Montenegro</surname>
            <given-names>Renan Magalh&#227;es</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19001">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2527-8717</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Renato Jorge</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20001">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0566-6410</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Roberta Marcondes Machado</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21001">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8605-9035</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fock</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo Ambrosio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1027-6954</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martinez</surname>
            <given-names>T&#226;nia Leme da Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22001">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Giraldez</surname>
            <given-names>Viviane Zorzanelli Rocha</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de cardiologia (INC), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, S&#227;o Caetano do Sul, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa (UEPG), Ponta Grossa, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Base do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de L&#237;pides (LIM 10) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein (HIAE), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10001">
        <label>10</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto (FAMERP), S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11001">
        <label>11</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Estadual de Diabetes e Endocrinologia Luiz Capriglione (IEDE-RJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12001">
        <label>12</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13001">
        <label>13</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Alliar Medicina Diagn&#243;stica, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14001">
        <label>14</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15001">
        <label>15</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Diagn&#243;sticos da Am&#233;rica S.A. (DASA), Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16001">
        <label>16</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225; (UFPR), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17001">
        <label>17</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Cuiab&#225;, MT &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18001">
        <label>18</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Para&#237;ba (UFPB), Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19001">
        <label>19</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFCE), Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares (EBSERH), Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20001">
        <label>20</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21001">
        <label>21</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Israelita de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de Albert Einstein (FICSAE), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22001">
        <label>22</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Benefic&#234;ncia Portuguesa de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Correspondence: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil &#8211; Postal Code: 20020-907. Email: diretrizes@cardiol.br</corresp>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1001">
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">
                  <bold>Brazilian Position Statement for Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome &#8211; 2023</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">
                  <bold>The report below lists declarations of interest as reported to the SBC by the experts during the period of the development of these statement, 2022.</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Expert</bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <bold>Type of relationship with industry</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Alceu de Oliveira Toledo J&#250;nior</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ana Cl&#225;udia Cavalcante Nogueira</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Servier: Vastarel/Angina. Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- PTC: Waylivra/FCS.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Any economically relevant equity interest in companies in the healthcare or education industry or in any companies competing with or supplying to SBC:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Teaching and clinical research area.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ana Cristina Carneiro Fernandes Souto</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ana Maria Pitta Lottenberg</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- PTC Therapeutics: Financial support for lectures.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ana Paula Marte Chacra</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Antonio Carlos Palandri Chagas</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Any other interest (financial or other) that should be declared considering the position taken in SBC that has not been expressly listed above:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Member of the Vita Nova Institute Scientific Committee.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carlos Eduardo dos Santos Ferreira</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Charles Marques Louren&#231;o</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Sanofi: Biomarin/Achondroplasia; PTC: NiemannPick B/AADC deficiency.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cynthia Melissa Valerio</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk: Saxenda, Rybelsus, Ozempic; PTC: Waylivra; Amryt: Myalept.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amryt: Metreleptina.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dennys Esper Cintra</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Francisco Antonio Helfenstein Fonseca</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gustavo Aguiar Campana</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Henrique Tria Bianco</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Josivan Gomes de Lima</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk: Semaglutida.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcelo Heitor Vieira Assad</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk: Rybelsus.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk: Rybelsus.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Maria Cristina de Oliveira Izar</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amgen: Repatha; Amryt Pharma: Lojuxta; AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina; Ach&#233;: Trezor, Trezete; Biolab: Livalo; Abbott: Lipidil; EMS: Rosuvastatina; Eurofarma: Rosuvastatina; Sanofi: Praluent, Zympass, Zympass Eze, Efluelda; Libbs: Plenance, Plenance Eze; Novo Nordisk: Ozempic, Victoza; Servier: Acertamlo, Alertalix; PTCBio: Waylivra.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- PTCBio: Waylivra; Amgen: Repatha; Novartis: Inclisiran, Pelacarsen; NovoNordisk: Ziltivekimab.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk: Diabetes.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Maria Helane Costa Gurgel Castelo</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marileia Scartezini</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Miguel Antonio Moretti</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Natasha Slhessarenko Fraife Barreto</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Raul Dias dos Santos Filho</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amgen: Evolocumabe; Astra Zenec:Dapagliflozina; Ach&#233;:/Rosuvastatina; PTC Therapeutics:Volanesorsen; Novartis: Inclisiran; Novo Nordisk: Semaglutide; Sanofi: Rosuvastatina; Libbs: Rosuvastatina.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the Brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amgen: Evolocumabe; Sanofi: Alirocumabe; Novartis: Inclisiran; Esperion: &#193;cido Bemped&#243;ico; Novartis: Pelacarsen; Kowa: Pemafibrato.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amgen: Cholesterol; Ache: Cholesterol; AstraZeneca: Diabete; Libbs: Cholesterol; Novartis: Cholesterol; Novo Nordisk: Diabetes; Eli-Lilly: Diabetes; Merck: Diabetes; Biolab: Cholesterol.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rayana Elias Maia</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amgen: PTC: Volanersorsen.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amgen: PTC: Volanersorsen.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Renan Magalh&#227;es Montenegro Junior</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Boheringer, AstraZeneca, Novo Nordisk, PTC, Nestl&#233;, Amryt, Jansen.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk, Amryt, PTC, Boheringer, Abbott.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Renato Jorge Alves</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Boheringer, AstraZeneca, Novo Nordisk, PTC, Nestl&#233;, Amryt, Jansen.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novo Nordisk, Amryt, PTC, Boheringer, Abbott.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Roberta Marcondes Machado Figueiredo</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- PTC Therapeutics.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- PTC Therapeutics.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rodrigo Ambrosio Fock</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Biomarin.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>T&#226;nia Leme da Rocha Martinez</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Contents</p>
      <p>1. Cover Letter 5</p>
      <p>2. Document Objectives 6</p>
      <p>3. Definition of Grades of Recommendation and Levels of Evidence 6</p>
      <p>4. Definition of Hypertriglyceridemia (&gt; 150 mg/dL), Severe Hypertriglyceridemia (&gt; 500 mg/dL), and Chylomicronemia (&gt; 1,000 mg/dL) 6</p>
      <p>4.1. Introduction 6</p>
      <p>4.2. Definition of Hypertriglyceridemia 7</p>
      <p>5. Definition of Chylomicronemia &#8211; Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome and Multifactorial Chylomicronemia Syndrome: Clinical and Laboratory Criteria and Patterns of Transmission 7</p>
      <p>5.1. Introduction 7</p>
      <p>5.2. Concepts 8</p>
      <p><bold>5.2.1. Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</bold> 8</p>
      <p><bold>5.2.2. Multifactorial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</bold> 8</p>
      <p>6. Epidemiology of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome in the World and in Brazil 8</p>
      <p>6.1. Definition of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome and Clinical Aspects 8</p>
      <p>6.1.1. First Cases of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome 9</p>
      <p>6.2. Epidemiology of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome in the World 9</p>
      <p>6.3. Epidemiology of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome in Children 11</p>
      <p>6.4. Epidemiology of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome in Brazil 11</p>
      <p>7. Clinical Manifestations of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome, Differential Diagnosis, and Management of Complications 11</p>
      <p>7.1. Clinical Manifestations in Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome 11</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.1. Hypertriglyceridemia</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.2. Abdominal Pain and Acute Pancreatitis</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.3. Neurological Manifestations</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.4. Hepatosplenomegaly</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.5. Eruptive Xanthomas</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.6. Lipemia Retinalis</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.7. Quality of Life</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.8. Diagnostic Score</bold> 12</p>
      <p>7.2. Differential Diagnosis 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.2.1. Multifactorial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</bold> 12</p>
      <p><bold>7.2.2. Lipodystrophies</bold> 13</p>
      <p>7.3. Managing Complications of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome 13</p>
      <p><bold>7.3.1. Acute Pancreatitis</bold> 13</p>
      <p>8. Laboratory Diagnosis of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome 14</p>
      <p>8.1. Pre-analytical Phase (Patient Instructions) 14</p>
      <p><bold>8.1.1. Collection Instructions</bold> 14</p>
      <p><bold>8.1.2. Pre-analytical Causes of Interference in Triglyceride Analyses</bold> 14</p>
      <p><bold>8.1.3. Pre-analytical Phase (Laboratory Instructions)</bold> 14</p>
      <p>8.2. Analytical Phase 15</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.1. Methodologies Assessing Chylomicrons</bold> 13</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.1.1. Ultracentrifugation</bold> 15</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.1.2. Serum Appearance</bold> 15</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.1.3. Lipoprotein Electrophoresis</bold> 15</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.2. Methodologies for Assessing Triglycerides</bold> 15</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.3. Interferences to Triglyceride Results</bold> 15</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.4. Interferences of Triglycerides to Other Analytes</bold> 15</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.4.1. LDL-C</bold> 15</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.4.2. Platelets</bold> 16</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.4.3. Analytes with Colorimetric Analysis</bold> 16</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.4.4. Enzymes</bold> 16</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.4.5. Electrolytes</bold> 16</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.5. Laboratory Analyses for Differential Diagnosis</bold> 16</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.5.1. Post-heparin Lipoprotein Lipase Activity</bold> 16</p>
      <p><bold>8.2.5.2. Plasma ApoC3 Measurement</bold> 16</p>
      <p>8.3. Post-analytical Phase 16</p>
      <p><bold>8.3.1. Recommendations for NOTES in Laboratory Reports</bold> 16</p>
      <p>9. Genetic Counseling and Stages of Diagnosis and Follow&#8211;up of Severe Hypertriglyceridemia 17</p>
      <p>10. Nutritional Guidance for Chylomicronemia in Adults, Children, and Adolescents 18</p>
      <p>10.1. Fatty Acid Classification and Absorption 18</p>
      <p>10.2. Fat Absorption 19</p>
      <p>10.3. Nutritional Treatment 19</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.1. Fats</bold> 19</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.3. Carbohydrates</bold> 20</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.4. Alcohol</bold> 20</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.5. Infants and Early Childhood</bold> 20</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.6. Pregnant Women</bold> 21</p>
      <p><bold>10.3.7. General Recommendations</bold> 21</p>
      <p>10.4. Sample Menus 21</p>
      <p>11. Apheresis 26</p>
      <p>11.1. Diagnosis and Treatment 26</p>
      <p>11.2. Nondrug Therapy 26</p>
      <p>11.3. Pharmacological Treatment 26</p>
      <p>11.4. Apheresis 26</p>
      <p>12. New Therapies for the Treatment of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome 27</p>
      <p>12.1. APOC3 27</p>
      <p><bold>12.1.1 Antisense Inhibition of ApoC3</bold> 27</p>
      <p>13. Social and Psychological Aspects and Economic Impact of the Disease 27</p>
      <p>13.1. Social Aspects in Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome 29</p>
      <p>13.2. Psychological Aspects in Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome 30</p>
      <p><bold>13.2.1. Parents of children diagnosed with Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</bold> 30</p>
      <p>13.3. Reducing the Impact of the Disease: Ways of Coping 30</p>
      <p><bold>13.3.1. Active and Passive Models for Coping: Focus on the Patient</bold> 31</p>
      <p><bold>13.3.2. Social Model for Coping: Focus on Peers</bold> 31</p>
      <p>13.4. Cost-effectiveness in the Management of Psychosocial Risks 31</p>
      <p>14. Summary of Recommendations 32</p>
      <p>References 33</p>
      <sec>
        <title>1. Cover Letter</title>
        <p>Familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS) is a severe form of dyslipidemia characterized by multiple signs and symptoms associated with a deficiency in lipoprotein lipase or one of its cofactors, leading to compromised triglyceride metabolism. FCS has an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance and affects approximately 1 to 2 people per million, but it may be more frequent in consanguineous relationships. Knowledge of this condition is still limited, often contributing to delayed diagnosis when complications have already set in. Patients with FCS may have recurrent abdominal pain, episodes of pancreatitis, eruptive xanthomas, <italic>lipemia retinalis</italic> , hepatosplenomegaly, and a milky appearance of serum.</p>
        <p>In classic, severe forms, clinical symptoms are present at birth or even in childhood, but they may manifest at any age, especially in carriers of new mutations. Patients with FCS usually see several specialists before a diagnosis is made. The clinical presentation of FCS may also be indistinguishable from that of multifactorial chylomicronemia syndrome, which is more common and also has a genetic basis, although it is influenced by environmental and lifestyle factors. In addition, multifactorial chylomicronemia syndrome may result from conditions such as hypothyroidism, uncontrolled diabetes, kidney disease, alcohol abuse, and use of certain medications, which makes its diagnosis even more difficult.</p>
        <p>A few centers in Brazil use a panel of causal genes to genetically confirm FCS. FCS diagnosis can be confirmed by the presence of a homozygous mutation in one of the causal genes or two different mutations in the same gene (compound heterozygote) or in different causal genes (double heterozygote), although in some cases, a causal mutation cannot be found. Validated algorithms may assist in the clinical suspicion of FCS and indicate which patients should undergo genetic testing.</p>
        <p>FCS treatment requires a multidisciplinary approach, including a nutritionist and psychologist, among other health professionals, with the aim to maintain the individual&#8217;s well-being and nutritional status. Restriction of fats and simple carbohydrates and supplementation with fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids should be recommended for life. Psychological support aims to help patients live with strict dietary restrictions.</p>
        <p>Conventional pharmacological treatment is often less than 20% effective in reducing triglycerides, which is why patients&#8217; hopes lie on the approval of new medications in Brazil that have proven beneficial in triglyceride reduction. Peculiar situations in the management of FCS are pregnancy and episodes of recurrent pancreatitis, for which mortality rates can be high and individualized treatment is required.</p>
        <p>The purpose of this document is to make health professionals aware of the peculiar characteristics of FCS and to help them recognize early signs and symptoms and develop an adequate approach, mitigating patients&#8217; suffering and the complications caused by a delayed diagnosis. Members of the Atherosclerosis Department of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology and renowned specialists from Brazil gathered together with the aim of describing in a clear and objective way the best scientific information available on FCS to improve clinical practice.</p>
        <disp-quote>
          <p>
            <bold>Yours sincerely,</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Prof. Dra. Maria Cristina de Oliveira Izar</p>
          <p>Prof. Dr. Raul Dias Santos</p>
          <p>Prof. Dr. Antonio Carlos Palandri Chagas</p>
          <p>Dr. Marcelo Heitor Vieira Assad</p>
          <p>Coordinators</p>
        </disp-quote>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. Document Objectives</title>
        <p>This document aims to make health professionals, especially cardiologists, clinicians, and endocrinologists, aware of a very rare, underdiagnosed, and undertreated disease that causes intense suffering in those affected and which was not diagnosed until recently. Written by experts in the field, the Brazilian Position Statement for Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome (FCS) fills a gap in the knowledge of epidemiological data in Brazil and the world about clinical manifestations, laboratory and genetic diagnoses, and differential diagnosis of other forms of severe hypertriglyceridemia (HTG). In addition, the peculiar nutritional management associated with the condition and the treatment of infants, children, and pregnant women and complications such as pancreatitis are highlighted in this document. Of note, a new antisense therapy against apolipoprotein C3 (ApoC3) has been recently approved in Brazil, with evidence of triglyceride reduction and prospects of preventing complications and improving the quality of life of patients.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Definition of Grades of Recommendation and Levels of Evidence</title>
        <p>Classes (grades) of recommendation:</p>
        <p>Class I &#8211; Conditions for which there is conclusive evidence or, if not, a consensus that the procedure is safe and useful/effective.</p>
        <p>Class II &#8211; Conditions for which there is conflicting evidence and/or divergence of opinions on the safety and usefulness/efficacy of the procedure.</p>
        <p>Class IIa &#8211; Evidence or opinion in favor of the procedure. The majority agrees.</p>
        <p>Class IIb &#8211; Safety and usefulness/efficacy are less well established, and there is no predominance of opinions in favor of the procedure.</p>
        <p>Class III &#8211; Conditions for which there is evidence and/or a consensus that the procedure is not useful/effective, and in some cases may be harmful.</p>
        <p>Levels of evidence:</p>
        <p>Level A &#8211; Data obtained from several large, randomized studies showing concurring results and/or a robust meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.</p>
        <p>Level B &#8211; Data obtained from a less robust meta-analysis, a single randomized study, or from nonrandomized (observational) studies.</p>
        <p>Level C &#8211; Data obtained from consensual expert opinions.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Definition of Hypertriglyceridemia (&gt; 150 mg/dL), Severe Hypertriglyceridemia (&gt; 500 mg/dL), and Chylomicronemia (&gt; 1,000 mg/dL)</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>Some relevant factors should be considered before defining values and classifying HTG as mild, moderate, or severe. For lipid profile assessment, patients should maintain a stable metabolic state and their usual diet but should not consume alcohol 5 days before blood collection. Possible within-person biological variations and variations between laboratories should be considered when interpreting lipid measurements. Such variations can reach values of 10% for total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and up to 25% for triglycerides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The most recent Brazilian guidelines for dyslipidemia and diabetes state that fasting is not required for serum triglyceride assessment. However, if plasma triglyceride concentrations are &gt; 400 mg/dL, plasma triglycerides should be measured again after a 12-hour fast due to the possibility of primary HTG, for which fasting is required.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> For HTG values &gt; 400 mg/dL, the Friedewald formula, which is commonly used to calculate cholesterol fractions, is no longer used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Some publications suggest increased cardiovascular risk associated with postprandial HTG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In 2016, the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS) and the European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine guidelines stated that fasting was no longer required for lipid profile assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The Brazilian Guidelines for Dyslipidemia and Atherosclerosis classification of dyslipidemia is described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8001">Table 1</xref> .</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t8001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Laboratory classification of dyslipidemia according to the Brazilian Guidelines for Dyslipidemia and Atherosclerosis <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> </title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Isolated Hypercholesterolemia</td>
                    <td>Increased LDL-C (&gt; 160 mg/dL)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Isolated Hypertriglyceridemia</td>
                    <td>Increased triglycerides (&gt; 150 mg/dL with fasting or &gt; 175 mg/dL without fasting)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Mixed hyperlipidemia</td>
                    <td>Increased LDL-C and triglycerides</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Decreased HDL-C</td>
                    <td>HDL-C &lt; 40 mg/dL in men or &lt; 50 mg/dL in women, with or without increased LDL-C or triglycerides</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Class of recommendation: I; Level of evidence: C.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Fredrickson&#8217;s classification of phenotypes ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9001">Table 2</xref> ) is based on lipoprotein fraction separation by electrophoresis and/or ultracentrifugation. Despite the known importance of this classification, it is currently only available in specialty centers and is no longer widely used in clinical practice. To demonstrate its relevance, we will describe patients with HTG with different phenotypic classifications according to primary lipoprotein abnormality: FCS (type I), familial combined hyperlipidemia (type IIb), dysbetalipoproteinemia (type III), simple primary HTG (type IV), and HTG with chylomicronemia (type V).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t9001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Fredrickson&#8217;s classification of phenotypes <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> </title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Classification</th>
                    <th>Increased lipoprotein</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Type I</td>
                    <td align="center">Chylomicrons</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Type IIa</td>
                    <td align="center">LDL</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Type IIb</td>
                    <td align="center">LDL and VLDL</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Type III</td>
                    <td align="center">IDL</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Type IV</td>
