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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">PLnVLWcvJ346SDyZh4qHgxb</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2023000400305</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00305</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220277</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Associa&#231;&#227;o entre o Antagonismo do Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona e a Mortalidade Relacionada &#224; COVID-19 em Pacientes com Hipertens&#227;o Relacionada ao Sobrepeso/Obesidade: um Estudo Retrospectivo de Coorte</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2581-8813</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Shams</surname>
            <given-names>Elham</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante,Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados,An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados,An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica,Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito,Os autores contribu&#237;ram igualmente para este trabalho</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7106-7286</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kamalumpundi</surname>
            <given-names>Vijayvardhan</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante,Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados,An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados,An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica,Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito,Os autores contribu&#237;ram igualmente para este trabalho</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cheng</surname>
            <given-names>Linhai</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante,Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados,An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados,An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Taiwo</surname>
            <given-names>Adeyinka</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Shibli-Rahhal</surname>
            <given-names>Amal</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dokun</surname>
            <given-names>Ayotunde O.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3470-6234</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo L.G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante,An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados,An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica,Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Internal Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of lowa</institution>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, University of lowa &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Carver College of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of Iowa</institution>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa - EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Marcelo L.G. Correia &#8226; University of Iowa &#8211; Department of Internal Medicine &#8211; 200 Hawkins Dr. Iowa City, IA 52242 Iowa city 52242 &#8211; EUA E-mail: <email>marcelo-correia@uiowa.edu</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>21</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2023</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>120</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20220277</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> Os bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina (BRA) e os inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina (IECA) aumentam a express&#227;o de ACE2, que &#233; um receptor para entrada de SARS-CoV-2 nas c&#233;lulas. Embora as evid&#234;ncias sugiram que os IECA/BRA s&#227;o seguros entre a popula&#231;&#227;o geral com COVID-19, sua seguran&#231;a em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade merece uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais aprofundada.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo</title>
          <p> Avaliamos a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de IECA/BRA e a gravidade da COVID-19 em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> O presente estudo incluiu 439 pacientes adultos com sobrepeso/obesidade (&#237;ndice de massa corporal &#8805; 25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) e hipertens&#227;o, diagnosticados com COVID-19 e internados no University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinic entre 1&#186; de mar&#231;o e 7 de dezembro de 2020. Foram avaliadas a mortalidade e a gravidade da COVID-19 com base no tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, interna&#231;&#227;o em unidade de terapia intensiva, uso de oxig&#234;nio suplementar, ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e uso de vasopressores. A regress&#227;o log&#237;stica multivari&#225;vel foi usada para examinar as associa&#231;&#245;es do uso de IECA/BRA com a mortalidade e outros marcadores de gravidade de COVID-19, com um alfa bilateral definido em 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> A exposi&#231;&#227;o aos BRA (n = 91) e IECA (n = 149) antes da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o foi significativamente associada a menor mortalidade ( <italic>odds ratio</italic> [OR] = 0,362, intervalo de confian&#231;a [IC] de 95% 0,149 a 0,880, p = 0,025) e menor tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar (IC 95% &#8722;0,217 a &#8722;0,025, p = 0,015). Adicionalmente, os pacientes em uso de IECA/BRA apresentaram uma tend&#234;ncia n&#227;o significativa de menor interna&#231;&#227;o em unidade de terapia intensiva (OR = 0,727, IC 95% 0,485 a 1,090, p = 0,123), uso de oxig&#234;nio suplementar (OR = 0,929, IC 95% 0,608 a 1,421,p = 0,734), ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica (OR = 0,728, IC 95% 0,457 a 1,161, p = 0,182) e vasopressores (OR = 0,677, IC 95% 0,430 a 1,067, p = 0,093).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> Os resultados sugerem que pacientes internados com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade que receberam IECA/BRA antes da interna&#231;&#227;o apresentam menor mortalidade e COVID-19 menos grave do que aqueles que n&#227;o estavam tomando IECA/BRA. Os resultados tamb&#233;m sugerem que a exposi&#231;&#227;o aos IECA/BRA pode proteger pacientes com hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade de COVID-19 grave e morte.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Antagonistas de Receptores de Angiotensina</kwd>
        <kwd>Inibidores da Enzima Conversora de Angiotensina</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="27"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <fig id="f01">
        <label>Figura Central</label>
        <caption>
          <title>: Associa&#231;&#227;o entre o Antagonismo do Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona e a Mortalidade Relacionada &#224; COVID-19 em Pacientes com Hipertens&#227;o Relacionada ao Sobrepeso/Obesidade: um Estudo Retrospectivo de Coorte</title>
        </caption>
        <attrib>IECA/BRA: inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina/bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal.</attrib>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220277-20277-gf01.tif"/></fig>
    </p>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A pandemia da doen&#231;a de coronav&#237;rus 2019 (COVID-19) foi causada por um novo v&#237;rus de RNA de fita simples de sentido positivo chamado coronav&#237;rus da s&#237;ndrome respirat&#243;ria aguda grave 2 (SARS-CoV-2). At&#233; o momento, a COVID-19 j&#225; foi respons&#225;vel pela morte de mais de 6,3 milh&#245;es de vidas em todo o mundo, com os Estados Unidos liderando o mundo em n&#250;mero absoluto de mortes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Um crescente corpo de evid&#234;ncias sugere que a idade avan&#231;ada (&#8805; 65 anos) e comorbidades como hipertens&#227;o, diabetes e obesidade s&#227;o fatores de risco independentes para COVID-19 mais grave em compara&#231;&#227;o com a popula&#231;&#227;o geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O mecanismo de entrada viral pelo SARS-CoV-2 tem sido bem caracterizado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O novo v&#237;rus explora a aminopeptidase ligada &#224; membrana celular, enzima conversora da angiotensina 2 (ACE2) ligada &#224; membrana celular para entrada e replica&#231;&#227;o viral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Evid&#234;ncias mecan&#237;sticas em modelos experimentais de camundongos selecionados mostraram que a express&#227;o de ACE2 &#233; regulada positivamente com a administra&#231;&#227;o dos inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina /bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina (IECA/BRA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Esse mecanismo inicialmente levou muitos cl&#237;nicos e pesquisadores a postularem que os IECA/BRA, ambos os quais bloqueiam o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA), podem aumentar a gravidade da infec&#231;&#227;o por COVID-19, promovendo a liga&#231;&#227;o do SARS-CoV-2 e a entrada celular. De fato, os dados cl&#237;nicos atuais sugerem de forma esmagadora que os IECA/BRA n&#227;o aumentam a gravidade e a mortalidade da COVID-19; por&#233;m, at&#233; o momento, nenhum estudo foi realizado exclusivamente em uma popula&#231;&#227;o com sobrepeso/obesidade.</p>
      <p>&#201; bem conhecido que pacientes com obesidade t&#234;m atividade aumentada do SRAA, com adip&#243;citos no tecido adiposo visceral altamente expressando ECA2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, dada a desregula&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica, estado pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio e taxas mais altas de trombose, a obesidade &#233; conhecida por aumentar o risco de COVID-19 grave e mortalidade relacionada &#224; COVID-19. Em um estudo recente entre 6.760 profissionais de sa&#250;de hospitalizados com COVID-19 em 14 estados dos Estados Unidos, a obesidade (72,5%) foi a comorbidade mais prevalente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, em um estudo de coorte retrospectivo de centro &#250;nico realizado na Fran&#231;a com 124 pacientes com COVID-19 internados em terapia intensiva, o risco de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica invasiva foi quase 7 vezes maior para aqueles com &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) &gt; 35 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da obesidade, hipertens&#227;o e outras comorbidades cardiovasculares s&#227;o as comorbidades mais comuns em pacientes com COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> V&#225;rios estudos observacionais multic&#234;ntricos e estudos populacionais demonstraram que pacientes com hipertens&#227;o apresentam COVID-19 mais grave e maior mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m mostrado que IMC mais alto est&#225; relacionado a uma maior preval&#234;ncia de dist&#250;rbios cardiovasculares, como hipertens&#227;o, acidente vascular cerebral, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a maioria dos pacientes hospitalizados com COVID-19 grave sofria de comorbidades relacionadas ao excesso de adiposidade, como diabetes e dist&#250;rbios cardiovasculares,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> o que tamb&#233;m est&#225; de acordo com relatos anteriores de surtos de influenza H1N1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Em um estudo retrospectivo com 1.965 pacientes com diabetes, em que 726 (36,9%) pacientes apresentavam sobrepeso e 805 (41,0%) obesidade, os autores relataram que essas condi&#231;&#245;es foram associadas a mau progn&#243;stico em pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 hospitalizados por COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O SRAA consiste em uma cascata enzim&#225;tica respons&#225;vel pelo controle da press&#227;o arterial, mantendo o equil&#237;brio hidroeletrol&#237;tico e preservando a resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A cascata se inicia quando o angiotensinog&#234;nio plasm&#225;tico &#233; clivado pela renina, em angiotensina I (ang I). A enzima conversora de angiotensina ent&#227;o catalisa ang I em angiotensina II (ang II).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A ECA2 usa ang II como substrato e produz ang (1-7). Ang (1-7) &#233; um horm&#244;nio metabolicamente ativo que atua no receptor MAS para baixar a press&#227;o arterial e possui propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias e antifibr&#243;ticas. Os IECA inibem a forma&#231;&#227;o de ang II a partir de ang I. Esse evento leva &#224; convers&#227;o de ang I em um horm&#244;nio semelhante, ang 1-9. Ang 1-9 &#233; rapidamente convertido em ang 1-7 por ECA2. Os BRA impedem que o ang II se ligue ao seu receptor; portanto, os ARBs inibem o efeito do ang II.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os IECA/BRA s&#227;o usados extensivamente em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o, outras doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e diabetes para tratar press&#227;o alta, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica e muitas outras doen&#231;as.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Essas doen&#231;as geralmente s&#227;o comorbidades com a obesidade; portanto, dados cl&#237;nicos sobre o uso desses medicamentos em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade s&#227;o necess&#225;rios. Para adicionar &#224; base de evid&#234;ncias atuais acerca dos resultados cl&#237;nicos desse grupo demogr&#225;fico, foi realizado um estudo de coorte retrospectivo para investigar se existe uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre a exposi&#231;&#227;o aos IECA/BRA antes da interna&#231;&#227;o e a gravidade da COVID-19 em pacientes com sobrepeso/obesidade relacionado &#224; hipertens&#227;o.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Fonte de dados e pacientes</title>
