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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">CmM9KJFKWQPVTPf4CCGCxfh</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022001200027</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20220405</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220405</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Dedu&#231;&#227;o, Indu&#231;&#227;o e a Arte do Racioc&#237;nio Cl&#237;nico na Educa&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica: Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica e Proposta Bayesiana</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1289-5940</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>de-Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Aguiar</surname>
            <given-names>T&#250;lio Roberto Xavier de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , MG &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label> 2 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Filosofia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Filosofia e Ci&#234;ncias Humanas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Departamento de Filosofia da Faculdade de Filosofia e Ci&#234;ncias Humanas &#8211; FAFICH &#8211; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte , MG &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspond&#234;ncia: Marcos Roberto de Sousa &#8226; Av. Prof. Alfredo Balena, 110, Cardiologia, 5&#186; andar. CEP 30130-100, Santa Efig&#234;nia, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>sousa.mr@uol.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>25</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>119</volume>
      <issue>5 suppl 1</issue>
      <fpage>27</fpage>
      <lpage>34</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p>O racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico est&#225; no centro da pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica e emaranhado em uma confus&#227;o conceitual.A teoria da dualidade da probabilidade permite analisar seus aspectos objetivos e subjetivos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p>Fazer revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura sobre o racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico para tomada de decis&#227;o na educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica e uma proposta chamada &#8220;Pensamento Conforme a Regra de Bayes&#8221; (PCRB).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p>A revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica foi realizada na base PubMed at&#233; a data de 27/02/2022, seguindo metodologia rigorosa, por pesquisador experiente em revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica. A proposta PCRB, apresentada na discuss&#227;o, foi elaborada no trabalho de conclus&#227;o de gradua&#231;&#227;o em Filosofia na Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Usou-se a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca como exemplo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p>De 3340 artigos encontrados, inclu&#237;ram-se 154 artigos: 24 tratando da condi&#231;&#227;o de incerteza; 87 tratando de conceitos vagos (discuss&#227;o de casos, heur&#237;stica, lista de vieses cognitivos, escolha com sabedoria) inclu&#237;dos sob o termo &#8216;arte&#8217;; e 43 discutindo a ideia geral de racioc&#237;nio indutivo ou dedutivo. PCRB oferece regras de coer&#234;ncia e reprodutibilidade, infer&#234;ncia sob incerteza e regra de aprendizado, e pode, por meio da perspectiva subjetiva sobre a probabilidade, incorporar aqueles termos vagos classificados como &#8216;arte&#8217;, bem como argumentos e evid&#234;ncias.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p>A revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica mostra que o racioc&#237;nio &#233; fundado na incerteza, predominantemente probabil&#237;stico; al&#233;m de mostrar algumas possibilidades de erro do pensamento hipot&#233;tico-dedutivo. O PCRB &#233; um pensamento probabil&#237;stico em duas etapas que pode ser ensinado. A regra de Bayes &#233; uma ferramenta lingu&#237;stica, uma regra geral de racioc&#237;nio, de diagn&#243;stico, de comunica&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica e de revis&#227;o do conhecimento m&#233;dico conforme novas evid&#234;ncias.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Educa&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica</kwd>
        <kwd>Resolu&#231;&#227;o de Problemas</kwd>
        <kwd>Aprendizagem</kwd>
        <kwd>Tomada de Decis&#227;o Cl&#237;nica</kwd>
        <kwd>Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Teorema de Bayes</kwd>
        <kwd>Medicina Baseada em Evid&#234;ncias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="2"/>
        <ref-count count="21"/>
        <page-count count="8"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O racioc&#237;nio est&#225; no centro da pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica, espalhado por diversas disciplinas e tradi&#231;&#245;es, em meio a grande confus&#227;o conceitual. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> O racioc&#237;nio se d&#225; em um n&#237;vel bioqu&#237;mico, el&#233;trico e magn&#233;tico que n&#227;o compreendemos muito bem, apesar dos avan&#231;os da neuroci&#234;ncia, por ser pr&#233;-lingu&#237;stico. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Por meio da express&#227;o lingu&#237;stica, podemos ensinar racioc&#237;nios: l&#243;gico, matem&#225;tico, e probabil&#237;stico, incluindo o &#8220;pensamento conforme a regra de Bayes&#8221; (PCRB).</p>
      <p>&#8220;Medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias&#8221; (MBE) descreve um movimento iniciado contra uma depend&#234;ncia excessiva de julgamento e experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica na tomada de decis&#245;es de tratamento. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> MBE &#233; o uso consciente, expl&#237;cito e criterioso das melhores evid&#234;ncias atuais na tomada de decis&#245;es sobre o cuidado de pacientes individuais. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Sob uma perspectiva dual da probabilidade, a MBE seria uma vers&#227;o em que se valoriza as frequ&#234;ncias nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos e o racioc&#237;nio do m&#233;dico seria a forma&#231;&#227;o coerente de &#8220;graus de cren&#231;a&#8221;, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> regida pela teoria subjetiva da probabilidade e, basicamente, seguindo o PCRB. Este incorpora as evid&#234;ncias dentro de um contexto pr&#233;vio, de forma que um ensaio cl&#237;nico isolado n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para suplant&#225;-lo.</p>
      <p>O racioc&#237;nio l&#243;gico tende a ser dedutivo, determin&#237;stico e, por isto, &#233; diferente do racioc&#237;nio probabil&#237;stico que &#233; indutivo e fundado na incerteza (n&#227;o determin&#237;stico). Faremos um ataque ao exagero do uso de racioc&#237;nios dedutivos e de evid&#234;ncias isoladas. Tanto os racioc&#237;nios dedutivos e argumentativos quanto as evid&#234;ncias podem ser incorporados ao PCRB. A motiva&#231;&#227;o para este trabalho foi uma pesquisa filos&#243;fica <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> sobre o racioc&#237;nio realizada por um m&#233;dico com experi&#234;ncia em ensino e pesquisa na &#225;rea da sa&#250;de. O objetivo &#233; realizar uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura sobre racioc&#237;nio e tomada de decis&#227;o na educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica, bem como apresentar explica&#231;&#227;o e argumentos em defesa do PCRB, um tipo espec&#237;fico de racioc&#237;nio probabil&#237;stico.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>A revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica foi feita seguindo diretrizes PRISMA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> No tesauro MeSH ( <italic>Medical Subject Headings</italic> ), &#8216;racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico&#8217; &#233; um descritor subordinado ao termo &#8216;diagn&#243;stico&#8217;. J&#225; o descritor &#8216;tomada de decis&#227;o&#8217; fica sob &#8216;processos mentais&#8217;. Neste descritor, &#8216;tomada de decis&#227;o&#8217; &#233; definida como &#8220;o processo de se fazer um julgamento intelectual seletivo quando apresentado a v&#225;rias alternativas complexas de v&#225;rias vari&#225;veis e geralmente de se definir um curso de a&#231;&#227;o ou uma ideia&#8221;. &#8216;Educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica&#8217; era a principal quest&#227;o de interesse, ent&#227;o a seguinte busca reprodut&#237;vel foi realizada:</p>
      <p>(((&#8220;Education, Medical&#8221;[Majr]) AND ((&#8220;Clinical Reasoning&#8221;[Majr]) OR &#8220;Decision Making&#8221;[Majr]))) AND ((&#8220;1952/02/27&#8221;[Date - Entry] : &#8220;2022/02/27&#8221;[Date - Entry]))</p>
      <p>As refer&#234;ncias dos artigos foram utilizadas. Os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o foram artigos em ingl&#234;s, alem&#227;o, portugu&#234;s e espanhol; todos os tipos de publica&#231;&#227;o, com foco em educa&#231;&#227;o para o racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico, tomada de decis&#227;o, m&#233;todos de pensamento, estudos de caso. Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram artigos que discutiam a tomada de decis&#227;o para escolhas na carreira m&#233;dica, <italic>marketing</italic> m&#233;dico, decis&#245;es do sistema de sa&#250;de, e quest&#245;es n&#227;o relacionadas ao racioc&#237;nio. Estudos com compara&#231;&#245;es utilizando question&#225;rios para especialistas, question&#225;rios para estudantes, resultados de estudos de caso estruturados, esquemas ou jogos s&#233;rios s&#243; interessavam quando discutiam argumentos a respeito de regras gerais de racioc&#237;nio.</p>
