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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">4H8SQK6VtQP8MCzqMgvjbwv</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000400302</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00302</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220380</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Hidroxicloroquina para Pacientes com COVID-19 n&#227;o Hospitalizados: Uma Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica e Metan&#225;lise de Ensaios Cl&#237;nicos Randomizados</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4004-1320</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lucchetta</surname>
            <given-names>Rosa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Matuoka</surname>
            <given-names>Jessica Y.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0289-4947</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Haliton Alves de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1815-6498</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cavalcanti</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Biasi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Berwanger</surname>
            <given-names>Otavio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Renato Delascio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Regis Goulart</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0287-3601</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Veiga</surname>
            <given-names>Viviane Cordeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Avezum</surname>
            <given-names>&#193;lvaro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Alem&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Alem&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#237;rio-Liban&#234;s</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#237;rio-Liban&#234;s, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>6</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Duke University Hospital</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Durham</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">North Carolina</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">EUA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Duke University Hospital, Durham, North Carolina &#8211; EUA</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>7</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>8</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Benefic&#234;ncia Portuguesa de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Benefic&#234;ncia Portuguesa de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: &#193;lvaro Avezum &#8226;</bold> Hospital Alem&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz &#8211; R. Treze de Maio, 1815. CEP <postal-code>01323-020</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>aavezum@haoc.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220380</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>Revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas anteriores n&#227;o identificaram benef&#237;cio do uso da hidroxicloroquina ou da cloroquina em pacientes com COVID-19 n&#227;o hospitalizados. Ap&#243;s a publica&#231;&#227;o dessas revis&#245;es, os resultados do COPE, o maior ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado at&#233; hoje, tornaram-se dispon&#237;veis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p>Conduzir uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados (ECRs) para sintetizar as evid&#234;ncias sobre a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a da hidroxicloroquina e da cloroquina em pacientes com COVID-19 n&#227;o hospitalizados em compara&#231;&#227;o a controle ou tratamento padr&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>As buscas foram conduzidas nos bancos de dados PubMed, Embase, The Cochrane Library e ClinicalTrials.gov, e complementadas por busca manual. Foram realizadas metan&#225;lises diretas e avalia&#231;&#245;es de risco de vi&#233;s e certeza da evid&#234;ncia, incluindo an&#225;lise do tamanho &#243;timo da informa&#231;&#227;o (OIS, <italic>optimal information size</italic>). Um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 0,05 foi adotado na metan&#225;lise. PROSPERO: CRD42021265427.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Oito ECRs com 3219 participantes foram inclu&#237;dos. As taxas de interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 e de eventos adversos n&#227;o foram significativamente diferentes entre hidroxicloroquina (5,6% e 5,1%) e controle (7,4% e 20,4%) [risco relativo (RR) 0,77, intervalo de confian&#231;a 95% (IC95%), 0,57-1,04, I<sup>2</sup>: 0%; RR 1,78, IC95% 0,90; 3,52, I<sup>2</sup>: 93%, respectivamente)]. O OIS (7880) n&#227;o foi alcan&#231;ado para hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, independentemente da simula&#231;&#227;o para a taxa de evento e redu&#231;&#227;o do RR estimados.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>A evid&#234;ncia de muito baixa qualidade indicou falta de benef&#237;cio com hidroxicloroquina em prevenir interna&#231;&#245;es por COVID-19. Apesar de ser a revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com o maior n&#250;mero de participantes inclu&#237;dos, o OIS, considerando a resposta &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o anterior &#224; vacina&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o foi atingido.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>COVID-19/tratamento farmacol&#243;gico</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV-2</kwd>
        <kwd>Hidroxicloroquina</kwd>
        <kwd>Ensaios Cl&#237;nicos Controlados Aleat&#243;rios como Assunto</kwd>
        <kwd>Metan&#225;lise</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="40"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <fig id="f1">
      <caption>
        <title>Forest plots a) interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 e b) quaisquer eventos adversos nos grupos hidroxicloroquina e controle. IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a, RR: Risco Relativo.</title>
      </caption>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220380-20380-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A pandemia da doen&#231;a causada pelo novo coronav&#237;rus 2019 (COVID-19) ainda &#233; um problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica no mundo pelo elevado n&#250;mero de casos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> devido &#224; emerg&#234;ncia de variantes tais como Alfa, Delta e Omicron,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> e o alto n&#250;mero de mortes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> especialmente pelo reduzido acesso ou ades&#227;o &#224; vacina e desenvolvimento de COVID-19 grave em indiv&#237;duos com fatores de risco cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Considerando o cen&#225;rio da pandemia da COVID-19, v&#225;rias op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas foram adaptadas com base nos seus mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A cloroquina e a hidroxicloroquina (HCQ), medicamentos antimal&#225;ricos, atuam nos mecanismos de afinidade do v&#237;rus SARS-CoV-2 com a enzima conversora de angiotensina 2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Por isso, esses medicamentos foram propostos como poss&#237;veis op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas para pacientes com COVID-19, n&#227;o s&#243; no ambiente hospitalar, como na profilaxia e para pacientes n&#227;o internados. Embora diversos estudos, independentemente do cen&#225;rio nosocomial, mostraram que a cloroquina e a HCQ n&#227;o apresentam benef&#237;cios, tanto na mortalidade como na hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, com piores perfis de seguran&#231;a, o foco sobre popula&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o hospitalizadas &#233; ainda pouco discutido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Duas revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas avaliaram o efeito da cloroquina/HCQ em pacientes com COVID-19 n&#227;o internados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Ambas n&#227;o mostraram benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos da HCQ como tratamento de pacientes com COVID-19 n&#227;o internados. No entanto, ap&#243;s a publica&#231;&#227;o dessas revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas, os resultados do estudo COPE - <italic>COVID-19 Outpatient Prevention Evaluation</italic>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> o maior estudo randomizado conduzido at&#233; hoje, se tornaram dispon&#237;veis. Assim, conduzimos uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados (ECRs) para fazer uma s&#237;ntese das evid&#234;ncias sobre a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a da HCQ e da cloroquina em pacientes com COVID-19 n&#227;o hospitalizados com dados atualizados do estudo COPE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> e apresentar o tamanho &#243;timo da informa&#231;&#227;o (OIS, <italic>optimal information size</italic>) da evid&#234;ncia dispon&#237;vel.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>A revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica foi conduzida de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Cochrane Collaboration e descrita segundo o <italic>Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses</italic> (PRISMA 2020).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> O protocolo encontra-se registrado no registro prospectivo internacional de revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas PROSPERO (CRD42021265427).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade</title>
        <p>Consideramos estudos que preencheram os seguintes crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o:</p>
        <disp-quote>
          <p><bold>Popula&#231;&#227;o</bold> &#8211; pacientes adultos com suspeita ou diagn&#243;stico confirmado de COVID-19 n&#227;o hospitalizados.</p>
          <p><bold>Interven&#231;&#227;o e controle</bold> - HCQ ou cloroquina (p&#237;lulas ou qualquer outro medicamento na forma s&#243;lida) em qualquer dosagem, em compara&#231;&#227;o a placebo ou padr&#227;o de tratamento.</p>
          <p><bold>Desfechos</bold> &#8211; Os desfechos prim&#225;rios foram hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 e qualquer evento adverso, e os desfechos secund&#225;rios foram mortalidade, admiss&#227;o na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva (UTI), tempo para a alta hospitalar, necessidade de intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal, tempo de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, descontinua&#231;&#227;o por eventos adversos, e eventos adversos graves. Estudos que n&#227;o apresentaram resultados de nenhum dos desfechos de interesse foram exclu&#237;dos; e</p>
          <p><bold>Tipo de estudo</bold> &#8211; ECRs independentemente do n&#250;mero de comparadores, tempo de seguimento, n&#250;mero de participantes inclu&#237;dos, ou status de publica&#231;&#227;o (publicado ou n&#227;o publicado com resultado dispon&#237;vel no registro NCT).</p>
        </disp-quote>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fontes de informa&#231;&#227;o e estrat&#233;gias de busca</title>
        <p>As buscas eletr&#244;nicas foram conduzidas no PubMed, Embase e Cochrane Library sem restri&#231;&#227;o de idioma (at&#233; setembro de 2021). O banco de dados do registro de ensaios cl&#237;nicos (Clinicaltrials.gov) tamb&#233;m foi inclu&#237;do na pesquisa (at&#233; setembro de 2021), restringindo por registros contendo resultados. As listas de refer&#234;ncias dos estudos inclu&#237;dos e das revis&#245;es tamb&#233;m foram pesquisadas. Resultados do estudo COPE foram compartilhados pelos autores em setembro de 2021. As estrat&#233;gias completas de busca s&#227;o apresentadas no texto suplementar 1. Filtros validados para ECRs foram aplicados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> A valida&#231;&#227;o da estrat&#233;gia de pesquisa foi realizada por meio de uma busca nas listas de refer&#234;ncias das revis&#245;es que avaliaram HCQ ou cloroquina para pacientes com COVID-19 (texto suplementar 2).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Processo de sele&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Os registros obtidos foram importados no EndNote X8<sup>&#174;</sup> para remo&#231;&#227;o de duplicatas, e em seguida para a plataforma Rayyan para a sele&#231;&#227;o dos estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Dois pesquisadores (JYM e RCL) efetuaram, de maneira independente, o rastreio de t&#237;tulos e resumos dos estudos para identificar registros irrelevantes. Em uma segunda etapa, textos completos dos artigos foram avaliados independentemente pelos mesmos dois pesquisadores de acordo com os crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade. Discrep&#226;ncias foram resolvidas por consenso ou consulta a um terceiro revisor (HAOJ).</p>
        <p>Os dados coletados foram: caracter&#237;sticas do estudo (identifica&#231;&#227;o, NCT, acr&#244;nimo, perfil da popula&#231;&#227;o geral, crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico da COVID-19, vari&#225;veis comparadas, interven&#231;&#227;o adicional em um dos grupos, pa&#237;s e n&#250;mero de centros, financiamento, per&#237;odo de estudo, e tempo de acompanhamento); caracter&#237;sticas dos participantes de acordo com as vari&#225;veis comparadas (idade, n&#250;mero de participantes por sexo, hipertens&#227;o, asma ou diabetes); desfechos e resultados. Resultados relatados por subgrupos populacionais n&#227;o foram extra&#237;dos e resultados m&#250;ltiplos relatados por desfecho para diferentes tempos ou diferentes defini&#231;&#245;es de desfecho foram extra&#237;dos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco de vi&#233;s</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco de vi&#233;s dos estudos inclu&#237;dos foi conduzida por dois revisores independentes (JYM e RCL). As discrep&#226;ncias foram resolvidas por consenso ou consulta a um terceiro revisor (HAOJ), utilizando a ferramenta revisada da Colabora&#231;&#227;o Cochrane (<italic>Risk of Bias assessment tool for RCT</italic>, RoB 2.0).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Com base no risco de vi&#233;s, o estudo poderia ser descrito como de &#8220;baixo risco&#8221; &#8220;com algumas preocupa&#231;&#245;es" e &#8220;alto risco&#8221;. A avalia&#231;&#227;o foi conduzida tanto do estudo como dos desfechos prim&#225;rios.</p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise do risco de vi&#233;s foi apresentada como um gr&#225;fico de sem&#225;foro dos julgamentos por dom&#237;nio de cada desfecho, utilizando o <italic>web app</italic> RobVis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medidas dos efeitos, m&#233;todo de s&#237;ntese e descri&#231;&#227;o dos vieses</title>