                    <td align="center">VLDL</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Type V</td>
                    <td align="center">Chylomicrons and VLDL</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN3001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>IDL: intermediate-density lipoprotein; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; VLDL: very low-density lipoprotein.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Definition of Hypertriglyceridemia</title>
          <p>In laboratory tests, HTG is defined as plasma triglyceride concentrations &gt; 150 mg/dL. However, if the lipid profile is measured without fasting, HTG is defined as triglycerides &gt; 175 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Thus, HTG may be classified into<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup>: </p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Mild: plasma triglycerides &gt; 150 mg/dL;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Moderate: plasma triglycerides from 151 to 499 mg/dL;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Severe: plasma triglycerides from 500 to 1,000 mg/dL;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Very severe: plasma triglycerides &gt; 1,000 mg/dL.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>HTG results from the accumulation of lipoproteins rich in fatty acids and glycerol (such as very low-density lipoprotein [VLDL], intermediate-density lipoprotein, and remnants). Chylomicronemia is the main lipoprotein abnormality in severe and very severe forms, defined as the presence of circulating chylomicrons during fasting. The presence of chylomicrons can be detected in the blood if triglyceride concentrations are &gt; 1,000 mg/dL; however, chylomicronemia is more likely to be detected when concentrations exceed 1,500 mg/dL. The severe and very severe forms of HTG are clinically relevant because of their association with a 2-fold increased risk of acute pancreatitis (AP), whose incidence increases by 3% for each 100 mg/dL &gt; 1,000 mg/dL of triglyceridemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. Definition of Chylomicronemia &#8211; Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome and Multifactorial Chylomicronemia Syndrome: Clinical and Laboratory Criteria and Patterns of Transmission</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>Chylomicronemia is characterized by an accumulation of chylomicrons in the circulation and a significant increase in plasma triglyceride concentrations.</p>
          <p>The higher the plasma triglyceride concentration, the greater the risk of pancreatitis. However, patients with concentrations &gt; 1,000 mg/dL or very severe HTG are more likely to develop AP. To consider a diagnosis of FCS, laboratory abnormalities should be associated with the presence of clinical abnormalities since childhood or adolescence. Such abnormalities include <italic>lipemia retinalis</italic> , eruptive xanthomas, hepatosplenomegaly, and especially AP, which would help confirm the diagnosis of FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The severe and very severe forms of HTG are clinically relevant because of their association with a 2-fold increased risk of AP. AP is a potentially life-threatening condition that may also lead to a number of clinical complications, such as chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic insufficiency, and diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Chylomicrons are formed by the incorporation of dietary lipids into Apos (A1, A2, A4, B48, C2, C3, and E) and then secreted into the mesenteric lymph.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is an enzyme located on the endothelial surface of adipose and muscle tissue capillaries; when activated, it initiates the process of hydrolysis of chylomicron triglycerides, generating chylomicron remnants. LPL activity is modulated by the action of apoC2 and apoA5, which act as cofactors in its activation, lipase maturation factor 1 (LMF1), which is necessary for the production of LPL in adipocytes and myocytes, and by the action of glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchored high-density lipoprotein binding protein 1 (GPIHBP1), which transports LPL from the interstitial space to the capillary lumen. Any alteration in the function and/or activation of LPL results in an increase in the half-life of chylomicrons in the bloodstream, consequently leading to chylomicronemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>There are two distinct forms of chylomicronemia: FCS and multifactorial chylomicronemia syndrome (MCS). These are, respectively, the prototypes of the monogenic and polygenic conditions underlying severe HTG of genetic origin. Chylomicronemia is estimated to affect 1:600 adults, but patients with FCS account for only 5%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The two forms of the disease can be differentiated by clinical and/or laboratory characteristics of patients. Patients with FCS usually present with pancreatitis, whereas those with MCS are more likely to have atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Early and accurate diagnosis of both conditions is essential for therapeutic success and mortality prevention.</p>
          <p>The two forms are difficult to distinguish due to a considerable phenotypic overlap, and there are still many unanswered questions related to prevalence, clinical and genetic features, and clinical management.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. Concepts</title>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.1. Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
            <p>FCS is a serious and very rare metabolic disease characterized by chylomicronemia associated with recurrent episodes of abdominal pain and/or pancreatitis.</p>
            <p>The worldwide estimate is that FCS affects 1 in every 500,000 to 1,000,000 people.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> The condition often manifests in childhood or adolescence and has been described in all ethnicities, with a higher prevalence in some geographic areas, such as Quebec, due to the founder effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Also called Fredrickson type I hyperlipoproteinemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> FCS is a monogenic, autosomal recessive lipid disorder whose diagnosis is based on the detection of rare, biallelic mutations (homozygous or compound heterozygous) in LPL (&gt; 80% of cases) or other genes that encode the proteins necessary for their activity (such as <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , and <italic>LMF1</italic> ), leading to a dramatic reduction in chylomicron clearance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Typically, patients&#8217; response to lipid-lowering drugs is limited, and thus treatment represents a clinical challenge. The cornerstone of FCS therapy consists of a dramatic reduction in fat intake (8% to 10% of total calories), which is difficult to maintain over time. Lifetime adherence to such an extremely restrictive treatment is difficult, negatively impacts quality of life, and does not completely eliminate the risk of pancreatitis in all patients. Recurrent AP occurs in 50% of patients with FCS; the overall associated mortality rate is 5% to 6% but increases to 30% in subgroups of patients who develop pancreatic necrosis or persistent multiple organ failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.2. Multifactorial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
            <p>MCS, also called Fredrickson type V hyperlipoproteinemia, is an oligogenic or polygenic lipid disorder aggravated by the presence of comorbidities known to increase triglycerides (uncontrolled diabetes, hypothyroidism, pregnancy, obesity), environmental factors (alcohol abuse and diet rich in fats and simple sugars), and certain drugs, such as glucocorticoids, ethinylestradiol, and neuroleptics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> MCS incidence tends to increase linearly with the increase in the prevalence of obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes in the world population. In patients with this syndrome, chylomicronemia is intermittent and, in most cases, manifests later.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> It responds well to changes in lifestyle and treatment of secondary factors, with good response to triglyceride-lowering agents. MCS is characterized by an increased risk of AP, but the estimated odds ratio (OR) of 50 is clearly lower than the OR of 360 reported in patients with FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The two forms of chylomicronemia can be differentiated on the basis of lipoprotein electrophoresis or ultracentrifugation (presence of VLDL and chylomicrons in MCS; only chylomicrons in FCS). The current gold standard procedure for identifying patients with FCS is genetic testing or post-heparin LPL activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Considering that the treatment for the two forms of the disease is very different, a correct diagnosis must be made. New therapies, such as apoC3 inhibitors, are under development to lower triglycerides in people with FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. Epidemiology of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome in the World and in Brazil</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1. Definition of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome and Clinical Aspects</title>
          <p>FCS is a very rare inherited disease that affects approximately 1-2:1,000,000 people. It has an autosomal recessive mode of transmission and is characterized by very high concentrations of triglycerides (usually well above 1,000 mg/dL), turbid lipemic serum, with a milky aspect, <italic>lipemia retinalis</italic> , recurrent abdominal pain, eruptive xanthomas, episodes of recurrent pancreatitis, cognitive and neurological disorders, and impaired quality of life and sociability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, the frequency of clinical manifestations in patients with FCS is variable. Eruptive xanthomas have been described in 17% to 23% of patients with FCS, <italic>lipemia retinalis</italic> in 4% to 36%, hepatosplenomegaly or splenomegaly alone in 12% to 25%, abdominal pain in 26% to 63%, pancreatitis in 60% to 88%, and multiple pancreatitis in 17% to 48%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Serum appearance is important to differentiate between the situations that increase free glycerol in the blood, leading to an overestimation of triglyceride levels, with no serum turbidity after 12 hours of refrigeration and excluding causes of hyperglycerolemia (recent physical activity, alcohol intake, acute liver disease, decompensated diabetes, parenteral nutrition, or intravenous medication containing glycerol).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In FCS, severe HTG results from the inability to metabolize triglycerides and other fats. Fats are absorbed by the small intestine, where chylomicrons are formed. When LPL activity is normal, LPL participates in the hydrolysis of chylomicron triglycerides into free fatty acids via the LPL-dependent pathway.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> In FCS, chylomicrons, chylomicron remnants, and triglyceride-rich lipoproteins cannot be metabolized and accumulate in the plasma. Thus, the accumulation of triglycerides can impair pancreatic blood flow and activate inflammatory processes, resulting in AP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The role of LPL and its cofactors is crucial for understanding the metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> LPL synthesis occurs intracellularly in adipocytes and smooth muscle cells. It is produced as a monomer, and adequate LPL dimerization is dependent on LMF-1. After this step, GPIHBP1, a glycoprotein involved in the transport of LPL to the capillary lumen, facilitates anchorage of LPL to the endothelial capillary, where it hydrolyzes the triglyceride content of chylomicrons and VLDL. ApoC2 and apoA5 participate as cofactors in LPL activation. Hydrolysis of triglycerides from these lipoproteins releases free fatty acids and monoglycerides, which are transported into myocytes or adipocytes, where they are used for energy production or lipid storage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Mutations in five different genes have been implicated in the development of FCS, all of which have an effect on LPL activity, which is responsible for removing triglycerides from chylomicrons and other triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in the circulation, breaking them down into free fatty acids. Patients with FCS have loss-of-function mutations in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene, leading to extremely high levels of chylomicrons in the circulation and, therefore, severe HTG. Other genes have also been described as cofactors in LPL activation, namely: <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>LMF1</italic> , and <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>6.1.1. First Cases of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
            <p>FCS was first described by Gaskins et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> in 1953, when they followed up three cases of familial idiopathic hyperlipoproteinemia in a family of eight people. The patients had a milky appearance of serum and markedly increased triglycerides. A low-fat diet followed by the administration of intravenous heparin greatly reduced triglycerides, suggesting that the defect was related to triglyceride removal from the circulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
            <p>This family was studied in 1960 and LPL, an enzyme anchored to the vascular endothelial surface and released from the wall by heparin, was suspected to be responsible for the lipid defect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> When studying three brothers affected by the condition, the authors also suggested that another defect in addition to LPL could cause the so-called familial idiopathic hyperlipoproteinemia syndrome.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2. Epidemiology of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome in the World</title>
        <p>Because FCS is a very rare disease, expert reports contribute greatly to prevalence estimates. Hegele et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> reported that, in a series of biological samples from 381 patients with triglycerides &gt; 1,000 mg/dL, four patients (or 1%) had two large-effect loss-of-function mutations on both alleles of the <italic>LPL</italic> gene, which characterizes the classic autosomal recessive LPL deficiency. When considering patients with mutations in both alleles of the four so-called minor genes that modulate LPL activity &#8211; namely, <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>LMF1</italic> , and <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> &#8211;, another four patients were identified, that is, another 1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Patients with two mutations in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene or in its regulatory genes (compound heterozygotes) have two different loss-of-function mutations, and those with two heterozygous mutations in two different causal genes (double heterozygotes) added up to 1% more.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Thus, it was estimated that approximately 3% of patients with severe HTG (triglycerides &#8805; 1,000 mg/dL) in this sample had mutations in both alleles of genes that encode LPL or one of the proteins that modulate its activity. These patients may be homozygous, compound heterozygous, or double heterozygous. These conditions have been described among French Canadians from the province of Quebec, where the percentage of patients with two mutant alleles is higher due to a founder effect. Such prevalence may seem small compared to the vast majority of patients with severe HTG; however, in the absence of genetic testing, one cannot separate FCS (type I) from MCS (type V) in patients with triglycerides &#8805; 1,000 mg/dL. In fact, most patients with severe HTG (97%) have a genetic basis for a heterozygous loss-of-function mutation in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene or its cofactors and other minor variants, or a strong component of environmental factor. There is, therefore, a polygenic basis with several possible variants in different combinations that are overrepresented among patients with severe HTG, which correspond to the multifactorial form (MCS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Surendran et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> reported that among five causal genes, 34% of identified mutations were in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Comparing the clinical and laboratory data of patients with FCS of various genetic etiologies, FCS resulting from a defect in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene is phenotypically very similar to that resulting from defects unrelated to the <italic>LPL</italic> gene. However, patients with a defect in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene have lower post-heparin lipase activity and tend to have higher triglycerides. Conversely, LDL-C concentrations are generally higher among people with defects in genes other than <italic>LPL</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2001 to 2006, severe HTG was estimated to affect 5,680 adults over 20 years of age whose fasting triglyceride results were available. In these patients, the prevalence of triglycerides between 500 and 2,000 mg/dL was 1.7% (87 individuals), and levels &gt; 2,000 mg/dL were found in only three patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> If these data were extrapolated to the North American population, they would indicate an estimated 3,357,214 adults with severe HTG (triglycerides between 500 and 2,000 mg/dL) and 81,877 with triglycerides &#8805; 2,000 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A retrospective cross-sectional study evaluated patients from Oregon Health &amp; Science University from July 2012 to July 2017.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> The electronic records of patients seen during that period were reviewed based on 4 criteria: triglycerides &#8805; 880 mg/dL, history of AP, absence of secondary HTG, and lack of response to triglyceride-lowering pharmacotherapy (&lt; 20%). When 3 of 4 criteria were met, patients were considered to have likely FCS. When all 4 criteria were met, or if there was confirmation of culprit mutations by genetic testing, patients were considered to have definite FCS. Of 2,342,136 electronic records evaluated, 578 patients showed triglyceride measurements &#8805; 880 mg/dL (0.025%), of whom 86 also had a history of pancreatitis. Five patients who met FCS criteria were identified and 3 of them had genetically confirmed FCS, resulting in an estimated prevalence of 1-2 per 1,000,000 people. MCS was identified in 186 patients, suggesting an estimated prevalence of 1 in 12,000 people. There were 5,181 cases of pancreatitis (0.22% of the entire cohort), 86 of which occurred in those with triglycerides &#8805; 880 mg/dL (1.7% of pancreatitis cases). The rates of pancreatitis in this subsample increased to 6.5%, 100%, and 17.8% in patients with MCS, FCS, and secondary causes of HTG, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In a retrospective study with data from 70,201 patients treated at the Cleveland Clinic Lipid Center from January to December 2006, 369 met the criteria of triglycerides &#8805; 750 mg/dL and previous pancreatitis. Of these, 333 cases were due to secondary causes or had missing data and were excluded. Of the remaining 36 patients, 14 met criteria for FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> In this cohort of FCS, the authors reported the prevalence to be at least 1:5,000 based on established diagnostic criteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> The prevalence reported in this study is &gt; 20-200 times higher than the prevalence reported in previous reports. Using electronic data from the North Texas Division of the Baylor Scott &amp; White Health System from September 2015 to September 2016, a screening of patients with triglycerides &#8805; 1,000 mg/dL and a history of pancreatitis showed that, of 297,891 adult patients with available triglyceride levels, 334 (0.11%) had triglyceride levels &#8805; 1,000 mg/dL and 30 (9%) of them had pancreatitis. Of these, six cases were excluded due to secondary causes. Of the 24 remaining cases, the average maximum triglyceride level was 3.085 &#177; 1.211 mg/dL. Thus, electronic screening of triglycerides &#8805; 1,000 mg/dL and a history of pancreatitis allowed ruling out 99.99% of severe HTG cases, resulting in 24 cases in which FCS could not be excluded, suggesting a prevalence of 1 in 12,413 people. An important data limitation in both studies is the lack of genetic confirmation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Another study in Quebec evaluated plasma appearance and classified patients according to triglyceride values, probable etiology, and biochemical characteristics. A total of 354 people with lactescent plasma were compared with 482 patients with clear plasma but triglycerides &gt; 5 mmol/L (approximately 440 mg/dL) and with 364 normolipidemic controls (triglycerides &lt; 2 mmol/L, or &lt; 176 mg/dL). The authors observed that lactescent plasma represented a heterogeneous group of high-risk patients among whom 28 had FCS, 62 had dysbetalipoproteinemia (due to defects in the <italic>APOE</italic> gene, E2E2), 182 had type IV HTG, and 82 had type V HTG. From a clinical point of view, the higher the triglyceride concentrations and the more lactescent the plasma, the greater the risk of pancreatitis. Visual examination of plasma and clinical phenotype were useful to establish the cardiometabolic risk in these patients, and identification of lactescent plasma is a simple diagnostic tool that can help identify those at increased risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dron et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> suggested that only 1% to 2% of patients with triglycerides &#8805; 1,000 mg/dL had FCS, with the remaining majority having MCS. The authors assessed rare and common variants in two independent cohorts of 251 and 312 Caucasian patients with severe HTG. Targeted next-generation sequencing of 73 genes and 185 single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with dyslipidemia, in addition to five causal genes for FCS ( <italic>LPL</italic> , <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , and <italic>LMF1</italic> ), was conducted. The authors found that 1.1% had biallelic rare variants, 14.4% had heterozygous rare variants, 32% had an extreme accumulation of common variants (that is, a high polygenic score), and 52% remained genetically undefined. Patients with severe HTG were 5.77 times more likely to carry one of these variants of genetic susceptibility compared with controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A family with three members affected by FCS who had severe HTG and episodes of pancreatitis underwent genetic panel analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> The index case was a woman with multiple episodes of pancreatitis, one of them during pregnancy, requiring plasmapheresis. The prevalence of severe HTG was also evaluated based on population data obtained from a reference laboratory where secondary causes (207,926 participants, aged 58 years, 52% women) and diabetes were ruled out. The 28-year-old woman had recurrent HTG and pancreatitis with onset at 3 months of age. Triglyceride levels were reasonably well-controlled with a low-fat diet until her early 20s, when she experienced recurrent attacks of pancreatitis and fasting triglyceride levels &gt; 2,000 mg/dL, requiring multiple hospitalizations despite treatment. In addition to a restricted diet, she was placed on fenofibrate, niacin, medium chain triglycerides (MCTs), and omega-3 (&#969;3), with poor response. She became pregnant at age 30 and required weekly or biweekly plasma exchanges until delivery. Her father and sister had HTG and a history of pancreatitis. The patient was a compound heterozygote for two <italic>LPL</italic> mutations: c.708delA (p.G237fs*15) deletion and c.644G.A (p.G215E), which are known to impair LPL function. Her father had the c.708delA (p.G237fs*15) deletion variant, whereas her mother and sister had the c.644G.A (p.G215E) variant. Of 207,926 participants, 25 had fasting triglycerides &gt; 2,000 mg/dL with no evidence of secondary causes, suggesting an estimated prevalence of 120/1 million people.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In another study, the prevalence of FCS was assessed in a largely rural area in central New York State with an estimated population of 870,000. A review of electronic medical records from 385,000 patients identified 998 patients with triglycerides &gt; 750 mg/dL, of whom 994 were excluded for secondary causes of HTG, satisfactory response to therapy, or lack of complete information. Four patients met criteria for FCS. Thus, the probability of finding 4 out of 870,000 would be 0.01, suggesting that the 1/1,000,000 prevalence is an underestimation. The high prevalence was attributed to a probable founder effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The prevalence of FCS was also retrospectively assessed by reviewing the electronic medical records from 7,699,288 patients from the University of Southern California who had triglycerides &gt; 880 mg/dL, at least one episode of pancreatitis, response to lipid-lowering therapy &lt; 20%, and no documented secondary causes. The analysis showed an FCS prevalence of 0.26 to 0.65 per million individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Finally, the prevalence of FCS was determined in a quaternary care center.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Data from 1,627,763 patients seen at Johns Hopkins Hospital from 2013 to 2017 were reviewed. FCS criteria included patients with a) at least one fasting triglyceride value &gt; 750 mg/dL, b) history of AP, unexplained recurrent abdominal pain, and/or family history of HTG, and c) absence of secondary causes of HTG. Twenty-one patients with FCS and 89 with secondary HTG were identified, and FCS prevalence in this study was 13:1.000.000 (95%CI, 8-20).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3. Epidemiology of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome in Children</title>
        <p>There are no data regarding the prevalence of severe HTG and FCS among children. A retrospective analysis of electronic medical records from a tertiary pediatric hospital (Children&#8217;s Medical Center, Dallas) and NHANES data from 2000-2015 showed that, of 30,623 children at the Children&#8217;s Medical Center, 36 (1 in 1,000) had extremely elevated triglyceride levels (&#8805; 2,000 mg/dL), and one-third of them developed AP. Most of these cases corresponded to secondary causes of HTG, with an estimated prevalence of FCS of 1:6,000 in children in a tertiary care center and 1:300,000 in children in the general population. According to the 2000-2015 NHANES data, none of the 2,362 children met the criteria for severe HTG, whereas the estimated prevalence among adults was 0.02%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4. Epidemiology of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome in Brazil</title>