      <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica da literatura m&#233;dica incluiu o uso do PCRB, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> porque esta j&#225; era uma proposta <italic>a priori</italic> . Ap&#243;s exclus&#245;es por t&#237;tulo ou resumo usando o aplicativo RAYYAN, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> a sele&#231;&#227;o dos artigos foi feita ap&#243;s primeira leitura do texto completo. Como o principal interesse estava nos argumentos dos autores em defesa de suas teorias sobre o racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico, todos os artigos foram lidos uma segunda vez para an&#225;lise dos argumentos; sendo divididos em tr&#234;s grupos definidos <italic>a posteriori</italic>:  1- incerteza; 2-conceitos vagos inclu&#237;dos sob termo &#8216;arte&#8217;; e 3- a ideia geral de racioc&#237;nio. Este &#250;ltimo grupo &#233; o de maior interesse, mas considerou-se que os outros dois grupos oferecem argumentos relevantes.</p>
      <p>A proposta PCRB foi elaborada por um pesquisador m&#233;dico durante um trabalho de conclus&#227;o de curso de gradua&#231;&#227;o em filosofia orientado por um experiente fil&#243;sofo da ci&#234;ncia, avaliando o trabalho de Ian Hacking <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e Donald Gillies <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> sobre as teorias filos&#243;ficas sobre a probabilidade e a regra de Bayes. Esta &#233; uma probabilidade condicional da hip&#243;tese posterior dada a evid&#234;ncia, ou seja, uma revis&#227;o de probabilidades de cen&#225;rios &#224; luz de novas evid&#234;ncias ou informa&#231;&#245;es, expressa por:</p>
      <disp-formula id="e1">
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          <mml:mi>Pr</mml:mi>
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              <mml:mi>Pr</mml:mi>
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              <mml:mi>Pr</mml:mi>
              <mml:mo>&#8289;</mml:mo>
              <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo>
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            <mml:mrow>
              <mml:mi>Pr</mml:mi>
              <mml:mo>&#8289;</mml:mo>
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              <mml:mi>Pr</mml:mi>
              <mml:mo>&#8289;</mml:mo>
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              <mml:mo>&#8739;</mml:mo>
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              <mml:mo>+</mml:mo>
              <mml:mi>Pr</mml:mi>
              <mml:mo>&#8289;</mml:mo>
              <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo>
              <mml:mo>&#8764;</mml:mo>
              <mml:mrow>
                <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">H</mml:mi>
              </mml:mrow>
              <mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo>
              <mml:mi>Pr</mml:mi>
              <mml:mo>&#8289;</mml:mo>
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      <p>Outra op&#231;&#227;o de f&#243;rmula: &#8220; <bold><italic>odds p&#243;s teste = raz&#227;o de verossimilhan&#231;a x odds pr&#233; teste</italic></bold> &#8221;. Sensibilidade, especificidade e raz&#227;o de verossilhan&#231;a s&#227;o alternativas de medidas de acur&#225;cia. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Pr(E|H) &#233; a sensibilidade e Pr(E|~H) = (1 &#8211; especificidade). Pr(H|E) &#233; a revis&#227;o da hip&#243;tese (probabilidade p&#243;s-teste ou probabilidade do cen&#225;rio posterior) com base na taxa base (Pr(H)) do cen&#225;rio pr&#233;vio (probabilidade pr&#233;-teste) e na acur&#225;cia da nova evid&#234;ncia ou informa&#231;&#227;o. O cen&#225;rio posterior tem uma probabilidade que &#233; determinada pela probabilidade do cen&#225;rio pr&#233;vio (taxa base) e pela acur&#225;cia (tamb&#233;m uma probabilidade) da nova evid&#234;ncia ou informa&#231;&#227;o. Trata-se de uma combina&#231;&#227;o condicional de probabilidades em duas etapas temporalmente articuladas. Com base na teoria subjetiva da probabilidade, o estado de cren&#231;a do m&#233;dico &#233; representado por uma fun&#231;&#227;o de probabilidade. A cada momento, seu estado de cren&#231;a &#233; atualizado com base nas informa&#231;&#245;es recebidas da anamnese, exame cl&#237;nico, exames complementares e tamb&#233;m da literatura m&#233;dica (que pode usar medidas de frequ&#234;ncia menos subjetivas). Usa-se, na discuss&#227;o, a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca para ilustrar as possibilidades de uso do PCRB no diagn&#243;stico, progn&#243;stico e escolha terap&#234;utica.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>O fluxograma de sele&#231;&#227;o de artigos est&#225; na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> . De 3340 refer&#234;ncias avaliadas, foram inclu&#237;dos 154 artigos: 24 tratando da incerteza, 87 tratando de conceitos inclu&#237;dos sob o termo &#8216;arte&#8217; e 43 discutindo a ideia geral de racioc&#237;nio. Esses tr&#234;s grupos de artigos ser&#227;o apresentados em tr&#234;s se&#231;&#245;es a seguir. Como seria invi&#225;vel citar 154 refer&#234;ncias neste artigo, por quest&#245;es de espa&#231;o, optou-se por oferecer um Ap&#234;ndice (https://bit.ly/3EMx5sp) com uma sucinta explica&#231;&#227;o da classifica&#231;&#227;o e divis&#227;o dos artigos em grupos, com todas as refer&#234;ncias.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Fluxograma de sele&#231;&#227;o de estudos.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-5suppl1-0027-20405-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Se&#231;&#227;o 1: Incerteza</title>
        <p>Havia 24 artigos baseados na ideia de que estudantes de medicina e m&#233;dicos deveriam aprender a lidar com a &#8216;incerteza&#8217; ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ). O significado da palavra &#8216;incerteza&#8217; inclui desde incerteza diagn&#243;stica at&#233; incerteza sobre o pr&#243;prio conhecimento do m&#233;dico e a literatura cient&#237;fica. Esses artigos foram reunidos porque formam a base epist&#234;mica do PCRB. A incerteza &#233; a condi&#231;&#227;o humana para o racioc&#237;nio contingente. Em vez de rejeit&#225;-la, os m&#233;dicos devem entender e aprender a lidar com a incerteza, por meio do uso de argumentos e evid&#234;ncias, em uma hierarquia que ser&#225; apresentada na proposta final.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Principais argumentos ou ideias nos 24 artigos que discutem a incerteza</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Autor, Ano</th>
                  <th>Tipo de publica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Argumento principal</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Whitehorn, 1963</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Contra o determinismo, em favor da probabilidade e dos valores.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Elstein, 1982</td>
                  <td>Editorial</td>
                  <td>Uma proposta para lidar com a incerteza: "Mais tempo &#233; gasto na computa&#231;&#227;o e interpreta&#231;&#227;o de qui-quadrados, testes T e outras t&#233;cnicas inferenciais que nas estat&#237;sticas de revis&#227;o de opini&#227;o e tomada de decis&#227;o &#8211; a chamada abordagem Bayesiana &#8211; embora este &#250;ltimo seja mais relevante para o trabalho di&#225;rio da pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica (...). Os cl&#237;nicos est&#227;o mais preocupados com a solidez das decis&#245;es tomadas em circunst&#226;ncias particulares do que com a solidez das infer&#234;ncias gerais. Para isso, a perspectiva Bayesiana ser&#225; mais &#250;til, e a instru&#231;&#227;o na l&#243;gica das decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas deve incorpor&#225;-la. "</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gunderman, 2005</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Uma proposta dial&#243;gica para lidar com a incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Nevalainen et al., 2009</td>
                  <td>22 di&#225;rios de alunos</td>
                  <td>Escrita reflexiva como uma proposta de expressar e lidar com a incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Blanch et al., 2009</td>
                  <td>147 intera&#231;&#245;es registradas de alunos com pacientes</td>
                  <td>Pesquisadores encontraram uma percep&#231;&#227;o negativa de estudantes de medicina que expressaram incerteza para seus pacientes. Foram analisados tipos de frases.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Charlin et al., 2010</td>
                  <td>Pain&#233;is com especialistas, moradores e estudantes</td>
                  <td>Uma proposta de uso de m&#233;todos de padroniza&#231;&#227;o para comparar os escores de examinadores individuais com os de um painel agregado, a fim de lidar com a incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Schwartz, 2011</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Uma proposta de ensinar a tomada de decis&#245;es como uma quest&#227;o principal na medicina.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hamui-Sutton et al., 2015</td>
                  <td>128 Residentes: entrevista e opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Uma avalia&#231;&#227;o abrangente de v&#225;rios tipos de incerteza envolvida na pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Niedermier, 2016</td>
                  <td>Carta ao editor</td>
                  <td>Aponta para efeitos negativos da incerteza e observa a necessidade de treinamento para lidar com isso.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Simpkin et al., 2016</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Considerar &#8220;hip&#243;teses&#8221; em vez de &#8220;diagn&#243;sticos&#8221;, abra&#231;ando a incerteza como atitude.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cooke et al., 2017</td>
                  <td>594 estagi&#225;rios</td>
                  <td>Estresse da incerteza e relut&#226;ncia em comunicar incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cooke et al., 2017</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Uma proposta de abra&#231;ar a incerteza e aceitar mais de uma conduta poss&#237;vel para o problema apresentado.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Oferta, 2017</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Literatura, m&#250;sica, arte e humanidades como proposta aprendem a lidar com a incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Kim et al., 2018</td>