        <p>O tamanho do efeito foi avaliado para cada desfecho por meio das medidas: raz&#227;o de risco (RR) para desfechos dicot&#244;micos (i.e., interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, eventos adversos, mortalidade, admiss&#227;o na UTI, necessidade de intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal, descontinua&#231;&#227;o por eventos adversos e eventos adversos graves), e diferen&#231;a m&#233;dia para os desfechos cont&#237;nuos (i.e., tempo para a alta hospitalar e tempo de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica). Todas as medidas foram calculadas considerando um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 0,05, intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% (IC95%) e intervalo de predi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Todos os estudos que preencheram os crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade foram inclu&#237;dos para a s&#237;ntese narrativa. Para a s&#237;ntese quantitativa, todos os estudos que apresentaram n&#250;mero de participantes com evento, n&#250;mero total de participantes com desfechos dicot&#244;micos ou m&#233;dia de tempo e desvio-padr&#227;o (ou intervalo de confian&#231;a ou erro-padr&#227;o) para os desfechos cont&#237;nuos foram considerados eleg&#237;veis. Se necess&#225;rio, seria realizada convers&#227;o dos dados (por exemplo, intervalo de confian&#231;a para desvio padr&#227;o).</p>
        <p>As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas usando os pacotes meta e metafor do software R (R v4.1.2 and R studio 2021.09.0).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> An&#225;lises de heterogeneidade foram realizadas comparando-se popula&#231;&#245;es, interven&#231;&#245;es, controle e defini&#231;&#245;es dos desfechos entre os estudos inclu&#237;dos nas metan&#225;lises.</p>
        <p>Metan&#225;lises diretas para os desfechos dicot&#244;micos foram feitas usando o m&#233;todo Mantel-Haenszel, modelo aleat&#243;rio, m&#233;todo de DerSimonian e Laird para o c&#225;lculo de tau<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, m&#233;todo de Mantel-Haenszel para o c&#225;lculo de Q e tau<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, e corre&#231;&#227;o de continuidade de 0,5 em estudos com frequ&#234;ncia zero de c&#233;lulas foram empregados nas an&#225;lises. Al&#233;m da an&#225;lise quantitativa da heterogeneidade cl&#237;nica e metodol&#243;gica dos estudos, an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica de inconsist&#234;ncia (I<sup>2</sup>) conforme proposto por Higgins e Green.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A entrada dos dados foi realizada com base em contraste, isto &#233;, dados a n&#237;vel do ensaio em vez de dados a n&#237;vel dos bra&#231;os de interven&#231;&#227;o. Para metan&#225;lises incluindo ensaios com m&#250;ltiplos bra&#231;os (mais de dois bra&#231;os), tr&#234;s an&#225;lises foram realizadas: i) sele&#231;&#227;o de um par de interven&#231;&#245;es e exclus&#227;o dos demais (caso-base); combina&#231;&#227;o dos grupos para criar uma &#250;nica compara&#231;&#227;o por pares (an&#225;lise de sensibilidade), e metan&#225;lise de rede (an&#225;lise de sensibilidade).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> As metan&#225;lises de rede foram conduzidas pela abordagem frequentista usando a plataforma MetaInsight.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outras an&#225;lises de sensibilidade inclu&#237;ram a remo&#231;&#227;o dos estudos com alto risco de vi&#233;s, uso de uma metan&#225;lise alternativa (isto &#233;, uso de modelo fixo em vez de modelo aleat&#243;rio ou ajuste do modelo de efeitos aleat&#243;rios pelo m&#233;todo de Hartung-Knapp e Jonkman para c&#225;lculo do tau<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>), e m&#233;todo de retirada de um estudo por vez (<italic>leave-one-out</italic>).</p>
        <p>Embora as an&#225;lises de subgrupos, metarregress&#227;o e vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o haviam sido planejadas no protocolo do estudo, elas n&#227;o foram realizadas pelo fato de os crit&#233;rios m&#237;nimos n&#227;o haverem sido preenchidos (alta heterogeneidade estat&#237;stica, relato de subgrupos comuns, relato de vari&#225;veis a n&#237;vel do estudo, m&#237;nimo de 10 estudos, tamanhos amostrais diferentes e estimativas do efeito).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de certeza e tamanho &#243;timo de informa&#231;&#227;o (OIS)</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o de certeza foi realizada por dois revisores independentes (JYM e RCL) e discrep&#226;ncias foram resolvidas por consenso ou consulta a um terceiro revisor (HAOJ). A certeza da evid&#234;ncia foi avaliada usando o sistema GRADE (<italic>Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation</italic>) para os desfechos prim&#225;rios (isto &#233;, interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 e quaisquer eventos adversos), e classificada como &#8220;alta&#8221;, &#8220;moderada&#8221;, &#8220;baixa&#8221; e &#8220;muito baixa&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Assumiu-se o controle como o comparador comum, que poderia incluir placebo ou nenhum tratamento/padr&#227;o de tratamento. Avalia&#231;&#245;es de certeza est&#227;o resumidas nas tabelas &#8220;Resumo dos Achados&#8221;.</p>
        <p>Para avaliar o risco de vi&#233;s, vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o e heterogeneidade, os m&#233;todos descritos acima foram considerados. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; evid&#234;ncia indireta, foram consideradas diferen&#231;as potenciais entre a evid&#234;ncia inclu&#237;da nesta revis&#227;o e a quest&#227;o prim&#225;ria desta revis&#227;o. Para avaliar imprecis&#227;o das metan&#225;lises, o OIS foi calculado para a interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> O OIS pode ser definido como a quantidade m&#237;nima de informa&#231;&#227;o necess&#225;ria em uma metan&#225;lise para gerar conclus&#245;es confi&#225;veis sobre a interven&#231;&#227;o. Para se estimar o OIS de cada desfecho, &#233; necess&#225;rio calcular o tamanho amostral, incluindo as taxas de evento nos grupos controle e interven&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Na ocasi&#227;o em que esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica foi conduzida, n&#227;o existia evid&#234;ncia sugerindo benef&#237;cio da HCQ e, por isso, assumiu-se que o medicamento poderia reduzir o risco de interna&#231;&#227;o (isto &#233;, Redu&#231;&#227;o no Risco Relativo, RRR) em 15%, 20% e 25% em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle. O risco no grupo controle foi obtido do tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Assim, o OIS foi apresentado em um gr&#225;fico, de acordo com os diferentes RRR, considerando um alfa de 0,05 e beta de 0,10 (poder de 90%). Ainda, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise sequencial de ensaios de tr&#234;s RRRs.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Sele&#231;&#227;o e caracter&#237;sticas dos estudos</title>
        <p>Nossa busca identificou 5896 registros. Durante a avalia&#231;&#227;o de elegibilidade, 20 registros foram exclu&#237;dos, por raz&#245;es descritas no material suplementar 3. Ap&#243;s o processo de sele&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 1</xref>), oito<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> ECRs foram inclu&#237;dos na revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise.</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Fluxograma PRISMA. Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021;372:n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71. Para mais informa&#231;&#245;es: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.prisma-statement.org/">http://www.prisma-statement.org/</ext-link></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220380-20380-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Tr&#234;s estudos inclu&#237;ram somente participantes com alto risco de complica&#231;&#245;es, no entanto, os fatores de risco variaram entre os estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A maioria dos estudos (n=6) incluiu apenas participantes com COVID-19 confirmado por rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase da transcri&#231;&#227;o reversa em tempo real (rRT-PCR).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> No entanto, dois estudos que inclu&#237;ram participantes com base no resultado do rRT-PCR e crit&#233;rios adicionais (IgG, IgM, ou sintomas compat&#237;veis) apresentaram 69,0%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> e 54,0%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> dos participantes com confirma&#231;&#227;o por rRT-PCR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Uma vez que a maioria dos participantes inclu&#237;dos nos estudos tiveram confirma&#231;&#227;o por rRT-PCR, escolhemos considerar somente uma popula&#231;&#227;o similar do ensaio COPE, isto &#233;, uma popula&#231;&#227;o com inten&#231;&#227;o de tratar (ITT) modificada (ITTm) em vez da popula&#231;&#227;o com ITT em todas as metan&#225;lises. O estudo conduzido por Skipper et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> que incluiu indiv&#237;duos com COVID-19, independentemente do m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico, foi inclu&#237;do em todas as metan&#225;lises, mas exclu&#237;do na an&#225;lise <italic>leave-one-out</italic> para avaliar poss&#237;vel impacto da heterogeneidade da popula&#231;&#227;o. A maioria dos estudos recebeu financiamento (Tabela Suplementar 1).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas dos estudos inclu&#237;dos na revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica em ordem decrescente de publica&#231;&#227;o</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Estudo<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">&#8224;&#8224;</xref></th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Perfil da popula&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para COVID-19</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Country <break/>(N centers)</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Study period (Follow-up time)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Avezum 2022 NCT04466540 COPE</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Adultos n&#227;o internados com suspeita ou diagn&#243;stico confirmado de COVID-19 e ao menos um fator de risco para complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Confirmado (rRT-PCR ou IgM/IgG); suspeita (doen&#231;a respirat&#243;ria aguda e hist&#243;ria de viagem ou transmiss&#227;o comunit&#225;ria ou contato com caso com um caso confirmado ou prov&#225;vel)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Brasil (56)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">May 2020-July 2021 (30 dias)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Reis 2021 NCT04403100 TOGETHER</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes ambulatoriais de alto risco<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">&#8224;</xref></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (swab nasofar&#237;ngeo)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Brasil (NR)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Junho-Setembro ou outubro 2020 (90 dias)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Johnston 2021 NCT04354428</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes ambulatoriais adultos de baixo risco e de alto risco <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">&#8225;</xref></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (swab nasofar&#237;ngeo)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">EUA (5)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Abril-Julho 2020 (28 dias)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Schwartz 2021 NCT04329611</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes adultos com COVID-19 e pelo menos um fator de risco para doen&#231;a grave</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (swab nasofar&#237;ngeo)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Canad&#225; (NR)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Abril-Maio 2020 (30 dias)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Omrani 2020 NCT04349592 <break/>Q-PROTECT</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Adultos com COVID-19 leve ou sem sintomas que se mantiveram em quarentena em Umm Qarn por n&#227;o conseguirem realizar auto-quarentena</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (swab nasofar&#237;ngeo)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Qatar (2)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Abril-Agosto 2020 (21 dias)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Amaravadi 2020 (n&#227;o publicado) NCT04329923 PATCH</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Adultos (&#8805; 40 anos de idade) positivos para COVID-19 em isolamento em casa</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (swab nasofar&#237;ngeo)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">EUA (1)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">NR (at&#233; libera&#231;&#227;o da quarentena)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mitja 2020 NCT04304053</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Adultos com COVID-19 leve</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (swab nasofar&#237;ngeo)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Espanha (NR)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mar&#231;o-Maio 2020 (28 dias)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Skipper 2020 NCT04308668</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Adultos com COVID-19 leve</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">COVID-19 confirmado por teste laboratorial ou sintomas compat&#237;veis e rela&#231;&#227;o epidemiol&#243;gica com um contato com COVID-19 confirmado por teste laboratorial</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Canad&#225; e EUA (NR)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mar&#231;o-Maio 2020 (14 dias)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>AZ: azitromicina, HCQ: hidroxicloroquina, NCT: National Clinical Trial (n&#250;mero); NR: n&#227;o relatado; rRT-PCR: rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase da transcri&#231;&#227;o reversa em tempo real; EUA: Estados Unidos da Am&#233;rica</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>- Idade &gt; 65 anos; hipertens&#227;o; diabetes mellitus; asma; doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica ou outras doen&#231;as pulmonares cr&#244;nicas; tabagismo; imunossupress&#227;o; obesidade (definida como &#237;ndice de massa corporal &#8805; 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>; Idade 60 anos ou mais; doen&#231;a pulmonar; hipertens&#227;o ou &#237;ndice de massa corporal &#8805; 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <label>&#8224;</label>