        <p>In Brazil, case reports of FCS are very scarce. Although cases of FCS have been described in several regions of the country, with a higher concentration in regions with a founder effect (especially in the Northeast region), no publications on the subject have been found except for conference publications published in annals.</p>
        <p>The first case report consisted of a 3-year-old boy who presented with lipemic serum and plasma triglyceride concentrations of 25,000 mg/dL at 3 months of age with exclusive breastfeeding. At 3 years of age, he developed hepatosplenomegaly and, after a diet restricted in fat and skim milk, triglycerides reached 990 mg/dL. He had zero LPL activity, and a G188E mutation was detected in exon 5 of LPL in homozygosis for him and in heterozygosis for the parents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Another report consisted of two children, one aged 21 days and the other aged 4 months and 15 days. In both cases, HTG was casually diagnosed by the xanthochromic aspect of blood during sample collection. Triglyceride levels at diagnosis were 18,019 mg/dL and 5,333 mg/dL, respectively. After in-hospital and outpatient dietary intervention, the lowest triglyceride levels achieved were 602 mg/dL and 615 mg/dL. One of the patients developed recurrent episodes of AP related to high triglyceride levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>There was a report of a 15-month-old infant from the state of Rio Grande do Norte with chylothorax and a lipid profile suggestive of FCS, with triglycerides &gt; 1,000 mg/dL and no documented pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Another publication reported the case of a 45-year-old woman with severe HTG, diabetes, and profuse eruptive xanthomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Two other cases of siblings with FCS with a genetically confirmed mutation in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene were identified in the rural area of Para&#237;ba.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Another report consisted of a 45-day-old infant experiencing vomiting and irritability, with triglycerides of 6,541 mg/dL and altered molecular analysis in 3 variants: Chr8:19,811,733 G&gt;A, promoting the replacement of the amino acid glycine at codon 215 by glutamate (p.Gly215Glu); Chr8:19,813,385 G&gt;A, promoting the replacement of the amino acid arginine in codon 270 by histidine (p.Arg270His); and Chr8:19,811,823 T&gt;C, promoting the replacement of the amino acid isoleucine at codon 245 by threonine (p.Ile245Thr). Dietary behavior consisted of skim milk, MCTs, and vitamins A, D, E, and K. After the patient was discharged, the diet was changed to include infant formula, which led to an increase in triglycerides (11,760 mg/dL). The patient underwent fasting and the previous dietary behavior was subsequently restored, which allowed reasonable control of triglyceridemia, adequate growth, and weight gain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Lima et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> recently reported 12 cases of FCS in patients with a homozygous mutation in the intronic region of the <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> gene, all with severe HTG (2,351 mg/dL [885-20,600 mg/dL]) and low HDL-C (18 mg/dL [5-41 mg/dL]) and 33% with episodes of AP. All patients were from cities in the Northeast of the country, suggesting a founder effect.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Data on the prevalence of FCS varies greatly between studies due to the lack of standardized clinical criteria, the similarity with MCS, the scarcity of tests for genetic confirmation, the lack of national and international registries, and the founder effect of causal genes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7. Clinical manifestations of familial chylomicronemia syndrome, differential diagnosis, and management of complications</title>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1. Clinical Manifestations in Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
          <p>Clinical manifestations of monogenic forms of chylomicronemia usually happen during childhood or in the beginning of adult life. However, as this is a relatively rare disease, diagnostic delays are common and lead to diagnosis in adult life, when complications are already established.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A review of the APPROACH study database demonstrated that the mean age at diagnosis was 24 years; more than half of the 66 patients were diagnosed after 20 years old. At diagnosis, 75% of patients had already presented an episode of pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Other series describe a mean assessment by five different medical professionals before reaching a diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
          <p>These data reinforce the importance of early and timely diagnosis. The main clinical manifestations of FCS are described in the following sections.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.1. Hypertriglyceridemia</title>
            <p>On laboratory assessment, the affected patients presented hyperchylomicronemia, with sharp increases in triglycerides &#8211; in general, between 1,500 and 5,000 mg/dL &#8211; at the expense of increased VLDL cholesterol (VLDL-C) and especially circulating chylomicrons. Since a small amount of cholesterol is also transported by and is present in chylomicrons, total cholesterol may be increased, usually in triglycerides: cholesterol ratio &gt; 5:1. Many patients have a moderate increase in VLDL-C, with LDL-C and ApoB levels &lt; 100 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
            <p>According to the Fredrickson Classification, although type V phenotype is more common, type I seems to be more specific for the diagnosis of FCS in adults. In children, type I phenotype is more frequently observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Severe HTG in patients with FCS usually presents a poor response to fibrates and/or other lipid-lowering drugs. In these cases, which comprise a huge challenge to clinical practice, the main therapeutic alternative is a diet with a drastic reduction in fat intake (8% to 10% of the daily calory intake). The strictness of this diet not rarely makes adhesion to long-term treatment difficult and also significantly affects the patients&#8217; quality of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.2. Abdominal Pain and Acute Pancreatitis</title>
            <p>Recurrent abdominal pain is present in up to 50% of patients, is not necessarily associated with AP, and can be debilitating.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
            <p>When triglyceride levels are &gt; 1,000 mg/dL, the risk of pancreatitis increases in 3% for every 100 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A Canadian study compared a group of 25 individuals with FCS to a group of 36 patients with MCS and demonstrated that, despite presenting similar mean triglyceride levels, the group with FCS presented a 10-fold higher risk (60% vs 6%) of pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> This is probably due to a longer duration of exposure to hyperchylomicronemia, which in FCS tends to happen in the first years of life.</p>
            <p>Multiple episodes of AP and the severity of dietary restrictions negatively affect the patient&#8217;s quality of life and considerably increase morbidity and mortality by the disease. Recurrent pancreatitis occurs in 50% of patients with FCS; the overall associated mortality rate is of 5% to 6% and can reach 30% in subgroups of patients who progress to pancreatic necrosis or persistent multiple organ failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.3. Neurological Manifestations</title>
            <p>Fatigue, mental confusion, irritability, and cognitive deficit &#8211; described as &#8220;mental fog&#8221; &#8211; are the most described symptoms among patients with FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.4. Hepatosplenomegaly</title>
            <p>Hepatosplenomegaly is one of the findings that are reversible with treatment and results from excess chylomicrons in macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system in FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.5. Eruptive Xanthomas</title>
            <p>Xanthomas correspond to yellow, eruptive skin lesions with an erythematous halo measuring around 2 to 5 mm diameter. These are found on extensor surfaces (elbows and knees) and on the buttocks. Their prevalence is low (affecting 17% to 33% of the patients), and they are not always correlated with episodes of pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.6. Lipemia Retinalis</title>
            <p>Milky white appearance of the blood in retinal vessels on fundus examination, which can be seen in up to 30% of the patients and is correlated with higher levels of triglycerides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.7. Quality of Life</title>
            <p>The IN-FOCUS study, with 166 patients with FCS, showed an important impact of the disease on quality of life. Hospitalization rates can interfere with social conditions and job possibilities, and more than 22% of patients reported depression or anxiety related to the pain or pancreatitis episodes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.8. Diagnostic Score</title>
            <p>Some scales or scores that consider clinical manifestations have been proposed for diagnosing FCS; however, they need to be validated in larger samples of populations with severe HTG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Additionally, their applicability is questionable because they include previous pancreatitis episodes among their scoring criteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Fundamentally, the aim of using diagnostic scores consists in screening asymptomatic patients and preventing complications such as AP. The assessment of databases with a larger number of patients with FCS and further detailing of clinical forms should contribute to the elaboration of criteria with higher sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing FCS.</p>
            <p>The most widely used score is that by Moulin et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> which uses as selection criteria the presence of severe HTG (&gt; 1,000 mg/dL of fasting triglycerides and outside of the acute phase) and attributes points to increased triglyceride levels once secondary causes are ruled out, to a history of pancreatitis, recurrent abdominal pain, unresponsiveness to usual triglyceride-lowering treatment, and age of symptom onset ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t12001">Chart 1</xref> ). This score was tested in cohorts of patients with genetic confirmation of FCS and MCS, being validated in other cohorts showing an area under the curve of 0.91. This position statement recommends its use when screening for genetic testing.</p>
            <p>
              <table-wrap id="t12001">
                <label>Chart 1</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Clinical score for suspecting FCS</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="50%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th align="left">Criterium</th>
                      <th>Score</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Fasting triglycerides &#8805; 1,000 mg/dL in 3 not necessarily consecutive analyses</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 5</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>* Fasting triglycerides at least once &#8805; 1,760 mg/dL</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 2</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Previous triglycerides &lt; 200 mg/dL</td>
                      <td align="center">- 5</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>No secondary factors, except for pregnancy and ethinylestradiol</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 2</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>History of pancreatitis</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Unexplained recurrent abdominal pain</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>No history of familial combined hyperlipidemia</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>No response to lipid-lowering treatment (triglyceride decrease &lt; 20%)</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Symptom onset at age:</td>
                      <td> </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&lt; 40 years</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 1</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&lt; 20 years</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 2</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&lt; 10 years</td>
                      <td align="center">+ 3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>FCS score</td>
                      <td> </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <list list-type="simple">
                          <list-item>
                            <p>Very likely</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center">&#8805; 10</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <list list-type="simple">
                          <list-item>
                            <p>Unlikely</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center">&#8804; 9</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <list list-type="simple">
                          <list-item>
                            <p>Very unlikely</p>
                          </list-item>
                        </list>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center">&#8804; 8</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN4001">
                    <p>
                      <italic>FCS: familial chylomicronemia syndrome. * Only if the previous criterium (fasting triglycerides &#8805; 1,000 mg/dL in 3 not necessarily consecutive analyses) is positive. Adapted from Moulin et al. Atherosclerosis 2018; 2018;275:265-272. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup><italic>21</italic></sup></xref></italic>
                    </p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.2. Differential Diagnosis</title>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2.1. Multifactorial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
          <p>In adults, the main differential diagnosis for FCS is MCS. Previously named Fredrickson type V hyperlipoproteinemia or severe polygenic HTG, multifactorial HTG is a polygenic disorder that includes rare heterozygous variants in the five FCS genes or variants commonly associated with HTG, being worsened by the presence of comorbidities or secondary causes of increased triglycerides such as uncontrolled diabetes, hypothyroidism, obesity, and metabolic syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Dietary factors, such as alcohol abuse and diets high in fats, simple sugars, and other carbohydrates with high glycemic index are common causes of HTG exacerbation. Among environmental causes, we highlight the use of certain medications (glucocorticoids, oral estrogens, thiazide diuretics, noncardioselective beta blockers, second-generation antipsychotics, protease inhibitors, cyclophosphamide, bile acid sequestrants, amiodarone, retinoic acid, isotretinoin, sirolimus, L-asparaginase, and immunosuppressants such as interferon and cyclosporine) and physiological conditions such as pregnancy, especially in the third trimester.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> The prevalence of MCS usually tends to grow linearly with the increase in prevalence of the most common secondary causes (obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes). Among patients with MCS, chylomicronemia fluctuates and is manifested in later stages of life when compared to FCS. Additionally, MCS tends to have a better therapeutic response to lifestyle changes and treatment of secondary factors, as well as triglyceride-lowering pharmacotherapies. MCS is characterized by an increased risk of pancreatitis, albeit lower than that reported in patients with FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2.2. Lipodystrophies</title>
          <p>Other relevant differential diagnoses for FCS are lipodystrophies, which are a heterogeneous group of diseases characterized by the selective loss of adipose tissue that can progress with severe HTG and pancreatitis. Lipodystrophies can be inherited or acquired and are classified as generalized or partial as to their extension; partial forms associated with HIV infection are the most common ones. Inherited lipodystrophies are rare disorders that can manifest at birth or display loss of fat in later stages of life. These conditions still represent a diagnostic challenge, especially considering the partial forms, whose diagnostic suspicion should be raised in the presence of moderate to severe HTG associated with a thigh skinfold measurement &lt; 22 mm in women or &lt; 10 mm in men, and/or cases of diabetes that require subcutaneous insulin in daily doses &gt; 2 IU/kg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.3. Managing Complications of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
        <sec>
          <title>7.3.1. Acute Pancreatitis</title>
          <p>AP is a relatively frequent event, with different causes that include HTG. Identifying the specific cause is fundamental for establishing treatment and preventing future episodes. In various case series, cholelithiasis is the main cause, followed by alcohol consumption and HTG (less than 10%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Despite being a less frequent cause, increased triglyceride levels in patients with pancreatitis are associated with higher mortality and a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> During pregnancy, estrogen stimulates liver VLDL production and reduces the removal of triglycerides by LPL in the liver and fatty tissue, which makes HTG the most frequent cause of AP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Episodes of pancreatitis due to HTG usually occur with triglyceride levels &gt; 1,000 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> The risk and disease severity increase even further in patients with levels &gt; 2,000 mg/mL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> This happens regardless of whether the basic cause of HTG is primary (genetic) or secondary. However, genetic causes usually come with higher triglyceride levels and, consequently, a higher risk of pancreatitis.</p>
          <p>According to the Fredrickson classification, type I (chylomicron), IV (VLDL), and V (chylomicron and VLDL) present HTG, of which FCS (type I) has higher levels and can lead to pancreatitis regardless of triggering factors (decompensated diabetes, obesity, use of corticosteroids, estrogens, or other drugs that cause HTG).</p>
          <p>The mechanism causing pancreatitis is not completely understood, but triglycerides themselves do not seem to act directly in the pancreas. The accumulation of free fatty acids in the pancreatic cells happens in the presence of pancreatic lipase and triggers cell injury and pancreatic inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Another potential mechanism stems from the accumulation of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD). In the absence of LPL activity and consequent accumulation of chylomicrons, there is also an increase in GAD that triggers TNF-alpha- and IL-6-mediated inflammation. Chylomicrons themselves can also obstruct distal pancreatic blood flow and cause ischemia.</p>
          <p>The clinical presentation of pancreatitis is similar regardless of its etiology. Patients with FCS not rarely present recurrent pancreatitis episodes, and some of them report an unknown number during anamnesis. This triggers psychological changes, compromising quality of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Some patients even avoid going to parties and gatherings, because they fear eating could trigger pancreatitis. Children require constant vigilance, as they do not fully understand the disease and want to eat just as their colleagues who do not have the disease. After a first pancreatitis episode (many times during adolescence, after menarche), the acute pain and need for hospitalization are factors that motivate a more rigorous adherence to the restrictive diet required for controlling severe HTG.</p>
          <p>Eruptive xanthomas are infrequent even in severe HTG. However, when present in a patient with AP, these lesions suggest HTG as etiology. Extensor surfaces of the arms and legs are the most frequent sites. Fatty infiltration in the liver and spleen can occur, leading to hepatosplenomegaly, but these are unspecific findings.</p>
          <p>The diagnosis of AP should begin with a clinical suspicion (acute and persistent abdominal pain, irradiating to the dorsal region), confirmed by laboratory examinations (amylase or lipase values three times the upper normal limits) and imaging tests (ultrasonography, computed tomography, or magnetic resonance imaging). At least 2 of these 3 findings should be present for diagnostic confirmation, and this does not depend on the etiology of pancreatitis. Not rarely, patients present only abdominal pain, without laboratory or imaging alterations. In the absence of a suggestive clinical picture, lipase and amylase analyses may be more of a hindrance than a help. Triglyceride levels &lt; 1,000 mg/dL during a clinical episode suggesting pancreatitis leave HTG as an unlikely cause of pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Once diagnosis is confirmed, treatment should aim to reduce/relieve pain and maintain adequate hydration; even though oral nutrition is suspended, adequate nutrition should be provided to a patient in an acute setting as early as possible. Reducing triglyceride levels is fundamental for reversing the inflammatory process, and considering this happens through chylomicrons, greater reduction should be achieved when interrupting oral nutrition. In the most severe cases (body temperature &gt; 38.5&#186;C or &lt; 35.0; heart rate &gt; 90 bpm; respiratory rate &gt; 20/min or pCO<sub>2</sub>&lt; 32 mmHg; leukocytes &gt; 12,000 or &lt; 4,000/mL), requiring a faster reduction of triglyceride levels, plasmapheresis may be used. In case an adequate diet is not instituted or triggering factors are not controlled, achieving remission becomes more difficult. Insulin stimulates LPL and can also be used in some cases (regular insulin, 0.1 to 0.3 U/kg/h). Similarly, heparin also acts by stimulating LPL, but its use should be carefully considered because it may not bring benefits in the medium term (increases risk of bleeding and release of toxic components of triglycerides).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Once the patient is clear of AP, the factor that triggered the inflammatory process should be assessed and treated. Maintaining adequate weight, exercising regularly, and avoiding medications or other triggering factors for HTG help prevent new episodes of pancreatitis.</p>
          <p>Differently from other HTG causes that respond well to fibrates, FCS does not present a significant reduction of triglyceride levels with these drugs, which are not used to prevent pancreatitis in these patients. ApoC3 is an inhibitor of LPL; its inhibition by volanesorsen (an antisense oligonucleotide against ApoC3) used once a week significantly reduced (77%) triglyceride levels and, consequently, the chances of pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> From a pathophysiological point of view and considering the benefits demonstrated in clinical studies, patients with FCS benefited from the use of volanesorsen. However, patients with frequent pancreatitis (usually one or more episodes a year) and difficulties controlling triglyceride levels with usual diet treatment would benefit from it the most.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8. Laboratory Diagnosis of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
        <p>Clinical laboratories have a supporting role in the diagnosis of FCS. Lactescent (milky white) serum is the main indicator of the presence of chylomicrons and follows high triglyceride levels. Some aspects should be considered for the effective laboratory diagnosis of FCS. The phases responsible for the result of a laboratory analysis comprising an FCS investigation are: pre-analytical, analytical, and post-analytical.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1. Pre-analytical Phase (Patient Instructions)</title>
          <sec>
            <title>8.1.1. Collection Instructions</title>
            <p>Fasting is no longer mandatory for lipid panels; however, in situations such as triglyceride metabolism disorders, it is required for diagnostic confirmation of FCS. In these cases, adults over 20 years old should fast for 12 hours.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> In children, this duration varies according to the age group. Infants (up to 1 year) should fast for 3 hours or collection should be done immediately before the next feeding; non-infants (2 to 5 years) should fast for 6 hours. Children over 5 years old and adolescents should fast for 12 hours.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>8.1.2. Pre-analytical Causes of Interference in Triglyceride Analyses</title>
            <p>The preparation for sample collection considering triglyceride analyses in adults (&gt; 20 years) consists in the patient&#8217;s usual diet, with 12 hours of fasting; alcohol consumption should be avoided at least 72 hours before the test; and no strenuous exercise should be performed 24 hours before the test.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Some situations increase the free glycerol blood level, leading to an overestimation of triglyceride levels with no serum cloudiness. In these cases, the patient should be evaluated for one of the events described in the literature: recent physical exercise, alcohol consumption, acute liver disease, decompensated diabetes, parenteral nutrition, or intravenous glycerol-containing drugs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>8.1.3. Pre-analytical Phase (Laboratory Instructions)</title>
            <p>In HTG, the serum varies from cloudy to lactescent. Grade 1 &#8211; slightly cloudy; Grade 2 &#8211; cloudy; Grade 3 &#8211; very cloudy; Grade 4 &#8211; lactescent. Since serum appearance is a subjective issue, only after measuring triglyceride levels and storing the serum for 12 hours under refrigeration that we can proceed with visual inspection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.2. Analytical Phase</title>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2.1. Methodologies Assessing Chylomicrons</title>
          <p>Methodologies that can be used to indicate the presence of chylomicrons in serum are demonstrated in the following paragraphs.</p>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.1.1. Ultracentrifugation</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>The gold standard for separating fractions of lipoproteins according to their lipid content and density. However, this method has inherent limitations that include its lack of availability at clinical laboratories, high cost, and delays in executing the technique, becoming unfeasible for Brazilian laboratories.</p>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.1.2. Serum Appearance</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>For observing chylomicrons in the lactescent serum, we recommend the use of whole blood collection tubes with serum-separating devices for centrifugating and collecting the serum from the supernatant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> When this is not possible, after centrifuging and removing samples for laboratory analyses, 1 mL of serum should be transferred to a transparent disposable hemolysis tube. The lactescent serum obtained in any situation should sit in a refrigerator for 12 hours so that a creamy layer is observed on its surface, indicating the presence of chylomicrons, which should be specified in the patient&#8217;s report.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.1.3. Lipoprotein Electrophoresis</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>Lipoprotein electrophoresis, also named lipidogram, can help confirm the presence of chylomicrons with a colorful band at the site of sample application.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> However, this method of separating serum lipid fractions is no longer used in routine clinical practice because it is semiquantitative and cholesterol fractions were adopted as risk markers for cardiovascular disease; therefore, we do not recommend the use of this methodology in this document.</p>