                  <td>Revis&#227;o</td>
                  <td>Proposta de estrat&#233;gias para gest&#227;o da incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Simpkin et al., 2018</td>
                  <td>86 Entrevistas de residentes e opini&#245;es de especialistas</td>
                  <td>Altos n&#237;veis de estresse devido &#224; incerteza e baixos n&#237;veis de resili&#234;ncia parecem estar associados &#224; depress&#227;o e <italic>burnout.</italic></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tonelli et al., 2019</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Abordagem filos&#243;fica da incerteza, incluindo metaf&#237;sica, falibilismo e racionalidade epist&#234;mica.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Davidson, 2019</td>
                  <td>Editorial</td>
                  <td>Um conjunto de recomenda&#231;&#245;es para lidar com a incerteza na ci&#234;ncia m&#233;dica: "Os autores devem ser adequadamente temperados em suas conclus&#245;es, usando linguagem que reconhece a incerteza quando apropriado. As conclus&#245;es devem ser influenciadas n&#227;o apenas pelo valor p, mas tamb&#233;m pelo tamanho do efeito e pelos limites dos intervalos de confian&#231;a de 95%."</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ying et al., 2019</td>
                  <td>70 residentes em uma pesquisa</td>
                  <td>O estudo sugeriu que aqueles que est&#227;o mais confort&#225;veis com a incerteza podem experimentar maior satisfa&#231;&#227;o no trabalho.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Stephens et al., 2020</td>
                  <td>Estudo qualitativo com 608 alunos</td>
                  <td>Incentivar educadores m&#233;dicos a incorporar aspectos de toler&#226;ncia da incerteza em ambientes curriculares e de aprendizagem.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Beck et al., 2020</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Uma proposta dial&#243;gica para lidar com a incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lee, 2020</td>
                  <td>Editorial</td>
                  <td>Um apelo por artigos sobre incerteza, motivado pela pandemia de covid-19.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>McCarthy et al., 2020</td>
                  <td>Ensaio randomizado comparando estrat&#233;gias de comunica&#231;&#227;o de incerteza diagn&#243;stica</td>
                  <td>Interven&#231;&#227;o educativa para comunica&#231;&#227;o da incerteza diagn&#243;stica na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia para melhorar a qualidade da assist&#234;ncia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Papanagnou et al., 2021</td>
                  <td>Estudo transversal com 287 alunos do 3&#186; ano</td>
                  <td>Questionamentos aos alunos a fim de preparar treinamentos para lidar com a incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Romiti et al., 2021</td>
                  <td>Opini&#227;o de especialista</td>
                  <td>Argumentam que a pandemia de covid-19 intensificou nossa rela&#231;&#227;o conflituosa com a incerteza.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Se&#231;&#227;o 2: Arte</title>
        <p>&#8216;Arte&#8217; foi o termo escolhido para incluir 87 artigos; &#233; a maneira mais comum que os professores de medicina costumam ensinar. Baseia-se principalmente em discuss&#245;es de casos e aprendizado da arte da medicina em contextos espec&#237;ficos, sem uma regra geral, mas com v&#225;rias pequenas regras contingentes. Esses casos cl&#237;nicos podem ser reais ou imagin&#225;rios, e podem ser usados jogos ou plataformas eletr&#244;nicas. Os alunos e os m&#233;dicos devem ser educados para apreciar a relev&#226;ncia das narrativas da doen&#231;a no processo de cuidado/cura. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Doze artigos foram classificados sob o termo &#8216;heur&#237;stica&#8217;. As heur&#237;sticas permitem que nos envolvamos em tomadas de decis&#227;o em contextos em que h&#225; um conjunto de dados incompleto, usando um processo que pode tamb&#233;m exigir o descarte deliberado de alguns dados. Para um cl&#237;nico, o processo baseado em heur&#237;stica refere-se &#224; integra&#231;&#227;o intuitiva dos achados cl&#237;nicos. Esta descri&#231;&#227;o &#233; an&#225;loga a uma caracteriza&#231;&#227;o intuitiva de um cen&#225;rio, para o qual pode ser atribu&#237;da uma probabilidade subjetiva que seria inserida no PCRB.</p>
        <p>A arte desse &#8220;reconhecimento de padr&#245;es&#8221; ou de &#8220;semelhan&#231;as&#8221; &#233; em grande parte inconsciente, sem esfor&#231;o e, embora geralmente associada ao vi&#233;s de disponibilidade e confirma&#231;&#227;o, &#233; considerada eficiente. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> V&#225;rias dimens&#245;es do racioc&#237;nio s&#227;o consideradas, incluindo emo&#231;&#245;es. Essa &#8220;arte&#8221; contribui para a humaniza&#231;&#227;o da pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica, for&#231;ando os m&#233;dicos a pensar tamb&#233;m em termos n&#227;o t&#233;cnicos. Neste &#8220;reconhecimento de padr&#227;o&#8221;, precisamos ir al&#233;m da &#8220;vaga distin&#231;&#227;o entre o Sistema 1 e o Sistema 2 para modelos mais precisos de tomada de decis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica&#8221;. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em geral, os m&#233;dicos est&#227;o aprendendo a pensar a partir de experi&#234;ncias anteriores em casos semelhantes. Logo, esse &#233; um tipo de racioc&#237;nio indutivo, que n&#227;o garante a verdade da conclus&#227;o, e pode ser traduzido em uma l&#237;ngua Bayesiana, como ser&#225; argumentado na se&#231;&#227;o Discuss&#227;o. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> mostra os principais termos foram utilizados nesses artigos como forma de caracterizar o racioc&#237;nio, mas n&#227;o s&#227;o uma regra de racioc&#237;nio.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Palavras-chave dos artigos que discutem o racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico como &#8220;arte&#8221;:</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Aprendizagem baseada em casos; Heur&#237;stica; Processamento de informa&#231;&#227;o; Lista de vieses cognitivos; Lista de habilidades; Memoriza&#231;&#227;o; Perspectiva filos&#243;fica; Modelos de pap&#233;is ( <italic>Role models</italic> ); Jogos s&#233;rios ( <italic>Serious games</italic> ); Valores; Ambiguidade; Pedindo ajuda; Escolhendo com sabedoria ( <italic>Choosing wisely</italic> ); Trilha de educa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica ( <italic>Clinical education track</italic> ); Custos; Emo&#231;&#245;es; Teoria encapsulada ( <italic>Encapsulated theory</italic> ); Percep&#231;&#245;es gerais; Grau de prioridades de urg&#234;ncias; Sentimentos viscerais ( <italic>Gut feelings</italic> ); Uso de literatura n&#227;o m&#233;dica; Preven&#231;&#227;o; Teatro realista; Achados cl&#237;nicos salientes; Familiaridade e semelhan&#231;a; tempo de reflex&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Se&#231;&#227;o 3: A ideia geral do racioc&#237;nio</title>
        <p>Estes 43 artigos foram agrupados por expressarem ideias mais gerais com algumas regras de racioc&#237;nio. Nesta se&#231;&#227;o, discutem-se dois tipos de processos de racioc&#237;nio necess&#225;rios ao pensamento cr&#237;tico: o indutivo e o dedutivo. S&#227;o processos diferentes, apropriados para diferentes tipos de tarefas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Apenas tr&#234;s artigos apresentam uma defesa mais expl&#237;cita do pensamento dedutivo (hipot&#233;tico-dedutivo, segundo o qual os dados obtidos geram hip&#243;teses que s&#227;o testadas na busca de confirma&#231;&#227;o ou de falsifica&#231;&#227;o). Dois artigos fazem compara&#231;&#245;es qualitativas <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> ou quantitativas (em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; validade e similaridade) <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> entre dedu&#231;&#227;o e indu&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Por outro lado, 13 artigos apresentam uma defesa mais expl&#237;cita do pensamento indutivo e probabil&#237;stico, aplicando o PCRB na tomada de decis&#227;o. Esta forma de pensar n&#227;o se aplica apenas ao diagn&#243;stico, mas tamb&#233;m &#224; interpreta&#231;&#227;o de resultados de ensaios cl&#237;nicos, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> pois &#233; uma forma geral de racioc&#237;nio. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Doze estudos foram agrupados na categoria MBE. Consideramos que a MBE &#233; o julgamento cl&#237;nico que envolve o conhecimento de no&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas sobre delineamento de estudos e especialmente sobre no&#231;&#245;es probabil&#237;sticas sobre a diferen&#231;a entre valor relativo e valor absoluto, grau de relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica, impacto da interven&#231;&#227;o (tamanho do efeito), habilidade de interpreta&#231;&#227;o do intervalo de confian&#231;a dos resultados de um estudo em detrimento do valor isolado da signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica (valor de p), tomada de decis&#227;o terap&#234;utica com base em NNT (n&#250;mero de pessoas necess&#225;rio tratar para evitar um desfecho relevante) e ganho de sobrevida, an&#225;lises de custo-efetividade, interpreta&#231;&#227;o de meta-an&#225;lises, al&#233;m de no&#231;&#245;es b&#225;sicas de mecanismos de busca de artigos e crit&#233;rios de qualidade metodol&#243;gica. A incorpora&#231;&#227;o dessas informa&#231;&#245;es ao PCRB, contendo maior ou menor probabilidade, requer a inser&#231;&#227;o desses conhecimentos de MBE na tomada de decis&#227;o. Eles funcionam como conhecimentos que avaliam de forma probabil&#237;stica e indutiva o cen&#225;rio de decis&#227;o que &#233; modificado a cada nova informa&#231;&#227;o. Uma nova evid&#234;ncia &#233; assim incorporada ao PCRB como nova informa&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Dentre os 12 estudos restantes, cinco foram classificados como &#8220;esquemas indutivos&#8221;, um foi classificado como &#8220;m&#233;todos de escores de compara&#231;&#227;o de racioc&#237;nios&#8221; e sete classificados como &#8220;outros&#8221; que discutem quest&#245;es relacionadas &#224; import&#226;ncia do contexto (que &#233; uma forma de avalia&#231;&#227;o do cen&#225;rio inicial), pressupostos epistemol&#243;gicos, ou ferramentas de caracteriza&#231;&#227;o das informa&#231;&#245;es ou de discuss&#245;es sobre o racioc&#237;nio n&#227;o enquadradas nem como indutivas e nem como dedutivas, chamadas pelos autores de &#8220;m&#233;todos anal&#237;ticos&#8221;, &#8220;polifonia&#8221;, &#8220;hist&#243;ria e tend&#234;ncias&#8221;, &#8220;an&#225;lise de decis&#227;o&#8221;.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nesta se&#231;&#227;o, fazemos uma breve discuss&#227;o dos resultados da revis&#227;o e apresentamos a proposta PCRB. A revis&#227;o sugere que a incerteza &#233; ub&#237;qua na medicina e que predomina o aprendizado por casos (indu&#231;&#227;o). Observou-se uma frequ&#234;ncia maior de racioc&#237;nios indutivos, probabil&#237;sticos e especialmente sobre o PCRB para tomada de decis&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o com o pensamento hipot&#233;tico-dedutivo.</p>