              <p>- Idade igual ou maior que 50 anos; presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a pulmonar, especificamente asma persistente grave ou moderada, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica, hipertens&#227;o pulmonar ou enfisema; diabetes que requer medica&#231;&#227;o oral ou insulina; hipertens&#227;o que requer tratamento; doen&#231;as cardiovasculares conhecidas [insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva de qualquer etiologia, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana documentada, doen&#231;a card&#237;aca com manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica (miscel&#226;nea)]; doen&#231;a pulmonar sintom&#225;tica em tratamento cr&#244;nico, hist&#243;ria de transplantes, obesidade (&#237;ndice de massa corporal &#8805; 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>); estado de imunossupress&#227;o devido &#224; doen&#231;a; estado de imunossupress&#227;o devido a medicamento; pacientes com c&#226;ncer;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <label>&#8225;</label>
              <p>- Medicamentos determinados, terapias biol&#243;gicas, condi&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas e outros fatores de risco ((i.e., idade &#8805; 40 anos, &#237;ndice de massa corporal &gt; 40 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, hipertens&#227;o (em tratamento cl&#237;nico, tabagismo atual, transplante de medula &#243;ssea nos &#250;ltimos 12 meses, transplante de &#243;rg&#227;os s&#243;lidos, AIDS/HIV CD4 &lt;200 nos &#250;ltimos seis meses ou CD4&gt;200 mas n&#227;o em tratamento, linfopenia moderada (nos &#250;ltimos seis meses: adultos &lt;500), doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, diabetes (em uso de hipoglicemiante ou insulina), doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca/fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, doen&#231;a pulmonar cr&#244;nica, asma, doen&#231;a pulmonar intersticial, segundo diagn&#243;stico m&#233;dico), diagn&#243;stico de c&#226;ncer atual, defici&#234;ncia imune cong&#234;nita ou adquirida, cirrose;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <label>&#8224;&#8224;</label>
              <p>todos os estudos adotaram um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 0,05.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Todos os estudos avaliaram HCQ, a maioria comparando-a com placebo; dois estudos avaliaram HCQ e azitromicina e um estudo avaliou lopinavir + ritonavir (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>). A dose di&#225;ria de HCQ (600-1200 mg) e dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento (5-14dias) variou entre os estudos (Tabela Suplementar 2). No total, 3219 participantes (mediana de 358; intervalo interquartil: 210-513 participantes por estudo) foram inclu&#237;dos, dos quais 52,1% eram do sexo masculino (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas dos participantes inclu&#237;dos nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados em ordem decrescente de publica&#231;&#227;o</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="11%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Estudo</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Alternativas comparadas<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN7">*</xref></th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">n participantes (n homens)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Idade, mediana (DP) ou mediana (IIQ), anos</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Qualquer doen&#231;a coexistente, n (%)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Hipertens&#227;o, n (%)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Asma, n (%)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Diabetes, n (%)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Tempo desde o in&#237;cio dos sintomas at&#233; a inclus&#227;o, mediana (IIQ), dias</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Avezum 2022</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">478 (233)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">47 (38-57)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">466 (97,5)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">278 (58,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">51 (10,7)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">89 (18,6)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">4,0 (3,0-5,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">471 (220)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">48 (38-58)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">456 (96,8)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">261 (55,4)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">57 (12,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">74 (15,7)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">4,0 (3,0-5,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Reis 2021</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">214 (92)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">53 (18-81)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">101 (47,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">24 (11,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">41 (19,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Lopinavir + ritonavir</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">244 (110)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">54 (18-94)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">128 (52,5)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">15 (6,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">44 (18,0)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">227 (106)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">53 (18-80)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">109 (48,0)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">20 (8,8)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">48 (21,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Johnston 2021</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ + placebo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">71 (32)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">36 (19-78)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">37 (52,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">8 (11,3)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">0 (0)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">5 (7,0)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">5,9 (4,0-7,8)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ+AZ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">77 (30)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">37 (18-71)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">44 (57,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">12 (15,6)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1 (1,3)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">5 (6,5)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">5,8 (3,9-8,3)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">83 (38)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">38 (18-70)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">48 (57,8)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">7 (8,4)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">1 (1,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">7 (8,4)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">5,9 (4,0-8,3)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Schwartz 2021</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">111 (65)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">47 (12)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">29 (26,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">12 (10,8)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">18 (16,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">7,0 (5,0-8,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">37 (17)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">47 (11)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">12 (32,4)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">8 (21,6)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">11 (29,7)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">6,0 (6,0-9,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Omrani 2020</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">152 (149)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">40 (31-47)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ+AZ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">152 (150)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">42 (38-48)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">152 (150)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">41 (31-47)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Amaravadi 2020</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">17 (5)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">56 (43-77)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">17 (8)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">49 (40-80)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mitja 2020</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">136 (32)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">41 (12)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">71 (52,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">20 (14,7)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">7 (5,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">11 (9,0)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">3,0 (2,0-4,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Nenhum tratamento</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">157 (54)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">42 (13)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">85 (54,1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">15 (9,6)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">10 (6,4)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">9 (6,6)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">3,0 (2,0-4,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Skipper 2020</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">212 (89)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">41 (33-49)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">72 (34,0)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">23 (10,8)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">28 (13,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">8 (3,8)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">211 (96)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">39 (31-50)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">64 (30,3)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">23 (10,9)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">20 (9,5)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">7 (3,3)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <p>AZ: Azitromicina, HCQ: Hidroxicloroquina, IIQ: Intervalo Interquartil, NR: n&#227;o relatado, n: n&#250;mero, DP: desvio padr&#227;o.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN7">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Caracter&#237;sticas do grupo interven&#231;&#227;o e do grupo controle s&#227;o descritos em detalhe no material suplementar (p 11)</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Risco de vi&#233;s nos estudos</title>
        <p>Os resultados da an&#225;lise do risco de vi&#233;s dos ECRs s&#227;o apresentados na Figura Suplementar 1, Tabela Suplementar 3e Tabela Suplementar 4. Para a interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, houve predomin&#226;ncia de &#8220;baixo risco&#8221; de vi&#233;s (n=4 estudos), seguido de "com algumas preocupa&#231;&#245;es" (n=3) e &#8220;alto risco de vi&#233;s&#8221; (n=1) devido a limita&#231;&#245;es no processo de randomiza&#231;&#227;o, desvios das interven&#231;&#245;es planejadas e sele&#231;&#227;o do resultado relatado.</p>
        <p>Para o desfecho &#8220;qualquer evento adverso&#8221;, houve predomin&#226;ncia de risco "com algumas preocupa&#231;&#245;es" (n=3 estudos), seguido de &#8220;baixo risco&#8221; (n=20 e &#8220;alto risco&#8221; (n=1) devido a limita&#231;&#245;es em todos os dom&#237;nios (isto &#233;, processo de randomiza&#231;&#227;o, desvios das interven&#231;&#245;es planejadas, dados de desfecho faltantes, medida do desfecho, e sele&#231;&#227;o do resultado relatado).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Resultados dos estudos individuais e s&#237;ntese</title>
        <p>Mortalidade (n=8 estudos),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> eventos adversos graves (n=8),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> qualquer evento adverso (n=7),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> e interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 (n=6) <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> foram os desfechos comumente relatados entre os ECRs, seguidos por necessidade de intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal (n=3),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> admiss&#227;o na UTI (n=2)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> descontinua&#231;&#227;o no tratamento por eventos adversos (n=2),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> e tempo de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica (n=2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> O tempo para alta hospitalar n&#227;o foi relatado por nenhum estudo. Embora oito ECRs tenham relatado mortalidade e eventos adversos graves, somente tr&#234;s estudos relataram um ou mais &#243;bitos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> e somente cinco relataram um ou mais pacientes com evento adverso s&#233;rio;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> e, assim, contribu&#237;ram para a metan&#225;lise. N&#227;o foram conduzidas metan&#225;lises para o tempo de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e necessidade de intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal, j&#225; que somente um estudo relatou um tempo superior a zero.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, n&#227;o se observou benef&#237;cio estatisticamente significativo para o uso de HCQ nem em estudos individuais nem na metan&#225;lise (Figura Central). Identificou-se consist&#234;ncia estat&#237;stica nesta metan&#225;lise, embora inconsist&#234;ncias cl&#237;nica e metodol&#243;gica tenham sido encontradas por compara&#231;&#227;o dos participantes (por exemplo confirma&#231;&#227;o por rRT-PCR, comorbidades dos participantes, dose, e dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento) e caracter&#237;sticas dos estudos (por exemplo, tempo de acompanhamento e risco de vi&#233;s). Ainda, n&#227;o se observou benef&#237;cio quanto &#224; mortalidade, admiss&#227;o da UTI, necessidade de intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal e tempo de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica (Tabela Suplementar 5 e Figura Suplementar 2).</p>
        <p>Quanto aos eventos adversos, n&#227;o houve preju&#237;zos com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de HCQ na metan&#225;lise (Figura Central), apesar de dois ECRs haverem descrito um maior risco de eventos adversos no grupo HCQ.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Nesse caso, al&#233;m da heterogeneidade cl&#237;nica e metodol&#243;gica, tamb&#233;m foi identificada heterogeneidade estat&#237;stica. A aus&#234;ncia de um efeito prejudicial com o uso da HCQ foi corroborada por desfechos secund&#225;rios de seguran&#231;a (Tabela Suplementar 5 e Figura Suplementar 2).</p>