          <p>Out of the three mentioned methodologies, the most widely accessible at various laboratories is serum appearance, which is the one recommended by this document.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2.2. Methodologies for Assessing Triglycerides</title>
          <p>The methodology for measuring triglycerides can use an enzymatic colorimetric reaction and/or ultraviolet (UV) detection. These methods are precise and inexpensive. The reaction begins with the hydrolysis of triglycerides into three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> Therefore, for each triglyceride molecule, one glycerol molecule will react and provide the triglyceride concentration in the sample. Any physiological situation that increases serum glycerol levels will overestimate triglyceride levels. The literature describes a rare genetic disease, glycerol kinase deficiency, also named pseudohypertriglyceridemia; this disorder causes hyperglycerolemia and HTG without the lipemic appearance of the serum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2.3. Interferences to Triglyceride Results</title>
          <p>Lipemia, depending on its intensity, leads to falsely increased triglyceride levels due to the association between the method coloration and serum cloudiness. In this case, the sample should be diluted in buffered saline solution (pH 7.4) or in the automation diluent (platform-dependent) for obtaining a reliable result.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Serum dilution may follow a scale according to triglyceride levels and the method&#8217;s analytical range. For example, if the analytical range is 8 to 885 mg/dL, the following dilutions may be suggested: 1:4 (triglycerides 400-600), 1:6 (triglycerides 601-1,000), 1:10 (triglycerides 1,001-2,000), or 1:20 (triglycerides &#8805; 2,001).</p>
          <p>FUNDAMENTAL: Even after diluting the sample, the obtained results should be kept in the dynamic range; this is essential for maintaining the method&#8217;s linearity and reproducibility.</p>
          <p>IMPORTANT: Using a sample blank (diluted sample) for considering cloudiness even after the dilution. The difference (delta) between reads should be used = diluted sample - diluted sample blank, multiplying the delta value by the dilution rate; only then the value should be associated with control and/or platform calibrator samples.</p>
          <p>EXAMPLE: If the result of a diluted (1:4) sample was 250 mg/dL, it should be multiplied by 4, and the result will be 1,000 mg/dL triglycerides. However, if the sample blank reads 50 mg/dL, this value should be subtracted from the diluted (1:4) sample (250 - 50 = 200); this value is then multiplied by 4 and the result will be 800 mg/dL triglycerides. Therefore, it is essential to account for the cloudiness of the diluted serum. The greater the dilution, the higher the overestimation of triglyceride levels in case the sample blank is not accounted for.</p>
          <p>Therefore, the methodology&#8217;s technical description must be analyzed for obtaining information and instructions, such as its analytical range (dynamic range), possible dilutions that can be done, the diluent material, use of sample blank, or even changes to the automated program. These descriptions are method-platform-, and manufacturer-dependent, and should be followed according to their respective information.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2.4. Interferences of Triglycerides to Other Analytes</title>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.4.1. LDL-C</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>The laboratory analysis of LDL-C is hindered by increased triglyceride levels in the lipemic serum. LDL-C calculation via the commonly used Friedewald formula not only is limited to patients with triglyceride levels up to 400 mg/dL but can also be underestimated, and the patient ends up not receiving treatment due to triglyceride interference. On the other hand, Martin&#8217;s equation applies correction factors to the Friedewald formula, allowing a more reliable estimation of LDL-C, and can be applied with triglyceride levels up to 13,975 mg/dL. In addition, the direct method can be used to measure LDL-C but will present limitations depending on the degree of lipemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In FCS or in MCS, HTG is severe due to the presence of chylomicrons, VLDL, and their remaining components. The patient presents a reduction in VLDL lipoprotein lipolysis, which leads to a decrease in LDL lipoprotein production in the plasma and a high amount of large and triglyceride-rich particles (chylomicrons and VLDL) when compared to a normal individual. In this case, no matter the methodology (calculated or directly measured LDL-C), the values are always lower than the method&#8217;s analytical sensitivity. We recommend that laboratories release LDL-C results that are extremely low or negative as &lt; 10 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.4.2. Platelets</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>Platelet counts in automated hematology are performed by using impedance and, in case of lipemia, interferences will possibly decrease their count. The same association happens when determining hematocrit &#8211; in this case, with an important piece of information, and the results are calculated from the association between hemoglobin and erythrocyte count.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.4.3. Analytes with Colorimetric Analysis</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>Methods with colorimetric endpoint readings usually present more restrictions regarding lipemia. This can also happen less intensely in systems with UV detection. This interference is directly proportional to serum cloudiness but is not always proportional to triglyceride concentration. It should be noted that lipoproteins have different sizes and are constituted by different percentages of triglycerides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.4.4. Enzymes</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>Kinetic, colorimetric, and/or UV enzymatic reactions can suffer interferences by lipemia, depending on its intensity. Therefore, alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyl transferase have greater limitations, because they employ p-nitrophenyl phosphate in their assays (colorimetric methods). However, the use of exclusively UV-based methods can also face restrictions with lipemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.4.5. Electrolytes</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>When determining sodium in the serum and/or plasma with increased triglyceride levels, results will be falsely low. In this case, the sodium value can be corrected by calculating: triglycerides (g/dL) x 4 - 0.60 = percentage factor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Example: Na<sup>+</sup>122 mmol/L and triglycerides 2,100 mg/dL; <inline-formula><mml:math><mml:mn>2</mml:mn><mml:mo>.</mml:mo><mml:mn>10</mml:mn><mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo><mml:mn>4</mml:mn><mml:mo>&#8722;</mml:mo><mml:mn>0</mml:mn><mml:mo>.</mml:mo><mml:mn>60</mml:mn><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>7</mml:mn><mml:mo>.</mml:mo><mml:mn>8</mml:mn><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">%</mml:mi></mml:math></inline-formula> </p>
          <disp-formula id="e1001">
            <mml:math>
              <mml:mfenced close=")" open="" separators="|">
                <mml:mrow>
                  <mml:msup>
                    <mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">N</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">a</mml:mi>
                    </mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                    </mml:mrow>
                  </mml:msup>
                  <mml:mn>122</mml:mn>
                  <mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo>
                  <mml:mn>7.8</mml:mn>
                  <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">%</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mo>=</mml:mo>
                  <mml:mn>131.5</mml:mn>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">m</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">m</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">o</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">l</mml:mi>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mo>/</mml:mo>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">L</mml:mi>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mtext>(corrected</mml:mtext>
                  <mml:msup>
                    <mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">N</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">a</mml:mi>
                    </mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
                    </mml:mrow>
                  </mml:msup>
                </mml:mrow>
              </mml:mfenced>
            </mml:math>
          </disp-formula>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2.5. Laboratory Analyses for Differential Diagnosis</title>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.5.1. Post-heparin LPL Activity</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>LPL activity is not measured in laboratory routine analysis, but it may be useful when screening for genetic testing for FCS. When the laboratory allows the LPL activity assay to be performed before and 10 minutes after heparin injection (IV heparin [50IU/kg]), whole blood should be collected from the other arm using a heparinized tube and transported on ice to the laboratory. The collection tube should be centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3,000 rpm and 4&#186;C, and plasma should be immediately separated. The tube with plasma should be stored at -80&#186;C until the day of analysis using the adopted protocol or sent to a specialized laboratory.</p>
          <p>LPL activity is drastically decreased in FCS by homozygous genetic alterations to LPL, and it is frequently reduced when these alterations occur in LPL cofactors ( <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , and <italic>LMF1</italic> genes) in cases of homozygosity or compound heterozygosity. However, researchers have demonstrated that the discriminating capacity of this test for identifying patients with common variants of LPL genes is limited, which justifies the absence of a recommendation in this document.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <italic>
              <bold>8.2.5.2. Plasma ApoC3 Measurement</bold>
            </italic>
          </p>
          <p>Increased plasma levels of ApoC3 are an important risk factor for HTG. Recent studies concluded that ApoC3 also inhibits an LPL-independent triglyceride-rich lipoprotein pathway. ApoC3 measurement is feasible at large clinical laboratories or support laboratories.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.3. Post-analytical Phase</title>
        <sec>
          <title>8.3.1. Recommendations for NOTES in Laboratory Reports21,23</title>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>- In adults, in case of triglyceride levels &gt; 1,000 mg/dL assessed after 12 hours of fasting, in 3 different blood collections and once secondary causes of HTG are ruled out, the diagnosis of hyperchylomicronemia should be considered.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- In children and adolescents, in case of triglyceride levels &gt; 880 mg/dL regardless of fasting, in 3 different blood collections and once secondary causes of HTG are ruled out, the diagnosis of hyperchylomicronemia should be considered.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- In children or adults, a triglyceride level &lt; 170 mg/dL EXCLUDES the investigation of hyperchylomicronemia.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Recommendation: Adults should maintain normal diets, fast for 12 hours, avoid alcohol (72 hours) and exercise (24 hours). For children, fasting periods vary according to the age group. Infants (up to 1 year) should fast for 3 hours or collection should be done immediately before the next feed; non-infants (2 to 5 years) should fast for 6 hours. Children over 5 years old and adolescents should fast for 12 hours. Excess free glycerol in the blood leads to an overestimation of triglyceride levels. Lactescent serum should sit in the fridge for 12 hours for verifying the presence of chylomicrons. When measuring triglycerides, the analytical range, dilution rate, diluent material, and use of sample blank or changes to automation should be kept in mind. In severe HTG, FCS, or MCS, LDL-C levels (calculated or directly measured) that are too low or negative should be reported as &lt; 10 mg/dL. Lipemia, depending on its intensity, interferes with platelet counts, colorimetric methods, enzymatic reactions (kinetic, colorimetric, and/or UV), and sodium determination. The post-heparin LPL activity assay is not recommended in this document. ApoC3 measurement is viable at clinical laboratories. We recommend that laboratory reports mention that an FCS diagnosis, after ruling out the secondary causes of HTG, should be considered in the following situations: 1) Adults with 12 hours of fasting and triglyceride levels &gt; 1,000 mg/dL, in 3 different collections; 2) children and adolescents with triglyceride levels &gt; 880 mg/dL, regardless of fasting, in 3 different collections; 3) in children and adults, a triglyceride level &lt; 170 mg/dL EXCLUDES the investigation of hyperchylomicronemia. (Grade 1 Recommendation, Level of Evidence C).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9. Genetic Counseling and Stages of Diagnosis and Follow-up of Severe Hypertriglyceridemia</title>
        <p>The American Society of Human Genetics defines genetic counseling as a communication process that handles human problems associated with the occurrence and risk of occurrence or recurrence of a certain genetic disease in a family.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The term genetic counseling was used for the first time in 1947 by Sheldon Reed,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> as a way of, in a world post-World War II, face the eugenic concepts that permeated the scientific and medical societies as to genetic diseases and disabilities in general. Since then, it incorporated the principles of the psychosocial model of patient care, using as foundation the empathy and human skills involving communication, recognizing the grieving process, and self-defense mechanisms. The professional should use ethical neutrality and nondirectivity &#8211; two fundamental principles of genetic counseling &#8211; for guiding the patient and the family, providing answers and information as completely as possible so that the individual seeking guidance can make his or her decisions, being aware of the risks and alternatives.</p>
        <p>The term &#8220;aconselhamento,&#8221; used in the Portuguese translation, actually does not indicate the true objective of this process, because the etymology of the verb indicates &#8220;to give advice,&#8221; when in reality, this is not the goal of this procedure. The closest Portuguese translation for genetic counseling<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> would be &#8220;consultoria gen&#233;tica&#8221;: its goal is to provide guidance so that the patient feels secure when making decisions, understanding that there is no right or wrong and no conduct should be suggested. That being said, it is important to understand that, when performing genetic counseling, the professional should respect the family&#8217;s ethical and religious values, following the three principles that govern medical ethics: autonomy, beneficence, and nonmaleficence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
        <p>It is worth noting that what many call genetic counseling is just a stage of the whole process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> Genetic counseling involves, in total, five phases:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Establishing and/or confirming diagnosis, which involves anamnesis, physical examination, elaboration of a diagnostic hypothesis, request and interpretation of complementary examinations; this could last for weeks, months, or years until diagnosis is achieved.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Calculating genetic risk: a more theoretical phase that is many times separated from the family; it aims to calculate the risk of occurrence or recurrence of a certain genetic condition. The condition&#8217;s etiology can be monogenic, chromosomal, multifactorial, or even unknown. For each situation, a different risk can be calculated, thus disease etiology is fundamental for establishing risk as precisely as possible.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Communication; in this phase, patients receive guidance regarding the risks, many times involving conversations about therapeutic and prognostic options. The combination between phases 2 and 3 represents what is commonly referred to as genetic counseling.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Decisions and Action: phase that involves helping the family and the patient with the decisions taken in the Communication phase, regarding both the treatment and possible contraceptive methods.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Follow-up, representing a continuous phase where the patient or the family are followed up, observing their individual needs and the natural history of the genetic condition.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>It is important to note that some stages of genetic counseling involve medical conducts, whereas others can be performed by various health professionals, as long as they are properly trained on the previously mentioned communication abilities and human and medical genetics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The two phases that represent genetic counseling the most are undoubtedly those of genetic risk calculation and communication. Although apparently simple, defining the risk of occurrence or recurrence of a certain genetic condition involves broad knowledge of the basis of genetics and inheritance. Talking about a risk of recurrence compatible with autosomal dominant or recessive inheritance seems simple when considering Mendel&#8217;s laws of genetic inheritance, but some confounding factors should be kept in mind, such as incomplete penetrance, variable expression, mosaicism, or genetic heterogeneity. Each of these factors can interfere with the clinical diagnosis of different forms of the disease, making a challenge out of adequately guiding patients through the risks.</p>
        <p>The confirmation of a pathogenic variant explaining a phenotype can be fundamental for considering the correct risk in these cases. It is also important to note that different inheritance patterns (apart from mendelian inheritance) can present risks that require a more complex estimation. For example, in multifactorial risk, one should consider the number of affected individuals in a family, relationship with the proband, and factors that may vary from case to case, such as the age of symptom onset, symptom severity, and environmental factors. In a context of multifactorial inheritance, identifying these risks and considering how much they affect the total risk may be completely impossible, thus we consider a risk of recurrence that is always approximate or empirical, considering the whole empirical knowledge and risks of recurrence calculated based on population-based studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This way, in order to talk about risk of occurrence or recurrence, a clear definition between FCS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> or MCS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> should be established.</p>
        <p>FCS is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, that is, an individual needs a homozygous variant or two variants in compound heterozygosity, both of which pathogenic or probably pathogenic, in order to present the phenotype.</p>
        <p>This pattern of autosomal recessive inheritance, by biallelic homozygous mutation (same mutation in both copies) or compound heterozygosity (one mutation in each copy), is present both in cases of LPL and other genes involved with the monogenic forms: <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1,</italic> and <italic>LMF1</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
        <p>It is known that the progenitors of an individual with FCS will each have a copy of the affected variant. This way, the siblings of a person with FCS have 25% of risk of also inheriting the syndrome. Finally, an individual with FCS will always pass one of the variants to his or her children. In case the person&#8217;s partner also has a variant of the same gene, the risk to their children from this combination is 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Since the HTG phenotype can also be caused by the presence of common or rare functional variants of genes that increase triglyceride levels, making up a polygenic inheritance pattern, molecular diagnosis is required for proper genetic counseling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The chances of other family members also presenting FCS will depend on their family history; therefore, a pedigree should always be considered to help with risk calculation. It is important to mention that, although individuals with a heterozygous pathogenic variant may present increased triglyceride levels, individual triglyceride measurement should not be used for considering a carrier status, as individuals with a heterozygous variant may present normal levels of triglycerides while individuals without the variant may present variations in triglyceride levels due to environmental factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Only 1% of HTG cases present biallelic mutations. On the other hand, 14% of patients with HTG are estimated to carry rare heterozygous mutations, a rate 3 to 5 times higher than that the general population. The use of polygenic risk scores may be useful for identifying these individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The indication of genetic testing evaluates aspects (eg, positive family history, presence of a recognized inheritance pattern in the family, absence of secondary factors, relatively young patient age, and important biochemical alterations) that help interpret test results and consequently help with genetic counseling regarding the risk of family recurrence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10. Nutritional Guidance for Chylomicronemia in Adults, Children, and Adolescents</title>
        <p>The treatment of FCS is based on severe dietary fat restriction<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> to prevent the synthesis of chylomicrons, particles formed exclusively in the enterocyte which are responsible for the transport of dietary fat and cholesterol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup> Patients with FCS have mutations associated with LPL or its cofactors, which compromise the hydrolysis of dietary triglycerides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> For this reason, a fat-restricted diet is recommended, limiting fat to a maximum of 10% of daily total energy intake (TEI) (15 to 20 g of fat per day).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Because of the severity of the disease, patients should be very well informed of the importance of strictly following the guidelines, and the nutritionist should indicate food options that contribute to greater adherence to treatment. Some authors consider FCS to be a devastating condition for patients and a frustrating one for physicians and nutritionists regarding the main treatment target &#8211; controlling severe HTG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> FCS adversely impacts patients&#8217; quality of life because of the difficulty in following a strictly restricted diet, which significantly compromises social interaction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Limited knowledge of FCS prevents friends and family from apprehending the seriousness of the disease. The IN-FOCUS study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> involving 166 patients with FCS from 10 countries, showed that more than 90% of the participants found following a strict diet to be difficult. Database evaluation of a subgroup (n = 60) of participants from the same study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> showed that 22% of the participants reported anxiety, fear, and worry about the quantity and quality of food to be consumed, especially in social and work situations. These symptoms were experienced at least once a month, or several times a week.</p>
        <p>The health care team can use motivational interviews to help patients with FCS resolve their internal conflicts and to promote greater adherence to a fat-restricted diet.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> This may help patients develop their own eating plan with the assistance of a nutritionist and accept their personal responsibility for self-management of the disease.</p>
        <p>Although fat restriction is the mainstay of FCS treatment, patients should also avoid foods with added sugars, such as sucrose and corn syrup,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> because they induce hepatic lipogenic pathways. Patients should also abstain from consuming alcohol, because its consumption is linearly associated with plasma triglyceride levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> In addition, monitoring dietary intake of fat-soluble vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids is recommended, and their supplementation may be necessary.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> Specifically concerning dietary fat, it is essential to consider fatty acid type and chain length, because they are absorbed differently and can influence the plasma concentration of triglycerides and the production of chylomicrons.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1. Fatty Acid Classification and Absorption</title>