        <p>Trata-se de um estudo de coorte retrospectivo de centro &#250;nico realizado em pacientes diagnosticados com COVID-19 que foram internados no University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinic (UIHC). Foram usados os registros m&#233;dicos eletr&#244;nicos da University of Iowa (Epic 2018, vers&#227;o UI 2, Epic Systems Corporation, Verona, WI, EUA) para identificar todos os pacientes que (1) tinham idade &#8805; 18 anos, (2) tinham IMC &#8805; 25 kg/m<sup>2</sup> e (3) apresentavam diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o, internados na UIHC entre 1&#186; de mar&#231;o e 7 de dezembro de 2020 com COVID-19. Os registros m&#233;dicos eletr&#244;nicos cont&#234;m dados demogr&#225;ficos, cl&#237;nicos, laboratoriais e de medicamentos completos de todos os pacientes atendidos em nosso centro m&#233;dico. Foram exclu&#237;dos pacientes com registro m&#233;dico eletr&#244;nico incompleto e diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o gestacional, pulmonar, portal, renal ou secund&#225;ria. Foram inclu&#237;dos no estudo pacientes que pararam de tomar medicamentos para o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o por qualquer motivo (por exemplo, aumento do n&#237;vel de creatinina, incapacidade de tomar medicamentos por via oral devido &#224; ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, etc.) durante a interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar. Adicionalmente, foram exclu&#237;dos os pacientes em uso de IECA/BRA para qualquer outra indica&#231;&#227;o al&#233;m de hipertens&#227;o (por exemplo, microalbumin&#250;ria relacionada ao diabetes).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Elementos de dados</title>
        <p>Os elementos de dados inclu&#237;ram: idade, IMC, sexo, hist&#243;rico de tabagismo/uso de &#225;lcool, comorbidades (por exemplo, diabetes e apneia obstrutiva do sono [AOS]), complica&#231;&#245;es durante a interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar (por exemplo, pancreatite, acidente vascular cerebral, s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo, hepatite, etc.), tratamentos para COVID-19 (por exemplo, remdesivir, dexametasona, azitromicina, cloroquina, hidroxicloroquina), suporte ventilat&#243;rio (por exemplo, oxig&#234;nio suplementar, oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea, ventila&#231;&#227;o invasiva, ventila&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva), admiss&#227;o em unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI), uso de vasopressores, mortalidade hospitalar e tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o. O diagn&#243;stico de COVID-19 foi determinado por teste positivo usando <italic>swabs</italic> nasofar&#237;ngeos, com uso raro de swabs orofar&#237;ngeos e escarro. Todas as amostras foram coletadas em meio de transporte viral n&#227;o ativador de v&#225;rios fabricantes com swabs flocados de alta qualidade (Center for Disease Control 2019-nCoV Real-Time RT-PCR Diagnostic Panel, Center for Disease Control Emergency Operations Center, Atlanta, GA, EUA; TaqPATH COVID-19 Combo kit, Cat#: A47814, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, EUA). O uso de IECA/BRA foi definido como o uso desses medicamentos no momento da admiss&#227;o que foi interrompido durante a interna&#231;&#227;o. De acordo com a medica&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva, os pacientes foram divididos em 2 subgrupos, os que receberam prescri&#231;&#227;o de IECA/BRA antes da admiss&#227;o ao hospital e os que n&#227;o receberam prescri&#231;&#227;o de IECA/BRA (ou seja, o grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o). Todos os dados foram extra&#237;dos dos registros m&#233;dicos eletr&#244;nicos dos pacientes por 3 investigadores (ES, VK, LC) usando um formul&#225;rio de coleta de dados padronizado que foi subsequentemente verificado por 4 investigadores (ES, VK, LC, MC).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>A an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foi realizada com o software SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Vers&#227;o 27.0. Armonk, NY, EUA). Foram usadas estat&#237;sticas descritivas para resumir as caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas e cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes. O teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov foi utilizado para avaliar a distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram apresentadas como n&#250;meros e porcentagens e comparadas usando o teste qui-quadrado. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram apresentadas como m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o. Testes t de amostras independentes foram usados para comparar vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas. A an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica bin&#225;ria foi usada para analisar desfechos dependentes bin&#225;rios, como mortalidade, interna&#231;&#227;o em UTI, uso de oxig&#234;nio suplementar, ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e vasopressores. Todos os modelos inclu&#237;ram o uso de IECA/BRA como vari&#225;vel explicativa e foram ajustados para um conjunto de covari&#225;veis, determinadas <italic>a priori</italic> , que poderiam confundir a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de IECA/BRA e a gravidade da doen&#231;a. Essas covari&#225;veis independentes inclu&#237;ram idade, sexo, IMC, hist&#243;rico de tabagismo, AOS, diabetes e uso de remdesivir e dexametasona. Foram realizados testes para intera&#231;&#227;o entre as vari&#225;veis independentes. Modelos de regress&#227;o linear multivariada foram usados para desfechos cont&#237;nuos, como tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o. Os resultados foram apresentados <italic>como odds ratio</italic> (ORs) com intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% (IC 95%) e valor de p ajustado. Foram considerados estatisticamente significativos valores de p abaixo de um alfa bilateral de 0,05.</p>
        <p>No momento em que o presente estudo foi realizado, a Sociedade de Doen&#231;as Infecciosas da Am&#233;rica (IDSA, sigla em ingl&#234;s) j&#225; havia recomendado remdesivir para pacientes no est&#225;gio inicial da COVID-19 com a finalidade de reduzir a replica&#231;&#227;o viral, e dexametasona para pacientes em est&#225;gios avan&#231;ados da doen&#231;a com a finalidade de reduzir a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> H&#225; fortes evid&#234;ncias de que remdesivir e dexametasona podem alterar o curso da COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Portanto, essas vari&#225;veis foram adicionadas ao modelo como covari&#225;veis p&#243;s-tratamento para determinar se houve um efeito da exposi&#231;&#227;o IECA/BRA independente dos efeitos de remdesivir e/ou dexametasona. N&#227;o foram coletados dados sobre outros antibi&#243;ticos al&#233;m da azitromicina. Adicionalmente, os dados sobre o uso de hidroxicloroquina/cloroquina e azitromicina mais hidroxicloroquina para reduzir a mortalidade relacionada &#224; COVID-19 foram considerados inconsistentes e, portanto, n&#227;o adicionados ao modelo, mas foram coletados e inclu&#237;dos em estat&#237;sticas descritivas.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Caracter&#237;sticas basais</title>
        <p>O presente estudo identificou 946 pacientes com COVID-19 confirmada que foram internados na UIHC. Ap&#243;s a aplica&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o, foram inclu&#237;dos 439 pacientes na an&#225;lise final ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref> ). Esta coorte foi subsequentemente agrupada no grupo IECA/BRA (n = 240) e no grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o (n = 199). Os dados demogr&#225;ficos dos pacientes s&#227;o mostrados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> , e seus resultados e complica&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o mostrados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> . As idades m&#233;dias foram semelhantes em ambos os grupos. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o, os pacientes que usavam IECA/BRA tinham uma propor&#231;&#227;o significativamente maior de homens e uma taxa mais alta de diabetes mellitus. A taxa de AOS em pacientes em uso de IECA/BRA foi maior do que no grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o, mas essa diferen&#231;a n&#227;o foi estatisticamente significativa (p = 0,186). Al&#233;m disso, havia mais fumantes atuais no grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o do que no grupo IECA/BRA.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma do estudo. Crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o: idade &#8805; 18 anos, diagn&#243;stico de COVID-19, hipertens&#227;o e IMC &#8805; 25 kg/m2. BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina; COVID-19: doen&#231;a de coronav&#237;rus 2019; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220277-20277-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Dados demogr&#225;ficos de pacientes com hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade entre os grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>IECA/BRA (n = 240)</th>
                  <th>Compara&#231;&#227;o (n = 199)</th>
                  <th>Valor p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="4">
                    <bold>Demogr&#225;ficos</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Idade, anos (DP)</td>
                  <td align="center">61,9 (13,3)</td>
                  <td align="center">63,2 (15,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,358</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IMC (DP)</td>
                  <td align="center">34,6 (8,4)</td>
                  <td align="center">34,3 (7,9)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,765</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="4">
                    <bold>Sexo</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Masculino (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">181 (75,4)</td>
                  <td align="center">116 (58,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="4">
                    <bold>Comorbidades cr&#244;nicas, n (%)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diabetes</td>
                  <td align="center">157 (65,4)</td>
                  <td align="center">88 (44,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>AOS</td>
                  <td align="center">74 (30,8)</td>
                  <td align="center">50 (25,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,186</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Uso de CPAP</td>
                  <td align="center">49 (20,4)</td>
                  <td align="center">23 (11,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,013</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="4">
                    <bold>Status tab&#225;gico, n (%)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nunca fumante</td>
                  <td align="center">100 (41,6)</td>
                  <td align="center">87 (43,7)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ex-fumante</td>
                  <td align="center">107 (44,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">92 (46,2)</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fumante atual</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (4,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (5,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,289<sup>*</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="4">