        <p>Todas as an&#225;lises de sensibilidade dos desfechos prim&#225;rios foram consistentes com os achados das an&#225;lises principais (Tabela Suplementar 6), exceto pela metan&#225;lise de &#8220;quaisquer eventos adversos&#8221; quando se assumiu um modelo fixo [RR 1,70 (IC95% 1,48 - 1,96), valor p &lt; 0,0001) em vez de um modelo aleat&#243;rio [RR 1,78 (IC95% 0,90 &#8211; 3,52), valor p = 0,10].</p>
        <p>Vale ressaltar que, para o desfecho hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, somente seis estudos foram inclu&#237;dos na metan&#225;lise, j&#225; que outros dois inclu&#237;dos na revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica n&#227;o descreveram de forma clara se o desfecho avaliado foi interna&#231;&#227;o por todas as causas ou somente por COVID-19. Contudo, mesmo com a inclus&#227;o desses dois estudos na an&#225;lise de sensibilidade, a aus&#234;ncia do benef&#237;cio da HCQ se manteve (Tabela Suplementar 6). Ainda, os resultados dos desfechos prim&#225;rios continuaram inalterados com a an&#225;lise de sensibilidade do m&#233;todo <italic>leave-one-out</italic>, sugerindo que a heterogeneidade identificada qualitativamente n&#227;o foi suficiente para afetar os resultados (Tabela Suplementar 6).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Certeza da evid&#234;ncia</title>
        <p>Para a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, a certeza da evid&#234;ncia foi classificada como &#8220;muito baixa&#8221;, uma vez que a heterogeneidade e a imprecis&#227;o dos dom&#237;nios foram reduzidas em dois n&#237;veis, respectivamente (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>). A imprecis&#227;o foi respons&#225;vel pela redu&#231;&#227;o em dois n&#237;veis na certeza, j&#225; que para a diferen&#231;a na hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 identificada nesta metan&#225;lise (HCQ vs. controle: 5,6% vs 7,4%, p = 0,09), uma popula&#231;&#227;o aproximadamente tr&#234;s vezes maior (7,880) seria necess&#225;ria par identificar qualquer diferen&#231;a significativa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 2</xref>). Assim, o OIS n&#227;o foi alcan&#231;ado. Uma ilustra&#231;&#227;o da an&#225;lise sequencial da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 est&#225; dispon&#237;vel na Figura Suplementar 4.</p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Tamanho &#243;timo de informa&#231;&#227;o para diferentes estimativas de interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 entre os grupos. Alfa = 0,05, beta = 0,10 (Poder 90%); RRR: redu&#231;&#227;o no risco relativo.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220380-20380-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de certeza (GRADE) &#8211; Hidroxicloroquina comparada &#224; terapia padr&#227;o para tratamento ambulatorial de COVID-19</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="8%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="7">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de certeza</th>
                <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="5">Resumo dos achados</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Participantes <break/>(estudos)<break/>Acompanhamento</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Risco de vi&#233;s</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Inconsist&#234;ncia</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Evid&#234;ncia indireta</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Imprecis&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Certeza da evid&#234;ncia</th>
                <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Taxas de eventos (%)</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Efeito relativo (IC95% )</th>
                <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Efeitos absolutos previstos</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco com terapia padr&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Diferen&#231;a do risco com hidroxicloroquina</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Risco com terapia padr&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Diferen&#231;a do risco com hidroxicloroquina</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="12">Interna&#231;&#227;o por <break/>Covid-19</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">2408 <break/>(6 ECRs)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o grave</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">grave<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o grave</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Muito grave<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN10">&#8224;</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o h&#225;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8853;&#9675;<break/>&#9675;&#9675;<break/>Muito baixa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">88/1186 (7,4%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">69/1222 <break/>(5,6%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>RR 0,77</bold><break/>(0,57 - 1,04)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">74 por 1000</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>Menos 17 a cada 1.000</bold><break/>(de 32 menos para 3 mais)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="12">Quaisquer <break/>eventos adversos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">2,319<break/>(6 ECRs)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o grave</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Muito <break/>grave<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">&#8225;</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o grave</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">grave <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">&#167;</xref></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o h&#225;</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8853;&#9675;<break/>&#9675;&#9675;<break/>Muito baixa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">240/1175 (20,4%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">401/1144 (35,1%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>RR 1,78</bold><break/>(0,90 &#8211; 3,52)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">204 per 1,000</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>Menos 159 a cada 1.000</bold><break/>(de menos 20 a mais 515)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN8">
              <p>IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a; RR: risco relativo.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN9">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Heterogeneidade cl&#237;nica e metodol&#243;gica foi qualitativamente identificada (confirma&#231;&#227;o por rRT-PCR, comorbidades dos participantes, dose, dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento, tempo de seguimento e risco de vi&#233;s).</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN10">
              <label>&#8224;</label>
              <p>Para a diferen&#231;a da interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 identificada nesta metan&#225;lise (hidroxicloroquina vs. controle: 5,6% vs. 7,4%), uma popula&#231;&#227;o aproximadamente tr&#234;s vezes maior que a inclu&#237;da (tamanho &#243;timo de informa&#231;&#227;o 7,880) deveria ser avaliada.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN11">
              <label>&#8225;</label>
              <p>Heterogeneidade estat&#237;stica (I2: 93%).</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN12">
              <label>&#167;</label>
              <p>O limite superior (RR 3,52) da metan&#225;lise &#233; muito superior a RR 1,25, sugerindo imprecis&#227;o. O risco de vi&#233;s n&#227;o foi considerado um motivo para a redu&#231;&#227;o do risco, devido ao maior peso dos estudos de &#8220;baixo risco de vi&#233;s&#8221; na metan&#225;lise. No entanto, mesmo se o risco de vi&#233;s fosse considerado grave, a certeza continuaria a mesma, &#8220;muito baixa&#8221;.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Para &#8220;qualquer evento adverso&#8221;, a certeza da evid&#234;ncia foi classificada como &#8220;muito baixa&#8221;, uma vez que a heterogeneidade e a imprecis&#227;o dos dom&#237;nios (isto &#233;, o limite superior do intervalo de confian&#231;a maior que RR1,25) foram reduzidos em dois e um n&#237;vel, respectivamente (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica &#233; a evid&#234;ncia cient&#237;fica mais abrangente e atualizada sobre o uso de HCQ no tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes com COVID-19, na preven&#231;&#227;o de hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es, incluindo oito ECRs e 3219 participantes. Mesmo incluindo o maior ECR, o ensaio COPE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> esta metan&#225;lise sugere que n&#227;o existe benef&#237;cio significativo da HCQ, em compara&#231;&#227;o ao controle, na redu&#231;&#227;o efetiva de interna&#231;&#245;es por COVID-19 e outros desfechos de efic&#225;cia.</p>
      <p>Resultados similares foram identificados em revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas anteriores com metan&#225;lises.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Apesar de seu baixo valor em identificar e resumir a evid&#234;ncia dispon&#237;vel para essa popula&#231;&#227;o, esses estudos t&#234;m baixo poder estat&#237;stico para confirmar qualquer benef&#237;cio potencial da HCQ na interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 e aplicaram diferentes abordagens metodol&#243;gicas. Nossa revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica difere-se dessas anteriores por: i) avaliar o risco de vi&#233;s no n&#237;vel do estudo e no n&#237;vel do desfecho conforme recomendado pelo RoB 2.0;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> ii) conduzir an&#225;lises de sensibilidade para avaliar o impacto de estudos com alto risco de vi&#233;s em vez de excluir os estudos n&#227;o cegos; iii) conduzir an&#225;lises de sensibilidade para avaliar o impacto de se excluir o terceiro bra&#231;o de estudos com tr&#234;s bra&#231;os em vez de se excluir todo o estudo; iv) conduzir a avalia&#231;&#227;o formal do OIS da interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, e v) incluir um maior n&#250;mero de ECRs e eventos.</p>
      <p>Essas e outras escolhas metodol&#243;gicas contribu&#237;ram para identificar que o risco de vi&#233;s, a exclus&#227;o de um terceiro bra&#231;o, e a heterogeneidade dos estudos n&#227;o afetaram os resultados. Ainda, apesar da import&#226;ncia do estudo COPE em reduzir a imprecis&#227;o (RR 0,76 IC95% 0,45-1,28 para RR 0,77 IC95 0,57-1,04), o tamanho da amostra total ainda n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para confirmar ou refutar qualquer benef&#237;cio da HCQ em diminuir interna&#231;&#245;es por COVID-19, de acordo com o m&#233;todo do OIS.</p>
      <p>Esse achado sugere que a baixa frequ&#234;ncia de interna&#231;&#245;es em adultos, independentemente do risco de complica&#231;&#245;es da COVID-19, e pequena diferen&#231;a nas taxas entre HCQ e controles requerem amostras maiores para se confirmar qualquer benef&#237;cio. Tal fato foi confirmado pela an&#225;lise do OIS que sugere que, para se confirmar uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 23% no risco de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 com o uso de HCQ, a evid&#234;ncia deveria incluir pela menos 7880 participantes, isto &#233;, uma popula&#231;&#227;o tr&#234;s vezes maior que a dispon&#237;vel para esse desfecho. Ainda, os estudos inclu&#237;dos na metan&#225;lise s&#227;o anteriores &#224; vacina&#231;&#227;o, quando se esperava um grupo controle com uma m&#233;dia de 7% de interna&#231;&#227;o. Ao se considerar taxas de interna&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 muito menores para o grupo controle na fase atual da pandemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> o OIS seria bem maior que o estimado. Assim, a necessidade de amostras maiores, combinada com prioridades de pesquisa na fase p&#243;s-vacina, dificulta a realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudos maiores.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, n&#243;s identificamos uma alta heterogeneidade entre os estudos, considerando diferentes doses, frequ&#234;ncia e dura&#231;&#227;o do tratamento com HCQ, diferentes tempos de acompanhamento e inclus&#227;o somente de participantes com alto risco de complica&#231;&#245;es da COVID-19 por alguns estudos e de pacientes adultos independentemente do risco por outros. Consequentemente, houve propor&#231;&#245;es diferentes de participantes com comorbidades e idade m&#233;dia entre os estudos. Embora diferen&#231;as metodol&#243;gicas e cl&#237;nicas n&#227;o tenham sido suficientes para modificar os resultados nas an&#225;lises de sensibilidade, essa heterogeneidade n&#227;o pode ser subestimada, uma vez que, para as metan&#225;lises incluindo estudos com intervalos de confian&#231;a amplos, a heterogeneidade estat&#237;stica pode ser mascarada. Assim, nossa revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica identificou que a evid&#234;ncia dispon&#237;vel at&#233; o momento sugere a aus&#234;ncia potencial de benef&#237;cio do uso de HCQ. Contudo, a certeza de tal evid&#234;ncia &#233; muito baixa e, portanto, estudos maiores e bem conduzidos poderiam confirmar ou refutar com maior confiabilidade a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a. Importante destacar que a avalia&#231;&#227;o da qualidade da evid&#234;ncia &#233; subjetiva e, portanto, as explica&#231;&#245;es para a redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de vi&#233;s s&#227;o apresentadas de modo que o leitor avalie sua confiabilidade.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; aus&#234;ncia de signific&#226;ncia nos resultados sobre os efeitos negativos da HCQ, &#233; importante considerar que a maioria dos estudos excluiu participantes com condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que possam aumentar o risco de eventos adversos s&#233;rios. Ainda, esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica n&#227;o teve como objetivo identificar o risco do uso da HCQ para eventos adversos espec&#237;ficos, como arritmia. Vale ainda mencionar que, apesar de uma das an&#225;lises de sensibilidade haver identificado um risco adicional para a incid&#234;ncia de &#8220;qualquer evento adverso&#8221; (modelo fixo), esse resultado n&#227;o diminui a robustez da conclus&#227;o principal dessa revis&#227;o sobre aus&#234;ncia significativa de efeito negativo; o modelo fixo n&#227;o &#233; recomendado para metan&#225;lises com alta heterogeneidade, em que os intervalos de confian&#231;a tornam-se mais estreitos (maior precis&#227;o) e estudos influentes puxam a m&#233;dia ponderada para suas estimativas. Para esse desfecho, o estudo com alto risco de vi&#233;s conduzido por Mitja et al. identificou um risco adicional para evento adverso com HCQ em compara&#231;&#227;o a nenhum tratamento (72% vs.10%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora haja fraca evid&#234;ncia sobre o uso de HCQ como profilaxia antes e ap&#243;s a exposi&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> tratamento ambulatoria<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> ou hospitalar,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> este estudo corrobora os resultados de revis&#245;es publicadas sobre a falta de um benef&#237;cio significativo da HCQ, independentemente da popula&#231;&#227;o avaliada. Assim, o uso de HCQ fora do contexto de pesquisa ainda n&#227;o &#233; recomendado.</p>
