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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">GfvyKv4BFDDqnvQJgfC4BJB</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022001300981</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20220086</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220086</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Os Benef&#237;cios dos Exerc&#237;cios F&#237;sicos no C&#226;ncer de Mama</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4254-1609</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Milena dos Santos Barros</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa</surname>
            <given-names>Roberta Helena Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7325-1570</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mizzaci</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Christianini</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Flach</surname>
            <given-names>Maria do Ros&#225;rio Toscano von</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Siqueira</surname>
            <given-names>Betty Janny Maia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mastrocola</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Cl&#237;nica e Hospital S&#227;o Lucas</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">RedeD'Or S&#227;o Luiz</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica e Hospital S&#227;o Lucas, RedeD'Or S&#227;o Luiz, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Divis&#227;o de Cardiologia do Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Sergipe</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Divis&#227;o de Cardiologia do Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Sergipe, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Secretaria Municipal de Sa&#250;de</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Ger&#234;ncia dos Sistemas de Informa&#231;&#245;es Epidemiol&#243;gicas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Ger&#234;ncia dos Sistemas de Informa&#231;&#245;es Epidemiol&#243;gicas - Secretaria Municipal de Sa&#250;de, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Bahiana para Desenvolvimentodas Ci&#234;ncias</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Bahiana para Desenvolvimentodas Ci&#234;ncias (FBDC), Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>6</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Milena dos Santos Barros Campos</bold> &#8226; Hospital S&#227;o Lucas, Rede D'Or &#8211; Av. Cel. Stanley da Silveira. CEP <postal-code>49015-400</postal-code>, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>millybarros@yahoo.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>19</day>
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>119</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>981</fpage>
      <lpage>990</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>O c&#226;ncer de mama &#233; a neoplasia mais prevalente nas mulheres, em torno de 30% de todos os tipos de c&#226;ncer, enquanto no sexo masculino &#233; respons&#225;vel por apenas 1% dos casos. No mundo, &#233; a primeira causa de morte por c&#226;ncer em mulheres. A incid&#234;ncia e a mortalidade variam de acordo com a etnia, regi&#227;o territorial e n&#237;vel socioecon&#244;mico. Em virtude da baixa preval&#234;ncia do c&#226;ncer de mama em homens e a escassez de literatura, as condutas s&#227;o baseadas em extrapola&#231;&#245;es dos estudos no sexo feminino. As evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas sugerem efeitos ben&#233;ficos dos exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos na preven&#231;&#227;o, durante o tratamento e no p&#243;s-tratamento do c&#226;ncer de mama. Al&#233;m do combate ao sedentarismo, &#233; importante manter um peso saud&#225;vel, limitar o consumo de &#225;lcool, e seguir dieta balanceada, rica em frutas, vegetais, gr&#227;os e fibras e reduzida em carnes vermelhas. As a&#231;&#245;es dos exerc&#237;cios n&#227;o se restringem ao c&#226;ncer de mama, mas t&#234;m impacto importante no controle dos fatores de risco modific&#225;veis, diminuindo a incid&#234;ncia das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e a mortalidade por causas globais e card&#237;aca.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Neoplasias da mama</kwd>
        <kwd>T&#233;cnicas de Exerc&#237;cio e Movimento</kwd>
        <kwd>Exerc&#237;cio</kwd>
        <kwd>Dieta Saud&#225;vel</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="79"/>
        <page-count count="10"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O c&#226;ncer de mama &#233; a neoplasia mais incidente em mulheres no mundo, com aproximadamente 2,3 milh&#245;es de casos novos em 2020, o que representa 24,5% dos tipos de c&#226;ncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No Brasil, excluindo os tumores de pele n&#227;o melanoma, o c&#226;ncer de mama &#233; o mais frequente em mulheres, com taxas mais altas no Sul e Sudeste.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> As justificativas potencialmente atribu&#237;das para a maior ocorr&#234;ncia nessas regi&#245;es s&#227;o o maior &#237;ndice de desenvolvimento humano e expectativa de vida, preval&#234;ncia elevada da ra&#231;a branca, o estilo de vida, gesta&#231;&#227;o mais tardia e menor n&#250;mero de filhos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Para o ano de 2022, foram estimados 66 280 casos novos no Brasil.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Quanto &#224; mortalidade, a neoplasia mam&#225;ria &#233; a primeira causa de morte por c&#226;ncer na popula&#231;&#227;o feminina no Brasil, exceto na regi&#227;o Norte, onde o c&#226;ncer do colo do &#250;tero ocupa essa posi&#231;&#227;o. As maiores taxas de mortalidade s&#227;o nas regi&#245;es Sudeste e Sul, que s&#227;o crescentes a partir dos 40 anos de idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Uma possibilidade a ser questionada em localidades com menores taxas de mortalidade, como o Norte, &#233; o subdiagn&#243;stico do c&#226;ncer de mama.</p>
      <p>Causas gen&#233;ticas, como as muta&#231;&#245;es dos genes BRCA1 e BRCA2, s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por 5 a 10% de todos os casos de c&#226;ncer de mama e ov&#225;rio, com maior contribui&#231;&#227;o dos fatores ambientais e do estilo de vida na patog&#234;nese destes tumores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> BRCA1 e BRCA2 produzem prote&#237;nas supressoras do tumor. Essas prote&#237;nas reparam o DNA danificado e, portanto, desempenham um papel na garantia da estabilidade do material gen&#233;tico de cada c&#233;lula. Quando um desses genes sofre uma muta&#231;&#227;o ou altera&#231;&#227;o, de forma que seu produto proteico n&#227;o funcione corretamente, o dano ao DNA pode n&#227;o ser reparado de maneira adequada. Como resultado, as c&#233;lulas t&#234;m maior probabilidade de desenvolver altera&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas que podem levar ao desenvolvimento do c&#226;ncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A ado&#231;&#227;o de estilo de vida saud&#225;vel &#233; importante na preven&#231;&#227;o do c&#226;ncer de mama, abrangendo nutri&#231;&#227;o adequada (maior consumo de frutas, vegetais e gr&#227;os integrais e menor consumo de carne vermelha), controle do peso, redu&#231;&#227;o de ingesta alc&#243;olica e pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos (EF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Seus efeitos parecem n&#227;o se restringir &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o, mas tamb&#233;m ao controle da doen&#231;a, pois estudos experimentais t&#234;m demonstrado a&#231;&#245;es na cin&#233;tica de forma&#231;&#227;o, crescimento e recorr&#234;ncia do tumor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O terceiro Consenso do <italic>World Cancer Research Fund</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> e o Guia de Atividade F&#237;sica e C&#226;ncer da Sociedade Brasileira de Oncologia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> abordam a import&#226;ncia da mulher ser fisicamente ativa na preven&#231;&#227;o e durante o tratamento do c&#226;ncer de mama, trazendo diversos tipos de atividade f&#237;sica, desde atividades dom&#233;sticas (como a jardinagem), ocupacionais e recreacionais, at&#233; as sistematizadas, apropriadamente denominadas como EF, que s&#227;o atividades com prescri&#231;&#227;o estabelecida de frequ&#234;ncia, intensidade, tempo e tipo (aer&#243;bico, resistido e combinado).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o dos exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos na progress&#227;o tumoral</title>
        <p>Os EF promovem diferentes mecanismos org&#226;nicos e biol&#243;gicos que podem participar no controle do desenvolvimento de tumores variados. Tais respostas s&#227;o provenientes de altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e dos horm&#244;nios sexuais, al&#233;m da modula&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> No entanto, o potencial de atingir diretamente a progress&#227;o tumoral foi mais recentemente relacionado &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es na vasculariza&#231;&#227;o e fluxo sangu&#237;neo dos tumores,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o de substratos pelas c&#233;lulas neopl&#225;sicas, &#224;s rela&#231;&#245;es proteicas entre o c&#226;ncer e o tecido muscular, e &#224; regula&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica mediados pelos EF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O microambiente tumoral trabalha para coopta&#231;&#227;o e desvio da a&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas imunoinflamat&#243;rias e estromais a seu favor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Enquanto a a&#231;&#227;o aguda e transit&#243;ria, principalmente de linf&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos, &#233; fator de controle e reparo do dano tecidual, a inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica e infiltra&#231;&#227;o macrof&#225;gica no tecido promovem a progress&#227;o tumoral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O desenvolvimento de terapias contra o c&#226;ncer &#233; baseado nos <italic>hallmarks</italic> (conjunto de capacidades adquiridas pelas c&#233;lulas humanas no processo de transforma&#231;&#227;o neopl&#225;sica) propostos por Weinberg a partir do ano 2000.