      <p>Tanto a l&#243;gica dedutiva (escassamente encontrada na revis&#227;o) como o pensamento indutivo (amplamente defendido na revis&#227;o) s&#227;o express&#245;es lingu&#237;sticas, manipula&#231;&#227;o de signos. Os signos dedutivos usuais levam a pensamentos em categorias, do tipo V ou F, 0 ou 1, e nossa proposta &#233; usar valores entre 0 e 1, o que pode ser ensinado. A motiva&#231;&#227;o para a constru&#231;&#227;o de linguagens l&#243;gicas formais foi a separa&#231;&#227;o dos bons argumentos versus argumentos ruins; entretanto, &#233; poss&#237;vel que a l&#243;gica n&#227;o tenha nada a ver com processos mentais. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Por quest&#245;es de viabilidade, a revis&#227;o foi restrita a descritores MeSH como t&#243;picos principais ([majr]) na pesquisa reprodut&#237;vel, o que a torna mais restritiva e menos sens&#237;vel. Contudo, como n&#227;o foi realizada meta-an&#225;lise, considera-se satisfat&#243;ria esta amostra da literatura sobre o tema para uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica.</p>
      <p>O racioc&#237;nio indutivo envolve processamento de informa&#231;&#245;es de baixo para cima, ou seja, das evid&#234;ncias para a teoria. A estrat&#233;gia de processamento de dados &#233; orientada por dados (validados, apropriados, n&#227;o estruturados). Trata-se de um caminho explorat&#243;rio de como chegar a uma conclus&#227;o, coletando evid&#234;ncias de casos e construindo um princ&#237;pio geral. No pensamento indutivo, uma conclus&#227;o pode ser falsa mesmo que todas as premissas sejam verdadeiras (i.e., n&#227;o garante a verdade da conclus&#227;o). &#201; necess&#225;rio reconhecer padr&#245;es e conex&#245;es, com a finalidade de formula&#231;&#227;o de hip&#243;teses e teorias. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Por sua vez, o racioc&#237;nio dedutivo acontece de cima para baixo, das hip&#243;teses (ou teorias) para as evid&#234;ncias: do conhecimento te&#243;rico sobre uma s&#237;ndrome, procurar sinais e sintomas no paciente. Ou, quando a dedu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o se d&#225; das hip&#243;teses para as evid&#234;ncias, se d&#225; de uma hip&#243;tese para outra, como implica&#231;&#227;o das pr&#243;prias hip&#243;teses. A partir de uma suspei&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, procura-se, no paciente, sinais e sintomas que confirmam a hip&#243;tese. Na dedu&#231;&#227;o, uma conclus&#227;o n&#227;o pode ser falsa se as premissas forem verdadeiras, tentando fazer previs&#227;o de consequ&#234;ncias a partir das hip&#243;teses <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> e n&#227;o dos dados observacionais.</p>
      <p>Um estudo sugere que m&#233;dicos em treinamento e especialistas eventualmente geram hip&#243;teses diagn&#243;sticas logo no in&#237;cio da investiga&#231;&#227;o, e, assim, &#233; prov&#225;vel que a coleta e interpreta&#231;&#227;o subsequente de sinais cl&#237;nicos sejam guiadas por essas hip&#243;teses precoces ou precipitadas. Esta &#233; uma importante fonte de erros no pensamento hipot&#233;tico-dedutivo. Isso representa um desafio a educadores e pesquisadores m&#233;dicos para elaborar estudos ou interven&#231;&#245;es destinadas a reduzir erros. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A proposta PCRB sobre a probabilidade e o pensamento Bayesiano, com base na revis&#227;o de literatura filos&#243;fica <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e corroborada pela revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, permite uma linguagem unificada. Como ilustra a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> , sob uma perspectiva subjetiva (grau de cren&#231;a) da probabilidade, o PCRB considera o cen&#225;rio pr&#233;vio e o resultado da investiga&#231;&#227;o atual para estimar a probabilidade de o cen&#225;rio ser mais apropriadamente interpretado ap&#243;s tal investiga&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Probabilidades de resultado da regra de Bayes, baseada em graus de cren&#231;a; Valores percentuais no eixo y. VPP: valor preditivo de um resultado positivo da nova informa&#231;&#227;o; VPN: valor preditivo de um resultado negativo da nova informa&#231;&#227;o. PCRB &#233; baseado na taxa base do cen&#225;rio pr&#233;vio e na acur&#225;cia da nova informa&#231;&#227;o ou da evid&#234;ncia. Subjetivamente, estima-se o grau de cren&#231;a; objetivamente, busca-se evid&#234;ncias de boa qualidade. No racioc&#237;nio intuitivo, nas estimativas de taxa base muito elevadas ou muito baixas, a taxa base &#233; determinante do racioc&#237;nio. Nas estimativas de taxa base intermedi&#225;ria, a acur&#225;cia &#233; determinante do resultado do racioc&#237;nio. Explica&#231;&#227;o dispon&#237;vel em https://youtu.be/gdHM3pkwDHc.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-5suppl1-0027-20405-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>O PCRB condiciona a interpreta&#231;&#227;o da nova informa&#231;&#227;o ao cen&#225;rio pr&#233;vio. Assim, o pensamento Bayesiano &#233; uma infer&#234;ncia indutiva em duas etapas temporalmente articuladas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Na caracteriza&#231;&#227;o do cen&#225;rio inicial, todos os seus aspectos s&#227;o considerados, e as teorias contidas na forma&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;dico v&#227;o influenciar. No entanto, &#233; priorit&#225;rio considerar aquilo que &#233; observado, ou seja: primeiro a anamnese, depois o exame cl&#237;nico, depois os exames complementares, com foco nos problemas do paciente. O risco de usar ingenuamente o pensamento hipot&#233;tico dedutivo &#233;, durante as fases iniciais da investiga&#231;&#227;o, o m&#233;dico come&#231;ar a procurar, no paciente, confirma&#231;&#245;es de coisas que est&#227;o em sua mente (uma esp&#233;cie de vi&#233;s de confirma&#231;&#227;o). O risco de usar ingenuamente o PCRB &#233; acreditar que as cren&#231;as ou as frequ&#234;ncias observadas garantem a conclus&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Por exemplo, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome de dif&#237;cil diagn&#243;stico em suas formas leves ou com comorbidades pulmonares. O m&#233;dico, durante a avalia&#231;&#227;o de um paciente com uma forma leve de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, n&#227;o se sabe se o paciente tem ou n&#227;o tem a doen&#231;a. Come&#231;amos a investiga&#231;&#227;o sem saber, ent&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; um conhecimento que funda o diagn&#243;stico, seu fundamento &#233; o &#8220;n&#227;o saber&#8221;, &#233; a incerteza; e sua constru&#231;&#227;o &#233; orientada pelo cen&#225;rio inicial (com foco nos sinais e sintomas e n&#227;o com base na hip&#243;tese precoce) e revisada pelos exames complementares (gerando cen&#225;rios p&#243;s-teste). O pensamento hipot&#233;tico dedutivo pode ser &#250;til, mas seu risco &#233; usar um conjunto muito restrito de hip&#243;teses, sem considerar todas as hip&#243;teses alternativas. Os sintomas relatados e sinais observados s&#227;o a base inicial, o cen&#225;rio pr&#233;-teste do racioc&#237;nio durante a consulta.</p>
      <p>Pode ser contra argumentado que a teoria sobre a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca fornece um modelo an&#225;logo aos modelos e estruturas da l&#243;gica dedutiva, e os crit&#233;rios para o diagn&#243;stico no paciente seriam semelhantes a uma dedu&#231;&#227;o, avaliando se as proposi&#231;&#245;es e infer&#234;ncias satisfazem ao modelo (padr&#227;o t&#237;pico de racioc&#237;nio dedutivo). Contudo, o racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico parte do indiv&#237;duo contingente em seu contexto para as hip&#243;teses ou para a teoria. S&#227;o os sintomas e sinais e a sequ&#234;ncia de exames que devem conduzir a formula&#231;&#227;o das hip&#243;teses e n&#227;o as hip&#243;teses conduzirem o racioc&#237;nio. As evid&#234;ncias encontradas no exame cl&#237;nico e as informa&#231;&#245;es obtidas na anamnese levam o m&#233;dico a um racioc&#237;nio que &#233; indutivo e n&#227;o dedutivo. &#201; a partir das &#8220;pistas&#8221; (sintomas, sinais, exames) que se elabora hip&#243;teses e isto inclui, neste exemplo, n&#227;o apenas a hip&#243;tese da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca bem como outras hip&#243;teses para explicar as pistas. O m&#233;dico astuto dever&#225; pensar em hip&#243;teses alternativas, constru&#237;das a partir dos dados observados no paciente e n&#227;o em uma lista de diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais de um livro que n&#227;o considera o contexto individual.</p>