      <p>Com base no movimento antivacina em todo o mundo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> desigualdade no acesso &#224; vacina&#231;&#227;o, o fato de que alguns indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o desenvolvem imunidade efetiva ap&#243;s vacina&#231;&#227;o completa,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> e de que mesmos pessoas imunizadas possam necessitar de cuidado m&#233;dico para COVID-19,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> investimentos em estudos que avaliam tratamentos para COVID-19 s&#227;o necess&#225;rios. Por outro lado, investimentos em estudos pequenos, com popula&#231;&#245;es heterog&#234;neas e sem validade metodol&#243;gica devem ser desencorajados, uma vez que o maior potencial desses estudos &#233; aumentar a incerteza, reduzir a credibilidade na ci&#234;ncia e contribuir para o uso irracional de tecnologias sem confirma&#231;&#227;o sobre seus riscos e benef&#237;cios. Assim, grandes estudos multic&#234;ntricos, com foco nos participantes com alto risco de complica&#231;&#245;es da COVID-19, com seguimento apropriado e suficiente, e elevada qualidade metodol&#243;gica deveriam ser encorajados.</p>
      <p>Algumas limita&#231;&#245;es da revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica devem ser mencionadas. Assim como em qualquer busca sistem&#225;tica, a chance de estudos faltantes existe. Contudo, uma busca manual detalhada n&#227;o identificou nenhum estudo na lista de refer&#234;ncia de estudos relevantes. Devido aos desfechos avaliados e reportados no ECR, n&#227;o conseguimos conduzir metan&#225;lises para todos os desfechos de efic&#225;cia identificados (isto &#233;, tempo de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, necessidade de intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal e tempo para alta hospitalar). No entanto, os achados atuais foram consistentes por todos os desfechos avaliados e, assim, h&#225; pouco potencial para diferentes resultados nesses desfechos n&#227;o sintetizados na metan&#225;lise.</p>
      <p>H&#225; algumas corre&#231;&#245;es &#224; informa&#231;&#227;o fornecida no protocolo (CRD42021265427): i) n&#227;o foi especificado se o desfecho hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o referiu-se apenas &#224;s interna&#231;&#245;es por COVID-19 ou &#224;s interna&#231;&#245;es por todas as causas; e ii) n&#227;o foi especificado que as an&#225;lises de sensibilidade seriam feitas apenas para os desfechos prim&#225;rios (isto &#233;, &#8220;hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19&#8221; e &#8220;quaisquer eventos adversos&#8221;. Os resultados sugerem que os achados seriam similares mesmo sem a implementa&#231;&#227;o das modifica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Evid&#234;ncia de qualidade muito baixa mostrou falta de benef&#237;cios significativos do tratamento ambulatorial com HCQ na preven&#231;&#227;o de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19 em adultos com diagn&#243;stico confirmado, o que foi corroborado por outros desfechos de efic&#225;cia avaliados (como mortalidade, admiss&#227;o na UTI, tempo de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, e necessidade de intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal). Considerando que os ECRs inclu&#237;ram uma popula&#231;&#227;o selecionada, e que, por isso, podem n&#227;o refletir as caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o geral que poderiam usar HCQ, n&#227;o foram identificados preju&#237;zos significativos na evid&#234;ncia atualmente dispon&#237;vel sobre &#8220;qualquer evento adverso&#8221; (certeza muito baixa), &#8220;evento adverso s&#233;rio&#8221; ou &#8220;descontinua&#231;&#227;o por evento adverso&#8221;. Apesar de ser a revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com o maior n&#250;mero de participantes inclu&#237;dos, o OIS, considerando a resposta &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o anterior &#224; vacina&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o foi alcan&#231;ado.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo foi financiado por Hospital Alem&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <p>
          <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <app-group>
      <app id="app1">
        <title>* Material suplementar</title>
        <p>Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, clique aqui.</p>
      </app>
    </app-group>
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          </xref>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Berwanger</surname>
            <given-names>Otavio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Renato Delascio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Regis Goulart</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0287-3601</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Veiga</surname>
            <given-names>Viviane Cordeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Avezum</surname>
            <given-names>&#193;lvaro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Alem&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff11">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff12">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#237;rio-Liban&#234;s, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff13">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff14">
          <label>6</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Durham</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">North Carolina</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">USA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Duke University Hospital, Durham, North Carolina &#8211; USA</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff15">
          <label>7</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Moinhos de Vento, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff16">
          <label>8</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Benefic&#234;ncia Portuguesa de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: &#193;lvaro Avezum &#8226;</bold> Hospital Alem&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz &#8211; R. Treze de Maio, 1815. Postal Code <postal-code>01323-020</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>aavezum@haoc.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Previous systematic reviews have identified no benefit of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine in non-hospitalized COVID-19 patients. After publication of these reviews, the results of COPE, the largest randomized trial conducted to date, became available.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives:</title>
          <p>To conduct a systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) to synthesize the evidence on the efficacy and safety of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine for non-hospitalized COVID-19 patients compared to placebo or standard of care.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Searches were conducted in PubMed, Embase, The Cochrane Library, and ClinicalTrials.gov complemented by manual search. Pairwise meta-analyses, risk of bias, and evidence certainty assessments were conducted, including optimal information size analysis (OIS). A level of significance of 0.05 was adopted in the meta-analysis. PROSPERO: CRD42021265427.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>Eight RCTs with 3,219 participants were included. COVID-19 hospitalization and any adverse events rates were not significantly different between hydroxychloroquine (5.6% and 35.1%) and control (7.4% and 20.4%) (risk ratio, RR, 0.77, 95% confidence interval, CI, 0.57-1.04, I<sup>2</sup>: 0%; RR 1.78, 95%-CI 0.90; 3.52, I<sup>2</sup>: 93%, respectively). The OIS (7,880) was not reached for COVID-19 hospitalization, independently of the simulation for anticipated event rate and RR reduction estimate.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Evidence of very low certainty showed lack of benefit with hydroxychloroquine in preventing COVID-19 hospitalizations. Despite being the systematic review with the largest number of participants included, the OIS, considering pre-vaccination response to infection, has not yet been reached.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>COVID-19/drug therapy</kwd>
        <kwd>SARS-CoV-2</kwd>
        <kwd>Hydroxychloroquine</kwd>
        <kwd>Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic</kwd>
        <kwd>Meta-Analyis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <fig id="f4">
        <caption>
          <title>Forest plots of a) COVID-19 hospitalization and b) any adverse events in hydroxychloroquine and control groups. CI: confidence interval, RR: risk ratio.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220380-20380-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is still a worldwide public health problem, given the high number of cases,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> due to the emergence of variants such as Alpha, Delta and Omicron,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> and the high number of deaths,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> especially due to reduced access or adherence to vaccine and development of severe COVID-19 among individuals with cardiovascular risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Considering the COVID-19 pandemic scenario, several therapeutic options have been repurposed based on their respective mechanisms of action.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The antimalarials chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) act on the affinity mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> For this reason, these drugs have been proposed as possible therapeutic options for patients with COVID-19, not only in the hospital setting, but also in prophylaxis and for non-hospitalized patients. Although several studies, regardless of the nosocomial scenario, have shown that chloroquine/HCQ does not present benefits, either in mortality or hospitalization, with worse safety profiles, the focus on the non-hospitalized population is still poorly discussed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Two systematic reviews evaluated the effect of chloroquine/HCQ in non-hospitalized COVID-19 patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Both showed no clinical benefits of HCQ as treatment of non-hospitalized COVID-19 patients. However, after the publication of these systematic reviews, results of the COVID-19 Outpatient Prevention Evaluation (COPE),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> the largest randomized trial conducted to date, has become available. Thus, we aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) to synthesize the evidence on the efficacy and safety of HCQ and chloroquine for non-hospitalized COVID-19 patients with updated data from the COPE Randomized Clinical Trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> providing the optimal information size (OIS) of the available evidence.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>The systematic review was performed in accordance with the Cochrane Collaboration recommendations and reported following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The protocol is registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO - CRD42021265427).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Eligibility criteria</title>
          <p>We considered studies that fulfilled the following inclusion criteria:</p>
          <disp-quote>
            <p><bold>Population</bold> &#8211; Non-hospitalized adult patients with confirmed or suspected COVID-19.</p>
            <p><bold>Intervention and control</bold> &#8211; HCQ or chloroquine (pills or any other solid pharmaceutical form) in any dosage, compared to placebo or standard of care.</p>
            <p><bold>Outcomes</bold> &#8211; The primary outcomes were COVID-19 hospitalization and any adverse events; and the secondary outcomes were mortality, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, time to hospital discharge, need for orotracheal intubation, mechanical ventilation time, discontinuation due to adverse events, and severe adverse events. Studies that did not report results for any of the outcomes of interest were excluded; and</p>
            <p><bold>Type of studies</bold> &#8211; RCTs regardless of number of comparators, follow-up time, number of included participants, or report status (i.e., published, or unpublished studies if the result is available in the NCT registry).</p>
          </disp-quote>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Information sources and search strategies</title>
          <p>Electronic searches were conducted in the PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library without language restriction (until September 2021). Trial registration database (Clinicaltrials.gov) (until September 2021) was also searched, restricting to records containing results. Reference lists of reviews and included studies were also searched. Results of the COPE trial were shared by authors in September 2021. The complete search strategies are provided in the supplementary text 1. Validated filters for RCTs were applied.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Validation of the search strategy was performed through a search in reference lists of reviews evaluating HCQ or chloroquine for patients with COVID-19 (supplementary text 2).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Selection process</title>
          <p>The retrieved registries were imported to EndNote X8<sup>&#9633;</sup> for duplicate removal, then imported to Rayyan platform for study selection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Two researchers (JYM and RCL) independently screened the titles and abstracts of retrieved studies to identify irrelevant records. In a second step, full-text articles were also independently evaluated by the same two researchers according to the eligibility criteria. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus or by a third reviewer (HAOJ).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Data collection process and data items</title>
          <p>The data were independently extracted by two researchers (JYM, RCL) and discrepancies were reconciled in consensus meetings or using a third-party adjudication (HAOJ).</p>
          <p>The collected data were study characteristics (identification, NCT, acronym, general population profile, COVID-19 diagnosis criteria, variables compared, cointerventions, country and number of centers, funding, study period, and follow-up time); participants&#8217; characteristics according to compared alternatives (e.g. age, number of participants by sex, hypertension, asthma, or diabetes); outcomes and results. Results reported for population subgroups were not extracted, while multiple results reported per outcome for different time-points or different outcome definitions were extracted.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Risk of bias assessment</title>