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m &#233; a partir desses conceitos que vem sendo estudadas as poss&#237;veis a&#231;&#245;es e adapta&#231;&#245;es pelas quais o EF pode influenciar nessas marcas do desenvolvimento tumoral (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Esquematiza&#231;&#227;o dos mecanismos pelos quais o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico pode exercer influ&#234;ncia sobre os hallmarks do c&#226;ncer no c&#226;ncer de mama. Adaptado de &#8220;Hallmarks of cancer&#8221;, by BioRender.com</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0981-20086-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Os resultados dos estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos indicam que esses efeitos moleculares resultantes de cada sess&#227;o de EF se sobrep&#245;em aos controles dos fatores hormonais e insul&#237;nicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Durante a execu&#231;&#227;o dos EF, esses fatores exercem a&#231;&#227;o imediata no metabolismo tumoral, e o treinamento de longo prazo leva a adapta&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e imunog&#234;nicas que contribuem para lentificar a progress&#227;o do tumor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Evid&#234;ncias de que o EF diminui a progress&#227;o do tumor maligno surgiram em modelos animais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Recentemente, estudos cl&#237;nicos v&#234;m identificando a&#231;&#245;es celulares e moleculares semelhantes do exerc&#237;cio em pacientes com c&#226;ncer, incluindo o de mama,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> por&#233;m n&#227;o h&#225; ainda estudos que esclare&#231;am a relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica desses resultados.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos na preven&#231;&#227;o do c&#226;ncer de mama</title>
        <p>Um dos primeiros e maiores estudos prospectivos que abordaram a atividade f&#237;sica e o c&#226;ncer de mama foi o &#8220;<italic>Nurses Health Study</italic>&#8221;, publicado em 1999. O estudo avaliou 121701 enfermeiras de 30 a 55 anos, no seguimento de 16 anos, e demonstrou que as praticantes de atividade f&#237;sica moderada ou vigorosa por sete ou mais horas por semana evidenciavam redu&#231;&#227;o de risco pr&#243;ximo a 20% para o desenvolvimento de c&#226;ncer de mama, em compara&#231;&#227;o com as que mantinham essa atividade f&#237;sica por menos de uma hora na semana [risco relativo de 0,82 - intervalo de confian&#231;a (IC) de 95%, 0,70-0,97]. O benef&#237;cio foi observado em mulheres no per&#237;odo pr&#233; e no p&#243;s-menopausa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A literatura sugere que mulheres praticantes de EF regulares apresentam menor risco de c&#226;ncer de mama, entre 10 e 25%, quando comparadas &#224;s mulheres menos ativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> As associa&#231;&#245;es parecem ser mais fortes em atividades mantidas regularmente ao longo da vida e no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-menopausa, em mulheres com peso normal, n&#227;o brancas, sem hist&#243;rico de c&#226;ncer de mama na fam&#237;lia e que tiveram filhos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Em pacientes portadores de altera&#231;&#227;o dos genes BRCA1 e/ou BRCA2, as evid&#234;ncias do impacto dos EF na redu&#231;&#227;o do c&#226;ncer de mama ainda s&#227;o limitadas, havendo a necessidade de estudos maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudo de metan&#225;lise publicado em 2013, com inclus&#227;o de 31 trabalhos prospectivos, verificou associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre atividade f&#237;sica e redu&#231;&#227;o de c&#226;ncer de mama, com risco relativo combinado de 0,88 (0,85-0,91), dentro de IC de 95%. An&#225;lise de dose resposta sugeriu que o risco de c&#226;ncer de mama reduziu 2% a cada aumento de 25 equivalentes metab&#243;licos (MET)-horas/semana em atividades f&#237;sicas n&#227;o ocupacionais (aproximadamente 10 horas por semana de atividades dom&#233;sticas), 3% para cada 10 MET-horas/semana em atividades recreacionais (equivalente &#224; caminhada de 3 quil&#244;metros por hora, durante 4 horas/semana) e 5% para cada 2 horas/semana em atividades recreacionais moderadas e intensas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Outros trabalhos reafirmaram tais resultados, sugerindo maior redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de c&#226;ncer de mama com n&#237;veis mais intensos de EF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> A dose exata e o tipo de atividade necess&#225;ria para reduzir o risco de c&#226;ncer de mama ainda n&#227;o foram totalmente esclarecidos.</p>
        <p>Em uma revis&#227;o abrangente,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> o estudo tipo <italic>umbrela</italic> sobre atividade f&#237;sica na incid&#234;ncia e mortalidade por c&#226;ncer, os resultados foram sugestivos para redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de c&#226;ncer de mama na popula&#231;&#227;o geral. No entanto, a classifica&#231;&#227;o da atividade f&#237;sica entre os estudos foi heterog&#234;nea e a maioria das revis&#245;es foi baseada em estudos observacionais, principalmente os tipos coorte, onde &#233; dif&#237;cil o controle do vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o, porque comportamentos de estilo de vida saud&#225;vel tendem a se agrupar. Por exemplo, uma pessoa que adota h&#225;bitos saud&#225;veis, pratica atividade f&#237;sica, alimenta-se adequadamente, tem peso mais perto do ideal e n&#227;o fuma. Para minimizar as limita&#231;&#245;es deste tipo de estudo, as diretrizes v&#234;m se apoiando principalmente em estudos de coorte com maior amostra da popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O papel dos EF na preven&#231;&#227;o de c&#226;ncer de mama parece estar atrelado &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade estrog&#234;nica, da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, da inflama&#231;&#227;o e do estresse oxidativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> O estrog&#234;nio est&#225; relacionado &#224; indu&#231;&#227;o de prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular e desenvolvimento tumoral. Os EF aumentam a prote&#237;na ligadora dos horm&#244;nios sexuais, reduzindo os n&#237;veis circulantes de estrog&#234;nio conforme descrito na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>. EF contribuem na redu&#231;&#227;o da massa gorda, principalmente na diminui&#231;&#227;o da gordura visceral, e melhora da sensibilidade celular &#224; insulina e consequente redu&#231;&#227;o do seu n&#237;vel s&#233;rico. A insulina est&#225; envolvida na ativa&#231;&#227;o da aromatase e aumento do estrog&#234;nio, al&#233;m de apresentar a&#231;&#227;o mitog&#234;nica. Os EF t&#234;m efeitos imunomodulat&#243;rios, com aumento da imunidade inata e adquirida e melhora dos mecanismos de reparo do DNA, diminuindo a carcinog&#234;nese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Mais pesquisas s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para entender completamente os mecanismos pelos quais a atividade f&#237;sica pode reduzir o risco de c&#226;ncer de mama.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais para a pr&#225;tica de atividades f&#237;sicas na preven&#231;&#227;o e controle do c&#226;ncer de mama</title>
        <p>Em 2020, a Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) e o Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de do Brasil recomendaram, tanto para a popula&#231;&#227;o adulta (18 a 64 anos) em geral, quanto para sobreviventes de c&#226;ncer de mama, a pr&#225;tica de pelo menos 150 a 300 minutos semanais de atividade f&#237;sica de intensidade moderada, ou pelo menos 75 a 150 minutos semanais de intensidade vigorosa, ou, ainda, uma combina&#231;&#227;o equivalente de atividades moderadas e vigorosas no decorrer da semana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> resume, com base no Guia de Atividade F&#237;sica para a Popula&#231;&#227;o Brasileira, a descri&#231;&#227;o das diferentes intensidades das atividades f&#237;sicas.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Intensidades das atividades f&#237;sicas recomendadas para preven&#231;&#227;o e controle do c&#226;ncer de mama</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Intensidade</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Descri&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Exemplos</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Leve &lt;3METs (Equivalentes metab&#243;licos)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Exige m&#237;nimo esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, com pequeno aumento da FR e da FC. Numa escala de 0 a 10, a percep&#231;&#227;o de esfor&#231;o &#233; de 1 a 4. &#201; poss&#237;vel respirar tranquilamente e conversar normalmente durante a movimenta&#231;&#227;o ou, at&#233; mesmo, cantar</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Manter-se de p&#233; ou sentado, lavar pratos, realizar trabalhos manuais</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Moderada 3 a 5,9 METs</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Exige mais esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, com incrementos percept&#237;veis, por&#233;m moderados, da FR e da FC. Numa escala de 0 a 10, a percep&#231;&#227;o de esfor&#231;o &#233; 5 a 6. &#201; poss&#237;vel conversar com dificuldade durante a movimenta&#231;&#227;o, mas n&#227;o cantar</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Andar a mais de 5 km/h, andar de bicicleta a menos de 16 km/h, jogar t&#234;nis em duplas e dan&#231;a de sal&#227;o.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Vigorosa &gt; 6 METs</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Exige um grande esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, com incrementos intensos da FR e da FC. Numa escala de 0 a 10, a percep&#231;&#227;o de esfor&#231;o &#233; 7 a 8. N&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel conversar durante a movimenta&#231;&#227;o.