          <p>Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are classified according to chain length of the carboxylic acid into short-, medium-, or long-chain, and these characteristics influence their absorption process. Short-chain fatty acids include acetate (C2:0), propionate (C3:0), and butyrate (C4:0), whereas medium-chain fatty acids include caproic (C6:0), caprylic (C8:0), and capric (C10:0) acids. Long-chain fatty acids contain more than 12 carbons and include lauric (C12:0), myristic (C14:0), palmitic (C16:0), and stearic (C18:0) acids.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> Short-chain fatty acids are produced by colonic bacterial fermentation, whereas medium-chain fatty acids are found in coconut and palm oils.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> Coconut fat is the main dietary source of lauric acid, which is found in minute amounts in other foods. Palmitic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in the diet, and the main sources are red meat and palm oil. Because palm oil is a structurally stable fat, it has been widely used in the food industry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup> The main sources of myristic acid are coconut fat, milk, and dairy products, whereas the main source of stearic acid is cocoa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> All unsaturated fatty acids have a long chain and are classified as monounsaturated (MUFAs) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The main MUFAs are palmitoleic (C16:1 &#969;7) and oleic (18:1, &#969;9) acids, with a single double bond in their structure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> The main dietary source of palmitoleic acid is macadamia, whereas oleic acid is found mainly in olive and canola oils, and also in nuts such as peanuts, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, almonds, and cashew nuts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> They are also present in beef, chicken, and pork fats, accounting for 40% to 50% of total fat content in these foods.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup></p>
          <p>PUFAs contain two or more double bonds and are part of the omega-6 (&#969;6) or &#969;3 series depending on the position of the first double bond counted from the methyl end of the carbon chain. Fatty acids of the &#969;6 series are represented by linoleic acid (C18:2), whose main sources are vegetable oils (sunflower, corn, and soybean oils), walnuts, and chestnuts. The &#969;6 series also includes arachidonic acid (C20:4), which is synthesized endogenously from linoleic acid by enzymatic activity. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA [C18:3]), of the &#969;3 series, is obtained from vegetable oils, mainly canola and soybean oils, and also from flaxseeds and chia seeds.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup> The &#969;3 fatty acids of animal origin are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA [C20:5]) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA [C22:6]), found in the oils of fish and crustaceans mainly from cold- and deep-water habitats.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup> Linoleic and linolenic acids are considered essential fatty acids because they are not synthesized in the human body. They should therefore be provided by the diet, and their supplementation is recommended in special conditions of deficiency.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Trans fatty acids also have a long chain and are mainly represented by elaidic acid (18:1, n-9t), found in vegetable fats resulting from the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils during preparation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup> Trans fatty acids are found in minute amounts in meat and milk in the form of vaccenic acid (18:1, n-11t), which is produced through the biohydrogenation of fats under the action of the rumen microbiota of ruminants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.2. Fat Absorption</title>
          <p>Dietary fats include triglycerides (90% to 95%), phospholipids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins. Although the intestine is the major site for digestion of fats, this process begins minimally in the oral cavity, through exposure to lingual lipases, followed by the stomach, where 10% to 30% of fatty acids are released, starting the process of fat emulsification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup> Digestion continues in the intestine, where hydrolysis of the remaining triglycerides is induced by pancreatic lipase activity, releasing fatty acids and monoacylglycerol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The mechanism of fatty acid absorption is complex because of multiple absorption systems.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> Short-chain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) are absorbed primarily via sodium-dependent or non-sodium-dependent active transport mediated by monocarboxylate transporters. However, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) may also participate in the absorption of these fatty acids, such as GPR41 and GPR43. Medium-chain fatty acids (capric, caprylic, and caproic acids) are absorbed mainly via passive transport, but GPR84 may also play a role in their incorporation into the enterocyte surface.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup> After absorption, they bind to albumin and travel via the portal circulation to the liver.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> Conversely, more complex mechanisms are required to absorb long-chain fatty acids (saturated, unsaturated, or trans), and their transport in the plasma depends on the formation of chylomicrons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> They can be absorbed by passive diffusion, when the luminal concentration is higher than the intracellular concentration, or through membrane receptors/transporters. For example, the transporter cluster of differentiation 36 (CD 36) allows the uptake of long-chain fatty acids even when their luminal concentrations are lower than those inside the cell.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> The fatty acid transporter protein 4 (FATP4) is widely distributed in the intestine and one of the main long-chain fatty acid transporters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup> Within enterocytes, fatty acids are transported by proteins such as fatty acid-binding protein 1 (FABP1) and FABP2<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> and re-esterified, returning to the form of triglyceride by the action of the diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) enzyme.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> Triglycerides are then incorporated into ApoB48 via the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein, which initiates the formation of chylomicrons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> Chylomicrons are processed in the Golgi complex and subsequently secreted into the lymph, entering the blood circulation via the thoracic duct.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the bloodstream, chylomicron triglycerides are hydrolyzed by LPL, which is adhered to the endothelium of extrahepatic tissues, releasing free fatty acids that subsequently bind to albumin, being stored mostly in adipose tissue and only minimally in muscle tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup> Chylomicron hydrolysis generates chylomicron remnants, which are removed from the circulation through their interaction with hepatic B/E receptors and LDL receptor-related protein.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3. Nutritional Treatment</title>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.1. Fats</title>
            <p>Triglyceride lipolysis is defective in FCS because of mutations in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene or its cofactors ( <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , <italic>LMF1</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , or <italic>APOC2</italic> ), so long-chain fatty acids should be minimally consumed to prevent elevated plasma chylomicron concentrations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Restricting dietary fat intake to 10% of daily TEI is therefore recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> However, depending on the severity of the disease, total fat intake can be further restricted to less than 5% daily calories.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In addition to strict adherence to a very-low-fat diet, SFA-rich foods should be consumed in small amounts. SFAs are involved in important hepatic lipogenic pathways by activating the sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), which acts as a transcription factor coding for the genes of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, fatty acid synthase, and stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup> enzymes involved in fatty acid synthesis, precursors of the synthesis of triglycerides, by the action of DGAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Although &#969;3 unsaturated fatty acids regulate triglyceride synthesis by blocking SREBP-1c, they are not recommended for the treatment of FCS even at high doses, because individuals do not have a defect in the hepatic synthesis of triglycerides, but rather in triglyceride hydrolysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> However, because they are considered essential fatty acids, both ALA (&#969;3) and linoleic acid (&#969;6) supplementation may be necessary for patients with FCS to prevent deficiency. The Global Burden of Disease Study <italic>,</italic> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup> a study conducted in 197 countries, suggests an optimal intake of &#969;6 of 11% of daily TEI, although the global average consumption is 4.5% of TEI. Regarding &#969;3, the optimal intake is 0.25 g/d, with a global average consumption of 0.1 g/d.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup> The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) recommend a daily &#969;3 intake of 0.5 to 1.4 g, depending on the age group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.2. Medium-chain Triglycerides</title>
            <p>MCTs contain caproic (C6:0), caprylic (C8:0), or capric (C10:0) SFAs, which are obtained by fractionating coconut or palm oils and are commercially available, together or separately. They may have a small amount of lauric acid (maximum of 1% to 2%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> Individuals with FCS are allowed to consume MCTs because these fatty acids are absorbed almost entirely via the portal circulation, being minimally incorporated into chylomicrons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref></sup> It is important to note that lauric acid (C12:0) is considered a long-chain fatty acid that is transported mainly via chylomicrons, being transported via the portal circulation only when its storage capacity in this lipoprotein is exceeded.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup> Therefore, it is essential to carefully observe the fatty acid composition of the product, which should preferably contain no or minimal concentrations of lauric acid to prevent an increase in chylomicron concentrations.</p>
            <p>MCTs are indicated to contribute to energy intake in infants, children, and adults with FCS, as an adjunct to treatment. However, tolerability must be tested because people have reported gastrointestinal discomfort after use of MCTs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.3. Carbohydrates</title>
            <p>Food sources of complex carbohydrates, rich in fiber, should be consumed, such as brown rice, beans, peas, lentils, and chickpeas. Fruit intake is recommended in adequate amounts, with a maximum of 3 to 4 servings per day, so as not to exceed the recommended daily sugar intake. Some authors suggest limiting total carbohydrate intake to 60% of daily TEI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Added sugars (sucrose and corn syrup) should be avoided because they induce an increase in the hepatic synthesis of fatty acids, contributing to elevated plasma triglyceride concentrations. Sugars contain glucose and fructose, and the latter promotes intense hepatic lipogenesis not only by serving as a substrate for fatty acid synthesis but also by stimulating the expression of enzymes involved in <italic>de novo</italic> lipogenesis via activation of carbohydrate-responsive element binding protein and SREBP-1c.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup> In addition, excessive fructose intake decreases fatty acid beta-oxidation by inducing post-translational modifications in mitochondrial proteins, reducing the number and size of these organelles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Therefore, patients with FCS should avoid the consumption of concentrated fruit juices because of intense fructose-induced lipogenic activity.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.4. Alcohol</title>
            <p>Patients should abstain from consuming alcohol because it can elevate plasma triglyceride concentrations. Alcohol metabolization begins minimally in the stomach by the action of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), but it is metabolized mainly by the liver through three pathways: cytochrome P450 2E1, catalase, and ADH. Alcohol metabolization leads to form acetaldehyde, which is converted into acetate by aldehyde dehydrogenase, with the main participation of ADH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup> Acetate can be converted to fatty acids, precursors of triglyceride synthesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.5. Infants and Early Childhood</title>
            <p>Providing infants with adequate quantity and quality of nutrients during the first 2 years of life is essential to promote adequate growth and cognitive development, in addition to consolidating healthy eating habits. However, developing an eating plan for infants and children with FCS that ensures proper dietary intake of recommended amounts of macronutrients and micronutrients is a challenging task for the nutritionist and the family because of the severe dietary fat restriction. Nutritionist training in this area is of paramount importance to balance the diet, to develop sample menus for the family, and to closely monitor the implementation of new eating habits. The family should be aware that dietary fat intake above the recommended amount, even in minimal amounts, can cause an undesirable increase in plasma chylomicron concentrations.</p>
            <p>For breastfed infants with FCS, breastfeeding must be discontinued as soon as the diagnosis is confirmed, which can cause frustration and sadness for both the mother and child. Breast milk has approximately 3.2% fat, with triglycerides accounting for approximately 98% of the lipid fraction. The exact fatty acid composition depends on the mother&#8217;s diet and varies significantly during the breastfeeding period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> Milk triglycerides consist mainly of long-chain SFAs (35% to 40%), MUFAs (45% to 50%), and PUFAs (15%), with a predominance of palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> Unsaturated fatty acids with a chain length of more than 20 carbons, containing two or more double bonds, represent only 2% of the total fatty acids present in breast milk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> Fatty acids of the &#969;3 series are found in small amounts in breast milk: ALA (0.019 g/100 mL), EPA (0.003 g/100 mL), and DHA (0.008 g/100 mL).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup></p>
            <p>An important study conducted in Europe (European Childhood Obesity Project) followed up 174 children from birth to age 1 year and contributed to a better understanding of the caloric intake of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins through the first year of life, with results that can be extrapolated to provide dietary guidance for infants who cannot be breastfed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> Average daily energy intake was 419 kcal at 1 month, 589 kcal at 6 months, and 860 kcal at 12 months. Fat intake was 21 g/day within the first 6 months, gradually increasing to 34.2 g at the end of 12 months. Regarding essential fatty acids, considering exclusive breastfeeding up to 3 months of age, the average daily intake of ALA (&#969;3) was 0.118 g and of linoleic acid (&#969;6) was 2.40 g. Regarding marine fatty acids, the average daily intake of EPA was 0.022 g and of DHA was 0.048 g.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, the recommended intake of &#969;3 fatty acids is 0.5 g/day for infants aged 0 to 12 months and 0.7 g/day for children aged 1 to 3 years, whereas the recommended intake of &#969;6 fatty acids is 4.6 g/day for infants aged 0 to 6 months and 7 g/day for children aged 7 to 12 years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Given the severe dietary fat restriction, monitoring dietary intake of fat-soluble vitamins (A, E, D, and K) is recommended,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> and the RDA for infants and children are available in the table of the Dietary Reference Intakes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Special infant formulas that partially resemble the nutritional composition of breast milk are recommended as a substitute for breast milk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Regarding fat content, formulas should be prepared only with medium-chain fatty acids (capric, caprylic, and caproic acids), in addition to providing fat-soluble vitamins and allowed amounts of essential fatty acids. In addition, MCTs can be recommended to achieve optimal energy intake, according to tolerance, because they are minimally transported by chylomicrons.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The introduction of solid foods such as vegetables, fruits, and lean meats (e.g., fish, skinless chicken breast, lean beef), and grains should follow the recommendations of national and international pediatric societies, limiting dietary fat intake to 10% of daily TEI.</p>
            <p>Adequate fluid intake is recommended to maintain fluid balance, which will contribute to pancreatic function. Prolonged dehydration induced by vomiting and diarrhea is known to increase the risk of pancreatitis associated with FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Dietary guidelines should be individualized and enjoyable, respect cultural habits, and be sustainable in the long term. Children should be informed of the importance of reading food labels, and the family should be instructed to prepare meals containing minimal amounts of fat, in addition to highlighting the importance of preparing meals/foods at home.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.6. Pregnant Women</title>
            <p>During pregnancy, a rise in plasma lipid concentrations is expected especially at the end of the second and third trimesters, with two- to four-fold increased triglyceride concentrations, which are well tolerated by the patient. In this phase, increased insulin resistance and the action of placental hormones contribute to greater adipose tissue lipolysis. In addition, there is increased hepatic output of VLDL and decreased hepatic lipase activity. LPL activity is also reduced, which impairs the hydrolysis of lipoprotein triglycerides. Because of these alterations, hepatic clearance of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins is consecutively reduced, leading to elevated plasma triglyceride concentrations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Increased triglyceride levels during pregnancy are associated with an increased risk of complications for the mother and child by increasing the risk of AP, which may lead to miscarriage, early delivery, and even death. During pregnancy, although rare, AP is often caused by biliary lithiasis. Elevated cholesterol concentrations and gallbladder hypomotility caused by the hormonal profile characteristic of pregnancy predisposes women to calculus formation, which may obstruct the pancreatic duct. Women with FCS show a marked increase in triglyceride concentrations, which may trigger AP. Pregnant women with FCS are at a 4% increased risk of developing AP with triglyceride levels &gt; 1,000 mg/dL, and at a 14% increased risk with levels &gt; 2,600 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The dietary treatment of pregnant women with FCS aims to maintain plasma triglyceride levels less than 500 mg/dL throughout pregnancy. To this end, a fat-restricted diet (less than 20 g/day) is required, along with adequate intake of vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids, according to the recommended intake for the stage of pregnancy, including monitoring of maternal weight gain. Patients following a very-low-fat diet should be monitored regularly to ensure proper dietary intake of calories, macronutrients, and micronutrients, especially essential fatty acids<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> and fat-soluble vitamins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
            <p>MCTs (without long-chain fatty acids) may be indicated to achieve optimal energy intake if necessary. In addition, adequate fluid intake is recommended to maintain adequate fluid and electrolyte balance. Pregnant women with FCS associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus or gestational diabetes need greater attention for proper adherence to the diet, requiring multidisciplinary follow-up to manage lipid levels, glycemia, and fetal development.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Dietary management of FCS is the only tool available to control plasma triglyceride levels in this condition, as demonstrated in a recent case report of a pregnant woman with plasma triglyceride levels of 8,683 mg/dL who experienced previous episodes of pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The nutritionist should help patients develop their own eating plan, providing assistance with recipes and strategies that facilitate adherence to the diet. Dietary preferences, cultural habits and lifestyle should be considered, as well as nutritional adequacy of the diet and energy intake. An extreme very-low-fat diet is difficult to maintain. Therefore, monitoring by a multidisciplinary team is extremely important to manage lipid levels and minimize the risk of complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.7. General Recommendations</title>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Restricting dietary fat intake (10% to 15% of TEI);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Avoiding added sugars (sucrose and corn syrup);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Avoiding concentrated fruit juices;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Abstaining from consuming alcohol;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Consuming complex carbohydrates in adequate amounts;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Ensuring adequate intake of essential fatty acids;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Monitoring the intake of fat-soluble vitamins, with supplementation if necessary;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Introducing MCTs to achieve adequate energy intake, according to tolerance.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.4. Sample Menus</title>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Menu 1,500 kcal</th>
                  <th>Servings</th>
                  <th>Lipids</th>
                  <th>kcal</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Breakfast</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Skim milk</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">61</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Whole wheat bread</td>
                  <td align="center">2 slices</td>
                  <td align="center">1.6</td>
                  <td align="center">120</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cottage cheese</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">0.8</td>
                  <td align="center">28</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Papaya</td>
                  <td align="center">&#189; unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">46</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oat</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">1.7</td>
                  <td align="center">40</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Morning snack</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fig</td>
                  <td align="center">3 units</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">80</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Lunch</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Green salad, tomato, heart of palm, cucumber</td>
                  <td align="center">1 dinner plate</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dressing</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Rice, cooked without oil</td>
                  <td align="center">3 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0.2</td>
                  <td align="center">100</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Black beans (50% broth) without oil</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ladle</td>
                  <td align="center">0.4</td>
                  <td align="center">65.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Shark meat with tomato sauce and basil</td>
                  <td align="center">200 g</td>
                  <td align="center">1.6</td>
                  <td align="center">232</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Saut&#233;ed broccoli with garlic and onion</td>
                  <td align="center">2 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pineapple</td>
                  <td align="center">1 slice</td>
                  <td align="center">0.1</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Afternoon snack</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nonfat yogurt</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0.6</td>
                  <td align="center">88</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Whole wheat bread</td>
                  <td align="center">1 slice</td>
                  <td align="center">1.9</td>
                  <td align="center">60</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sugar-free jam</td>
                  <td align="center">&#189; tablespoon</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Light ricotta cream</td>
                  <td align="center">1.5 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">2.1</td>
                  <td align="center">44</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Dinner</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Green salad, tomato, heart of palm, cucumber</td>
                  <td align="center">1 dinner plate</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dressing</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Egg white omelet filled with spinach, tomato, and zucchini</td>
                  <td align="center">2 egg whites</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">80</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baked potato with garlic, coarse salt, and rosemary</td>
                  <td align="center">1 medium unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">100</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baked banana with cinnamon</td>
                  <td align="center">1 unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Supper</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nonfat yogurt</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0.6</td>
                  <td align="center">88</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Total in grams</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">11.6</td>