                    <bold>Tratamento, n (%)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Remdesivir</td>
                  <td align="center">83 (34,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">72 (36,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,727</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Plasma convalescente</td>
                  <td align="center">33 (13,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">31 (15,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,589</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dexametasona</td>
                  <td align="center">123 (51,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">107 (53,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,599</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cloroquina</td>
                  <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                  <td align="center">--</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Azitromicina</td>
                  <td align="center">33 (13,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">24 (12,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,6</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hidroxicloroquina</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (0,8)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (0,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>Foram calculados os valores de p a partir de testes t de amostras independentes e testes qui-quadrado, quando apropriado. *O valor de p para fumantes foi calculado entre as categorias de fumante (atual e desconhecido) e n&#227;o fumante (ex-fumante). AOS: apneia obstrutiva do sono; BRA: bloqueador dos receptores da angiotensina; CPAP: press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua nas vias a&#233;reas; DP: desvio padr&#227;o; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Desfechos e complica&#231;&#245;es de pacientes com hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade entre os grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>IECA/BRA (n = 240)</th>
                  <th>Compara&#231;&#227;o (n = 199)</th>
                  <th>Valor p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="4">
                    <bold>Desfecho, n (%)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oxig&#234;nio suplementar</td>
                  <td align="center">158 (65,8)</td>
                  <td align="center">130 (65,3)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,911</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ventila&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva</td>
                  <td align="center">125 (52,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">106 (53,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,805</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ECMO</td>
                  <td align="center">3 (1,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">6 (3,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,311</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Terapia intensiva</td>
                  <td align="center">95 (39,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">86 (43,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,441</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica</td>
                  <td align="center">54 (22,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">51 (25,6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,444</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Vasopressores</td>
                  <td align="center">57 (23,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">56 (28,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,295</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mortalidade</td>
                  <td align="center">45 (18,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">51 (25,6)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,083</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="4">
                    <bold>Complica&#231;&#245;es, N (%)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a respirat&#243;ria</td>
                  <td align="center">78 (32,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">54 (27,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,222</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doen&#231;as renais e do trato urin&#225;rio</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (14,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">21 (10,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,255</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica</td>
                  <td align="center">8 (3,3)</td>
                  <td align="center">3 (1,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,359</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a cardiovascular</td>
                  <td align="center">13 (5,4)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (7,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,365</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a pancre&#225;tica</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (0,8)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (0,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a hematol&#243;gica</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (3,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (3,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,897</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Choque s&#233;ptico</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (4,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">6 (3,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,522</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Glicemia elevada</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (0,8)</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (1,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Encefalopatia aguda</td>
                  <td align="center">8 (3,3)</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (3,5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,916</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>Foram calculados os valores de p a partir de testes t de amostras independentes e testes qui-quadrado, quando apropriado. BRA: bloqueador dos receptores da angiotensina; ECMO: oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medicamentos administrados no hospital</title>
        <p>Entre os medicamentos administrados para tratamento de COVID-19, menos pacientes receberam dexametasona no grupo IECA/BRA em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o, embora essa diferen&#231;a n&#227;o tenha sido estatisticamente significativa ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Associa&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o ajustadas entre IECA/BRA e desfechos prim&#225;rios</title>
        <p>A taxa de mortalidade n&#227;o ajustada foi menor no grupo IECA/BRA do que no grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o (18,7% versus 25,6%, p = 0,083). Al&#233;m disso, em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o, os pacientes do grupo IECA/BRA apresentaram menor taxa de interna&#231;&#227;o na UTI e menor uso de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e vasopressores. Em geral, sem ajuste para outras covari&#225;veis, a gravidade da COVID-19 para pacientes no grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o foi pior do que no grupo IECA/BRA.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Associa&#231;&#245;es ajustadas entre IECA/BRA e mortalidade</title>
        <p>Ap&#243;s ajuste estat&#237;stico por idade, sexo, IMC, hist&#243;rico de tabagismo, AOS, diabetes e uso de dexametasona e remdesivir, o grupo IECA/BRA apresentou chances significativamente menores de mortalidade do que os pacientes do grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> ). Adicionalmente, os resultados dos modelos ajustados mostraram que a idade avan&#231;ada e o sexo masculino foram associados ao aumento das chances de mortalidade relacionada &#224; COVID-19. A intera&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de IECA/BRA e diabetes n&#227;o foi significativa. Al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o houve associa&#231;&#227;o entre AOS e mortalidade, e n&#227;o houve intera&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de IECA/BRA e AOS na mortalidade.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica dos preditores de mortalidade entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade nos grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                  <th>Odds ratio</th>
                  <th>Valor p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Idade</td>
                  <td align="center">1,030 (1,010&#8211;1,051)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,003</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IMC</td>
                  <td align="center">0,985 (0,950&#8211;1,022)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,416</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sexo (masculino)</td>
                  <td align="center">2,029 (1,149&#8211;3,584)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,015</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Uso de IECA/BRA</td>
                  <td align="center">0,362 (0,149&#8211;0,880)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,025</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diabetes</td>
                  <td align="center">1,701 (0,860&#8211;3,364)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,127</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IECA ou BRA por diabetes</td>
                  <td align="center">1,569 (0,532&#8211; 4,624)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,414</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>AOS</td>
                  <td align="center">1,237 (0,710&#8211;2,157)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,453</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Status tab&#225;gico: atual/n&#227;o registrado</td>
                  <td align="center">2,935 (1,520&#8211;5,665)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dexametasona: sim</td>
                  <td align="center">0,970 (0,567&#8211;1,659)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,910</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Remdesivir: sim</td>
                  <td align="center">1,298 (0,755&#8211;2,233)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,345</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>As vari&#225;veis preditoras foram codificadas da maneira seguinte: feminino = 0, masculino = 1; controle = 0, em uso IECA/BRA = 1; sem diabetes = 0, diabetes = 1; sem AOS = 0, AOS = 1; status tab&#225;gico: nunca/ex-fumante = 0, atual fumante/n&#227;o registrado = 1; n&#227;o tomou dexametasona = 0, tomou dexametasona = 1; n&#227;o tomou remdesivir = 0, tomou remdesivir = 1; sobreviv&#234;ncia = 0, mortalidade = 1. C&#243;digo 0 considerado como refer&#234;ncia. Os n&#250;meros entre par&#234;nteses s&#227;o intervalos de confian&#231;a de 95%. AOS: apneia obstrutiva do sono; BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Associa&#231;&#245;es ajustadas entre o uso de IECA/BRA e o tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar</title>
        <p>Todos os par&#226;metros atenderam aos pressupostos necess&#225;rios para a regress&#227;o linear. O modelo de regress&#227;o linear multivariada mostrou que os pacientes do grupo IECA/BRA tiveram menor tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s ajuste para idade, sexo, IMC, diabetes, AOS, status tab&#225;gico e uso de dexametasona e remdesivir ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica de preditores de tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade nos grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                  <th align="left">B padronizado</th>
                  <th align="left">Valor p</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Idade</td>
                  <td>0,002 (-0,096 a 0,100)</td>
                  <td>0,962</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IMC</td>
                  <td>-0,056 (-0,160 a 0,048)</td>
                  <td>0,288</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sexo (masculino)</td>
                  <td>0,002 (-0,094 a 0,098)</td>
                  <td>0,967</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Uso de IECA/BRA</td>
                  <td>-0,121 (-0,217 a -0,025)</td>
                  <td>0,015</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diabetes</td>
                  <td>0,071 (-0,025 a 0,167)</td>
                  <td>0,153</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>AOS</td>