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Correr, andar em terreno com inclina&#231;&#227;o, andar de bicicleta a mais de 16 km/h, dan&#231;a aer&#243;bica</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Fonte: Adaptado do Guia de Atividade F&#237;sica para a Popula&#231;&#227;o Brasileira, Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de, BRASIL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> FR: frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>&#201; importante a diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre a pr&#225;tica de atividades f&#237;sicas (movimentos volunt&#225;rios do corpo, com gasto de energia acima do n&#237;vel de repouso) e de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos (atividades f&#237;sicas planejadas, estruturadas e repetitivas que t&#234;m como objetivos fundamentais a melhoria da aptid&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria, for&#231;a, flexibilidade e equil&#237;brio). &#201; recomend&#225;vel que os EF sejam supervisionados por profissional de educa&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica ou fisioterapeuta e que todos os programas contenham atividades com componentes aer&#243;bicos (caminhar, andar de bicicleta, dan&#231;ar, correr, nadar), de for&#231;a muscular (muscula&#231;&#227;o, Pilates, exerc&#237;cios funcionais) e de amplitude articular (alongamentos, ioga, <italic>tai-chi</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos aumentam os n&#237;veis de beta-endorfinas perif&#233;ricas, correlacionadas &#224; queda da atividade simp&#225;tica sist&#234;mica e melhora da atividade serotonin&#233;rgica refletidas na atividade das jun&#231;&#245;es neuromusculares. Exerc&#237;cios de resist&#234;ncia produzem melhor sincroniza&#231;&#227;o, recrutamento e excitabilidade das unidades de placas motoras. Por fim, os exerc&#237;cios de flexibilidade podem proporcionar melhor controle sobre as estruturas articulares e partes moles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A seguir, detalhamos particularidades da pr&#225;tica de atividades e EF durante o tratamento e o acompanhamento de sobreviventes p&#243;s-tratamento para c&#226;ncer de mama.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos durante o tratamento do c&#226;ncer de mama</title>
        <p>O tratamento do c&#226;ncer de mama deve ser individualizado segundo condi&#231;&#245;es da paciente como idade, <italic>status</italic> hormonal, comorbidades, estilo de vida e escolhas pessoais, bem como norteado por dois par&#226;metros fundamentais que delineiam o progn&#243;stico: a extens&#227;o da doen&#231;a (estadiamento) e o tipo do tumor. Em linhas gerais, pode ser dividido em tratamento local, que envolve cirurgias e radioterapia (al&#233;m de reconstru&#231;&#227;o mam&#225;ria) e tratamento sist&#234;mico com quimioterapia, hormonioterapia e terapia biol&#243;gica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A quimioterapia se associa &#224; fadiga, anorexia, anemia, neutropenia, trombocitopenia, neuropatias perif&#233;ricas e em alguns casos, cardiotoxicidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Os efeitos colaterais da hormonioterapia incluem ganho de peso, artralgia, mialgia, perda &#243;ssea, efeitos no sistema cardiovascular e altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil lip&#237;dico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Entre as sequelas da irradia&#231;&#227;o, est&#227;o danos card&#237;acos e pulmonares, linfedema, plexopatia braquial, al&#233;m de doen&#231;as malignas secund&#225;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Associadas &#224;s repercuss&#245;es f&#237;sicas, pode haver altera&#231;&#245;es emocionais como depress&#227;o, ansiedade, baixa autoestima, al&#233;m de percep&#231;&#227;o negativa da imagem corporal, uma vez que o c&#226;ncer de mama acomete importante s&#237;mbolo da feminilidade, sensualidade, sexualidade e tamb&#233;m da maternidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Seis meses ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico aproximadamente 90% das mulheres manifestam ao menos um dos sintomas adversos da terap&#234;utica antineopl&#225;sica; 60% cursam com m&#250;ltiplos efeitos, que influenciam n&#227;o s&#243; o tratamento e a qualidade de vida dessas pacientes, como tamb&#233;m taxas de sobrevida. H&#225; relatos que ap&#243;s seis anos do fim do tratamento, at&#233; 30% das mulheres persistem com queixas relacionadas &#224;s diferentes terapias empregadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A atividade f&#237;sica &#233; segura e pode ser realizada durante os diferentes processos de tratamento, resultando em melhora da qualidade de vida, funcionalidade global e redu&#231;&#227;o de sintomas psicol&#243;gicos relacionados &#224; doen&#231;a e seus tratamentos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A dor &#233; um dos sintomas mais comuns nas pacientes com c&#226;ncer de mama, 30-60% apresentam o sintoma com intensidade moderada a acentuada, resultando em limita&#231;&#227;o ou interrup&#231;&#227;o da atividade f&#237;sica durante e ap&#243;s as interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> As manifesta&#231;&#245;es &#225;lgicas, tendem a decair com o treinamento f&#237;sico, com implica&#231;&#245;es diretas no ganho de for&#231;a, capacidade cardiorrespirat&#243;ria e flexibilidade e ainda, na redu&#231;&#227;o das taxas de fadiga, tempo de perman&#234;ncia hospitalar, ansiedade, depress&#227;o, dist&#250;rbios do sono, n&#225;useas e v&#244;mitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> resume os efeitos cl&#237;nicos finais dos EF durante o tratamento, assim como nas demais fases do c&#226;ncer de mama.</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Resultados cl&#237;nicos do exerc&#237;cio na linha do tempo do c&#226;ncer de mama</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0981-20086-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Van Waart et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> demonstraram que o treinamento aer&#243;bico em pacientes submetidos &#224; quimioterapia associou-se &#224; melhora da funcionalidade f&#237;sica, mantendo a aptid&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria, facilitando a reincorpora&#231;&#227;o &#224;s atividades laborativas durante e ap&#243;s o tratamento, e ainda, reduzindo a incid&#234;ncia de n&#225;useas, v&#244;mitos e dor, quando comparado ao grupo sem protocolos de treinamento f&#237;sico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Adicionalmente, um estudo multic&#234;ntrico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> avaliou o efeito da atividade f&#237;sica em 301 pacientes durante tratamento quimioter&#225;pico para c&#226;ncer de mama, evidenciando-se melhora da aptid&#227;o f&#237;sica em todos os tipos de treinamento aplicados: grupo padr&#227;o (tr&#234;s sess&#245;es de 25-30 min/semana), grupo alto volume (tr&#234;s sess&#245;es de 50-60 min/semana) e treinamento combinado (aer&#243;bico associado ao resistido). O grupo do exerc&#237;cio de alto volume foi mais efetivo em melhora da qualidade de vida, da capacidade aer&#243;bica e no controle da dor e sintomas end&#243;crinos (fogachos por exemplo). No entanto, o grupo de treinamento combinado apresentou melhor evolu&#231;&#227;o quanto ao ganho de for&#231;a muscular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em pacientes na vig&#234;ncia de quimioterapia, os programas de exerc&#237;cios resistidos est&#227;o mais associados &#224; melhora da autoestima, for&#231;a muscular e composi&#231;&#227;o corporal, sem desencadear ou agravar linfedemas ou outros efeitos adversos em pacientes submetidas &#224; cirurgia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Recomenda-se a avalia&#231;&#227;o da mobilidade do bra&#231;o antes do in&#237;cio de EF para os membros superiores. Al&#233;m disso, &#233; importante a avalia&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica para neuropatias perif&#233;ricas, doen&#231;as musculoesquel&#233;ticas e risco de fraturas, principalmente nas pacientes em uso de terapia hormonal ou com doen&#231;a &#243;ssea metast&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A combina&#231;&#227;o dos tr&#234;s tipos de propostas (exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos, resistidos e flexibilidade) tem contribu&#237;do em maior escala para o controle da dor e fadiga. A melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria, pelo aumento da capacidade aer&#243;bica (consumo de oxig&#234;nio m&#225;ximo) nos treinos combinados, pode ser explicada pela significante intera&#231;&#227;o ventila&#231;&#227;o-perfus&#227;o e capacidade oxidativa musculoesquel&#233;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Isso pode ter importante papel no manejo da desordem estrutural relacionada &#224; toxicidade secund&#225;ria ao tratamento quimio e radioter&#225;pico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A quimioterapia tamb&#233;m pode provocar efeitos cardiot&#243;xicos diretos e indiretos, ocorrendo acelera&#231;&#227;o do envelhecimento geral e vascular, com consequente decl&#237;nio da reserva cardiopulmonar. Tanto a pr&#243;pria doen&#231;a como o tratamento podem contribuir para o ganho de peso e para a redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade f&#237;sica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> aumentando potencialmente o risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV). Estudos de preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria ratificaram a melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar com a aplica&#231;&#227;o de programas de treinamento f&#237;sico em mulheres com c&#226;ncer de mama.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A cardiotoxicidade, associada a fatores psicoemocionais, interfere sobre o equil&#237;brio auton&#244;mico e consequentemente na mortalidade por DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Demonstrou-se que, em pacientes tratadas em est&#225;gios iniciais da doen&#231;a, ocorre incremento sustentado da fun&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica e redu&#231;&#227;o da a&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica no n&#243; sinoatrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Ressaltam-se outros estudos que evidenciaram a redu&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e da sensibilidade barorreflexa entre mulheres com hist&#243;rico de c&#226;ncer de mama.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, outro fator importante para o desenvolvimento de DCV &#233; a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Metan&#225;lise recente<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> avaliou 163 pacientes de quatro estudos (dois para c&#226;ncer de mama, dois para c&#226;ncer de pr&#243;stata). O exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico melhorou a fun&#231;&#227;o vascular e o consumo de oxig&#234;nio pico. Os dados acima apresentados destacam a import&#226;ncia do EF como coadjuvante do tratamento para c&#226;ncer de mama, sobretudo no que se refere &#224; abordagem de seus efeitos colaterais.</p>