          <p>Evaluation of risk of bias of the included studies was conducted by two independent reviewers (RCL, JYM). Discrepancies were resolved by consensus or consultation of a third reviewer (HAOJ), using the Cochrane Collaboration revised Risk of Bias assessment tool for RCT (RoB 2.0).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Based on the risk of bias, the study could be described as &#8216;low risk&#8217;, &#8216;some concerns&#8217; and &#8216;high risk&#8217;. The assessment was performed at the study and outcome level, considering the primary outcomes.</p>
          <p>Analysis of the risk of bias analysis was presented as &#8216;traffic light plots&#8217; of the domain-level judgements for each individual outcome, using RobVis web app.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Effect measures, synthesis methods, and reporting bias</title>
          <p>Effect size measures were defined for each outcome as follows: risk ratio (RR) for dichotomous outcomes (i.e., COVID-19 hospitalization, any adverse events, mortality, ICU admission, need for orotracheal intubation, discontinuation due to adverse events, and severe adverse events) and mean difference for continuous outcomes (i.e., time to hospital discharge and mechanical ventilation time). All effect size measures were calculated considering a level of significance of 0.05, 95% confidence intervals (CI), and prediction interval.</p>
          <p>All studies that met the eligibility criteria were eligible for narrative synthesis. For quantitative synthesis, all studies that reported the number of participants with event, number of total participants for dichotomous outcomes or mean time and standard deviation (or confidence interval or standard error) for continuous outcomes were eligible. If needed, data conversion (e.g., confidence interval to standard deviation) would be performed.</p>
          <p>Statistical analyses were performed using meta and metafor R packages (R v4.1.2 and R studio 2021.09.0).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Similarity analyses were performed by comparing population, interventions, control, and outcome definitions among the included studies in the meta-analyses.</p>
          <p>Pairwise meta-analyses for dichotomous outcomes were made using the Mantel-Haenszel method, random model, DerSimonian-Laird estimator of tau<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, Mantel-Haenszel estimator used in calculation of Q and tau<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>, and continuity correction of 0.5 in studies with zero cell frequencies were employed in all analyses. In addition to the qualitative analysis of methodological and clinical similarity of the studies, statistical analysis of inconsistency (I<sup>2</sup>) was performed as proposed by Higgins and Green.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Data entry was performed with contrast-based data (i.e., trial-level summaries instead arm-level data). For meta-analyses including multi-arm trials (more than two arms), three analyses were performed: i) selection of one pair of interventions and exclusion of the others (base-case); combination of groups to create a single pair-wise comparison (sensitivity analysis), and network meta-analysis (sensitivity analysis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> The network meta-analyses were conducted using MetaInsight platform by frequentist approach.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Additional sensitivity analyses included the removal of studies at high risk of bias, use of an alternative meta-analysis (i.e., using fixed model instead random model or adjustment of the random effects model by the Hartung-Knapp and Jonkman method for calculation of tau<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>), and leave-one-out method.</p>
          <p>Although analyses of subgroups, meta-regression, and publication bias have been planned in the review protocol, they were not performed due to non-compliance with the minimum criteria (high statistical heterogeneity, reporting of common subgroups, reporting of study-level variables, minimum of 10 studies, different sample sizes and effect estimates).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Assessment of certainty assessment and optimal information size</title>
          <p>Certainty assessment was conducted by two independent reviewers (RCJ, JYM) and discrepancies were reconciled in consensus meetings or using a third researcher as a referee (HAOJ). The certainty of the evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) System for the primary outcomes (i.e., COVID-19 hospitalization and any adverse events), and classified as &#8216;high&#8217;, &#8216;moderate&#8217;, &#8216;low&#8217;, and &#8216;very low&#8217;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Control was assumed as the common comparator, which could include placebo or no treatment/standard of care. Certainty assessments were summarized in the &#8220;Summary of Findings&#8221; Tables.</p>
          <p>To assess the risk of bias, publication bias and heterogeneity, the methods described above were considered. Regarding indirect evidence, potential differences from the evidence included in relation to the guiding question of this review were considered. To assess imprecision of meta-analyses, OIS was calculated to COVID-19 hospitalization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> The OIS can be defined as the minimum amount of information needed in a meta-analysis to draw reliable conclusions about an intervention. To estimate the OIS of each outcome, it is necessary to calculate the sample size including the event rates in the control and intervention groups.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Since at the time this systematic review was conducted there was no evidence suggesting a benefit from HCQ, it was assumed that HCQ could reduce the risk of hospitalization (i.e., risk ratio reduction, RRR) by 15%, 20%, and 25% compared to the control group. The risk in the control group was obtained from the hospitalization meta-analysis. Therefore, OIS was presented as a plot, according to different RRR, considering an alpha of 0.05 and beta of 0.10 (Power 90%). Additionally, a trial sequential analysis of three RRR was carried out.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study selection and characteristics</title>
          <p>Our search strategy identified 5,896 records. During eligibility step, 20 records were excluded, and the reasons are presented in supplementary text 3. After the selection process (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>), eight RCTs<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis.</p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>PRISMA flow chart. From: Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021;372:n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71. For more information, visit: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.prisma-statement.org/">http://www.prisma-statement.org/</ext-link></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220380-20380-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Three studies included only participants with a high risk of complications, however, the risk factors varied among the studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Most studies (n=6) included only participants with COVID-19 confirmed by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> However, two studies that included participants based on rRT-PCR and additional criteria (e.g., IgG, IgM, or compatible symptoms) had 69.0%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> and 54.0%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> of participants with rRT-PCR confirmation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Since most participants included in the studies had confirmation of COVID-19 by rRT-PCR, we chose to consider only a similar population of the COPE study, i.e., a modified intention-to-treat (ITT) mITT population of the COPE trial to the detriment of the ITT population in all meta-analyses. The study conducted by Skipper et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> which includes individuals with COVID-19, regardless of diagnostic method, was included in all meta-analyses, but excluded in a leave-one-out analysis to assess the possible impact of population heterogeneity. Most studies received some funding (supplementary table 1).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Characteristics of the studies included in the systematic review in descending order of publication</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Study<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN17">&#8224;&#8224;</xref></th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Population profile</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">COVID-19 diagnostic criteria</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Country <break/>(N centers)</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Study period (Follow-up time)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Avezum 2022 NCT04466540 COPE</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Non-hospitalized adults with confirmed or suspected CO-VID-19 and at least one one risk factor for clinical complica-tions <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN14">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Confirmed (rRT-PCR or IgM/IgG); Suspected (Acute respiratory disease and travelling history or community transmission or contact with a confirmed or probable case)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Brazil (56)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">May 2020- <break/>July 2021 <break/>(30 days)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Reis 2021 NCT04403100 TOGETHER</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">High-risk adult outpatients <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">&#8224;</xref></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (nasopharyngeal swab)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Brazil (NR)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Jun-Sep or <break/>Oct 2020 <break/>(90 days)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Johnston 2021 NCT04354428</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Low-risk and high-risk outpatient adults<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">&#8225;</xref></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (nasopharyngeal swab)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">USA (5)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Apr-July 2020 <break/>(28 days)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Schwartz 2021 NCT04329611</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Adults with COVID-19 with at least 1 risk factor for severe disease</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (nasopharyngeal swab)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Canada (NR)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Apr-May 2020 (30 days)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Omrani 2020 NCT04349592 Q-PROTECT</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Adults with non-severe (mild or no symptoms) COVID-19 who were quarantined at Umm Qarn due to inability to self-quarantine</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (nasopharyngeal swab)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Qatar (2)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Apr-Aug 2020 <break/>(21 days)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Amaravadi 2020 (unpublished) NCT04329923 PATCH</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Home bound COVID-19 positi-ve adults (&#8805;40 years old)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (nasopharyngeal swab)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">USA (1)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">NR <break/>(until quarantine release)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Mitja 2020 NCT04304053</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Adults with mild COVID-19</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">rRT-PCR (nasopharyngeal swab)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Spain (NR)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Mar-May 2020 (28 days)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Skipper 2020 NCT04308668</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Adults with early COVID-19</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 or COVID-19&#8211;compatible symptoms and an epidemiologic link to a contact with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Canada and USA (NR)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Mar-May 2020 (14 days)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN13">
                <p>AZ: azithromycin, HCQ: hydroxychloroquine, NCT: national clinical trial (number); NR: not reported; rRT-PCR: real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; USA: United States of America</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN14">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>- Age &gt; 65 years; hypertension; diabetes mellitus; asthma; chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or other chronic lung diseases; smoking; immunosuppression; obesity (defined as body mass index &#8805; 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>; Age 60 years or greater; pulmonary disease; diabetes mellitus, hypertension, or self-reported body mass index &#8805; 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN15">
                <label>&#8224;</label>
                <p>- Age 50 years or older; presence of pulmonary disease, specifically moderate or severe persistent asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary hypertension, or emphysema; diabetes requiring oral medication or insulin; hypertension requiring treatment; known cardiovascular diseases (congestive heart failure of any etiology, documented coronary artery disease, clinically manifested heart disease [miscellaneous]); symptomatic lung disease on chronic treatment; history of transplantation; obesity (body mass index &#8805; 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>); immunocompromised status due to disease; immunocompromised status due to medication; and patients with cancer;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN16">
                <label>&#8225;</label>
                <p>- Determined medications, biologic therapies, medical conditions and other risk factor (i.e., Age 40 or over, body mass index &gt; 40 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, hypertension (on medical treatment), current cigarette smoker, bone marrow transplant within previous 12 months, solid organ transplant, AIDS/HIV CD4 &lt;200 within last 6 months or CD4&gt;200 but not on treatment, moderate lymphopenia (within previous 6 months: adults &lt;500), chronic kidney disease, diabetes (on a hypoglycemic or insulin), coronary artery disease, heart failure/reduced left ventricular ejection fraction, chronic lung disease (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, interstitial lung disease, as per physician diagnosis), any current cancer diagnosis, acquired or congenital immune deficiency, cirrhosis;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN17">