                  <td align="center">1462.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>% kcal</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">7.1</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Menu 1,800 kcal</th>
                  <th>Servings</th>
                  <th>Lipids</th>
                  <th>kcal</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Breakfast</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Skim milk</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">61</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Whole wheat bread</td>
                  <td align="center">2 slices</td>
                  <td align="center">1.6</td>
                  <td align="center">120</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Light Minas cheese</td>
                  <td align="center">1 slice</td>
                  <td align="center">2.3</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Banana</td>
                  <td align="center">1 unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Rolled oats</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">1.7</td>
                  <td align="center">40</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Morning snack</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Persimmon</td>
                  <td align="center">1 unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0.2</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tapioca</td>
                  <td align="center">3 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">100</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Light ricotta cream</td>
                  <td align="center">1.5 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">2.1</td>
                  <td align="center">44</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Lunch</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Green salad, tomato, heart of palm, cucumber</td>
                  <td align="center">1 dinner plate</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dressing</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Rice with vegetables</td>
                  <td align="center">4 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0.3</td>
                  <td align="center">128</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lentils (50% broth)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ladle</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">93</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mediterranean acoupa weakfish</td>
                  <td align="center">120 g</td>
                  <td align="center">1.3</td>
                  <td align="center">91</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Roasted vegetables with rosemary</td>
                  <td align="center">2 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">80</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Guava</td>
                  <td align="center">1 unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0.5</td>
                  <td align="center">60</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Afternoon snack</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Skim milk blended with papaya and apple</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">150</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Whole wheat bread</td>
                  <td align="center">1 slice</td>
                  <td align="center">1.9</td>
                  <td align="center">60</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oven-baked ricotta with tomato and oregano</td>
                  <td align="center">30 g</td>
                  <td align="center">2.4</td>
                  <td align="center">53</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Dinner</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Green salad, tomato, heart of palm, cucumber</td>
                  <td align="center">1 dinner plate</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dressing</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pasta with tomato sauce, cooked without oil</td>
                  <td align="center">150 g</td>
                  <td align="center">0.7</td>
                  <td align="center">185</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Grilled chicken with rosemary</td>
                  <td align="center">80 g</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                  <td align="center">127</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fruit salad</td>
                  <td align="center">150 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">120</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Supper</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nonfat yogurt</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0.6</td>
                  <td align="center">88</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Total in grams</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">17.6</td>
                  <td align="center">1820</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>% kcal</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">8.7</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4001">
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Menu for pregnant women 1,800 kcal</th>
                  <th>Servings</th>
                  <th>Lipids</th>
                  <th>kcal</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Breakfast</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1 glass of skim milk</td>
                  <td align="center">250 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">75</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Light whole wheat bread</td>
                  <td align="center">2 slices</td>
                  <td align="center">0.5</td>
                  <td align="center">96</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Light Minas cheese</td>
                  <td align="center">1 slice</td>
                  <td align="center">2.3</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Banana</td>
                  <td align="center">1 unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oat bran</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">1.1</td>
                  <td align="center">49</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Morning snack</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nonfat yogurt</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">88</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Strawberry</td>
                  <td align="center">10 units</td>
                  <td align="center">0.3</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Lunch</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Green salad, tomato, heart of palm, cucumber</td>
                  <td align="center">1 dinner plate</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dressing</td>
                  <td align="center">2 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Brown rice, cooked without oil</td>
                  <td align="center">4 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0.6</td>
                  <td align="center">120</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Black beans (50% broth) without oil</td>
                  <td align="center">1 ladle</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acoupa weakfish with passion fruit sauce</td>
                  <td align="center">150 g</td>
                  <td align="center">1.7</td>
                  <td align="center">114</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Roasted vegetables with rosemary</td>
                  <td align="center">2 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                  <td align="center">120</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Melon</td>
                  <td align="center">2 slices</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">60</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Afternoon snack</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Skim milk blended with</td>
                  <td align="center">250 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">75</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>berries</td>
                  <td align="center">50 g</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">28</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ricotta</td>
                  <td align="center">30 g</td>
                  <td align="center">2.4</td>
                  <td align="center">53</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tapioca</td>
                  <td align="center">2 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">74</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sugar-free jam</td>
                  <td align="center">&#189; tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Dinner</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Green salad, tomato, heart of palm, cucumber</td>
                  <td align="center">1 dinner plate</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">10</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dressing</td>
                  <td align="center">2 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pasta with tomato sauce, cooked without oil</td>
                  <td align="center">150 g</td>
                  <td align="center">0.7</td>
                  <td align="center">185</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oven-baked tuna with herbs</td>
                  <td align="center">150 g</td>
                  <td align="center">1.1</td>
                  <td align="center">180</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Papaya</td>
                  <td align="center">&#189; unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">46</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Supper</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nonfat yogurt</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0.6</td>
                  <td align="center">88</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Rolled oats</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">1.7</td>
                  <td align="center">40</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Total in grams</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">14</td>
                  <td align="center">1,751</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>% kcal</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">7.2</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t5001">
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Menu for children 1,400 kcal</th>
                  <th>Servings</th>
                  <th>Lipids</th>
                  <th>kcal</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Breakfast</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oat porridge with banana</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1 glass of skim milk + vitamins A+D+E</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">67</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Banana</td>
                  <td align="center">1 unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oat bran</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">1.1</td>
                  <td align="center">49</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Whole wheat bread</td>
                  <td align="center">1 slice</td>
                  <td align="center">0.8</td>
                  <td align="center">60</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Light ricotta cream</td>
                  <td align="center">15 g</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                  <td align="center">22</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Morning snack</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nonfat yogurt blended with</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">99</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>papaya and</td>
                  <td align="center">&#189; unit</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">46</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fortified skim milk powder (with vitamins A+D+E)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Lunch</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Green salad, tomato, heart of palm, corn, and beans</td>
                  <td align="center">1 dessert plate</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">28</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dressing</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Brown rice</td>
                  <td align="center">3 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0.6</td>
                  <td align="center">75</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Black beans (50% broth)</td>
                  <td align="center">3 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Shredded chicken breast with tomato sauce</td>
                  <td align="center">4 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                  <td align="center">127</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Saut&#233;ed zucchini</td>
                  <td align="center">3 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Melon</td>
                  <td align="center">1 slice</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">28</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Afternoon snack</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tapioca with</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">108</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>light Minas cheese</td>
                  <td align="center">30</td>
                  <td align="center">2.3</td>
                  <td align="center">50</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tomato and oregano</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sugar-free passion fruit juice</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Dinner</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Green salad, tomato, heart of palm, cucumber</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dressing</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Rice with vegetables</td>
                  <td align="center">2 tablespoons</td>
                  <td align="center">0.15</td>
                  <td align="center">75</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lentil</td>
                  <td align="center">3 tablespoons</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">45</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Turkey breast with rosemary</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                  <td align="center">2.5</td>
                  <td align="center">130</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dates</td>
                  <td align="center">2 units</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">70</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Supper</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Warm fortified skim milk (with vitamins A+D+E) with cloves and cinnamon</td>
                  <td align="center">200 mL</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">67</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cocoa powder</td>
                  <td align="center">1 tablespoon</td>
                  <td align="center">1.4</td>
                  <td align="center">26</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Total in grams</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">11.85</td>
                  <td align="center">1382</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>% kcal</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">7.7</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <bold>LOW-FAT FOODS (&lt; 5 g per serving)</bold>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t6001">
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="14%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3" rowspan="1">
                    <bold>IN 100 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3" rowspan="1">
                    <bold>Per serving</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>amount of fat</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>fat</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g food</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g of fat</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>FISH</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">raw pollock fillet</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.4</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">raw sevengill shark in steak</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.67</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">6</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">raw tuna</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.9</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">20</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">raw acoupa weakfish</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">raw spotted sorubim, skin removed</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.02</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.02</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">raw corvina</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.6</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.02</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">65</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">raw hake</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0.03</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0.05</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">fish sole fillet</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">raw hake fillet</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.03</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.04</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">48</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">120</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4.8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>IN 100 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>Per serving</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>MEATS</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>fat</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g food</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g of fat</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">grilled beef top rump</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2.4</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.19</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.04</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">80</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">grilled chicken breast, skin removed</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2.5</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0.31</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">80</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">raw beef eye of round</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">5.2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0.06</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">80</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">4.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">grilled beef bottom sirloin without fat</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">7.3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.17</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.03</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5.8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">cooked beef eye of round</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">9.1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.12</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.02</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">7.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">cooked beef foreshank without fat</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">7.4</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.16</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5.9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">cooked chicken drumstick, skin removed</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5.8</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">1.1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.05</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">cooked beef shin without fat</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">6.7</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.09</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.03</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">80</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>IN 100 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>Per serving</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>DAIRY</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>fat</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g food</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g of fat</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">nonfat yogurt</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">200</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">skim milk</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">tr</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">200</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">light cottage cheese</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">cottage cheese</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2.6</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">light ricotta cream</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">7.1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2.1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">ricotta</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">8.1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0.14</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">0.02</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">53</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">light cream cheese</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">13</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">20</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">light Minas cheese</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">7.7</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">light Minas cream cheese</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">14,7</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">15</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">2.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">light mozzarella cheese</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">17</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">5.1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">mozzarella cheese</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">25,2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.31</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.08</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">109</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">7.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">Minas cheese</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">20,2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.28</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.06</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">161</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">6.1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>IN 100 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>Per serving</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>EGGS</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>fat</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g food</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g of fat</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">boiled egg white</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">3.2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">whole chicken egg</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">9.5</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.94</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">0.02</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">32</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">50</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4.8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>IN 100 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>Per serving</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>BREAD AND PASTA</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>fat</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g food</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g of fat</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">tapioca</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">45</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">cooked spaghetti</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.9</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">100</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">raw wheat pasta</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">50</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">fiber-rich whole grain bread</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">3.31</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">25</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">light whole wheat bread</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">50</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>IN 100 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>Per serving</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>CEREALS</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>fat</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g food</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g of fat</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">quinoa flakes</td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899"> </td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">rice, cooked without oil</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.41</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.31</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.01</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">60</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">brown rice, cooked without oil</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.2</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.06</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">60</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">popcorn kernel</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">4</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">16</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">oat bran</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">7</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">20</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">raw rolled oats</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">8.5</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2.95</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.06</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">20</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">flaxseeds</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">32.3</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">5.42</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">19.81</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">10</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3.2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F4AF69">chia seeds</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">34.4</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">17.36</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">62.02</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">10</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F4AF69">3.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>IN 100 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="3">