        <p>No que tange &#224; mortalidade geral e espec&#237;fica, a evid&#234;ncia acumulada at&#233; o momento parece indicar efeito favor&#225;vel da atividade f&#237;sica moderada a vigorosa, e evid&#234;ncias preliminares sugerem redu&#231;&#227;o no risco de recorr&#234;ncia e progress&#227;o do c&#226;ncer de mama associada a essas pr&#225;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Recente publica&#231;&#227;o avaliou revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas sobre atividade f&#237;sica e redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade tanto por todas as causas quanto especificamente por c&#226;ncer de mama, considerando rela&#231;&#227;o dose-resposta (inclusive independentemente do &#237;ndice de massa corporal); a &#8220;certeza da evid&#234;ncia&#8221; foi classificada como moderada. No que se refere ao dom&#237;nio ou tipo da atividade f&#237;sica e mortalidade, a certeza da evid&#234;ncia foi classificada como baixa, n&#227;o sendo poss&#237;vel, at&#233; ent&#227;o, identificar modalidades que possam ter maior impacto sobre esse desfecho. A mesma publica&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m avaliou o balan&#231;o entre riscos e benef&#237;cios, valores e prefer&#234;ncias de pacientes, recursos necess&#225;rios para se realizar o que se recomenda, equidade, aceitabilidade e viabilidade da recomenda&#231;&#227;o, classifica como &#8220;forte&#8221; a &#8220;for&#231;a de recomenda&#231;&#227;o&#8221; de EF para aumentar a sobrevida de c&#226;ncer de mama.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Estudos futuros poder&#227;o modificar a qualidade das evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis at&#233; ent&#227;o; &#233; um campo aberto ainda para pesquisas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos no p&#243;s-tratamento do c&#226;ncer de mama</title>
        <p>Para as sobreviventes do c&#226;ncer de mama, EF t&#234;m sido amplamente recomendados, sendo vinculado n&#227;o s&#243; com melhoria na qualidade de vida, mas tamb&#233;m com poss&#237;vel aumento da sobrevida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Em estudo prospectivo que incluiu 2987 mulheres com c&#226;ncer de mama est&#225;gios I, II ou III entre 1984 e 1998 e que foram acompanhadas at&#233; o &#243;bito ou junho de 2002, demonstrou que a atividade f&#237;sica ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico de c&#226;ncer de mama pode reduzir o risco de morte por esta doen&#231;a. O maior benef&#237;cio ocorreu em mulheres que realizaram o equivalente a caminhada de tr&#234;s a cinco horas por semana em ritmo m&#233;dio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino do tratamento, o objetivo &#233; reabilitar a paciente para que possa retornar o mais r&#225;pido poss&#237;vel &#224;s suas atividades habituais. A pr&#225;tica regular de EF pode contribuir para o bem estar f&#237;sico, psicol&#243;gico e para melhor qualidade de vida, sendo uma das principais recomenda&#231;&#245;es para evitar o aparecimento de condi&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nico degenerativas, e n&#227;o seria diferente para as pacientes que acabaram de enfrentar tratamento oncol&#243;gico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Evid&#234;ncias mostram que os EF proporcionam impacto positivo na sobrevida e minimizam a morbidade relacionada ao c&#226;ncer de mama.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Apesar de dados favor&#225;veis, a pr&#225;tica &#233; limitada devido a barreiras como fadiga, aus&#234;ncia de motiva&#231;&#227;o, perda da autoconfian&#231;a, acompanhamento inadequado, falta de suporte familiar e falta de orienta&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>Incentivar as mulheres no per&#237;odo ap&#243;s o tratamento, a adotarem estilo de vida saud&#225;vel, evitando o consumo excessivo de &#225;lcool, aumentando a ingest&#227;o de frutas e vegetais, al&#233;m de maior volume de atividade f&#237;sica, pode ser importante para melhorar sua sa&#250;de e a qualidade de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> N&#237;veis mais elevados de EF representam comportamento de sa&#250;de modific&#225;vel que pode aliviar sequelas da doen&#231;a e ajudar as mulheres a retornarem ao estado de sa&#250;de que tinham antes de receber o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Desta forma, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es atuais relacionadas aos EF para as sobreviventes voltam-se ao retorno &#224;s atividades di&#225;rias normais o mais r&#225;pido poss&#237;vel ap&#243;s a cirurgia, &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o do gasto metab&#243;lico durante e ap&#243;s as terap&#234;uticas implementadas, al&#233;m da cl&#225;ssica orienta&#231;&#227;o para a atividade aer&#243;bica semanal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Adicionalmente demonstrou-se que a falta de atividade f&#237;sica est&#225; relacionada ao ganho de peso ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico o que, por sua vez, tem sido associado &#224; menor sobrevida em alguns estudos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">72</xref></sup> Mulheres mais ativas possuem menor propens&#227;o a ganhar peso ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico, melhorando assim suas chances de sobreviv&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A obesidade est&#225; relacionada a taxas aumentadas de mortalidade devido ao c&#226;ncer de mama (13-20%) e mortalidade por todas as causas (14-70%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> A obesidade tamb&#233;m foi associada a risco duas vezes maior de c&#226;ncer de mama contralateral na p&#243;s-menopausa e &#224; maior ocorr&#234;ncia, pr&#243;xima a 60%, de outros c&#226;nceres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Portanto, o &#237;ndice de massa corporal, dentro da normalidade, pode reduzir o risco do aparecimento de nova neoplasia mam&#225;ria na p&#243;s-menopausa, de outros tipos de c&#226;ncer e mortalidade por todas as causas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Giallauria et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> avaliaram se EF poderiam melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica de mulheres com hist&#243;ria de c&#226;ncer de mama prim&#225;rio invasivo. Foram inclu&#237;das 51 pacientes inscritas no estudo cl&#237;nico denominado &#8220;DIANA&#8221;, divididas em dois grupos. Grupo 1 (n=25) seguiu programa formal de EF com intensidade moderada &#8211; carga de trabalho aplicada em 70 &#177; 2% do consumo de oxig&#234;nio (VO<sub>2</sub> pico inicial) e frequ&#234;ncia de tr&#234;s sess&#245;es por semana, em bicicleta ou esteira, com dura&#231;&#227;o de 12 semanas, seguido por uma sess&#227;o por semana at&#233; um ano de acompanhamento. O Grupo 2 ou controle (n=26) n&#227;o participou em programas formais de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos. No in&#237;cio do estudo e ap&#243;s um ano, todas as pacientes foram submetidas a teste cardiopulmonar de exerc&#237;cio. A frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de recupera&#231;&#227;o (FCR) foi calculada como a diferen&#231;a entre a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no pico do exerc&#237;cio e a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no primeiro minuto p&#243;s-esfor&#231;o. Em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle, o grupo 1 apresentou melhora significativa no <underline>VO<sub>2</sub></underline> <underline>pico</underline> (de 12,6 &#177; 3,0 para 14,5 &#177; 3,3 ml.kg<sup>-1</sup>.min<sup>-1</sup>, p&lt;0,001; p&lt;0,001 entre os grupos) e na <underline>FCR</underline> (de 17,6 &#177; 6,4 a 23,0 &#177; 8,3 batimentos/min, p&lt;0,001; p&lt;0,001 entre os grupos). Os autores conclu&#237;ram que o treinamento f&#237;sico de intensidade moderada em sobreviventes de c&#226;ncer de mama pode estar associado &#224; melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As evid&#234;ncias sugerem que os EF podem promover tamb&#233;m benef&#237;cios fisiol&#243;gicos e psicol&#243;gicos positivos entre os sobreviventes do c&#226;ncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Em metan&#225;lise de estudos randomizados controlados, estruturada por Fong et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> observou-se que a pr&#225;tica de EF foi associada a efeitos positivos importantes na fun&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica, peso corporal e qualidade de vida de pacientes que completaram o tratamento para c&#226;ncer de mama.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Adicionalmente, os resultados relatados em outra revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> indicam que os EF podem ter efeitos ben&#233;ficos na qualidade de vida geral e em certos dom&#237;nios, como imagem corporal, autoestima, bem-estar emocional, sexualidade, dist&#250;rbios do sono, funcionamento social, ansiedade, fadiga e dor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Ainda, em outra recente revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> Cochrane, com 63 estudos e 5761 mulheres inclu&#237;das, avaliaram-se os efeitos dos EF ap&#243;s tratamento de c&#226;ncer de mama em compara&#231;&#227;o a um grupo controle. Novamente demonstrou-se que o grupo que realizou EF, quando comparado ao controle, apresentou melhora da qualidade de vida, da sa&#250;de emocional, da ansiedade, da capacidade f&#237;sica, da for&#231;a muscular e da sensa&#231;&#227;o de cansa&#231;o. Al&#233;m disso, relativamente poucos eventos adversos foram relatados nos diversos trabalhos, sugerindo a pr&#225;tica de EF &#233; segura nesta popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Para escolhas seguras nas aplica&#231;&#245;es dos EF, ressalta-se a necessidade do conhecimento pela equipe multidisciplinar de apoio (profissionais de educa&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica, fisioterapeutas, entre outros) sobre as peculiaridades, implica&#231;&#245;es e consequ&#234;ncias do tratamento do c&#226;ncer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> As prescri&#231;&#245;es de EF devem ser de acordo com a capacidade f&#237;sica pr&#233;-tratamento e comorbidades do sobrevivente do c&#226;ncer, resposta &#224; terap&#234;utica e os efeitos negativos imediatos ou persistentes do tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Recomenda-se especial aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; neuropatias perif&#233;ricas e morbidades musculoesquel&#233;ticas secund&#225;rias, independentemente do tempo desde o tratamento. Se houver terapia hormonal, &#233; recomendada a avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de fraturas. Tamb&#233;m &#233; indicada a an&#225;lise espec&#237;fica da mobilidade do bra&#231;o / ombro antes de exerc&#237;cios para membros superiores. Deve-se ainda, respeitar o tempo adequado para cicatriza&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s a cirurgia, que, em caso de mastectomia pode chegar a oito semanas ou at&#233; mais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a metast&#225;tica &#243;ssea exigir&#227;o orienta&#231;&#227;o individualizada com o objetivo de determinar limites de seguran&#231;a antes do in&#237;cio dos exerc&#237;cios. Para reabilita&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes, s&#227;o necess&#225;rias modifica&#231;&#245;es no programa estabelecido, com redu&#231;&#245;es do impacto, da intensidade e do volume, devido ao risco aumentado de fragilidade &#243;ssea e fraturas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Indiv&#237;duos com DCV conhecidas (secund&#225;rias ao tratamento do c&#226;ncer ou n&#227;o) tamb&#233;m requerem avalia&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica individualizada inicial relativa &#224; seguran&#231;a do programa estabelecido de exerc&#237;cios, bem como maior supervis&#227;o e reavalia&#231;&#245;es em intervalos menores. Devem ser seguidas as orienta&#231;&#245;es de diretrizes para a prescri&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios e reabilita&#231;&#227;o, em especial considerando-se as contraindica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares e pulmonares impeditivas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os sobreviventes de c&#226;ncer devem evitar a inatividade. Entretanto, a prescri&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio baseado na frequ&#234;ncia, intensidade, tipo e dura&#231;&#227;o tem se baseado em dados limitados da literatura. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> resume a prescri&#231;&#227;o de EF recomendada para o p&#243;s-tratamento de c&#226;ncer de mama.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o de prescri&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos no p&#243;s-tratamento do c&#226;ncer de mama</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Frequ&#234;ncia</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Intensidade</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Dura&#231;&#227;o/execu&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Qualidade</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aer&#243;bico</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Inicialmente, podem acontecer 2 vezes na semana, devendo ser aumentados gradualmente at&#233; 3 a 5 vezes na semana.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Orientar sobre a percep&#231;&#227;o subjetiva do esfor&#231;o para monitorar a intensidade. Se o EF for tolerado sem sintomas ou efeitos colaterais, a intensidade n&#227;o precisa ser diferente da popula&#231;&#227;o saud&#225;vel. O exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico deve ter intensidade moderada a vigorosa.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">O tempo deve ser aumentado de acordo com a toler&#226;ncia do paciente. Deve-se tentar alcan&#231;ar dura&#231;&#227;o de 75min/semana de intensidade vigorosa ou 150min/semana de intensidade moderada.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Constitu&#237;do por atividades r&#237;tmicas e prolongadas que trabalhem grandes grupos musculares. Exemplo: nata&#231;&#227;o, caminhada, ciclismo, dan&#231;a.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Resistido</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Realizados 2 a 3 dias na semana</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Intensidade moderada (60-70% repeti&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">S&#233;rie de 8 a 12 repeti&#231;&#245;es</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Deve incluir cargas, aparelhos contra resist&#234;ncia ou tarefas funcionais com sustenta&#231;&#227;o de carga, trabalhando todos os principais grupos musculares</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Flexibilidade</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Podem ocorrer diariamente, de acordo com a avalia&#231;&#227;o da paciente</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Deve conter alongamento. Aten&#231;&#227;o &#224;s &#225;reas com restri&#231;&#227;o de mobilidade devido ao tratamento</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Fonte: Adaptado das Diretrizes do American College of Sports Medicine para os testes de esfor&#231;o e sua prescri&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><italic>47</italic></xref></sup></attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A progress&#227;o do EF poder&#225; ser mais lenta entre os sobreviventes de c&#226;ncer quando comparados &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o saud&#225;vel, em especial se o exerc&#237;cio prescrito resultar em maior fadiga e sintomas adversos n&#227;o esperados, que servem como sinais de alerta a limiares da toler&#226;ncia individual. N&#227;o h&#225; limite m&#225;ximo de peso nos exerc&#237;cios resistidos para o qual os sobreviventes possam progredir. Aten&#231;&#227;o a manifesta&#231;&#245;es como sintomas em bra&#231;o e ombro, incluindo linfedema, resultando em redu&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia ou interrup&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios espec&#237;ficos de acordo com o sintoma relatado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar dos benef&#237;cios derivados da pr&#225;tica regular das atividades mencionadas, n&#227;o h&#225; consenso ou padroniza&#231;&#227;o clara sobre a magnitude do benef&#237;cio, o modo de administra&#231;&#227;o, ou os EF mais eficazes para esta popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes. Mais pesquisas s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para estabelecer a prescri&#231;&#227;o ideal. Os estudos realizados usaram diferentes modos, frequ&#234;ncias, intensidades e dura&#231;&#245;es de interven&#231;&#245;es para determinar seus efeitos sobre desfechos espec&#237;ficos nas mulheres sobrevivente de c&#226;ncer de mama, o que dificulta uma padroniza&#231;&#227;o e a generaliza&#231;&#227;o dos resultados.</p>
        <p>Finalmente, cabe reafirmar a necessidade da conscientiza&#231;&#227;o de todos os profissionais de sa&#250;de envolvidos, incluindo m&#233;dicos, profissionais de educa&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica, fisioterapeutas, psic&#243;logos e nutricionistas sobre a import&#226;ncia do est&#237;mulo a estas mulheres &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o regular e continuada de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos no p&#243;s-tratamento de c&#226;ncer de mama, ressaltando-se os benef&#237;cios e &#243;timo custo-efetividade.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>A pr&#225;tica regular de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico/atividade f&#237;sica deve ser estimulada, visando a preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria do c&#226;ncer de mama, melhoria da qualidade de vida e redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade nas sobreviventes, mas os estudos n&#227;o apresentam for&#231;a de evid&#234;ncia no controle da doen&#231;a. &#201; importante ressaltar tamb&#233;m o importante papel dos EF na redu&#231;&#227;o da incid&#234;ncia das DCV, tornando-se fundamental o incentivo &#224;s mulheres se tornarem ativas. A observa&#231;&#227;o de algumas especificidades na prescri&#231;&#227;o dos EF &#233; necess&#225;ria nas pacientes com c&#226;ncer de mama, mas em linhas gerais, &#233; semelhante &#224; realizada para a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral. Estudos futuros s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para melhor nortear a prescri&#231;&#227;o individualizada destas pacientes.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>The Benefits of Exercise in Breast Cancer</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4254-1609</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Milena dos Santos Barros</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa</surname>
            <given-names>Roberta Helena Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7325-1570</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mizzaci</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Christianini</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Flach</surname>
            <given-names>Maria do Ros&#225;rio Toscano von</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Siqueira</surname>
            <given-names>Betty Janny Maia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mastrocola</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica e Hospital S&#227;o Lucas, RedeD'Or S&#227;o Luiz, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Divis&#227;o de Cardiologia do Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Sergipe, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Ger&#234;ncia dos Sistemas de Informa&#231;&#245;es Epidemiol&#243;gicas &#8211; Secretaria Municipal de Sa&#250;de, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff11">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Bahiana para Desenvolvimentodas Ci&#234;ncias (FBDC), Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff12">
          <label>6</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Milena dos Santos Barros Campos &#8226;</bold>, Hospital S&#227;o Lucas, Rede D'Or &#8211; Av. Cel. Stanley da Silveira. Postal Code <postal-code>49015-400</postal-code>, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>millybarros@yahoo.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer among women, accounting for nearly 30% of all cancers, while in men, it represents only 1% of cases. Breast cancer is the main cause of death for cancer, and its incidence and mortality vary according to patients' ethnicity, geographic region, and socioeconomic status. Due to the low prevalence of breast cancer among men and the scarcity of studies in the literature, exercises have been prescribed based on extrapolations from studies on female patients. Scientific evidence has suggested beneficial effects of physical exercises on breast cancer prevention, treatment, and post-treatment. In addition to combatting sedentary behavior, it is essential to maintain a healthy body weight, limit alcohol consumption, and follow a balanced diet, rich in fruit, vegetables, grains and fibers, and limited in red meat. The effects of exercises are not restricted to breast cancer, but extend to controlling modifiable risk factors, and reducing the incidence of cardiovascular diseases, and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Breast Neoplasms</kwd>