                <label>&#8224;&#8224;</label>
                <p>all studies adopted 0.05 of statistical significance.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>All studies evaluated HCQ, most of them compared to placebo; two studies evaluated HCQ and azithromycin, and one study evaluated lopinavir + ritonavir (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">table 2</xref>). The daily dose of HCQ (600&#8211;1200 mg) and duration of treatment (5&#8211;14 days) varied between studies (Supplementary Table 2). In total, 3,219 participants (median of 358; interquartile range: 210-513 participants per study) were included, of which 52.1% were male (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">table 2</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Characteristics of the participants included in the randomized clinical trials in descending order of publication</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="11%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Study</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Compared alternatives <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN19">*</xref></th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">n participants (n men)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Age, median (SD) or median (IQR), years</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Any coexisting disease, n (%)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Hypertension, n (%)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Asthma, n (%)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Diabetes, n (%)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Time from onset of symptoms to enrollment, median (IQR), days</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Avezum 2022</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">478 (233)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">47 (38-57)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">466 (97.5)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">278 (58.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">51 (10.7)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">89 (18.6)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">4.0 (3.0-5.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">471 (220)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">48 (38-58)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">456 (96.8)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">261 (55.4)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">57 (12.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">74 (15.7)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">4.0 (3.0-5.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Reis 2021</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">214 (92)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">53 (18-81)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">101 (47.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">24 (11.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">41 (19.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Lopinavir + ritonavir</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">244 (110)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">54 (18-94)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">128 (52.5)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">15 (6.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">44 (18.0)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">227 (106)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">53 (18-80)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">109 (48.0)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">20 (8.8)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">48 (21.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Johnston 2021</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ + placebo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">71 (32)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">36 (19-78)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">37 (52.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">8 (11.3)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0 (0)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">5 (7.0)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">5.9 (4.0-7.8)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ+AZ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">77 (30)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">37 (18-71)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">44 (57.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">12 (15.6)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 (1.3)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">5 (6.5)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">5.8 (3.9-8.3)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">83 (38)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">38 (18-70)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">48 (57.8)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">7 (8.4)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 (1.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">7 (8.4)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">5.9 (4.0-8.3)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Schwartz 2021</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">111 (65)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">47 (12)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">29 (26.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">12 (10.8)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">18 (16.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">7.0 (5.0-8.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">37 (17)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">47 (11)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">12 (32.4)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">8 (21.6)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">11 (29.7)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">6.0 (6.0-9.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Omrani 2020</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">152 (149)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">40 (31-47)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ+AZ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">152 (150)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">42 (38-48)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">152 (150)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">41 (31-47)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Amaravadi 2020</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">17 (5)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">56 (43-77)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">17 (8)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">49 (40-80)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Mitja 2020</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">136 (32)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">41 (12)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">71 (52.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">20 (14.7)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">7 (5.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">11 (9.0)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3.0 (2.0-4.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">No treatment</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">157 (54)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">42 (13)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">85 (54.1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">15 (9.6)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">10 (6.4)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">9 (6.6)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3.0 (2.0-4.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Skipper 2020</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HCQ</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">212 (89)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">41 (33-49)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">72 (34.0)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">23 (10.8)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">28 (13.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">8 (3.8)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Placebo</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">211 (96)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">39 (31-50)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">64 (30.3)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">23 (10.9)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">20 (9.5)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">7 (3.3)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">NR</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN18">
                <p>AZ: azithromycin; HCQ: hydroxychloroquine; IQR: interquartile range; NR: not reported; n: number; SD: standard deviation.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN19">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>The characteristics of intervention and control are reported in detail in supplemental material (p 11).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Risk of bias in studies</title>
          <p>Results of the risk of bias analysis of the RCTs are presented in the supplementary figure 1, supplementary table 3, and supplementary table 4. For COVID-19 hospitalization there was predominance of &#8216;low risk of bias&#8217; (n=4 studies), followed by &#8216;some concerns&#8217; (n=3), and &#8216;high risk of bias&#8217; (n=1) due to limitations in &#8216;randomization process&#8217;, &#8216;deviations from the intended interventions&#8217;, and &#8216;selection of the reported result&#8217;.</p>
          <p>For &#8220;any adverse event&#8221; outcome, there was predominance of &#8216;some concerns&#8217; (n=3 studies), followed by &#8216;low risk of bias&#8217; (n=2), and &#8216;high risk of bias&#8217; (n=1) due to limitations in all domains (i.e., &#8216;randomization process&#8217;, &#8216;deviations from the intended interventions&#8217;, &#8216;missing outcome data&#8217;, &#8216;measurement of the outcome&#8217;, and &#8216;selection of the reported result&#8217;).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results of individual studies and synthesis</title>
          <p>Mortality (n=8 studies),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> serious adverse events (n=8),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> any adverse events (n=7),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> and COVID-19 hospitalization (n=6)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> were the outcomes often reported among RCTs, followed by need for orotracheal intubation (n=3),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> ICU admission (n=2),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> discontinuation due to adverse events (n=2),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> and mechanical ventilation time (n=2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Time to hospital discharge was not reported in any study. Although eight RCTs reported mortality and serious adverse events, only three studies reported at least one death,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> and only five studies reported at least one patient with a serious adverse event;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> and, therefore, contributed to the meta-analyses. Meta-analyses were not conducted for mechanical ventilation time and need for orotracheal intubation, as only one study reported a time greater than zero.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding COVID-19 hospitalization, no statistically significant benefit for the use of HCQ was identified in individual studies, as well as in the meta-analysis (central figure). A statistical consistency was found in this meta-analysis, although clinical and methodological inconsistency has been identified by comparison of participants (e.g., rRT-PCR confirmation, comorbidities of participants, dose, and duration of treatment) and studies characteristics (e.g., follow-up time and risk of bias). Likewise, no benefit was observed for mortality, ICU admission, need for orotracheal intubation, and mechanical ventilation time (Supplementary Table 5 and Supplementary Figure 2).</p>
          <p>Considering adverse events, no harm for the use of HCQ was identified in the meta-analysis (central figure), although two RCTs have reported a higher risk for adverse events in the HCQ group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> In this case, in addition to the clinical and methodological heterogeneity, statistical heterogeneity was also identified. The absence of hydroxychloroquine harm was supported by secondary safety outcomes (Supplementary Table 5 and Supplementary Figure 2).</p>
          <p>All sensitivity analyses of the primary outcomes were consistent with the findings of the main analyses (Supplementary Table 6), except for the meta-analysis of &#8220;any adverse events&#8221; when the fixed model was assumed (RR 1.70 [95%-CI 1.48; 1.96], p-value &lt; 0.0001) instead of the random model (RR 1.78 [95%-CI 0.90; 3.52], p-value 0.10).</p>
          <p>It is noteworthy that for COVID-19 hospitalization outcome only six studies were included in the meta-analysis, since another two included in the systematic review did not clearly describe whether the outcome evaluated was 'all-cause hospitalization' or 'COVID-19 hospitalization'. However, even with the inclusion of these two studies in the sensitivity analysis, the absence of HCQ benefit remained (Supplementary Table 6). In addition, results of primary outcomes remained unchanged with the sensitivity analysis of the leave-one-out method, suggesting that the qualitatively identified heterogeneity was not sufficient to affect the results (Supplementary Table 6).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Certainty of evidence</title>
          <p>For COVID-19 hospitalization the certainty of evidence was classified as &#8216;very low&#8217;, as the domains&#8217; heterogeneity and imprecision were downgraded by one and two levels, respectively (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">table 3</xref>). Imprecision was responsible for the downgrade in certainty in two levels, as for the difference of COVID-19 hospitalization identified in this meta-analysis (HCQ vs. control: 5.6% vs 7.4%, p = 0.09) a population approximately 3 times greater (7,880) would be necessary to identify any significant difference (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">figure 2</xref>). Therefore, OIS was not reached. A figure showing trial sequential analysis for COVID-19 hospitalization is available in Supplementary Figure 4.</p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Optimal information size according to different estimates of COVID-19 hospitalization between groups. Alpha = 0.05, beta = 0.10 (Power 90%); RRR: risk ratio reduction.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220380-20380-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tab1e 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Certainty assessment (GRADE) - Hydroxychloroquine compared to standard of care for outpatient treatment of COVID-1</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="8%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="7">Certainty assessment</th>