                    <bold>Per serving</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>LEGUMES</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>fat</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;6 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>&#969;3 g</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>retinol (ug)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g food</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>g of fat</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">cooked chickpeas</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2.6</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">2.71</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.13</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">65</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">cooked lentils</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.5</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.21</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.04</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">50</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">cooked black beans with broth</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.5</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.16</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.14</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">86</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">0.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F8F899">sugar-free cocoa powder</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">13.5</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">nd</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">10</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F8F899">1.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>fruits to avoid</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>fat per serving</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">pequi (souari nut)</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">18</td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">60</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">10.8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">avocado</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">8.4</td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">100</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">8.4</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">coconut</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">4</td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">30</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">12.6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F">acai</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">3.9</td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td style="background-color: #F66A5F"> </td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">250</td>
                  <td align="center" style="background-color: #F66A5F">9.8</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>na: not available; tr: traces; lipids (g) per serving. <alternatives><inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/MQCLBy6rq9kKm6MJbGT9bvh/02600ea2e0ac1400410121a9139657e122c8e18f.tif"/><inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/MQCLBy6rq9kKm6MJbGT9bvh/bdd05504bffd3596f7f48ab3a5b80b3ec4118921.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/></alternatives></italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11. Apheresis</title>
        <p>Triglycerides &gt; 1,000 mg/dL increase the risk of pancreatitis in patients with FCS. Class IIA, Level C.</p>
        <p>AP is the most frequent complication in patients with FCS, with a prevalence of 60% to 88%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> Plasma triglycerides &gt; 1,000 mg/dL may be indicative or greatly increase the risk of hypertriglyceridemic pancreatitis (HP).</p>
        <p>AP mortality in patients with FCS is approximately 6% but may reach up to 30%, depending on the presence of complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Cohort studies have demonstrated a more severe evolution in these patients, with a higher prevalence of complications (shock, renal and respiratory failure, sepsis) compared with other etiologies of AP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>11.1. Diagnosis and Treatment</title>
          <p>The initial diagnostic and therapeutic procedures for HP should follow the same practices recommended for AP cases in general (including intravenous fluid therapy, analgesic treatment, and fasting). The earliest possible determination of serum triglyceride levels is crucial, as they may decrease in the first 48 hours after the onset of pancreatitis as a result of fasting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In patients with FCS, HP may occur spontaneously, with no apparent cause, or be triggered by secondary factors including uncontrolled diabetes, alcohol abuse, pregnancy, and medications (oral estrogens, tamoxifen, propofol, valproic acid, isotretinoin, clomiphene, beta blockers, protease inhibitors, and mirtazapine).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>11.2. Nondrug Therapy</title>
          <p>The mainstay of initial AP therapy is admission to the intensive care unit, as well as oral intake restriction, intravenous fluids, and analgesia. Clinical evolution depends on the reduction of plasma triglycerides within the first 24 to 48 hours of admission. Most patients with HP have an uncomplicated clinical course, with good prognosis. In general, serum triglyceride levels decrease within 24 to 48 hours of admission and reach values &lt; 500 mg/dL on the fourth or fifth day only with support measures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup> Once the pain subsides and gastrointestinal transit is established, an oral fat-free diet may be reinstated.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>11.3. Pharmacological Treatment</title>
          <p>
            <bold>Intravenous heparin infusion for HP is not recommended in patients with FCS. Class of recommendation: III, Level of evidence: C.</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Heparin and insulin infusions have been used as the main therapy for HP, with most evidence coming from single cases or case series.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup> The infusion of unfractionated heparin can release LPL bound to endothelial cells, leading to a temporary reduction in serum triglycerides. In severe cases of HP, long-term intravenous heparin infusion can deplete LPL from the surface of endothelial cells, allowing serum triglyceride levels to rise again.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> In addition, some authors are reluctant to recommend the use of intravenous heparin in patients with pancreatic necrosis due to the risk of hemorrhagic transformation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The use of low-molecular-weight heparin is indicated as prophylaxis for deep venous thrombosis in HP in patients with FCS. Class II A, level C.</p>
          <p>There are no contraindications for the use of low-molecular-weight heparin<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup> as prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis in HP.</p>
          <p>Intravenous insulin should only be used for glycemic control in HP in patients with FCS and decompensated type 1 or 2 diabetes. Class of recommendation: IIa, Level of evidence: C.</p>
          <p>Insulin increases LPL activity and helps to reverse the effects of insulin resistance on the liver. Insulin infusion is especially useful in patients with uncontrolled diabetes and hyperglycemia in addition to HTG. There is no clear evidence of the benefit of insulin in patients with HP who are not diabetic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Intravenous insulin therapy must be initiated in patients with severe HTG and HP who also have uncompensated type 1 diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> Intravenous insulin should be initiated in patients with severe HTG and HP who also have decompensated type 2 diabetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>11.4. Apheresis</title>
          <p>Plasmapheresis should be indicated in patients with FCS and HP on an individual basis. Potential candidates are patients with severe HP or persistent triglycerides &gt; 1,000 mg/dL after the first 24 to 48 hours. Class of recommendation: IIb, Level of evidence: C.</p>
          <p>Case reports and series have demonstrated the efficacy of plasmapheresis in removing triglycerides from the circulation of patients with HP, with a mean reduction in triglyceride levels between 65% and 85% after 1 or 2 sessions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Because HP is a life-threatening condition, some centers use plasmapheresis as the procedure of choice to rapidly reduce circulating chylomicrons as soon as the diagnosis is established, thus removing the agent responsible for pancreatic damage. The early use of this procedure to reduce plasma triglycerides would prevent the production and accumulation of free fatty acids, reducing their local and systemic effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref></sup> The mechanism of HTG-induced AP is probably caused by excess triglycerides, which leak from acinar cells into the vascular bed of the pancreas when hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipase, resulting in accumulation of free fatty acids and lysolecithin. Free fatty acids are toxic and can cause damage to acinar cells and the capillary endothelium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup> In addition, elevated concentrations of chylomicrons increase the blood viscosity of veins with impaired local blood flow, resulting in pancreatic ischemia and worsening of tissue damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup> Free fatty acids activate trypsinogen, which leads to local edema and necrotizing pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref></sup> A case series published in a tertiary hospital in Turkey included 33 patients with HTG-related AP and showed a mean triglyceride reduction of 54.4% after a single session of plasmapheresis. After a second session, there was a 79.4% reduction in triglycerides. During clinical course, 13 patients had pancreatic fluid collection, with 1 case of necrotizing pancreatitis and no cases of pseudocyst. Mortality in patients with severe HP was 33.3%, and overall mortality was 3%, with no cases related to plasmapheresis. The study demonstrated that plasmapheresis is a safe and effective treatment for patients with HP. More studies are needed to compare apheresis + conservative treatment with only conservative treatment in patients with HP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Chen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup> retrospectively analyzed clinical outcomes in patients with HP before (n = 34) and after (n = 60) the availability of apheresis at their institution. The groups had similar clinical features. In 20 patients from the second group, plasmapheresis was initiated with a mean time of 3 days after symptom onset. There were no significant differences in terms of mortality and complications between patients undergoing or not undergoing plasmapheresis. Study limitations include the retrospective design, single-center experience, and small sample size.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Some centers perform plasmapheresis on admission, shortly before 24 hours, whereas others perform the procedure within 24 to 72 hours of admission. Studies have emphasized the importance of early initiation of plasmapheresis in HP, whereas others have not detected any difference in morbidity and mortality with early or late initiation of the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup> A clear benefit of plasmapheresis in reducing HP severity has yet to be conclusively demonstrated.</p>
          <p>Plasmapheresis is not risk-free and is a costly procedure. It requires central intravenous access and temporary anticoagulation, with associated complications that include bacteremia, venous thrombosis, and bleeding. Potential candidates are those with severe HP or persistent triglyceride levels &gt; 1,000 mg/dL after the first 24 to 48 hours of admission.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Due to the lack of evidence, recommendations for plasmapheresis in adults with HP and FCS should be individualized. In recent American Society for Apheresis (ASFA) guidelines, the recommendation for plasmapheresis in patients with HP is 2C (weak recommendation), with a level of evidence of III.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>11.5. Pregnancy and HP in Patients with FCS</title>
          <p>The indication of plasmapheresis during pregnancy, although safe and effective, should be individualized due to the scarcity of evidence to date. Class of recommendation: IIb, Level of evidence: C.</p>
          <p>Normal pregnancy is characterized by adaptive changes in lipid metabolism to meet the needs of the placenta and the glucose and lipid requirements for fetal growth, including increased glucose production, progesterone synthesis, lipogenesis, and reduced lipolysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref></sup> Patients with genetically determined alterations in lipid metabolism, characterized by reduced intravascular lipolysis, may evolve during pregnancy with severe HTG and pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup></p>
          <p>HP is developed in the third trimester of pregnancy or at the beginning of the postpartum period, with a major impact on maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref></sup> Rates of maternal and fetal mortality due to HP of 37% and 60%, respectively, have already been described, but these numbers are currently declining due to diagnostic and therapeutic advances.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181">181</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Pregnancy-associated pancreatitis may occur in the setting of gallstone disease, alcohol abuse, and HTG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup> In cases of HP, the severity score and the worst prognosis are more prevalent than other etiologies of AP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup> Clinical case reports have shown that the use of plasmapheresis in pregnant women is effective and safe.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup> However, due to the scarcity of evidence, the indication of plasmapheresis in pregnancy complicated by HP, in patients with FCS, should be individualized.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>12. New Therapies for the Treatment of Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
        <p>Treatments available for patients with FCS aimed at reducing triglyceride levels are not effective in controlling chylomicronemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Gene therapy with AAV1-LPL(S447X) using an adeno-associated virus was tested in the setting of FCS (Glybera, alipogene tiparvovec) with the aim of expressing LPL(S447X). However, despite promising results, the commercial use of AAV1-LPL (S447X) was not possible due to its high cost.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup> Thus, the only therapy that reduces triglycerides to &lt; 880 mg/dL, or 10 mmol/L, in patients with FCS and which seems to reduce the risk of pancreatitis is a fat-restricted diet associated with alcohol restriction and certain medications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> Lifelong adherence to these restrictions is difficult, and episodes of chylomicronemia, abdominal pain, and recurrent pancreatitis are common. Thus, additional therapies are needed to maintain triglycerides levels &lt; 880 mg/dL.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>12.1. APOC3</title>
          <p>ApoC3 is a glycoprotein consisting of 79 amino acids, synthesized primarily in the liver and to a lesser extent in the intestine, and is associated with ApoB-containing lipoproteins, including chylomicrons, VLDLs, and HDLs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> In genetic, preclinical, and phase 1 studies, ApoC3 has emerged as a regulator of plasma triglyceride concentrations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> ApoC3 is an inhibitor of LPL activity<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup> and a potent inhibitor of LPL activation that is mediated by ApoC2, resulting in the inhibition of lipolysis of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup> ApoC3 has also been shown to inhibit hepatic lipase activity, to promote VLDL assembly and secretion,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> and to inhibit clearance of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins remnants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup> However, the importance of these LPL-independent mechanisms is not well understood.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>12.1.1 Antisense Inhibition of ApoC3</title>
            <p>Volanesorsen is a second-generation antisense drug that inhibits the synthesis of modified apoC3. ISIS 304801 has a 2&#8217;-O-(2-methoxyethyl) end.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> Inhibition of ApoC3 synthesis in the liver occurs through sequence-specific binding of ISIS 304801 to <italic>APOC3</italic> mRNA, which in turn leads to the degradation of <italic>APOC3</italic> mRNA by RNase H1, an endogenous ribonuclease expressed in mammalian cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> In phase 1 studies with healthy volunteers, ISIS 304801 promoted a dose-dependent and prolonged reduction of ApoC3 plasma concentrations with concomitant triglyceride lowering.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> In phase 2 studies, ISIS 304801 was effective in lowering triglycerides in patients with elevated VLDL due to different conditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Because patients with FCS have very low LPL activity and because lipolysis inhibition by the LPL-dependent pathway is a mechanism of action of ApoC3, ISIS 304801 would be predicted to be ineffective or to have a minimal effect in lowering triglycerides in patients with this syndrome. However, there must be an LPL-independent escape mechanism for the survival of these patients. Preclinical studies suggest that ApoC3 modulates triglyceride levels through an LPL-independent pathway. A study was conducted with ISIS 304801 in patients with FCS and triglycerides levels from 1,406 to 2,083 mg/dL. After 13 weeks of treatment with 300 mg of volanesorsen, plasma concentrations of ApoC3 and triglycerides were reduced in 71% to 90% and from 56% to 86%, respectively. During treatment, all patients had triglycerides &lt; 500 mg/dL. Initial data showed the role of ApoC3 as a regulator of triglyceride metabolism through LPL-independent pathways.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup></p>
            <p>These outcomes were replicated in the Approach clinical trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> a 52-week, randomized, double-blind, phase 3 study that evaluated the efficacy and safety of volanesorsen in 66 patients with FCS. Patients were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to receive volanesorsen or placebo. The primary endpoint was the percentage change in fasting triglycerides from baseline to 3 months (at week 12 or week 13). Nine secondary endpoints were prioritized and analyzed in hierarchical order. If analysis of the first endpoint was significant, the second endpoint in the hierarchy would be analyzed for significance, and so on. If an endpoint was nonsignificant in the hierarchy, analysis of all subsequent endpoints would be exploratory. Percentage changes from baseline to 6 months and to 12 months were compared between treatments using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).</p>
            <p>A total of 130 patients were selected, of whom 67 underwent randomization; 1 patient from the placebo group withdrew consent. Of the 66 patients, 41 were homozygous or compound heterozygous for at least 1 of 25 inactivating mutations in <italic>LPL</italic> , and 11 patients had biallelic mutations in accessory proteins or were double heterozygous for <italic>LPL</italic> and <italic>APOA5</italic> or <italic>LMF1</italic> mutations. Fourteen patients had no defined mutations but were included on the basis of their clinical phenotype and low LPL activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Included patients were aged 20 to 75 years, 80% were white, and 55% were women; the mean body mass index was 25.0 &#177; 5.7. Age at FCS diagnosis ranged from 1 to 75 years. <italic>Lipemia retinalis</italic> occurred in 21% and eruptive xanthomas in 23% of patients; 76% had a documented history of AP, of whom 23 had had 53 adjudicated AP episodes in the previous 5 years. Seven patients had chronic pancreatitis.</p>
            <p>At baseline, 53% of patients were taking fibrates, &#969;3 fatty acids, or both, and 20% were receiving statins. Seven patients had been treated with alipogene tiparvovec (Glybera) more than 2 years before they were included in the study. Baseline triglyceride levels were elevated and did not differ between patients who were receiving medication and those who were receiving placebo (2,209 &#177; 1,199 mg/dL), likewise VLDL chylomicrons (1,849 &#177; 1,176 mg/dL) and ApoB48 (10.2 &#177; 6.6mg/dL). ApoC3 levels were elevated (30.2 &#177; 14.2 mg/dL).</p>
            <p>Treatment with volanesorsen reduced mean ApoC3 levels from baseline by 84% after 3 months and by 83% after 6 months (P &lt; 0.001 for both comparisons), corresponding to decreases of 25.7 mg/dL and 25.6 mg/dL, respectively. APOC3 levels increased by 6.1% (1.9 mg/dL) after 3 months and decreased by 5.2% (1.7 mg/dL) after 6 months among patients receiving placebo. The primary efficacy endpoint, ie, the percentage change in triglycerides between baseline and 3 months, was a 77% decrease in the volanesorsen group vs an 18% increase in the placebo group (P &lt; 0.001), corresponding to a decrease of 1,712 mg/dL (95%CI, 1,330 to 2,094) in the volanesorsen group compared with an increase of 92.0 mg/dL (95%CI, -301 to 486 mg/dL) in the placebo group (p &lt; 0.001).</p>
            <p>The results of the analysis of the first-ranked secondary endpoint (ie, treatment response rate, defined as a fasting plasma triglyceride level of &lt; 750 mg/dL at 3 months) were significant. Compared with 10% of patients in the placebo group, 77% of patients in the volanesorsen group achieved triglyceride levels &lt; 750 mg/dL (OR, 186.16; 95%CI, 12.86 to could not be estimated; p &lt; 0.001). The results of the second-ranked secondary endpoint (ie, percentage change in fasting triglyceride levels from baseline to 6 months) were also significant: there was a 53% reduction in triglyceride levels in the volanesorsen group (1,380 mg/dL) vs a 25% increase in the placebo group (224 mg/dL). The mean difference between groups was -77.8% (95%CI, -106.4 to -49.1; p &lt; 0.001). The analysis of the third-ranked secondary endpoint (ie, percentage change in fasting triglyceride levels from baseline to 12 months) was significant; volanesorsen reduced triglyceride levels by 40% (986 mg/dL), whereas there was a 9% increase (39 mg/dL) in the placebo group. The between-group difference was -49.1% (95%CI, -94.7 to -3.5; p = 0.03). The subsequent endpoint (ie, the average of maximum intensity of patient-reported abdominal pain during the treatment period in the hierarchical analysis) was not significant.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Among patients in the volanesorsen group, 19 completed the full 52-week treatment period. Six patients received 300 mg per week for the entire treatment period; among the remaining 13 patients, dose frequency was reduced to 300 mg every 2 weeks, treatment was paused, or both. Among patients who did not have a dose reduction, the decrease in triglyceride levels from baseline was 79% at 3 months, 80% at 6 months, and 72% at 12 months (absolute decreases from baseline of 1,670 mg/dL, 1,656 mg/dL, and 1,454 mg/dL, respectively). Absolute decreases in triglyceride levels among the 13 patients whose doses were reduced was 71% at 3 months, 52% at 6 months, and 54% at 12 months (mean decreases from baseline of 1,933 mg/dL, 1,564 mg/dL, and 1,400 mg/dL, respectively). Among the 6 patients whose doses were not reduced, 5 had triglyceride levels &lt; 750 mg/dL at 6 months, and 4 had triglyceride levels &lt; 750 mg/dL at 12 months. Of the 13 patients whose doses were reduced, 6 had triglyceride levels &lt; 750 mg/dL at 6 months, and 6 had triglyceride levels &lt; 750 mg/dL at 12 months; 3 patients achieved triglycerides &lt; 750 mg/dL at 6 and 12 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In exploratory analysis, the levels of chylomicron triglycerides, ApoB48, non-HDL-C, and VLDL-C in patients receiving volanesorsen were reduced by 83%, 76%, 46%, and 58%, respectively; in the same patients, the levels of HDL-C, ApoA1, LDL-C, and ApoB were increased by 46%, 14%, 136%, and 20%, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Volanesorsen reduced triglyceride levels irrespective of patients&#8217; genetic diagnoses or type of mutation. At 3 months, mean triglyceride levels were decreased by 65% in the 17 patients with biallelic mutations in the <italic>LPL</italic> gene and by 75% in the 9 patients with non- <italic>LPL</italic> genetic deficiencies. Patients with mutations in the <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , and <italic>LMF1</italic> genes all showed triglyceride decreases from 69% to 88%. Treatment was also effective irrespective of baseline triglyceride levels and was equally effective in patients receiving concomitant fibrate therapy, &#969;3 fatty acids, or both and patients not receiving those therapies (mean decrease from baseline to 3 months of 76% and 73%, respectively).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Because of the limited sample size due to the rarity of FCS, a change in the number of AP episodes was not a prespecified endpoint. However, exploratory analysis of adjudicated episodes of AP that occurred during the trial was conducted. During the treatment period, 3 patients in the placebo group had 4 episodes of AP, whereas 1 patient in the volanesorsen group had 1 episode 9 days after receiving the final dose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The most common adverse events during the treatment period were injection-site reactions and thrombocytopenia. In the volanesorsen group, 20 patients (61%) had at least one mild-to-moderate injection-site reaction and, on average, 12% of volanesorsen injections vs 0% of placebo injections were associated with these reactions. One patient was excluded from the trial due to an injection-site reaction. Confirmed thrombocytopenia &lt; 140,000 per microliter was observed in 25 patients (76%) in the volanesorsen group and in 8 patients (24%) in the placebo group; confirmed thrombocytopenia &lt; 100,000 per microliter was observed in 16 patients (48%) who received volanesorsen but in no patients who received placebo. Because there was no documented history of marked thrombocytopenia in humans treated with this class of antisense drugs,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> the initial protocol required platelet count monitoring at intervals of 4 to 6 weeks. However, during the trial, grade 4 thrombocytopenia (&lt; 25,000 platelets per microliter) was observed in 2 patients in the volanesorsen group, and the treatment was discontinued. There were no major bleeding events in any of these patients, and both patients reached normal platelet counts 23 and 33 days after drug discontinuation. One patient received oral prednisone at a dose of 60 mg for 23 days. The other patient received methylprednisolone at a dose of 125 mg for 11 days, followed by oral prednisone at a dose of 70 mg tapered to 50 mg for 21 days, as well as immunoglobulin at a dose of 60 g and 80 g on successive days, followed 4 days later by immunoglobulin at a dose of 40 g daily for 5 more days. Three other patients with lower grades (1 or 2) of thrombocytopenia were withdrawn from the trial by the investigators. After the two cases of thrombocytopenia, a platelet monitoring program consisting of assessments every 2 weeks was established, with a threshold of &lt; 100,000 platelets per microliter for reduction in dose frequency to every 2 weeks, and a new threshold of 75,000 platelets per microliter (changed from 50,000 per microliter) for medication interruption. After these measures were implemented, no patient presented platelet-count declines to &lt; 50,000 per microliter, and no thrombocytopenia-related dose discontinuation occurred. There was a reduction in the frequency of volanesorsen doses in 13 patients, and in 9 patients this was due to thrombocytopenia. Fourteen patients randomly assigned to volanesorsen vs 2 patients randomly assigned to placebo did not complete the 52-week treatment period. Nine discontinued the trial because of adverse events, which included 5 cases of platelet decreases and 4 cases of other volanesorsen-related adverse effects. Four other patients voluntarily withdrew consent. There were no deaths during the study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The Re-FOCUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> was a retrospective global web-based survey conducted with patients with FCS who received volanesorsen for &#8805; 3 months in an open-label extension study. The survey included questions about patients&#8217; experiences before and after treatment with volanesorsen. Twenty-two participants had received volanesorsen for a median of 222 days. Volanesorsen significantly reduced the number of symptoms per patient on the physical, emotional, and cognitive domains. There were significant reductions in episodes of steatorrhea, pancreatic pain, and constant worry about an attack of pain or AP. Respondents also reported that volanesorsen improved overall management of symptoms and reduced interference of FCS with work/school responsibilities. Reductions in the negative impact of FCS on personal, social, and professional life were also reported. Treatment with volanesorsen has the potential to reduce disease burden in patients with FCS through modulation of multiple symptom domains.</p>