        <kwd>Exercise Movement Techniques</kwd>
        <kwd>Exercise</kwd>
        <kwd>Diet, Healthy</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Breast cancer is the most incident cancer among women in the world, with approximately 2.3 million new cases in 2020, corresponding to 24.5% of all types of cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In Brazil, apart from non-melanoma skin cancer, breast cancer is the most common among women, with the highest rates in the south and in the southeast regions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The highest occurrence in these regions may be attributed to the highest human development index and life expectancy, high prevalence of white race, life style, later pregnancy and less children.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> For 2022, it is estimated 66,280 new cases of breast cancer in Brazil.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>With respect to mortality, breast cancer is the main cause of death for cancer among the female population in Brazil, except for the north region, where colon cancer ranks the first. The highest mortality rates are observed in the south and southeast regions and the rates increase from the age of 40 years of age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In places where mortality rates are low, like the north of Brazil, the possibility of underdiagnosis of breast cancer cannot be excluded.</p>
        <p>Genetic causes, including BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, are responsible for 5-10% of all cases of breast and ovarian cancer, with a greater contribution of environmental factors and lifestyle in the pathogenesis of these tumors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The BRCA 1 and BRCA2 genes produce tumor suppressive proteins. These proteins repair damaged DNA and thereby play a role in maintaining genetic material stability in each cell. When mutation or alteration occurs in one of these genes, the activity of the protein product can be altered, and the DNA damage may be not properly repaired. As a result, the cells are more likely to develop genetic changes that may lead to cancer development.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The adoption of a healthy lifestyle is important for prevention of breast cancer, including an adequate diet (higher consumption of fruit, vegetables and whole grains, and lower consumption of red meat), weight control, reduction of alcohol intake, and regular physical exercises (PE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The effects are not restricted to the prevention, but also to disease control, since experimental studies have demonstrated influence on tumor formation kinetics, growth and recurrence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The third consensus of the World Cancer Research Fund<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> and the Brazilian Society of Oncology guidelines on physical activity<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> address the importance of women being physically active, involving several types of physical activities, from household chores (e.g. gardening), occupational, and recreational activities, to those systematically categorized as PE, whose frequency, intensity, time and type (aerobic, resistance and combined) are determined by prescription.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Mechanisms of action of physical exercises in tumor progression</title>
          <p>PE promote different organic and biological mechanisms that can be involved in the control of the development of several tumors. These responses originate from metabolic and hormonal changes, in addition to modulation of systemic inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> However, the potential of directly affecting tumor progression has been recently related to changes in vascularization and blood flow in tumors,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> the use of substrates by neoplastic cells, protein interactions between cancer and muscle tissue, and to the regulation of immune function by PE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Tumor microenvironment acts in the cooption and deviation of the action of immunoinflammatory and stromal cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> While the acute and transient action of lymphocytes and macrophages is a controlling and repair factor of tissue damage, chronic inflammation and macrophage infiltration into the tissue promote tumor progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The development of anticancer therapy has been based on hallmarks (biological capabilities acquired by human cells during the development of tumors) proposed by Weinberg in 2000.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Also based on these concepts, possible mechanisms of action and adaptation by which PE can influence these marks of tumor development have been studied (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Scheme of the mechanisms by which physical education can affect the hallmarks of cancer in breast cancer. Adapted from &#8220;Hallmarks of cancer&#8221;, by BioRender.com</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0981-20086-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Results of preclinical studies indicate that these molecular effects resulting from each exercise session overcome the control of hormonal factors and insulin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> During exercise, these factors act immediately on tumor metabolism, and long-term training leads to metabolic and immunogenic adaptations that contribute to slow tumor progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Evidence that PE inhibits malignant tumor progression emerged from animal models.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Recently, clinical studies have identified cellular and molecular actions that are similar to exercise in patients with cancer, including breast cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> However, there are still no studies that clearly determine the clinical relevance of these findings.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Physical exercise in breast cancer prevention</title>
          <p>One of the first and largest prospective studies on PE and breast cancer was the &#8220;Nurses Health Study&#8221;. This study evaluated 121 701 nurses aged between 30 and 55 years, during a follow-up period of 16 years, and showed that women who engaged in moderate or vigorous physical activity for seven or more hours per week had a nearly 20% lower risk of breast cancer than those who engaged in such physical activity for less than one hour per week (relative risk 0.82; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.70-0.97). This benefit was observed in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Literature has suggested that women who exercise regularly have 10-25% lower risk of breast cancer compared with those who do not.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> This association seems to be stronger for activity sustained over the lifetime and after menopause, for women who are normal weight, have no family history of breast cancer, and are parous.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Available evidences of the impact of PE on breast cancer reduction in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers are limited, and larger studies are warranted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A meta-analysis published in 2013 of 31 prospective studies found a significant association between physical activity and reduction of breast cancer risk, with a combined relative risk (RR) with 95 % CI of 0.88 (0.85-0.91), highlighting the importance of prevention. Dose-response analysis suggested that the risk of breast cancer decreased by 2 % for every 25 metabolic equivalent (MET)-h/week increment in non-occupational physical activity (approximately 10 hours per week in household activities), 3 % for every 10 MET-h/week increment in recreational activity (equivalent to 4 h/week of walking in 3Km/h), and 5 % for every 2 h/week increment in moderate and vigorous recreational activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Other studies have corroborated these results, suggesting greater risk reduction of breast cancer with higher levels of PE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> The exact dose and the type of exercise needed to reduce breast cancer risk have not been clearly determined.</p>
          <p>In an umbrella review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> about physical activity and cancer incidence and mortality, the results suggested a reduction of breast cancer risk in the general population. However, classification of physical activity across studies were heterogeneous and most reviews were based on observational studies, mainly cohort studies, in which the control of selection bias is difficult, since healthy habits tend to cluster. For example, a person with a healthy lifestyle eat well, has close to ideal body weight and is nonsmoker. To minimize limitations of this type of study, guidelines have been established based on cohort studies with larger samples of the population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The role of PE in breast cancer prevention seems to be linked to reductions in estrogen activity, insulin resistance, inflammation, and oxidative stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Estrogen is related to reduction of cellular proliferation and tumor development. PE increase sex hormone-binding globulin, and reduce circulating levels of estrogen, as described in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>. They contribute to the reduction of fat mass, mainly by visceral fat reduction, improvement of cellular insulin sensitivity and consequent decrease of insulin serum levels. Insulin is involved in the activation of aromatase and estrogen elevation, in addition to exerting mitogenic effects. In addition, PE have immunomodulatory effects, increasing both innate and acquired immunity and improving DNA repair mechanisms, thereby reducing the risk of breast cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>More research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms by which physical activity can reduce breast cancer risk.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>General recommendations for physical activity in the prevention and control of breast cancer</title>