      <p>O mesmo vale para o progn&#243;stico: &#233; a partir do paciente, contingente em seu contexto, que o m&#233;dico tenta estimar um progn&#243;stico. Mesmo que iluminado pelos estudos, s&#227;o os dados do indiv&#237;duo que devem entrar na an&#225;lise para se determinar em qual estudo ou subtipo populacional aquele paciente se encaixa. O mesmo vale para o tratamento: deve-se analisar o perfil cl&#237;nico do paciente, em qual momento do espectro da doen&#231;a ele se encontra e em qual contexto para decidir quais evid&#234;ncias de estudos terap&#234;uticos melhor se encaixam ao paciente. N&#227;o se devem encaixar as diretrizes no paciente de forma acr&#237;tica, e sim avaliar em qual perfil do espectro cl&#237;nico o paciente se encontra nas diretrizes.</p>
      <p>Para procurar solu&#231;&#245;es para os problemas, valores e prefer&#234;ncias do paciente, o uso da literatura m&#233;dica segue a mesma regra: as ferramentas descritas na linguagem da MBE devem considerar como priorit&#225;rias as estimativas quantitativas e absolutas (n&#227;o relativas) das interven&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas, progn&#243;sticas ou terap&#234;uticas, com base em dados emp&#237;ricos e n&#227;o meramente te&#243;ricos, na constru&#231;&#227;o de uma hierarquia Bayesiana. N&#227;o basta um estudo, uma evid&#234;ncia. H&#225; muitas situa&#231;&#245;es de incerteza na aplica&#231;&#227;o pr&#225;tica das evid&#234;ncias e no grau de acur&#225;cia de cada evid&#234;ncia. H&#225; uma hierarquia que precisa ser respeitada. Trata-se de um arcabou&#231;o que sustenta a tomada de decis&#227;o. A decis&#227;o &#233; tomada sob algum grau de incerteza residual, com base na maior probabilidade subjetiva, que incorpora dados objetivos dos estudos. No PCRB, entendendo &#8216;prov&#225;vel&#8217; como &#8216;prov&#225;vel de ser um conhecimento mais acurado, mais &#250;til&#8217;; h&#225; uma sequ&#234;ncia hier&#225;rquica, apresentada na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> .</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Hierarquia bayesiana no pensamento conforme a regra de Bayes</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="order">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Opini&#227;o de especialista &#233; mais prov&#225;vel que opini&#227;o de n&#227;o especialista.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Opini&#227;o &#233; menos prov&#225;vel que argumento.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Argumento de especialista &#233; mais prov&#225;vel que argumento de n&#227;o especialista.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Argumento &#233; menos prov&#225;vel que evid&#234;ncia.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evid&#234;ncia com m&#233;todo confi&#225;vel &#233; mais prov&#225;vel que evid&#234;ncia com m&#233;todo menos confi&#225;vel.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evid&#234;ncia com m&#233;todo confi&#225;vel produzida por pessoas com menos conflitos de interesse &#233; mais prov&#225;vel que evid&#234;ncia produzida por pessoas com mais conflitos de interesse.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>O passo 6 &#233; mais prov&#225;vel se for verificado pelo mesmo m&#233;todo por outros pesquisadores que n&#227;o aqueles do passo 6.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Sob o PCRB, sempre h&#225; um res&#237;duo de incerteza, entretanto h&#225; uma redu&#231;&#227;o da incerteza &#224; medida que se acumulam contextos, cen&#225;rios e evid&#234;ncias. Cada informa&#231;&#227;o nesta hierarquia &#233; incorporada ao contexto, como uma nova informa&#231;&#227;o com determinada acur&#225;cia agregada a uma probabilidade pr&#233;via. Um diagn&#243;stico, um progn&#243;stico ou um tratamento s&#227;o vistos como probabil&#237;sticos ou como hip&#243;teses e n&#227;o como &#8220;verdadeiros&#8221;. O discurso lingu&#237;stico mais apropriado na comunica&#231;&#227;o ao paciente deve ser orientado pelo que parece mais prov&#225;vel &#224; luz dos dados dispon&#237;veis naquele momento. O princ&#237;pio da bival&#234;ncia da l&#243;gica cl&#225;ssica, do verdadeiro ou do falso, &#233; insuficiente para expressar a incerteza residual. O PCRB lida com a incerteza sem cair no relativismo.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>A revis&#227;o da literatura mostrou que: 1) a incerteza &#233; a condi&#231;&#227;o epist&#234;mica para o racioc&#237;nio; 2) por isso, usamos predominantemente a probabilidade; 3) h&#225; muita confus&#227;o conceitual sobre o tema. O pensamento Bayesiano aqui proposto, e amplamente subsidiado pela revis&#227;o de literatura, &#233; um pensamento probabil&#237;stico em duas etapas que pode ser ensinado. A regra de Bayes &#233; uma ferramenta lingu&#237;stica, uma regra geral de racioc&#237;nio, de diagn&#243;stico, de comunica&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica e de revis&#227;o do conhecimento m&#233;dico conforme novas evid&#234;ncias. A caracteriza&#231;&#227;o do cen&#225;rio inicial &#233; uma arte que envolve m&#250;ltiplos aspectos, sendo alguns subjetivos, mas que podem ser inseridos no PCRB, sob a luz da teoria subjetiva da probabilidade.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte do trabalho de conclus&#227;o de Marcos Roberto de Sousa sob orienta&#231;&#227;o do Prof. T&#250;lio RX Aguiar pela Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Deduction, Induction and the Art of Clinical Reasoning in Medical Education: Systematic Review and Bayesian Proposal</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1289-5940</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>de-Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Aguiar</surname>
            <given-names>T&#250;lio Roberto Xavier de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Filosofia da Faculdade de Filosofia e Ci&#234;ncias Humanas &#8211; FAFICH &#8211; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Marcos Roberto de Sousa &#8226; Av. Prof. Alfredo Balena, 110, Cardiologia, 5&#186; andar. Postal Code 30130-100, Santa Efig&#234;nia, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil E-mail: sousa.mr@uol.com.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>Clinical reasoning is at the core of medical practice and entangled in a conceptual confusion. The duality theory in probability allows to evaluate its objective and subjective aspects.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p>To conduct a systematic review of the literature about clinical reasoning in decision making in medical education and to propose a &#8220;reasoning based on the Bayesian rule&#8221; (RBBR).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>A systematic review on PubMed was conducted (until February 27, 2022), following a strict methodology, by a researcher experienced in systematic review. The RBBR, presented in the discussion section, was constructed in his undergraduate dissertation in Philosophy at Minas Gerais Federal University. Heart failure was used as example.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>Of 3,340 articles retrieved, 154 were included: 24 discussing the uncertainty condition, 87 on vague concepts (case discussion, heuristics, list of cognitive biases, choosing wisely) subsumed under the term &#8220;art&#8221;, and 43 discussing the general idea of inductive or deductive reasoning. RBBR provides coherence and reproducibility rules, inference under uncertainty, and learning rule, and can incorporate those vague terms classified as &#8220;art&#8221;, arguments and evidence, from a subjective perspective about probability.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p>This systematic review shows that reasoning is grounded in uncertainty, predominantly probabilistic, and reviews possible errors of the hypothetico-deductive reasoning. RBBR is a two-step probabilistic reasoning that can be taught. The Bayes theorem is a linguistic tool, a general rule of reasoning, diagnosis, scientific communication and review of medical knowledge according to new evidence.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Education, Medical</kwd>
        <kwd>Problem Solving</kwd>
        <kwd>Learning</kwd>
        <kwd>Clinical Decision-Making</kwd>
        <kwd>Systematic Review</kwd>
        <kwd>Bayes Theorem</kwd>
        <kwd>Evidence Based Medicine</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Reasoning is at the core of medical practice, spread in several disciplines and traditions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Reasoning occurs through biochemical, electrical and magnetic processes that are not well understood despite advances in neuroscience, since it is pre-linguistic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> By means of linguistic expression, we can teach several types of reasonings: logical, mathematical, and probabilistic reasoning, including the &#8220;reasoning based on the Bayesian rule&#8221; (RBBR).</p>
        <p>&#8220;Evidence-based medicine&#8221; (EBM) describes a movement against an excessive dependence on clinical judgement and experience in treatment decision-making.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> EBM is the conscious, explicit and careful use of the best available evidence in the decision making about individual patient care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Under a dual perspective of probability, EBM would be a version that values the frequencies in clinical trials, and medical reasoning would be the coherent formation of &#8220;degrees of belief&#8221;,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> governed by the subjective theory of probability and the RBBR. This incorporates evidence into a previous context, so that a clinical trial alone is not able to overcome it.</p>