                  <td>0,027 (-0,073 a 0,127)</td>
                  <td>0,602</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Status tab&#225;gico: atual/n&#227;o registrado</td>
                  <td>0,030 (-0,064 a 0,124)</td>
                  <td>0,529</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dexametasona: sim</td>
                  <td>0,041 (-0,063 a 0,145)</td>
                  <td>0,444</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Remdesivir: sim</td>
                  <td>0,101 (-0,003 a 0,205)</td>
                  <td>0,055</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <p>As vari&#225;veis preditoras foram codificadas da maneira seguinte: feminino = 0, masculino = 1; controle = 0, em uso IECA/BRA = 1; sem diabetes = 0, diabetes = 1; sem AOS = 0, AOS = 1; status tab&#225;gico: nunca/ex-fumante = 0, atual fumante/n&#227;o registrado = 1; n&#227;o tomou dexametasona = 0, tomou dexametasona = 1; n&#227;o tomou remdesivir = 0, tomou remdesivir = 1. C&#243;digo 0 considerado como refer&#234;ncia. Os n&#250;meros entre par&#234;nteses s&#227;o intervalos de confian&#231;a de 95%. AOS: apneia obstrutiva do sono; BRA: bloqueador do receptor de angiotensina; IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de angiotensina; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise de sensibilidade usando o status tab&#225;gico na mortalidade e no tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar</title>
        <p>Devido &#224; falta de dados sobre o status tab&#225;gico em todos os pacientes, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise de sensibilidade usando o status tab&#225;gico para avaliar a confiabilidade dos resultados do estudo. Havia 33 pacientes (n = 23 em IECA/BRA e n = 10 no grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o) com status tab&#225;gico desconhecido. O cen&#225;rio mais extremo seria considerar todos os pacientes com status desconhecido como fumantes. Nesse cen&#225;rio, observamos chances diminu&#237;das de mortalidade em fumantes em uso de IECA/BRA ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> ). Ap&#243;s remover da an&#225;lise os pacientes com dados ausentes sobre o estado tab&#225;gico, o efeito protetor do uso de IECA/BRA na mortalidade e no tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o foi preservado ( <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">Tabelas Suplementares 1</ext-link> e <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">2</ext-link> ).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Associa&#231;&#245;es ajustadas entre o uso de IECA/BRA e outras complica&#231;&#245;es da COVID-19</title>
        <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de IECA/BRA e outras complica&#231;&#245;es da COVID-19 foi avaliada ap&#243;s ajuste para sexo, idade, IMC, hist&#243;rico de tabagismo e diabetes. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o, os pacientes do grupo IECA/BRA manifestaram tend&#234;ncias n&#227;o significativas de menor associa&#231;&#227;o com interna&#231;&#227;o na UTI, ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, uso de vasopressores e oxig&#234;nio suplementar do que o grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o. As <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">Tabelas Suplementares 3</ext-link> , <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">4</ext-link> , <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">5</ext-link> e <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">6</ext-link> resumem as an&#225;lises de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica para esses desfechos, respectivamente.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>At&#233; onde sabemos, este &#233; o primeiro estudo dedicado a avaliar o progn&#243;stico agudo de COVID-19 em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade que estavam tomando IECA/BRA antes da interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar. Observou-se associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre a exposi&#231;&#227;o aos IECA/BRA e a redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade por COVID-19, mesmo ap&#243;s ajuste estat&#237;stico. Embora tend&#234;ncias favor&#225;veis tenham sido observadas no grupo IECA/BRA, nenhuma diferen&#231;a significativa foi demonstrada nas taxas de interna&#231;&#227;o em UTI, ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e uso de vasopressores.</p>
      <p>Atualmente, a an&#225;lise de nossos dados ecoa as recomenda&#231;&#245;es de v&#225;rias sociedades profissionais de que os m&#233;dicos cl&#237;nicos n&#227;o devem descontinuar os IECA/BRA dos pacientes antes ou depois da COVID-19, a menos que seja clinicamente indicado na doen&#231;a grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Nossa an&#225;lise confirma os achados de um estudo recente relatando associa&#231;&#245;es entre o uso de IECA/BRA e a redu&#231;&#227;o da gravidade e mortalidade por COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Zhang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> conduziram um estudo retrospectivo multic&#234;ntrico com 1.128 pacientes hospitalizados com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o mostrando que o uso de IECA/BRA foi associado a um menor risco de mortalidade por todas as causas ( <italic>hazard ratio</italic> ajustada 0,42; p = 0,03).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Embora este estudo indique uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de IECA/BRA e menor mortalidade, o n&#250;mero de pacientes com sobrepeso/obesidade n&#227;o foi relatado. &#201;, no entanto, prov&#225;vel que houvesse v&#225;rios pacientes com sobrepeso/obesidade, dado o n&#250;mero de pacientes com comorbidades relacionadas ao sobrepeso/obesidade, como diabetes mellitus, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica. Adicionalmente, nossos dados sugerem que o uso de IECA/BRA est&#225; associado a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o do tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o. Essa tend&#234;ncia est&#225; de acordo com um recente estudo observacional multic&#234;ntrico de Braude et al. (2018) que mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o no tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o em pacientes em uso de IECA/BRA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Novamente, os autores n&#227;o relataram o n&#250;mero de pacientes com sobrepeso/obesidade em sua an&#225;lise, embora seja prov&#225;vel que v&#225;rios estivessem com sobrepeso/obesidade, dado que o estudo consistia principalmente de uma popula&#231;&#227;o idosa e doente.</p>
      <p>O uso de IECA/BRA entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada &#224; obesidade tem sido fonte de especula&#231;&#227;o entre os especialistas em hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> &#201; comumente reconhecido que h&#225; um desequil&#237;brio do SRAA em pacientes com obesidade. Existe uma superexpress&#227;o dos receptores da angiotensina I (AT1R) e dos receptores da angiotensina II no n&#237;vel do tecido adiposo e no n&#237;vel sist&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Originalmente, pensava-se que esse mecanismo contribu&#237;a para uma les&#227;o pulmonar aumentada em resposta ao v&#237;rus em pacientes com COVID-19 e sobrepeso/obesidade. No entanto, observou-se que pacientes com sobrepeso/obesidade estavam, de fato, protegidos da mortalidade. Uma poss&#237;vel explica&#231;&#227;o sugerida por v&#225;rios autores &#233; que o tratamento com IECA/BRA no contexto de infec&#231;&#227;o concomitante com SARS-CoV-2 pode alterar o equil&#237;brio fisiol&#243;gico entre o eixo ECA/ang II/AT1R para o eixo ECA2/ang 1-7/receptor MAS. O metab&#243;lito ang 1-7 pode estar atuando no receptor MAS para desempenhar um papel na prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, um efeito anti-inflamat&#243;rio global e potencialmente at&#233; atenuar a les&#227;o pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Embora tenha sido originalmente postulado que a regula&#231;&#227;o positiva da ECA2 pelo tratamento com IECA/BRA aumentava a infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2, ela pode estar desempenhando um papel protetor em pacientes ao regular positivamente a produ&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies de angiotensina 1-7 e bloqueando a indu&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias. Esse efeito anti-inflamat&#243;rio global pode ser ainda mais ampliado em pacientes com obesidade, dado um n&#250;mero aumentado de c&#233;lulas que expressam ECA2 e, consequentemente, uma quantidade maior de ECA2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Mais pesquisas mecan&#237;sticas e translacionais s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para estudar o efeito de IECA/BRA na express&#227;o pulmonar de ECA2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora houvesse mais homens e uma taxa maior de comorbidades como AOS e diabetes no grupo IECA/BRA, uma taxa de mortalidade menor foi observada nesse grupo em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo de compara&#231;&#227;o. Isso fortalece os nossos resultados em rela&#231;&#227;o ao efeito protetor de IECA/BRA, j&#225; que os homens s&#227;o considerados de maior risco para morte relacionada &#224; COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Uma ampla gama de vari&#225;veis biopsicossociais deve ser considerada para validar essa associa&#231;&#227;o. Relata-se que os andr&#243;genos aumentam a concentra&#231;&#227;o e a atividade da renina plasm&#225;tica, levando a n&#237;veis mais altos de prote&#237;na e mRNA do angiotensinog&#234;nio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> O efeito a jusante disso &#233; a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e a COVID-19 mais grave. Assim, os IECA/BRA podem potencialmente ser mais ben&#233;ficos na popula&#231;&#227;o masculina. Adicionalmente, n&#227;o houve associa&#231;&#227;o entre AOS e mortalidade, e n&#227;o houve intera&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de IECA/BRA e AOS na mortalidade. Portanto, n&#227;o foram realizados ajustes para uso de press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua nas vias a&#233;reas, apesar de uma diferen&#231;a significativa entre os dois grupos no uso de press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua nas vias a&#233;reas.</p>
      <p>Nossos resultados tamb&#233;m sugerem que o tratamento com remdesivir est&#225; associado &#224; hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o prolongada (p = 0,055, IC 95% 0,003 a 0,205), mas n&#227;o &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade (p = 0,345, IC 95% 0,755 a 2,233). Este achado est&#225; de acordo com um estudo em pacientes adultos com COVID-19 internados em 123 hospitais da Veterans Health Administration de 1&#186; de maio a 8 de outubro de 2020, que tamb&#233;m mostrou que o tratamento com remdesivir n&#227;o foi associado a melhor sobrevida, mas sim a interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares mais longas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O presente estudo tem v&#225;rias limita&#231;&#245;es. Primeiro, n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel estabelecer causalidade entre a exposi&#231;&#227;o a IECA/BRA e a gravidade e mortalidade por COVID-19 devido &#224; limita&#231;&#227;o inerente do desenho de estudo retrospectivo. Em segundo lugar, esses dados foram acumulados em um &#250;nico centro e o tamanho da amostra foi pequeno; portanto, esses resultados podem n&#227;o ser generaliz&#225;veis. O intervalo de confian&#231;a para mortalidade foi grande, provavelmente indicativo do pequeno tamanho da amostra, e isso limitou o poder de nosso estudo. Apesar do pequeno tamanho da amostra, no entanto, uma signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica para desfechos clinicamente importantes ainda foi observada. Em terceiro lugar, embora modelos estat&#237;sticos tenham sido usados para ajustar poss&#237;veis vieses, os resultados n&#227;o foram ajustados para etnia, o que pode ter influenciado os resultados. Em quarto lugar, o uso real de IECA/BRA n&#227;o p&#244;de ser verificado a partir dos registros m&#233;dicos, que apenas relatam se o paciente recebeu ou n&#227;o uma prescri&#231;&#227;o para esses medicamentos. Em quinto lugar, alguns h&#225;bitos de vida, como uso de &#225;lcool e ades&#227;o a medicamentos/n&#237;vel de controle da press&#227;o arterial, n&#227;o estavam dispon&#237;veis ou n&#227;o foram coletados neste estudo. Isso poderia potencialmente confundir algumas das associa&#231;&#245;es observadas neste estudo. Em sexto lugar, com o objetivo de preservar o poder do estudo, as an&#225;lises consideraram usu&#225;rios de IECA e BRA combinados para estimativas dos desfechos. No entanto, quando analisados de forma independente, IECA e BRA tamb&#233;m foram associados &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade (OR 0,557, IC 95% 0,315 a 0,987, p = 0,045 e OR 0,388, IC 95% 0,189 a 0,797, p = 0,01; respectivamente).</p>