                  <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="5">Summary of findings</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Participants (studies) <break/>Follow-up</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Risk of bias</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Inconsistency</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Indirectness</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Imprecision</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Publication bias</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Overall certainty of evidence</th>
                  <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Study event rates (%)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="2">Relative effect (95%CI)</th>
                  <th style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Anticipated absolute effects</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">With standard of care</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">With hydroxychloroquine</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Risk with standard of care</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Risk difference with hydroxychloroquine</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="13">
                    <bold>Covid-19</bold>
                    <break/>
                    <bold>hospitalization</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2,408 <break/>(6 RCTs)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">not serious</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Serious <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">not serious</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">very serious<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN22">&#8224;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">none</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8853;&#9675; <break/>&#9675;&#9675; <break/>Very low</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">88/1186 (7.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">69/1222 <break/>(5.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>RR 0.77</bold><break/>(0.57 - 1.04)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">74 per 1,000</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>17 fewer per 1.000</bold><break/>(from 32 fewer to 3 more)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="7">
                    <bold>Any adverse</bold>
                    <break/>
                    <bold>events</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="5"/>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">2,319 (6 ECRs)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">not serious</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">very serious<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN23">&#8225;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">not serious</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">serious <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN24">&#167;</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">none</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8853;&#9675; <break/>&#9675;&#9675; <break/>Very low</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">240/1175 (20.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">401/1144 (35.1%)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>RR 1.78</bold><break/>(0.90 &#8211; 3.52)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">204 per 1,000</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><bold>159 more per 1.000</bold><break/>(from 20 fewer to 515 more)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN20">
                <p>CI: confidence interval; RR: risk ratio; RCT: randomized clinical trial. Explanations:</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN21">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Clinical and methodological heterogeneity was qualitatively identified (rRT-PCR confirmation, comorbidities of participants, dose, duration of treatment, follow-up time, and risk of bias).</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN22">
                <label>&#8224;</label>
                <p>For the difference of Covid-19 hospitalization identified in this meta-analysis (HCQ vs control: 5.6% vs 7.4%), a population of about 3 times greater than the one included (optimal information size 7,880) should be evaluated.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN23">
                <label>&#8225;</label>
                <p>Statistical heterogeneity (I2: 93%).</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN24">
                <label>&#167;</label>
                <p>The upper limit (RR 3.52) of meta-analysis is much higher than RR 1.25, suggesting imprecision. The risk of bias was not considered a reason for downgrading because of the greater weight of 'low risk of bias' studies in the meta-analysis. However, even if the risk of bias was considered serious, the certainty would be "very low" just the same.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>For &#8216;any adverse events&#8217; the certainty of evidence was classified as &#8216;very low&#8217;, as the domains&#8217; heterogeneity and imprecision (i.e., upper limit of the confidence interval greater than RR 1.25) were downgraded by two and one levels, respectively (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 3</xref>).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>This systematic review is the most updated comprehensive scientific evidence on HCQ as outpatient treatment for COVID-19 patients, for preventing hospitalization, including eight RCTs and 3,219 participants. Even including the largest RCT, the COPE trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> the meta-analysis suggests that there is no significant benefit in using HCQ, as compared to control, to effectively reduce COVID-19 hospitalizations and other related efficacy outcomes.</p>
        <p>Similar results were identified by previous systematic reviews with meta-analyses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Despite their value in identifying and summarizing the evidence available for this population, these studies have low statistical power to confirm any potential benefit of HCQ in COVID-19 hospitalization and have applied different methodological approaches. Our systematic review differs from the previous ones by: i) assessing the risk of bias at the study and outcome level, as recommended by RoB 2.0;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> ii) conducting sensitivity analyses for assessing the impact of high risk of bias studies instead of excluding unblinded studies; iii) conducting sensitivity analyses to assess the impact of excluding the third arm of studies with three-arm rather than excluding the study; iv) conducting formal evaluation of OIS to COVID-19 hospitalization; and v) including greater number of RCTs and events.</p>
        <p>These and other methodological choices contributed to identifying that the risk of bias and the exclusion of a third arm, or the heterogeneity of the studies did not affect the findings. In addition, despite the COPE trial importance for reducing imprecision (RR 0.76 95%-CI 0.45-1.28 to RR 0.77 95%-CI 0.57-1.04), the overall sample size is still not sufficient to confirm or refute any benefit of hydroxychloroquine in reduce COVID-19 hospitalizations, according to the OIS method.</p>
        <p>This finding suggests that the low frequency of hospitalization in adults regardless of the risk for complications of COVID-19, and small difference in the rates between HCQ and controls, require larger sample sizes to confirm any potential benefit. This was confirmed by the OIS analysis which suggests that, to confirm a 23% reduction in the risk of COVID-19 hospitalization with the use of HCQ, the evidence should include at least 7,880 participants, i.e., a population three times greater than that available for this outcome. Additionally, the studies included in the meta-analysis were conducted in the pre-vaccination era, when the control group was expected to have, on average, 7% of hospitalization. When considering the much lower rates of hospitalization in the current phase of the pandemic for a control group,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> the OIS would be much higher than the estimated. Thus, the need for larger sample sizes, combined with post-vaccine research priorities makes it difficult to carry out larger studies.</p>
        <p>We also identified a high heterogeneity between studies, considering different doses, frequency and duration of treatment with HCQ; different follow-up times; and the inclusion of only participants at high risk for COVID-19 complications by some studies and inclusion of adult participants regardless of risk by others. Consequently, there were different proportions of participants with comorbidities and mean age between studies. Although clinical and methodological differences were not sufficient to modify the findings in the sensitivity analyses, this heterogeneity should not be underestimated, since for meta-analyses including studies with wide confidence intervals the statistical heterogeneity can be masked. Therefore, our systematic review identified that the available evidence to date suggests the potential absence of benefit of using HCQ. However, it is of &#8216;very low certainty&#8217; and, therefore, larger, and well conducted studies would confirm or refute reliably both efficacy and safety. It is important to highlight that the evaluation of the evidence quality is subjective and hence explanations for downgrade are presented so that the reader can judge how reliable the findings are.</p>
        <p>Regarding the finding of no significant harm of using HCQ, it is important to consider that most studies excluded participants with clinical conditions that may increase the risk of serious adverse events. Furthermore, it was not the aim of this systematic review to identify the risk of HCQ for the incidence of specific adverse events (e.g., arrhythmia). It is also highlighted that, although in one of the sensitivity analyses an additional risk for the incidence of &#8216;any adverse events&#8217; was identified (fixed model). This result does not diminish the robustness of the main conclusion of this review of no significant harm; the fixed-model is not recommended for meta-analyses with high heterogeneity, in which confidence intervals get narrower (greater precision) and influential studies pull the weighted mean towards their estimate. For that outcome, the high risk of bias study conducted by Mitja et al. identified an additional risk of adverse event with HCQ compared to no treatment (72% vs 10%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although weak evidence is available on the use of HCQ as pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> outpatient<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> or inpatient treatment,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> this review supports the findings of published reviews on the lack of significant benefit of HCQ, independently of the assessed population. Therefore, the use of HCQ outside the research context persists not recommended.</p>
        <p>In light of the anti-vaccine movement worldwide,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> global vaccine inequity, and the facts that certain individuals do not develop efficient immunity after full vaccination,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> and that even immunized people could need medical care for COVID-19,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> investments in studies that evaluate treatments for COVID-19 are absolutely needed. On the other hand, investing in small studies, with heterogeneous populations and without methodological validity should be discouraged, since the greatest potential of these studies is to increase uncertainty, reduce credibility in science and contribute to the irrational use of technologies without confirmation on their risks and benefits. Thus, large multicenter studies focused on participants at high risk for COVID-19 complications, with proper and sufficient follow-up, and high methodological quality should be encouraged.</p>
        <p>Some limitations of our systematic review should be mentioned. As in any systematic search, the chance of missing studies exists. However, a careful manual search found no additional studies in the reference list of relevant studies. Due to the outcomes assessed and reported in RCT, we could not conduct meta-analyses for all efficacy outcomes identified (i.e., mechanical ventilation time, need for orotracheal intubation, and time to hospital discharge). Nevertheless, the current findings were consistent across all outcomes evaluated and, therefore, there is little potential for different results in these outcomes not synthesized by meta-analysis.</p>
        <p>There are some amendments to information provided in the protocol (CRD42021265427): i) it was not specified whether the outcome hospitalization referred only to those caused by COVID-19, or to all-cause hospitalization; and ii) it was not specified that the sensitivity analyses would be performed only for the primary outcomes (i.e., &#8216;COVID-19 hospitalization&#8217; and &#8216;any adverse events&#8217;). Findings suggest that similar results would be achieved even without implementing the modifications.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>Very low certainty evidence showed lack of significant benefits of outpatient treatment with HCQ in preventing COVID-19 hospitalization in adults with a confirmed diagnosis, which was corroborated by other efficacy outcomes evaluated (i.e., mortality, ICU admission, mechanical ventilation time, and need for orotracheal intubation). Considering that the RCTs included a selected population and that, therefore, may not reflect the characteristics of the general population that could use HCQ, no significant harm was identified in available evidence on &#8220;any adverse event&#8221; (very low certainty), serious adverse event, or discontinuation due to an adverse event. Despite being the systematic review with the largest number of participants included, the OIS, considering pre-vaccination response to infection, has not yet been reached.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study was partially funded by Hospital Alem&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p>
            <bold>Study association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p>
            <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <app-group>
        <app id="app2">
          <title>* Supplemental Materials</title>
          <p>For additional information, please click here.</p>
        </app>
      </app-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