        <p>Logical reasoning tends to be deductive and deterministic, and thus, different from probabilistic reasoning which is inductive and based on uncertainty (non-deterministic). We will carry out an attack against the abusive use of deductive reasoning and isolated evidence. Both evidence and deductive and argumentative reasonings can be incorporated into RBBR. The motivation of this work was a philosophical research<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> about reasoning conducted by a physician experienced in teaching and research in health. The objective was to conduct a systematic review of the literature about reasoning and decision making in medical education, and to propose an explanation and arguments in favor of RBBR, a specific type of probabilistic reasoning.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>The systematic review was performed following PRISMA guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> In the MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) thesaurus, &#8216;clinical reasoning&#8217; is a subheading of &#8216;diagnosis&#8217;, and &#8216;decision making&#8217; is a subheading of &#8216;mental processes&#8217;. In this descriptor, &#8216;decision making&#8217; is defined as &#8220;the process of making a selective intellectual judgment when presented with several complex alternatives consisting of several variables, and usually defining a course of action or an idea&#8221;. &#8216;Medical education&#8217; was the main question of interest and thus the following reproducible search was carried out:</p>
        <p>(((&#8220;Education, Medical&#8221;[Majr]) AND ((&#8220;Clinical Reasoning&#8221;[Majr]) OR &#8220;Decision Making&#8221;[Majr]))) AND ((&#8220;1952/02/27&#8221;[Date - Entry]: &#8220;2022/02/27&#8221;[Date - Entry]))</p>
        <p>The references of the articles were also used. Inclusion criteria were articles written in English, German, Portuguese, and Spanish; all types of publications focusing on education for clinical reasoning, decision making, methods of thinking, case studies. Exclusion criteria were articles on decision-making on choices in the medical career, medical marketing, healthcare, and other aspects not related to reasoning. Comparisons using questionnaires for specialists, questionnaires for students, results of structured cases, schemes or serious games were only included if arguments about general rules of reasoning were discussed in the study.</p>
        <p>The critical assessment of medical literature included the use of the RBBR,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> as this was an &#8220;a priori&#8221; proposal. After screening the articles based on their titles and abstracts using the RAYYAN application,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> articles were selected after the first reading of full text. Since the main interest lay on the authors&#8217; arguments in favor of clinical reasoning, all articles were read for a second time for analysis of the arguments and were divided into three groups defined <italic>a posteriori</italic>:  1- uncertainty; 2- vague concepts subsumed under the term &#8220;art&#8221;; and 3- general idea of reasoning. Although this last group was of the greatest interest, the other two were considered for providing relevant arguments.</p>
        <p>The RBBR proposal was elaborated by a physician researcher in his undergraduate dissertation in Philosophy, supervised by an experienced science philosopher. In this work, this physician evaluated the work by Ian Hacking<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and Donald Gillies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> about the philosophical theories about probability and the Bayes&#8217; theorem. This is a conditional probability of a posterior hypothesis due to evidence, i.e., it is a revision of existing probabilities given new evidence or information. The theorem is expressed as:</p>
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              </mml:mrow>
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          </mml:math>
        </disp-formula>
        <p>Or as: &#8220; <bold><italic>post-test odds = likelihood ratio x pre-test odds</italic></bold> &#8221;. Sensitivity, specificity and likelihood ratio are alternatives to accuracy measurement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Pr(E|H) stands for sensitivity and Pr(E|~H) = (1 &#8211; specificity). Pr(H|E) is the revision of the hypothesis (post-test probability or probability of posterior scenery) considering the base rate (Pr(H)) of the previous probability (pre-test probability) and the accuracy of the new evidence or information. Posterior probability is determined by prior probability (base rate) and accuracy (also a probability) of the new evidence or information. This is a conditional combination of probabilities in two temporally integrated steps. Based on the subjective theory of probability, the physician&#8217;s state of belief is updated based on information collected from medical history taking, clinical examination, complementary tests and from medical literature (which may provide less subjective measures). In the discussion section, heart failure is used to illustrate possible uses of RBBR in the diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic choices.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> illustrates the flowchart of article selection. Of 3,340 references analyzed, 154 articles were included: 24 discussing uncertainty, 87 on concepts subsumed in the term &#8220;art&#8221;, and 43 discussing the general ideal of reasoning. These three groups of articles will be presented in three sections. Due to lack of space, it would be unfeasible to cite 154 references in this article; for this reason, an appendix with a brief explanation about the classification and division of the articles into groups is provided (https://bit.ly/3EMx5sp).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Flowchart of study selection.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-5suppl1-0027-20405-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>Section 1: Uncertainty</title>
          <p>There were 24 articles on the concept that medical students and physicians should learn how to deal with &#8216;uncertainty&#8217; ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ). The meaning of the word &#8220;uncertainty&#8221; includes from diagnostic uncertainty to uncertainty about physician&#8217;s knowledge and the scientific literature itself. These articles were grouped to form the epistemic basis of RBBR. Uncertainty is a human condition for contingent reasoning. Instead of rejecting it, physicians should understand and learn to deal with uncertainty, by means of arguments and evidence, in a hierarchy that will be presented in the final proposal.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Main arguments or ideas described in the 24 articles on uncertainty</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Author, Year</th>
                    <th align="left">Type of publication</th>
                    <th align="left">Main argument</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Whitehorn, 1963</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>Against determinism, in favor of probability and values.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Elstein, 1982</td>
                    <td>Editorial</td>
                    <td>A proposal to deal with uncertainty: &#8220;More time is spent on the computation and interpretation of chi-squares, T-tests, and other inferential techniques than on the statistics of opinion revision and decision making &#8211; the so-called Bayesian approach &#8211; though the latter is more relevant to the daily work of clinical practice (&#8230;). Clinical practitioners are properly more concerned with the soundness of decisions made in particular circumstances than with the soundness of general inferences. For this purpose, the Bayesian outlook will be more helpful, and instruction in the logic of clinical decisions should incorporate it.&#8221;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Gunderman, 2005</td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>A dialogic proposal to deal with uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Nevalainen et al., 2009</td>
                    <td>22 students' reflective learning diaries</td>
                    <td>Reflective writing as a proposal to express and deal with uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Blanch et al., 2009</td>
                    <td>147 interactions between medical students and patients</td>
                    <td>The authors found a negative perception of medical students who expressed uncertainty to patients. Types of sentences were analyzed.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Charlin et al., 2010</td>
                    <td>Panel with experts, residents and students</td>
                    <td>Standardization methods to compare scores of individual examiners with those of a reference panel to deal with uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Schwartz, 2011</td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>A proposal to teach decision making as the main question in medicine.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hamui-Sutton et al., 2015</td>
                    <td>128 Residents: interview and expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>A comprehensive evaluation of several types of uncertainty in medical practice.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Niedermier, 2016</td>
                    <td>Letter to the editor</td>
                    <td>Points to the negative effects of uncertainty and the need to deal with it.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Simpkin et al., 2016</td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>Speak about &#8220;hypotheses&#8221; rather than &#8220;diagnoses&#8221;, embracing uncertainty as an attitude.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cooke et al., 2017</td>
                    <td>594 trainees</td>
                    <td>Uncertainty stress and reluctance in communicating uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cooke et al., 2017</td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>A proposal to embrace uncertainty and accept more than one solution to a problem.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Oferta, 2017</td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>Literature, music, art and humanities to learn to deal with uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Kim et al., 2018</td>
                    <td>Review</td>
                    <td>Proposal of strategies to manage uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Simpkin et al., 2018</td>