      <p>&#201; importante ressaltar que abordamos a limita&#231;&#227;o da falta de dados em rela&#231;&#227;o ao status tab&#225;gico entre os registros m&#233;dicos por meio da realiza&#231;&#227;o de uma an&#225;lise de sensibilidade. A an&#225;lise considerando todos os pacientes com status desconhecido como fumantes mostrou que os fumantes tinham uma chance significativamente maior de mortalidade. Esse efeito, no entanto, desapareceu ap&#243;s a remo&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes que n&#227;o tinham dados sobre o status tab&#225;gico. A observa&#231;&#227;o de que pacientes fumantes apresentam maior mortalidade &#233; corroborada por v&#225;rios estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Recentemente, um estudo de Lowe et al. (2021) mostrou que a exposi&#231;&#227;o cumulativa &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro foi um fator de risco independente para interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar e mortalidade relacionada &#224; COVID-19. Al&#233;m disso, o efeito do tabagismo na mortalidade exibiu uma rela&#231;&#227;o dose-dependente, porque pacientes com mais ma&#231;os-ano exibiram maiores chances de morte relacionada &#224; COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Estes resultados sugerem que pacientes hospitalizados com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade que receberam IECA/BRA antes da interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar apresentam menor tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade relacionada &#224; COVID-19 em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles que n&#227;o estavam tomando IECA/BRA. Essa observa&#231;&#227;o pode trazer implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas importantes em termos de tratamento da COVID-19 nesse grupo &#250;nico de pacientes com sobrepeso/obesidade.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Materiais suplementares</title>
        <p>As Tabelas Suplementares S1 a S6 indexam e cont&#233;m os seguintes dados adicionais: S1: Preditores de mortalidade entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade nos grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o, com a remo&#231;&#227;o do status tab&#225;gico desconhecido. S2: Preditores de tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade nos grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o, com a remo&#231;&#227;o do status tab&#225;gico desconhecido. S3: Preditores de terapia intensiva entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade nos grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o. S4: Preditores de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade nos grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o. S5: Preditores do uso de vasopressores entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade nos grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o. S6: Preditores de uso de oxig&#234;nio suplementar entre pacientes com COVID-19 e hipertens&#227;o relacionada ao sobrepeso/obesidade nos grupos IECA/BRA e compara&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>* Material suplementar</title>
        <p>Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">clique aqui</ext-link> .</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
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    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Association between RAAS Antagonism and COVID-19&#8211;related Mortality in Patients with Overweight/Obesity-related Hypertension: A Retrospective Cohort Study</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2581-8813</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Shams</surname>
            <given-names>Elham</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content,Acquisition of data,Analysis and interpretation of the data,Statistical analysis,Writing of the manuscript,The authors contributed equally to this work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7106-7286</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kamalumpundi</surname>
            <given-names>Vijayvardhan</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content,Acquisition of data,Analysis and interpretation of the data,Statistical analysis,Writing of the manuscript,The authors contributed equally to this work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cheng</surname>
            <given-names>Linhai</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content,Acquisition of data,Analysis and interpretation of the data,Statistical analysis,The authors contributed equally to this work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Taiwo</surname>
            <given-names>Adeyinka</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content,The authors contributed equally to this work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Shibli-Rahhal</surname>
            <given-names>Amal</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content,The authors contributed equally to this work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dokun</surname>
            <given-names>Ayotunde O.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content,The authors contributed equally to this work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3470-6234</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo L.G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content,Analysis and interpretation of the data,Statistical analysis,Writing of the manuscript,The authors contributed equally to this work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Internal Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of lowa</institution>
        <country country="US">USA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, University of lowa &#8211; USA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Carver College of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of Iowa</institution>
        <country country="US">USA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa - USA</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Marcelo L.G. Correia &#8226; University of Iowa &#8211; Department of Internal Medicine &#8211; 200 Hawkins Dr. Iowa City, IA 52242 Iowa city 52242 &#8211; USA E-mail: marcelo-correia@uiowa.edu</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential conflict of interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) increase the expression of ACE2, which is a receptor for entry of SARS-CoV-2 into cells. Though evidence suggests that ARB/ACEI are safe among the general population with COVID-19, their safety in patients with overweight/obesity-related hypertension deserves further evaluation.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p>We assessed the association between ARB/ACEI use and COVID-19 severity in patients with overweight/obesity-related hypertension.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>This study included 439 adult patients with overweight/obesity (body mass index &#8805; 25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) and hypertension, diagnosed with COVID-19 and admitted to University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinic from March 1 to December 7, 2020. Mortality and severity of COVID-19 were evaluated based on length of stay in hospital, intensive care unit admission, use of supplemental oxygen, mechanical ventilation, and vasopressors. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the associations of ARB/ACEI use with mortality and other markers of COVID-19 severity, with a two-sided alpha set at 0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>Exposure to ARB (n = 91) and ACEI (n = 149) before hospitalization was significantly associated with lower mortality (odds ratio [OR] = 0.362, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.149 to 0.880, p = 0.025) and a shorter length of stay (95% CI &#8722;0.217 to &#8722;0.025, p = 0.015). Additionally, patients using ARB/ACEI showed a non-significant trend toward lower intensive care unit admission (OR = 0.727, 95% CI 0.485 to 1.090, p = 0.123), use of supplemental oxygen (OR = 0.929, 95% CI 0.608 to 1.421, p = 0.734), mechanical ventilation (OR = 0.728, 95% CI 0.457 to 1.161, p = 0.182), and vasopressors (OR = 0.677, 95% CI 0.430 to 1.067, p = 0.093).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p>Results suggest that hospitalized patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension who were prescribed ARB/ACEI before admission to the hospital exhibit lower mortality and less severe COVID-19 than those who were not taking ARB/ACEI. The results also suggest that exposure to ARB/ACEI may protect patients with overweight/obesity-related hypertension from severe COVID-19 and death.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Angiotensin Receptor Antagonists</kwd>
        <kwd>Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01001">
          <label>Central Illustration</label>
          <caption>
            <title>: Association between RAAS Antagonism and COVID-19&#8211;related Mortality in Patients with Overweight/Obesity-related Hypertension: A Retrospective Cohort Study</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>ACEI/ARB: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers; BMI: body mass index.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220277-20277-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was caused by a novel, positive sense, single-stranded RNA virus called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). To date, COVID-19 has claimed over 6.3 million lives globally, with the United States leading the world in the absolute number of deaths.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A growing body of evidence suggests that older age (&#8805; 65 years) and comorbidities such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity are independent risk factors for more severe COVID-19 as compared to the general population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The mechanism of viral entry by SARS-CoV-2 has been well characterized.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The novel virus exploits the cell-membrane bound aminopeptidase angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) for viral entry and replication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Mechanistic evidence in select experimental mouse models has shown that ACE2 expression is upregulated with angiotensin receptor blocker/angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ARB/ACEI) administration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> This mechanism initially drove many clinicians and researchers to postulate that ARB/ACEI, both of which block the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), may increase the severity of COVID-19 infection by promoting SARS-CoV-2 binding and cellular entry. Indeed, current clinical data overwhelmingly suggest that ARB/ACEI do not increase COVID-19 severity and mortality; however, to date, no study has been conducted exclusively in a population with overweight/obesity.</p>