          <p>In 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Brazilian Ministry of Health recommended for the general adult population (18-64 years old) and for breast cancer survivors, 150-300 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity, at least 75&#8211;150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity; or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity throughout the week.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref> summarizes the description of different intensities of physical activity based on the Physical Activity Guidelines for the Brazilian Population.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Description of physical activity intensities for the prevention and control of breast cancer</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Intensity</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Description</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Examples</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Light &lt;3 metabolic equivalents (METs)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Requires minimum effort, with small increase in HR and RR increase. On a 0-10 scale, perceived exertion ranges from 1 to 4. One can breathe calmly, talk, or even sing during exercise</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Standing or sitting, washing dishes, doing arts and crafts</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Moderate 3 &#8211; 5.9 METs</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Requires greater physical effort, with perceptible but moderate increments in RR and HR. On a 0-10 scale, perceived exertion ranges from 5 to 6. One can talk with difficulty but not sing</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Walking at &gt; 5 Km/h; cycling at &lt; 5 Km/h, double tennis, and ballroom dancing</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Vigorous &gt; 6 METs</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Requires great physical effort with large increments in RR and HR. On a 0-10 scale, perceived exertion ranges from 7 to 8. One is not able to talk duringthe exercise.</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Running, slope walking, bicycling at &gt; 16 km/h, aerobic dancing</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>Source: Adapted from Physical Activity Guidelines for the Brazilian Population.37 HR: heart rate; RR: respiratory rate.</attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>It is important to differ physical activities (voluntary body movements, with energy expenditure resting levels) from PE (planned, structured, and repetitive physical activity, essentially aimed to improve cardiorespiratory fitness, strength, flexibility and balance). It is recommended that PE be supervised by a physical educator or a physical therapist, and all programs include aerobic components (walking, cycling, dancing, jogging, swimming), muscle-strengthening activities (strength training, Pilates, functional exercise) and range of motion exercises (stretching, yoga, tai-chi).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Aerobic exercises increase the levels of peripheral beta-endorphins, which are correlated with decreased systemic sympathetic activity and improvement in serotonergic activity, reflected in the activity of neuromuscular junctions. Resistance training exercise promote better synchronization, recruitment and excitability of motor units. Finally, flexibility exercises can lead to a better control of articular structures and soft parts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Now we describe particularities of physical activities and PE during treatment and follow-up periods of survivors after breast cancer treatment.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Physical exercises during breast cancer treatment</title>
          <p>Breast cancer treatment should be individualized according to patients&#8217; age, hormonal status, comorbidities, lifestyle, and personal choices, as well as to fundamental pillars in determining the prognosis: the extent of the disease (cancer staging) and the type of the tumor. In general, treatment can be divided into local therapy (surgery, radiotherapy, and breast reconstruction) and systemic therapy (chemotherapy, hormone therapy and biological therapy).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Chemotherapy is associated with fatigue, anorexia, anemia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, peripheral neuropathies and, in some cases, cardiotoxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> The side effects of hormone therapy include weight gain, arthralgia, myalgia, bone loss, effects on the cardiovascular system and changes in the lipid profile.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Sequelae of radiation therapy include cardiac and pulmonary damage, lymphedema, brachial plexopathy and secondary malignant diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Associated to these physical repercussions, emotional changes including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and negative body image can occur, since the disease affects an important symbol of femininity, sexuality and maternity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Six months after the diagnosis, approximately 90% of women present at least one of the adverse symptoms of the antineoplastic therapy; 60% have multiple symptoms that affect not only patient therapy and quality of life, but also survival rates. Six years after treatment, up to 30% of women still have complaints related to the therapies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Physical activity is safe and can be performed at different stages of cancer treatment, resulting in better quality of life, and improved global function, and lower psychological symptoms related to disease and its treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Pain is one of the most common symptoms in breast cancer patients; 30-60% of patients have moderate to severe symptoms, that may lead to activity restrictions and limitations in physical activity during and after therapeutical interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Pain manifestations tend to decrease with physical training, with direct implications for strength gain, better cardiorespiratory capacity and flexibility, and also for lower rates of fatigue, length of hospital stay, anxiety, depression, sleep disorders, nausea and vomiting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref> summarizes the final clinical effects of PE during treatment and in other breast cancer stages.</p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Clinical results of exercise in breast cancer timeline.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0981-20086-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Van Waart et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> demonstrated that, in patients undergoing chemotherapy, an aerobic training program was associated with enhanced physical functioning, with maintenance of cardiorespiratory fitness, facilitating the return to work during and after treatment, in addition to reducing the incidence of nausea and vomiting as with the group that did not undergo physical training.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition, a multicentric study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> evaluated the effect of physical activity in 301 patients during breast cancer chemotherapy and demonstrated improvements in health-related fitness in the three groups of exercise intervention: STAN group (three sessions of 25&#8211;30 min/week of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise), HIGH group (three sessions of 150 min/week of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise, and the COMB group (aerobic exercise plus a resistance exercise program). The higher dose of aerobic exercise intervention (HIGH group) was more effective in improving life quality and aerobic capacity, and in controlling pain and endocrine symptoms (e.g. hot flashes). However, the COMB group was superior to the HIGH and STAN groups in muscular strength gain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In chemotherapy patient, resistance exercise programs are associated with improved self-esteem, muscular strength, and body composition, without causing or aggravating lymphedema or other complications in those who underwent surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> Before initiating upper limbs exercises, it is recommended to assess the mobility of the arms. In addition, specific examination for the presence of peripheral neuropathies, musculoskeletal disorders, and risk of fractures, especially in patients on hormone therapy and in those with metastatic bone disease is advisable.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The combination of the three exercise programs proposed (aerobic, resistance and flexibility exercise) have largely contributed to the control of pain and fatigue. Improvement of cardiorespiratory function, due to increased aerobic capacity (maximal oxygen consumption) in combined exercise training programs may be explained by the ventilation perfusion matching and oxidative capacity of skeletal muscle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> This can play an important role in the management of structural disorder related to chemo- and radiation-induced toxicity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Chemotherapeutic agents that also cause direct and indirect cardiotoxicity, with acceleration of general and vascular aging, and consequent decline of cardiopulmonary reserve. Both the disease and the therapy can contribute to weight gain and reduction of physical activity,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> potentially increasing the risk for cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Studies on secondary prevention have corroborated the improvement of cardiopulmonary function with physical training programs in breast cancer women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cardiotoxicity, associated with psychoemotional factors, affects autonomic balance and consequently cardiovascular mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> In patients treated at initial stages of the disease, a sustained increment in sympathetic function and reduction in parasympathetic effect on the sinoatrial node have been reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Other reports have pointed out a reduction in heart rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity among women with a history of breast cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition to autonomic regulation, another important factor for the development of CVD is endothelial dysfunction. A recent meta-analysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> evaluated 163 patients from four studies (two on breast cancer, two on prostate cancer). Aerobic exercise improved vascular function and peak oxygen consumption. These data reinforce the importance of PE as an adjuvant therapy in breast cancer treatment, especially regarding the management of the side effects.</p>