                    <td>86 Interviews with residents and expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>High levels of uncertainty stress and low levels of resilience seem to be associated with depression and burnout.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Tonelli et al., 2019</td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>Philosophical approach of uncertainty, including metaphysics, fallibilism, and epistemological reasoning.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Davidson, 2019</td>
                    <td>Editorial</td>
                    <td>A set of recommendations to deal with uncertainty in medical science: &#8220;Authors should be appropriately tempered in their conclusions, using language that acknowledges uncertainty where appropriate. The conclusions should be influenced by not only the P value but also the effect size and bounds of the 95% confidence intervals."</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ying et al., 2019</td>
                    <td>70 residents</td>
                    <td>The study suggested that individuals that are more comfortable with uncertainty can experience greater satisfaction at work.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Stephens et al., 2020</td>
                    <td>Qualitative study with 608 students</td>
                    <td>Motivate medical educators to incorporate aspects of tolerance to uncertainty in academic and learning environments.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Beck et al., 2020</td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>A dialogic proposal to deal with uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lee, 2020</td>
                    <td>Editorial</td>
                    <td>A call for articles on uncertainty motivated by the COVID-19 pandemic.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>McCarthy et al., 2020</td>
                    <td>Randomized trial comparing communication strategies in disclosing diagnostic uncertainty</td>
                    <td>Educational intervention for clear communication about diagnostic uncertainty to improve quality of care at the emergency department.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Papanagnou et al., 2021</td>
                    <td>Observational cross-sectional study with third-year medical students</td>
                    <td>The students were surveyed for the development of trainings to deal with uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Romiti et al., 2021</td>
                    <td>Expert&#8217;s opinion</td>
                    <td>The authors argued that the COVID-19 pandemic intensified our conflicting relationship with uncertainty.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Section 2: Art</title>
          <p>&#8216;Art&#8217; was the term chosen for inclusion of 87 articles. It is the most common teaching method used by medical teachers. The method is mainly based on case discussions and learning of the art of medicine in specific contexts, without a general rule, but rather with several small contingent rules. These clinical cases may be either real or imaginary, and electronic games or platforms may also be used. Medical students and physicians should be educated to appreciate the relevance of narratives of disease in the care process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Twelve articles were classified within the term &#8220;heuristic&#8221;. Heuristics allow us to be involved in decision making in missing data situations, by a process that may also requires a deliberate disposal of data. For the clinician, the process based on heuristic refers to an intuitive integration of clinical findings. This description is analogous to an intuitive characterization of a scenario, to which a subjective probability that would be inserted to RBBR may be attributed.</p>
          <p>The art of this &#8220;standard recognition&#8221; or &#8220;similarities&#8221; is largely unconscious, effortless and, despite usually associated with availability and confirmation biases, it is considered efficient.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Several thinking dimensions are considered, including emotions. This &#8220;art&#8221; contributes to humanization in medical practice, forcing physicians to also think in non-technical terms. In this &#8220;standard recognition&#8221;, we must go beyond the &#8220;vague distinction between System 1 and System 2 towards more precise models of diagnostic decision making.&#8221;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In general, physicians have been learning to think from prior experiences in similar cases. Therefore, this is a type of inductive reasoning, that does not guarantee the truth of conclusion and may be translated into a Bayesian language, as described in the Discussion section. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> shows the main terms in these articles used to characterize reasoning, but not to establish reasoning rules.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Keywords of articles that discuss clinical reasoning as &#8220;art&#8221;:</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Case-based learning; Heuristic; Information processing; List of cognitive biases; List of abilities; Memorization; Philosophical perspective; Role models; Serious games; Values; Ambiguity; Asking for help; Choosing wisely; Clinical education track; Costs; Emotions; Encapsulated theory; General perceptions; Urgent priority degree; Gut feelings; Use of non-medical literature; Prevention; Realistic theater; Salient clinical findings; Familiarity and similarity; Reflection time</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Section 3: General rule of reasoning</title>
          <p>These 43 articles were grouped for expressing more general ideas with some reasoning rules. In this section, two types of reasoning processes needed to critical thinking are discussed: the inductive and deductive processes; these are different processes, appropriate to different types of tasks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Only three articles presented a more explicit defense of the deductive thinking (hypothetic-deductive, by which the data obtained generate hypothesis that are tested in search of confirmation or falsification). Two articles make qualitative<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> or quantitative comparisons (in relation to validity and similarity)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> between deduction and induction.</p>
          <p>On the other hand, 13 articles present a more explicit defense of an inductive and probabilistic thinking, applying the RBBR in the decision making. This way of thinking is applied not only to diagnosis, but also to interpretation of clinical trials&#8217; results,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> as this is a general form of reasoning.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Twelve articles were grouped in the EBM category. We consider that EBM is the clinical judgement that involves knowledge of methodological notion about study design, and especially about probabilistic notion about the difference between relative and absolute values, clinical relevance degree, intervention impact (effect size), interpretation of confidence intervals of a study results rather than isolated values of statistical significance (p-value), therapeutic decision making based on NNT (number of individuals needed to treat to prevent a relevant outcome) and survival gain, cost-effectiveness analysis, interpretation of meta-analyses, in addition to basic notions of article search mechanisms and methodological quality criteria. Incorporation of this information into RBBR, with higher or lower probability, requires the inclusion of these knowledges of EBM into decision making. They act as knowledges that evaluate, in a probabilistic and inductive way, the decision scenario that is modified by each new piece of information. New evidence is then incorporated into RBBR as new information.</p>
          <p>Among the 12 remaining studies, five were classified as &#8220;inductive schemes&#8221;, one as &#8220;score methods for reasoning comparison&#8221; and seven classified as &#8220;others&#8221; that address issues related to the importance of the context (which is a method to evaluate the initial scenario), epistemological assumptions, or tools for characterization of information or discussions about reasoning, not categorized neither as inductive nor deductive, named by the authors as &#8220;analytical methods&#8221;, &#8220;polyphony&#8221;, &#8220;histories and trends&#8221;, &#8220;decision analysis&#8221;.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>In this section, we will make a brief discussion about the results of this review and present the RBBR proposal. The review suggests that uncertainty is ubiquitous in medicine, and case-based learning is predominant (induction). There was a higher frequency of inductive, probabilistic reasoning and especially RBBR for decision making as compared with the hypothetico-deductive approach.</p>
        <p>Both deductive logic (scarcely found in the literature) and inductive reasoning (widely defended in this review) are linguistic expressions, manipulations of signs. Usual deductive signs lead to categorical thinking (e.g.: T or F, 0 or 1) and our proposal is to use values between 0 and 1, which can be taught. The motivation for the construction of formal logical languages was the differentiation of good <italic>versus</italic> bad arguments; however, it is possible that logic has nothing to do with mental processes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> For feasibility reasons, this review was restricted to MeSH descriptors as the main topics ([majr]) in the reproductive research, which makes it more restrictive and less sensitive. Nevertheless, as a meta-analysis was not performed, this literature sample can be considered satisfactory for a critical analysis of the theme.</p>