        <p>It is well known that patients with obesity have augmented RAAS activity, with adipocytes in visceral adipose tissue highly expressing ACE2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In addition, given the metabolic dysregulation, proinflammatory state, and higher rates of thrombosis, obesity is known to increase the risk of severe COVID-19 and COVID-19&#8211;related mortality. In a recent study among 6,760 hospitalized health care personnel with COVID-19 in 14 states in the US, obesity (72.5%) was found to be the most prevalent comorbidity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Similarly, in a single-center, retrospective cohort study conducted in France with 124 patients with COVID-19 admitted to intensive care, the risk for invasive mechanical ventilation was nearly 7-fold higher for those with a body mass index (BMI) &gt;35 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In addition to obesity, hypertension and other cardiovascular comorbidities are the most common comorbid diseases in patients with COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Several multi-center observational studies and population-wide studies have demonstrated that patients with hypertension experience more severe COVID-19 and higher mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Several studies have shown that higher BMI has been related to a higher prevalence of cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, stroke, myocardial infarction, and ischemic heart disease. Furthermore, most patients with severe COVID-19 who were hospitalized suffered from comorbidities related to excess adiposity, such as diabetes and cardiovascular disorders,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> which is also in line with previous reports from H1N1 influenza outbreaks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> In a retrospective study of 1965 patients with diabetes, in which 726 (36.9%) patients were overweight and 805 (41.0%) had obesity, the authors reported that these conditions were associated with poor prognosis in patients with type 2 diabetes hospitalized for COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The RAAS consists of an enzymatic cascade responsible for blood pressure control by maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance and preserving systemic vascular resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The cascade starts when plasma angiotensinogen is cleaved by renin, into angiotensin I (ang I). Angiotensin-converting enzyme then catalyzes ang I into angiotensin II (ang II).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> ACE2 uses ang II as a substrate and produces ang (1-7). Ang (1-7) is a metabolically active hormone that acts at the MAS receptor to lower blood pressure and has anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic properties. ACEIs inhibit the formation of ang II from ang I. This event leads to conversion of ang I to a similar hormone, ang 1-9. Ang 1-9 is rapidly converted to ang 1-7 by ACE2. ARBs prevent ang II from binding to its receptor; thus, ARBs inhibit the effect of ang II.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>ARB/ACEIs are used extensively in patients with hypertension, other cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, chronic kidney disease, and many other diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> These diseases are often comorbid conditions with obesity; therefore, clinical data about the usage of these medications in patients with overweight/obesity-related hypertension is warranted. To add to the current evidence base regarding the clinical outcomes of this demographic, a retrospective cohort study was conducted to investigate whether there is an association between exposure to ARB/ACEI prior to admission and the severity of COVID-19 among patients with overweight/obesity-related hypertension.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Data source and patients</title>
          <p>This was a single-center, retrospective cohort study conducted on patients diagnosed with COVID-19 who were hospitalized at the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinic (UIHC). Electronic medical records at the University of Iowa (Epic 2018 version UI 2, Epic Systems Corporation, Verona, WI, USA) were used to identify all patients who (1) were &#8805; 18 years of age, (2) had a BMI of &#8805; 25 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> , and (3) had a diagnosis of hypertension, admitted to UIHC between March 1 and December 7, 2020 with COVID-19. The electronic medical records contain complete demographic, clinical, laboratory, and medication data for all patients seen at our medical center. Patients with an incomplete electronic medical record and diagnoses of gestational, pulmonary, portal, renal, and secondary hypertension were excluded. Patients who stopped taking medications for the treatment of hypertension for any reason (e.g., an increase of creatinine level, unable to orally take medicines due to mechanical ventilation, etc.) during hospitalization were included in the study. In addition, patients taking ARB/ACEI for any other indication other than hypertension (e.g., diabetes-related microalbuminuria) were excluded.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Data elements</title>
          <p>Data elements included: age, BMI, sex, smoking/alcohol history, comorbidities (e.g. diabetes and obstructive sleep apnea [OSA]), complications during hospitalization (e.g. pancreatitis, stroke, acute respiratory distress syndrome, hepatitis, etc.), treatments for COVID-19 (e.g. remdesivir, dexamethasone, azithromycin, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine), ventilatory support (e.g. supplemental oxygen, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, invasive ventilation, non-invasive ventilation), intensive care unit (ICU) admission, use of vasopressors, in-hospital mortality, and length of hospital stay. COVID-19 diagnosis was determined by positive test using nasopharyngeal swabs with rare use of oropharyngeal swabs and sputum. All samples were collected in non-activating viral transport media from various manufacturers with high-quality flocked swabs (Center for Disease Control 2019-nCoV Real-Time RT-PCR Diagnostic Panel, Center for Disease Control Emergency Operations Center, Atlanta, GA, USA; TaqPATH COVID-19 Combo kit, Cat#: A47814, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA.). ARB/ACEI use was defined as use of these drugs at the time of admission that was halted during hospitalization. According to their antihypertensive medication, patients were divided into 2 subgroups, those who had a prescription for ARB/ACEI before admission to the hospital and those who did not have a prescription for ARB/ACEI (i.e., the comparison group). All data were extracted from the patients&#8217; electronic medical records by 3 investigators (ES, VK, LC) using a standardized data collection form that was then cross-checked by 4 investigators (ES, VK, LC, MC).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS software (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 27.0. Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive statistics were used to summarize patient demographics and clinical characteristics. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to assess the distribution of variables. Categorical variables were presented as numbers and percentages and compared using the chi-square test. Continuous variables were presented as mean and standard deviation. Independent sample t-tests were used to compare continuous variables. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to analyze binary dependent outcomes such as mortality, ICU admission, use of supplemental oxygen<sub>,</sub>mechanical ventilation, and vasopressors. All models included use of ARB/ACEI as an explanatory variable and were adjusted for a set of covariates, determined <italic>a priori</italic> , that could confound the association between the use of ARB/ACEI and illness severity. These independent covariates included age, sex, BMI, smoking history, OSA, diabetes, and use of remdesivir and dexamethasone. Tests for interaction were conducted between independent variables. Multivariate linear regression models were used for continuous outcomes such as length of stay. Results were presented as odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence interval (95% CI) and adjusted p value. P values below a two-sided alpha of 0.05 were considered statistically significant.</p>
          <p>By the time this study was conducted, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) had recommended remdesivir for patients in the early stage of COVID-19 to reduce viral replication and dexamethasone for patients in later stages of the illness to reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> There is strong evidence that remdesivir and dexamethasone can change the course of COVID-19.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Therefore, these variables were added to the model as post-treatment covariates to determine if there was an effect of ARB/ACEI exposure independent of remdesivir and/or dexamethasone effects. Data on antibiotics other than azithromycin were not collected. In addition, data regarding the use of hydroxychloroquine/chloroquine and azithromycin plus hydroxychloroquine to reduce COVID-19&#8211;related mortality was considered inconsistent and thus not added to the model, but were nevertheless collected and included in descriptive statistics.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Baseline characteristics</title>
          <p>The study identified 946 patients with confirmed COVID-19 who were admitted to UIHC. After applying the exclusion criteria, 439 patients were included in the final analysis ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref> ). This cohort was subsequently grouped into the ARB/ACEI group (n = 240) and comparison group (n = 199). Patient demographics are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> , and their outcomes, and complications are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> . The mean ages were similar across both groups. Compared to the comparison group, patients who were using ARB/ACEI had a significantly higher proportion of men and a higher rate of diabetes mellitus. The rate of OSA in patients who were using ARB/ACEI was higher than in the comparison group, but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.186). In addition, there were more current smokers in the comparison group than the ARB/ACEI group.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Study Flowchart. Inclusion criteria: &#8805; 18 years of age, diagnosed with COVID-19, hypertension, and BMI &#8805; 25 kg/m2. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; COVID-19: coronavirus disease 2019; HTN: hypertension.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-120-04-e20220277-20277-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Demographics of patients with overweight/obesity-related hypertension among ARB/ACEI and comparison groups</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                    <th>ARB/ACEI (n = 240)</th>
                    <th>Comparison (n = 199)</th>
                    <th>p value</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="4">
                      <bold>Demographics</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age, years (SD)</td>
                    <td align="center">61.9 (13.3)</td>
                    <td align="center">63.2 (15.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.358</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>BMI (SD)</td>
                    <td align="center">34.6 (8.4)</td>
                    <td align="center">34.3 (7.9)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.765</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="4">
                      <bold>Sex</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Male (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">181 (75.4)</td>
                    <td align="center">116 (58.2)</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="4">
                      <bold>Chronic comorbidities, N (%)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Diabetes</td>
                    <td align="center">157 (65.4)</td>
                    <td align="center">88 (44.2)</td>
                    <td align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>OSA</td>
                    <td align="center">74 (30.8)</td>
                    <td align="center">50 (25.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.186</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>CPAP usage</td>
                    <td align="center">49 (20.4)</td>
                    <td align="center">23 (11.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.013</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="4">
                      <bold>Smoking, N (%)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Never smoker</td>
                    <td align="center">100 (41.6)</td>
                    <td align="center">87 (43.7)</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Former smoker</td>
                    <td align="center">107 (44.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">92 (46.2)</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Current smoker</td>
                    <td align="center">10 (4.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">10 (5.0)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.289<sup>*</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="4">
                      <bold>Treatments, N (%)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Remdesivir</td>
                    <td align="center">83 (34.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">72 (36.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.727</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Convalescent plasma</td>
                    <td align="center">33 (13.7)</td>
                    <td align="center">31 (15.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.589</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dexamethasone</td>