            <p>Volanesorsen was approved by Anvisa on August 23, 2021, based on data from the Approach and Compass studies. It is indicated for adult patients (&gt; 18 years old) with genetic confirmation of FCS and high risk of pancreatitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref></sup> The drug has been approved by the European Medicines Agency for use in adults with FCS since 2014.</p>
            <p>Volanesorsen is not approved by the FDA, although it was investigated in the Approach study in patients with FCS. The disease is considered ultra-rare and debilitating. FCS causes unpredictable and potentially fatal pancreatitis, chronic complications resulting from permanent organ damage, and severe impact on patients&#8217; daily lives. The typical feature of FCS is very high levels of triglycerides. Results from the phase 3 Approach study &#8211; the largest study conducted in patients with FCS &#8211; showed that, compared with placebo, treatment with volanesorsen reduces triglycerides by 77% (-94% compared with placebo). Medical societies recommend triglyceride reduction as the treatment target for patients with FCS. The most common adverse events are injection-site reactions and reduction in platelet counts.</p>
            <p>The FDA&#8217;s claim for not approving the drug was safety concerns, especially risk of bleeding due to thrombocytopenia, despite recommendations to mitigate adverse effects. If a possibility for thrombocytopenia was detected during the trial, management with platelet monitoring every 15 days was conducted, which may be more frequent depending on subsequent tests. Likewise, reduction of dose frequency according to platelet count was recommended.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>13. Social and Psychological Aspects and Economic Impact of the Disease</title>
        <p>Variability in early development, differences in symptom severity, and variations in the degree of functional limitations due to physical condition are characteristics of FCS manifestation that interact with other aspects, such as sociodemographic and economic profiles, personality traits, psychosocial and sociocognitive factors, personal skills for coping with adverse health situations, and ability for self-regulation and maintaining a sense of efficacy in the setting of illness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup> The link between all these aspects and other contextual aspects makes the management of FCS more complex, which may, in addition to interfering with the adaptive ability of patients and caregivers, demand different medical interventions that are centered on the uniqueness of each patient.</p>
        <p>The lack of dissemination of patient statements in the media, caused by the absence of the theme on popular discourse and its limited presence in scientific discourse,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> has promoted a pattern of silence surrounding FCS. The lack of familiarity with this condition in the medical community aggravates the biopsychosocial stress experienced by patients, as they have to consult several different specialties in the search for a diagnosis, which usually happens late and does not lead to an effective response to drug therapy. Communication and knowledge gaps challenge patients and caregivers to live with a disease that is often associated with limited empathy, since it lacks socially constructed meaning and a clinically recognized identity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> Therefore, further developing the state of the art of FCS in real life is relevant for reasons beyond the severe deleterious effects of the disease on health and functional capacity.</p>
        <p>A study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200">200</xref></sup> on the quality of life of patients with FCS demonstrated the validity of self-report instruments in the setting of a rare disease and highlighted the strong negative impact of FCS treatment, which fundamentally consists of restrictive dietary control. Reporting how the disease affects everyday life,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B201">201</xref></sup> how getting sick affects the perception of satisfaction with quality of life and health status,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref></sup> and how treatment affects the adaptive capacity of patients<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203">203</xref></sup> helps to promote awareness of the psychosocial burden of FCS. Topics covered by the self-evaluation of quality of life instrument are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t13001">Chart 2</xref> .</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t13001">
            <label>Chart 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Topics covered by the self-evaluation of health-related quality of life instrument</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Self-evaluation of:</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Degree of limitation caused by the condition when performing activities of daily living</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Degree of limitation in functional capacity to perform light, moderate, and intense activities of daily living</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>General health status</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Degree of pain interference on daily life</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Degree of general health interference (physical and mental) with interpersonal relationships</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Degree of vitality in daily life (degree of involvement and motivation with life)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Degree of limitation caused by emotional or cognitive state when performing activities of daily living</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Predominant mood at specified time</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>By providing a standardized and structured instrument to listen to patients with FCS, the psychometric self-report instrument allows to break the pattern of silence, which is characteristic of rare or uncommon diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> Although studies of low prevalence diseases include a small number of participants compared with those of chronic and common diseases, they are able to portray the reality of patients and caregivers and point out trends, as well as collaborate in the recommendation of behavioral coping strategies.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>13.1. Social Aspects in Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
          <p>Patients diagnosed with a rare disease (also known as an orphan disease) lose, to some extent, their social references and, as they begin to rely more on technical and scientific guidelines to manage their condition, move away from usual health care practices. The lack of information on the history of the disease in real life and the lack of guidelines or position statements for safe and effective medical conduct and guidance impact the personal ability to establish a routine and projects and to maintain interpersonal relationships, as idealized by patients. Lack of knowledge of the disease interferes with the sense of belonging and sustains feelings of helplessness and isolation. Disease invisibility in everyday life reduces the chances of patients and caregivers receiving social support.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup> A study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup> showed that strong feelings of misunderstanding may drive patients and caregivers to create adaptive responses that restore familiarity and belonging in religious environments.</p>
          <p>Gaps in the medical knowledge of FCS have been shown to hinder communication in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup> Not understanding the objectives of a therapeutic proposal may lead patients to have unrealistic expectations of treatment scope. The most frequent expectations regarding adherence to treatment among patients with FCS are shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Expectations of patients with FCS regarding adherence to treatment</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20230203-30203-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Having described the physical and psychosocial aspects most severely affected by FCS from a patient perspective, it is worth mentioning that patients&#8217; hopes of restoring a normal lifestyle with treatment can be better managed if professionals are up to date and capable of communicating the diagnosis and the evidence supporting therapeutic recommendations, as well as talk about expected results.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>13.2. Psychological Aspects in Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
          <p>Feelings of impotence in the face of the disease, fatigue, and mental confusion are interdisciplinary symptoms that may persist throughout the lives of patients with FCS. Concerns about the impact of the disease on health and life over time, the desire to restore a normal lifestyle, and concerns about the financial impact of the disease greatly affect the emotional stability of patients and caregivers and may produce feelings of low self-esteem and anxiety, interfere with the ability to reason and come up with solutions, and reduce sleep quality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> Depression, feelings of embarrassment, shame, and social inadequacy, and perception of changes in cognitive function due to concentration and memory problems contribute to the decline in the personal and professional quality of life of those affected.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup> According to patients, living with FCS is time-consuming and drains physical and mental energy, making them unable to plan their lives.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup> A systematic review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> suggests that adults diagnosed with FCS may express significant psychological damage related to the lack of autonomy and freedom in controlling their lives beyond the disease. Those treating or caring for patients with FCS need to be more aware of the psychological aspects associated with the disease.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>13.2.1. Parents of children diagnosed with Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome</title>
            <p>FCS manifests in late childhood and adolescence, but some cases have been reported to occur in the first years of life and in neonates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref></sup> Rare diseases are challenging not only for patients, but also for family members who care for them. A study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref></sup> found an increased frequency of parental reports of lack of social support and empathy from health professionals, including complaints about general lack of information and guidance and lack of advice regarding the appropriate way to interact/act with the child. The study showed that fathers tend to be more concerned about the future, whereas mothers are more concerned about the present. The study also revealed that mothers are more likely to report impairments in the quality of social, family, and professional relationships, as they tend to occupy more of their time with basic care and daily routine. Such differences among genders need to be more well known.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>13.3. Reducing the Impact of the Disease: Ways of Coping</title>
        <p>Adherence to general recommendations, usually presented as medical consensus, is essential for health promotion and prevention in primary and secondary health care, as well as for rehabilitation processes. Among health behaviors, therapeutic adherence is one of the most studied self-regulation behaviors, and refers to patients&#8217; active participation in disease management to preserve health and quality of life in the setting of illness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref></sup> It should be noted that the proposal of total and permanent therapeutic adherence may generate personal and social conflicts, as well as find resistance on the part of patients or lack of social collaboration, insofar as it can impact interpersonal life projects by interfering with the decision to have children, ability to work, free leisure time, etc.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>13.3.1. Active and Passive Models for Coping: Focus on the Patient</title>
          <p>Aiming at greater success in therapeutic adherence to FCS treatment, patient involvement in decision-making is essential. For this purpose, the use of passive and active coping strategies is recommended. Data from a systematic review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> show that passive coping approaches include obtaining/searching for information, clinical advice, genetic counseling, and health education. Examples of active coping approaches in behavioral performance/action in FCS include self-control in restricting fat, alcohol, and carbohydrate consumption; self-regulation in self-medication, avoiding harmful drug interactions; self-administration of drugs for reduction of plasma triglyceride concentrations; and attending follow-up consultations as indicated by the primary care physician.</p>
          <p>A study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref></sup> investigating the effect of Internet use on the adaptive capacity of parents of children with rare diseases showed that gaining knowledge is essential for gradually adapting to the new health reality. The study emphasized that searching for information about the disease can both increase patients&#8217; sense of efficacy and increase anxiety symptoms. As a contemporary reality, the impact of searching for training/information on the Internet by patients and caregivers on the adaptive process of FCS needs to be better understood.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>13.3.2. Social Model for Coping: Focus on Peers</title>
          <p>Obtaining social support through peer groups is known to help improve the perception of general well-being and promote motivation for self-regulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B212">212</xref></sup> The CONNEC study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref></sup> showed that people affected by FCS may benefit from having contact with other people affected by the disease. The study suggests that participating in support groups, whether by reading texts, joining websites and face-to-face or online conversation circles, interacting with or just learning about other patients, positively affects perception of quality of life and reduces perception of symptom severity and psychological distress, in addition to mitigating psychosocial stress. The implementation of comprehensive measures for coping with and managing the disease such as filling technical and scientific gaps, encouraging patients to engage in therapeutic socialization, and disseminating information about the adverse psychosocial effects of FCS can help promote the construction of a social identity for the disease and establish expertise in health care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>13.4. Cost-effectiveness in the Management of Psychosocial Risks</title>
        <p>Knowing that the cost-effectiveness evaluation of health interventions seeks solutions with lower disease-related costs, through which investment allocation can achieve the best results,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> it can be assumed that investing in collaborative therapeutic resources for interventions focused on clinical aspects and psychoemotional symptoms<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref></sup> would have a cost-effective return, given that although psychiatric manifestations are not specific to FCS, they hinder therapeutic adherence and lead to recurrent urgencies and hospital admissions.<sup>219</sup>In this sense, it supports data from literature review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup> showing robust evidence that investing in combined interventions for cardiovascular diseases and anxiety and depression conditions leads to a positive cost-effective result. Finally, the ReFOCUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> study shows that adequate pharmacological treatment can promote symptom control, reduce stress generated by severe dietary restriction, and modify expectations regarding the future. From this perspective, there is no doubt about the close link between FCS and psychosocial aspects and about the potential cost-effectiveness projected in studies and interventions that seek to develop effective drug treatments for patients diagnosed with FCS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>14. Summary of Recommendations</title>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t7001">
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Blood collection for triglyceride measurements in adults should be performed after a 12-hour fast. Patients should maintain their usual diet but should not consume alcohol (72 hours) or engage in physical exercise (24 hours). In children, fasting duration varies according to the age group. In infants up to 1 year, blood should be collected after a 3-hour fast or immediately before the next feeding. In noninfants from 2 to 5 years, blood should be collected after a 6-hour fast. Children over 5 years old and adolescents should fast for 12 hours</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>To confirm a suspected case of FCS after excluding secondary causes of HTG, triglyceride levels should be: 1) &gt; 1,000 mg/dL, in 3 different measurements, for adults after a 12-hour fasting; 2) &gt; 880 mg/dL, in 3 different measurements, for children and adolescents irrespective of fasting time; 3) in children or adults, a triglyceride level &lt; 170 mg/dL <bold>excludes</bold> the investigation of hyperchylomicronemia</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Triglycerides &gt; 1,000 mg/dL increase the risk of pancreatitis in patients with FCS</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Levels of LDL-C in FCS may be underestimated irrespective of measurement method. However, if measured, Martin&#8217;s formula or, preferably, direct LDL testing should be performed</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>The FCS diagnostic score is a useful tool for suspected FCS and is recommended as a screening tool for genetic testing</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>This document does not recommend measuring LPL activity with heparin, as it may have limited discriminative capacity in carriers of common variants</td>
                  <td align="center">III</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Genetic sequencing of the <italic>LPL</italic> , <italic>APOC2</italic> , <italic>APOA5</italic> , <italic>GPIHBP1</italic> , and <italic>LMF1</italic> genes provides a definitive diagnosis of FCS in case of homozygosis or double/compound heterozygosis for pathogenic or probably pathogenic variants</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>For confirmed cases of FCS, genetic counseling should be conducted to calculate the risk of condition occurrence or recurrence, both for decision-making and for choosing the contraceptive method, especially in consanguineous unions</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nutritional therapy should include the following general recommendations: <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Restriction of fat consumption (10% to 15% of TEI)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Exclusion of added sugars (sucrose and corn syrup)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Exclusion of concentrated fruit juices</p></list-item><list-item><p>Exclusion of alcoholic beverages</p></list-item><list-item><p>Consumption of complex carbohydrates in adequate amounts</p></list-item><list-item><p>Ensuring the adequacy of essential fatty acids</p></list-item><list-item><p>Monitoring consumption of fat-soluble vitamins, with supplementation when necessary</p></list-item><list-item><p>Inclusion of MCT for the purpose of calorie intake, according to tolerance</p></list-item></list> </td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Intravenous heparin infusion for HP is not recommended in patients with FCS</td>
                  <td align="center">III</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>The use of low-molecular-weight heparin is indicated as prophylaxis for deep venous thrombosis in HP in patients with FCS</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In patients with FCS and HP, intravenous insulin should only be used in those with decompensated type 1 and 2 diabetes, for glycemic control</td>
                  <td align="center">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Plasmapheresis should be indicated for patients with FCS and HP on an individual basis. Potential candidates include patients with severe HP or who persist with triglycerides &gt; 1,000 mg/dL after the first 24 to 48 hours</td>
                  <td align="center">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>The indication of plasmapheresis during pregnancy, although safe and effective, should be individualized due to the scarcity of evidence to date</td>
                  <td align="center">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>The use of antisense treatment against ApoC3 is recommended for adults aged &gt; 18 years with genetic confirmation of FCS who did not respond to usual treatment and have high risk of pancreatitis</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Platelet monitoring during antisense treatment against ApoC3 should be done initially every 2 weeks and subsequently adjusted according to platelet count</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Antisense treatment against ApoC3 should be spaced if platelets &lt; 100,000/uL, and the drug should be discontinued if platelet count &lt; 75,000/uL</td>
                  <td align="center">I</td>
                  <td align="center">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>Development:</bold> Department of Atherosclerosis of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (Departamento de Aterosclerose da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; DA/SBC)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>Norms and Guidelines Council responsible:</bold> Carisi Anne Polanczyk (Coordinator), Humberto Graner Moreira, M&#225;rio de Seixas Rocha, Jose Airton de Arruda, Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva &#8211; Management 2022-2024</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>How to cite this Guideline:</bold> Izar MCO, Santos-Filho RD, Assad MHV, Chagas ACP, AO Toledo-J&#250;nior AO, Nogueira ACC, et al. Brazilian Position Statement for Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome &#8211; 2023. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2023;120(4):e20230203</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>Note:</bold> These guidelines are for information purposes and should not replace the clinical judgment of a physician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Erratum</label>
          <p>
            <bold>Arq Bras Cardiol. 2023;120(4):e20230203</bold>
          </p>
          <p>In the &#8220;Brazilian Position Statement for Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome &#8211; 2023&#8221;, with DOI: https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20230203, published in the journal Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, Arq Bras Cardiol. 2023;120(4):e20230203, on page 1, make the following corrections:</p>
          <p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Include the name of the author Viviane Zorzanelli Rocha Giraldez, whose institution is Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) of the Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil, number 7 on the list of institutions.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Correct the name of the author &#8220;Ana Maria Pitta Lottenberg&#8221; to &#8220;Ana Maria Lottenberg&#8221;</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