        <p>Inductive reasoning involves information processing in a bottom-up approach, <italic>i.e.</italic> , from evidence to theory. The strategy of data processing is driven by data (validated, appropriate, unstructured). This is an exploratory pathway to get to a conclusion, collecting evidence of cases and constructing a general principle. In the inductive thinking, a conclusion may be false even when all premises are true ( <italic>i.e</italic> ., does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion). It is necessary to recognize patterns and connections to formulate hypotheses and theories.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Deductive reasoning, in turn, occurs in a top-down approach, i.e., from hypotheses (or theories) to evidence: from theoretical knowledge about a syndrome, to examine the patient for signs and symptoms. Alternatively, when deduction does not occur from hypotheses to evidence, it occurs from one hypothesis to another one, as implication of the own hypotheses. From diagnostic suspicion, signs and symptoms are sought to confirm the hypothesis. In deduction, a conclusion cannot be false if premises are true, in attempt to predict the consequences not from observational data, but rather from the hypotheses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>One study suggests that training physicians and specialists eventually generate diagnostic hypotheses in the beginning of the investigation and, therefore, it is likely that the collection and subsequent interpretation of clinical signs are guided by these early hypotheses. This is an important source of errors in the hypothetico-deductive reasoning. It represents a challenge to medical educators and researchers to develop studies or interventions aimed at reducing errors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The RBBR proposal about probability and the Bayesian theorem, based on the review of philosophical literature<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and corroborated by the systematic review, allows a unified language. As illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> , from a subjective perspective (degree of belief) of probability, RBBR considers both the prior scenario and the result of current investigation to estimate the likelihood of the scenario be more appropriately interpreted after such investigation.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Probability of results in the Bayes theorem based on the degree of belief; percentage in the y-axis; PPV: predictive value of a positive result of the new information; NPV: predictive value of a negative result of the new information; the Bayesian reasoning is based on the baseline rate of the prior scenario and on the accuracy of the new information or evidence. Subjectively, the degree of belief is estimated and, objectively, good-quality evidence is searched. In the intuitive reasoning, in the estimates of either very low or very high degree of belief, the baseline rate is determinant of reasoning. In the estimates of intermediate baseline rate, the accuracy is determinant of the reasoning result. The explanation is available at https://youtu.be/EVqfyUNe-bU</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-5suppl1-0027-20405-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>RBBR can condition the interpretation of new information on the prior scenario. Thus, the Bayes theorem consist of an inductive inference with two temporally articulated steps.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> In the characterization of the initial scenario, all aspects are considered, and the theories related to medical formation can be influent. However, it is paramount to observe: first the medical history, then clinical examination, followed by complementary tests focusing on patients&#8217; problems. The risk of naive use the deductive hypothetical thinking is that, during the initial steps of the investigation, the physician starts to search for confirmation of things that are going on in their heads (a type of confirmation bias). The risk of naive use the RBBR is to believe that beliefs or the observed frequencies will guarantee the conclusion.</p>
        <p>For example, heart failure is a syndrome that is difficult to be diagnosed in its mild forms or in case of pulmonary comorbidities. During examination of a patient with mild heart failure, it is not known whether the patient has or not the disease. We start the investigation without this information; therefore, this knowledge is not the ground of the diagnosis, whose foundation is the &#8220;not knowing&#8221;, the uncertainty, and whose construction is guided by the initial scenario (focused on signs and symptoms rather than on prior hypothesis) and revised by complementary tests (generating post-tests scenarios). Hypothetical-deductive reasoning may be useful, but its risk lies in using a very limited set of hypotheses, without considering alternative ones. Symptoms reported and signs observed are the initial basis, the pre-test scenario of reasoning during consultation.</p>
        <p>A counterargument to this hypothesis may be that the theory of heart failure provides a model analogous to the models and structures of deductive logic, and that the diagnostic criteria would be similar to deduction, evaluating whether propositions and inferences would satisfy the model (typical standard of deductive reasoning). However, clinical reasoning occurs from contingent individuals in their contexts to hypotheses or to the theory. Symptoms and signs in addition to the series of tests should guide hypothesis formulation, and not the hypotheses per se guide the reasoning process. Evidence obtained from clinical examination and information obtained from medical history lead the physician to an inductive rather than deductive reasoning. From these &#8220;hints&#8221; (symptoms, signs, tests), the physician makes hypotheses, not only of heart failure in this example, but also other possibilities to explain the hints. An astute physician must think about alternative hypotheses, constructed from data observed in the patient and not from a list of differential diagnoses from a book that does not consider individual contexts.</p>
        <p>The same works with prognosis: physicians should estimate it based on patient&#8217;s condition and context. Even enlightened by studies, physicians must analyze patient&#8217;s individual data to decide the type of study or population subgroup that the patient should be included. The same works for treatment: patient&#8217;s clinical profile, patient&#8217;s context, and stage of the disease spectrum should be evaluated to decide which evidence from therapeutic studies best fit the patient. Guidelines should not be applied uncritically, but rather, patient&#8217;s clinical spectrum should be scrutinized to determine where it better fits into the guidelines.</p>
        <p>When seeking for solutions to patient&#8217;s problems, values and preferences, the use of medical literature should follow the same rule: the tools described in the EBM language should prioritize quantitative and absolute (not relative) estimates of diagnostic, prognostic or therapeutic interventions, based on empirical (and not merely theoretical) data, for the construction of a Bayesian hierarchy. Only one study or one evidence is not enough. There is a whole framework that supports the decision making. A decision is made under some degree of residual uncertainty, based on the highest subjective probability, that incorporates objective data from the studies. In the RBBR, &#8220;likely&#8221; is taken as &#8220;likely to be a more accurate, more useful knowledge&#8221;; there is a hierarchical sequence, as described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> .</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Bayesian hierarchy in the Bayesian reasoning</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="order">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>1An expert opinion is more likely than a non-expert opinion.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Opinion is less likely than argument.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>An expert argument is more likely than a non-expert argument.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Argument is less likely than evidence.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Evidence with a reliable method is more likely than evidence with a less reliable method.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Evidence with a reliable method produced by individuals with less conflict of interest is more likely than evidence produced by individuals with more conflict of interest.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Step 6 is more likely if checked using the same method by investigators other than those of the step 6.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>In the RBBR, there is always residual uncertainty, but uncertainty reduces with increasing contexts, scenarios and evidence. Each piece of information of this hierarchy is aggregated into the context, as new information with certain accuracy incorporated into a previous probability. A diagnosis, a prognosis or a treatment can be seen as probabilistic or as hypotheses rather than as &#8220;truth&#8221;. The most appropriate linguistic discourse in patient communication should be based on what seems to be the most likely considering the available data at that moment. The principle of bivalence of classical logic, of &#8220;true or false&#8221;, is insufficient to explain residual uncertainty. RBBR deals with uncertainty without falling into relativism.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>This literature review demonstrated that: 1) uncertainty is an epistemic condition of reasoning; 2) for this reason, probability is predominantly applied; 3) there is considerable conceptual confusion about the subject. RBBR, here proposed, and strongly supported by the literature review, is a two-step probabilistic reasoning that can be taught. Bayes theorem is a linguistic tool, a general rule of reasoning, diagnosis, scientific communication and review of medical knowledge according to new evidence. Characterization of the initial scenario is an art that involves multiple aspects, some of them subjective, but that can be inserted into the RBBR, under the light of the subjective theory of probability.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the conclusion work of Marcos Roberto de Sousa under orientation of Prof. T&#250;lio RX Aguiar, from Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