                    <td align="center">123 (51.2)</td>
                    <td align="center">107 (53.7)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.599</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Chloroquine</td>
                    <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                    <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                    <td align="center">--</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Azithromycin</td>
                    <td align="center">33 (13.7)</td>
                    <td align="center">24 (12.0)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.6</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hydroxychloroquine</td>
                    <td align="center">2 (0.8)</td>
                    <td align="center">1 (0.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>P values were calculated from independent sample t-tests and chi square tests, where appropriate. *The p value for smokers was calculated between smoker (current and unknown) and non-smoker (former) categories. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; BMI: body mass index; CPAP: continuous positive airway pressure; OSA: obstructive sleep apnea; SD: standard deviation.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Outcomes and complications of patients with overweight/obesity-related hypertension among ARB/ACEI and comparison groups</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                    <th>ARB/ACEI (n = 240)</th>
                    <th>Comparison (n = 199)</th>
                    <th>p value</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="4">
                      <bold>Outcome, N (%)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Supplemental oxygen</td>
                    <td align="center">158 (65.8)</td>
                    <td align="center">130 (65.3)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.911</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Non-invasive ventilation</td>
                    <td align="center">125 (52.0)</td>
                    <td align="center">106 (53.2)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.805</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>ECMO</td>
                    <td align="center">3 (1.2)</td>
                    <td align="center">6 (3.0)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.311</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Intensive care</td>
                    <td align="center">95 (39.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">86 (43.2)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.441</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Mechanical ventilation</td>
                    <td align="center">54 (22.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">51 (25.6)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.444</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Vasopressors</td>
                    <td align="center">57 (23.7)</td>
                    <td align="center">56 (28.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.295</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Mortality</td>
                    <td align="center">45 (18.7)</td>
                    <td align="center">51 (25.6)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.083</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="4">
                      <bold>Complications, N (%)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Respiratory disease</td>
                    <td align="center">78 (32.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">54 (27.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.222</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Kidney and urinary tract diseases</td>
                    <td align="center">34 (14.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">21 (10.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.255</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Liver disease</td>
                    <td align="center">8 (3.3)</td>
                    <td align="center">3 (1.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.359</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cardiovascular disease</td>
                    <td align="center">13 (5.4)</td>
                    <td align="center">15 (7.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.365</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pancreatic disease</td>
                    <td align="center">2 (0.8)</td>
                    <td align="center">1 (0.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hematologic disease</td>
                    <td align="center">9 (3.7)</td>
                    <td align="center">7 (3.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.897</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Septic shock</td>
                    <td align="center">10 (4.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">6 (3.0)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.522</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Elevated blood sugar</td>
                    <td align="center">2 (0.8)</td>
                    <td align="center">2 (1.0)</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Acute encephalopathy</td>
                    <td align="center">8 (3.3)</td>
                    <td align="center">7 (3.5)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.916</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>P values were calculated from independent sample t-tests and chi square test, where appropriate. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Medications administered in hospital</title>
          <p>Among the medications administered for COVID-19 treatment, fewer patients received dexamethasone in the ARB/ACEI group as opposed to the comparison group, although this difference was not statistically significant ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Unadjusted associations between ARB/ACEI and primary outcomes</title>
          <p>The unadjusted mortality rate was lower in the ARB/ACEI group than comparison group (18.7% versus 25.6%, p = 0.083). Furthermore, compared with the comparison group, patients in the ARB/ACEI group had a lower ICU admission rate and less use of mechanical ventilation and vasopressors. Overall, unadjusted for other covariates, the illness severity of COVID-19 for patients in the comparison group was worse than in the ARB/ACEI group.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Adjusted associations between ARB/ACEI use and mortality</title>
          <p>After statistical adjustment by age, sex, BMI, smoking history, OSA, diabetes, and usage of dexamethasone and remdesivir, the ARB/ACEI group had significantly lower odds of mortality than patients in the comparison group ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> ). In addition, results from the adjusted models showed that older age and male sex were associated with increased odds of COVID-19&#8211;related mortality. The interaction between use of ARB/ACEI and diabetes was not significant. Furthermore, there was no association between OSA and mortality, and no interaction between ARB/ACEI use and OSA on mortality.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Logistic regression analysis of predictors of mortality between patients with COVID-19 e overweight/obesity-related hypertension in ARB/ACEI and comparison groups</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Variables</th>
                    <th>Odds ratio</th>
                    <th>p value</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age</td>
                    <td align="center">1.030 (1.010&#8211;1.051)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.003</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>BMI</td>
                    <td align="center">0.985 (0.950&#8211;1.022)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.416</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sex (male)</td>
                    <td align="center">2.029 (1.149&#8211;3.584)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.015</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Using ARB/ACEI</td>
                    <td align="center">0.362 (0.149&#8211;0.880)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.025</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Diabetes</td>
                    <td align="center">1.701 (0.860&#8211;3.364)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.127</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>ACEI or ARB by diabetes</td>
                    <td align="center">1.569 (0.532&#8211; 4.624)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.414</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>OSA</td>
                    <td align="center">1.237 (0.710&#8211;2.157)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.453</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Smoking status: current/not on file</td>
                    <td align="center">2.935 (1.520&#8211;5.665)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.001</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dexamethasone: yes</td>
                    <td align="center">0.970 (0.567&#8211;1.659)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.910</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Remdesivir: yes</td>
                    <td align="center">1.298 (0.755&#8211;2.233)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.345</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN3001">
                  <p>Predictor variables were coded as follows: female = 0, male = 1; control = 0, using ACEI/ARB = 1; without diabetes = 0, diabetes = 1; without OSA = 0, OSA = 1; smoking status: never/former = 0, current/not on file = 1; did not take dexamethasone = 0, took dexamethasone = 1; did not take remdesivir = 0, took remdesivir = 1; survival = 0, mortality = 1. Code 0 considered as reference. Numbers in parentheses are 95% confidence intervals. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; BMI: body mass index; OSA: obstructive sleep apnea.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Adjusted associations between ARB/ACEI use and length of stay</title>
          <p>All parameters met the necessary assumptions for linear regression. The multivariate linear regression model showed that patients in the ARB/ACEI group had a shorter length of stay after adjustment for age, sex, BMI, diabetes, OSA, smoking status, and use of dexamethasone and remdesivir ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 4</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t4001">
              <label>Table 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Logistic regression analysis of predictors of length of stay in hospital between patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension in ARB/ACEI and comparison groups</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Variables</th>
                    <th align="left">Standardized B</th>
                    <th align="left">p value</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age</td>
                    <td>0.002 (-0.096 a 0.100)</td>
                    <td>0.962</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>BMI</td>
                    <td>-0.056 (-0.160 a 0.048)</td>
                    <td>0.288</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sex (male)</td>
                    <td>0.002 (-0.094 a 0.098)</td>
                    <td>0.967</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Using ARB/ACEI</td>
                    <td>-0.121 (-0.217 a -0.025)</td>
                    <td>0.015</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Diabetes</td>
                    <td>0.071 (-0.025 a 0.167)</td>
                    <td>0.153</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>OSA</td>
                    <td>0.027 (-0.073 a 0.127)</td>
                    <td>0.602</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Smoking status: current/not on file</td>
                    <td>0.030 (-0.064 a 0.124)</td>
                    <td>0.529</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dexamethasone: yes</td>
                    <td>0.041 (-0.063 a 0.145)</td>
                    <td>0.444</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Remdesivir: yes</td>
                    <td>0.101 (-0.003 a 0.205)</td>
                    <td>0.055</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN4001">
                  <p>Predictor variables were coded as follows: female = 0, male = 1; control = 0, using ACEI/ARB = 1; without diabetes = 0, diabetes = 1; without OSA = 0, OSA = 1; smoking status: never/former = 0, current/not on file = 1; did not take dexamethasone = 0, took dexamethasone = 1; did not take remdesivir = 0, took remdesivir = 1. Code 0 considered as reference. Numbers in parentheses are 95% confidence intervals. ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; BMI: body mass index; OSA: obstructive sleep apnea.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sensitivity analysis using smoking status on mortality and length of stay</title>
          <p>Due to a lack of data regarding smoking status on all patients, a sensitivity analysis was conducted using smoking status to assess the reliability of the study results. There were 33 patients (n = 23 in ARB/ACEI and n = 10 in the comparison group) with smoking status unknown. The most extreme scenario is considering all patients with unknown smoking status as smokers. In this scenario, we observed decreased odds of mortality in smokers using ARB/ACEI ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> ). After removing the patients with missing data regarding smoking status from the analysis, the protective effect of ARB/ACEI use on mortality and length of stay was preserved ( <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">Supplemental Tables 1</ext-link> and <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">2</ext-link> ).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Adjusted associations between ARB/ACEI use and other COVID-19 complications</title>
          <p>The association between the use of ARB/ACEI and other COVID-19 complications was evaluated after adjusting for sex, age, BMI, smoking history, and diabetes. Compared to the comparison group, patients in the ARB/ACEI group manifested non-significant trends toward lower association with ICU admission, mechanical ventilation, usage of vasopressors, and supplemental oxygen than the comparison group. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">Supplemental Tables 3</ext-link> , <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">4</ext-link> , <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">5</ext-link> , and <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">6</ext-link> summarize logistic regression analyses of these outcomes respectively.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>To our knowledge, this is the first dedicated study to evaluate the acute prognosis of COVID-19 in patients with overweight/obesity-related hypertension who were taking ARB/ACEI prior to hospital admission. A significant association was observed between the exposure to ARB/ACEI and reduced mortality from COVID-19, even after statistical adjustment. While favorable trends were observed in the ARB/ACEI group, no significant differences were demonstrated in the rates of ICU admission, mechanical ventilation, and use of vasopressors.</p>
        <p>At present, analysis of our data echoes recommendations from several professional societies, that clinicians should not discontinue patients&#8217; ARB/ACEI medications before or after COVID-19, unless clinically indicated in severe disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Our analysis confirms the findings of a recent study reporting associations between the use of ARB/ACEI and reduced COVID-19 severity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Zhang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> conducted a multi-center, retrospective study of 1128 hospitalized patients with COVID-19 and hypertension, and showed that use of ARB/ACEI was associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality (adjusted hazard ratio 0.42; p = 0.03).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Though this study pointed to an association between ARB/ACEI use and lower mortality, it did not report the number of patients with overweight/obesity in their analyses. It is, however, likely that there were several patients with overweight/obesity in this study given the number of patients with overweight/obesity-related comorbidities like diabetes mellitus, coronary artery disease, and liver disease. In addition, our data suggest that the use of ARB/ACEI is associated with a decreased length of stay. This trend is concordant with a recent multi-center, observational study by Braude et al. (2018) that showed a reduction in the length of stay in patients using ARB/ACEI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Again, the authors did not report the number of patients with overweight/obesity in their analysis, though it is likely that several were with overweight/obesity given that the study primarily consisted of an elderly and diseased population.</p>
        <p>The use of ARB/ACEI among patients with COVID-19 and obesity-related hypertension has been a source of speculation among hypertension specialists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> It is commonly recognized that there is an imbalance of RAAS in patients with obesity. There is an overexpression of angiotensin I receptor (AT1R) and angiotensin II receptors at the level of the adipose tissue and at a systemic level.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> This mechanism was originally thought to contribute to an augmented lung injury in response to the virus in patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity. However, it has been observed that patients with overweight/obesity were, in fact, protected from mortality. A possible explanation that has been suggested by several authors is that ARB/ACEI treatment in the context of concurrent infection with SARS-CoV-2 may shift the physiologic balance between the ACE/ang II/AT1R axis to the ACE2/ang 1-7/MAS receptor axis. The metabolite ang 1-7 could be acting on the MAS receptor to play a role in cardiovascular protection, a global anti-inflammatory effect and potentially even attenuating lung injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Though upregulation of ACE2 by ARB/ACEI treatment was originally posited to increase SARS-CoV-2 infection, it may be serving a protective role in patients by upregulating production of angiotensin 1-7 species and abrogating the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This global anti-inflammatory effect could be even more magnified in patients with obesity, given an increased number of ACE2-expressing cells, and, subsequently, larger amount of ACE2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Further mechanistic and translational research is required to study the effect of ARB/ACEI on pulmonary ACE2 expression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Interestingly, even though there were more males and a higher rate of comorbidities such as OSA and diabetes in the ARB/ACEI group, a lower mortality rate was observed within this group as compared to the comparison one. This lends confidence to our results regarding the protective effect of ARB/ACEI, as males are regarded to be at a higher risk of COVID-19&#8211;related death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A wide range of biopsychosocial variables must be considered to validate this association; androgens are reported to increase plasma renin concentration and activity leading to higher levels of angiotensinogen mRNA and protein.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> The downstream effect of this is systemic vasoconstriction and more severe COVID-19. Thus, ARB/ACEI may potentially be more beneficial in the male population. In addition, there was no association between OSA and mortality, and no interaction between ARB/ACEI exposure and OSA on mortality. Therefore, no adjustments for continuous positive airway pressure usage were conducted despite a significant difference between both groups in continuous positive airway pressure usage.</p>
        <p>Our results also suggest that treatment with remdesivir is associated with prolonged hospitalization (p = 0.055, 95% CI 0.003 to 0.205), but not with reduced mortality (p = 0.345, 95% CI 0.755 to 2.233). This finding is in line with a study in adult patients with COVID-19 admitted to 123 Veterans Health Administration hospitals from May 1 to October 8, 2020, which also showed that remdesivir treatment was not associated with improved survival, but instead with longer hospital stays.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The current study has several limitations. First, it could not establish causality between the exposure to ARB/ACEI and the severity and mortality in COVID-19 because of the inherent limitation of a retrospective study design. Second, these data were accrued at a single center, and the sample size was small; therefore, these results may not be generalizable. The confidence interval for mortality was large, likely indicative of the small sample size, and this limited the power of our study. Despite the small sample size, however, a statistical significance for clinically important outcomes was still observed. Third, although statistical models were used to adjust for potential bias, results were not adjusted for ethnicity, which might have influenced the outcomes. Fourth, the actual use of ARB/ACEI could not be ascertained from medical records, which only report whether or not the patient was prescribed these medications. Fifth, some lifestyle habits, such as alcohol use and adherence to medications/level of blood pressure control, were not available or were not collected in this study. This could potentially act to confound some of the associations observed in this study. Sixth, aiming to preserve the power of the study, the analyses considered both ACEI and ARB users combined for outcome estimates. However, when analyzed independently, use of ACEIs or ARBs were also associated with reduced mortality (OR 0.557, 95% CI 0.315 to 0.987, p = 0.045 and OR 0.388, 95% CI 0.189 to 0.797, p = 0.01; respectively).</p>
        <p>Importantly, we addressed the limitation of lacking data regarding smoking status among medical records by conducting a sensitivity analysis. The analysis considering all patients with unknown smoking status as smokers showed that smokers had a significantly higher odds of mortality. This effect, however, disappeared after removing the patients who did not have data regarding smoking status. The observation that patients who smoke have increased mortality is supported by several studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Recently, a study by Lowe et al. (2021) showed that cumulative exposure to cigarette smoke was an independent risk factor for hospital admission and COVID-19&#8211;related mortality. Furthermore, the effect of smoking on mortality exhibited a dose-dependent relationship because patients with greater cigarette pack-years exhibited higher odds of COVID-19&#8211;related death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>These results suggest that hospitalized patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension who were prescribed ARB/ACEI before admission to the hospital exhibit lower length of stay and COVID-19&#8211;related mortality as compared to those not taking ARB/ACEI medications. This observation may carry important clinical implications in terms of COVID-19 treatment in this unique group of patients with overweight/obesity.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Supplementary materials</title>
        <p>Supplementary Tables S1 through S6 index and contain additional data as follows: S1: Predictors of mortality between patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension in ARB/ACEI and comparison groups with unknown smoking status removed. S2: Predictors of length of stay in hospital between patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension in ARB/ACEI and comparison groups with unknown smoking status removed. S3: Predictors of intensive care between patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension in ARB/ACEI and comparison groups. S4: Predictors of mechanical ventilation between patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension in ARB/ACEI and comparison groups. S5: Predictors of vasopressor use between patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension in ARB/ACEI and comparison groups. S6: Predictors of supplemental oxygen use between patients with COVID-19 and overweight/obesity-related hypertension in ARB/ACEI and comparison groups.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>* Supplemental Materials</title>
        <p>For additional information, please <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2023/12004/2022-0277_material%20suplementar.pdf">click here</ext-link> .</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-not-available">
          <p>Data availability</p>
          <p>The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to privacy laws associated with identifiable medical data.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Iowa under the protocol number IRB#202006525. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