          <p>With respect to overall and specific mortality, evidence accumulated so far suggests a favorable effect of moderate to vigorous physical activity, and preliminary evidence indicates associations of physical activity with risk reduction of breast cancer recurrence and progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A recent study evaluated systematic reviews on physical activity and reduction of all-cause mortality and breast cancer mortality, considering the dose-response relationship (also regardless of body mass index); the certainty of evidence was moderate. Regarding associations of the domain or the type of physical activity with mortality, the certainty of evidence was classified as low and, so far, it was not possible to identify physical activity modalities that had the greatest impact on the outcome. The same study evaluated risks and benefits, patients&#8217; values and preferences, resources required to meet the recommended physical activity, equity, acceptability of the recommendation, and the strength of the recommendation of PE to increase breast cancer survival was classified as &#8220;strong&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Future studies may change the quality of available evidence; it remains an open field of research.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Physical exercises in breast cancer post-treatment</title>
          <p>PE have been strongly recommended for breast cancer survivors and associated not only with improvement of quality of life, but also with possible increased survival.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> A prospective study that included 2987 women with stage I, II, or III breast cancer between 1984 and 1988, followed up until death or June 2002, showed that physical activity after breast cancer diagnosis can reduce the risk of death for the disease. The greatest benefit occurred in women who performed the equivalent of walking three to five hours per week at an average pace.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p>After the end of treatment, the main objective is to rehabilitate patients to return to their usual activities. Regular exercises can contribute to physical and psychological well-being and improved quality of life, consisting of one of the main recommendations to prevent chronic degenerative conditions; it would not be different for patients who had recently faced cancer treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> Evidence has shown that PE have a positive impact on survival and minimize breast cancer-related morbidity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Despite favorable data, the practice of PE is limited by barriers like fatigue, lack of motivation, loss of self-confidence, inadequate follow-up, lack of family support and lack of instructions.</p>
          <p>Encouraging women in the post-treatment period to adopt a healthy lifestyle &#8211; by avoiding excess alcohol and increasing fruit and vegetable intake and physical activity volume, is important to improve their quality of life and health.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Increased exercise levels represent a modifiable health behavior that can ameliorate sequalae of the disease and help women to return to their health status before cancer diagnosis and treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Thus, current recommendations of PE for breast cancer survivors are based on the return, as soon as possible, to habitual daily activities, on the maintenance of metabolic expenditure during and after therapies, and on the classical recommendation of weekly aerobic exercises.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Also, it has been demonstrated that physical inactivity is related to weight gain after the diagnosis which, in turn, has been associated with lower survival in some studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> More physically active women are less likely to gain weight after the diagnosis, improving the chance of survival.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Obesity is related to increased mortality rates for breast cancer (13-20%) and all-cause mortality (14-70%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> Obesity was also associated with a twice greater chance of post-menopausal contralateral breast cancer and a nearly 60% greater occurrence of other cancers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Therefore, maintaining normal body mass index can reduce the risk of a new breast cancer in the postmenopausal period, other cancers, and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Giallauria et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> evaluated whether exercise training improved autonomic function in women with a history of primary invasive breast cancer. Fifty-one patients enrolled in the DIANA clinical trial were divided into two groups. Group 1 (n = 25) that followed a formal exercise program of moderate intensity &#8211; three sessions/week on a bicycle or treadmill at 70 &#177; 2% VO<sub>2</sub> peak for 12 weeks, followed by one session/week until one-year follow-up. Group 2 while a control group (n = 26) did not perform any formal training. At baseline and at one-year follow-up, all patients underwent cardiopulmonary exercise stress test. Heart rate recovery (HRR) was calculated as the difference between heart rate at peak exercise and heart rate at the first minute of recovery. Compared with control group, group 1 showed significant improvement of VO<sub>2</sub> peak (from 12.4 &#177; 2.9 to 14.3 &#177; 3.3 mL/kg/min; p&lt;0.001) and in HRR (from 17.6 &#177; 6.4 to 23.0 &#177; 8.3 beats/min; p&lt;0.001). The authors concluded that moderate-intensity exercise is associated with improvement of autonomic function in breast cancer survivors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Evidence suggests that PE can also promote physiological and psychological benefits in cancer survivors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials by Fong et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> reported that PE had positive effects on physical functions, body weight and quality of life in patients after treatment for breast cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Additionally, results from another systematic review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> indicated that PE can have beneficial effects on overall and on certain domains of quality of life, like body image, self-esteem, emotional well-being, sexuality, sleep disorder, social functioning, anxiety, fatigue and pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Also, a Cochrane database systematic review that included 63 trials and 5761 women evaluated the effects of PE in patients in the post-treatment period and in a control group. Once again, it was shown that that physical activity interventions resulted in improvements in quality of life, emotional health, anxiety, physical function, muscular strength, and fatigue. Besides, relatively few adverse events were reported in the trials, suggesting that PE are safe in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>To be safe, exercise prescription requires the understanding, by the multidisciplinary team (physical educators, physical therapists, among others), of the peculiarities, implications and consequences of cancer treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Prescriptions should be made according to pre-treatment physical performance and comorbidities of cancer survivors, therapeutic response and negative immediate and persistent effects of treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Special attention should be given to peripheral neuropathies and secondary musculoskeletal diseases, regardless of the treatment time. Patients on hormone therapy should be assessed for the risk of fractures. It is also recommended evaluating the mobility of arms and shoulders before initiating upper limb exercises. It is important to consider the needed time for wound healing, which may be eight weeks or longer in mastectomies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Individuals with bone metastatic disease will required individualized exercise programming aiming at determining safety limits before initiating the PE. Rehabilitation of these patients include adaptations in pre-established programs, with reductions in impact, intensity, and volume, due to the increased risk posed by bone frailty and fractures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> In addition, individuals with known CVD (secondary to cancer or not) also require initial individualized examination regarding the safety of the exercise programs, closer supervision, and shorter intervals. Guidelines&#8217; recommendations on exercise and rehabilitation should be followed, especially considering cardiovascular and pulmonary contraindications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cancer survivors should be physically active. However, exercise prescription including exercise frequency, intensity, type and duration has been based on limited literature data. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref> summarized recommended exercise prescription for breast cancer patients in the post-treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommended prescription of physical exercises in the post-treatment of breast cancer</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Frequency</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Intensity</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Duration/performance</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Quality</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Aerobic</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Patient should start exercises twice a week and progressively increase until 3-5 times a week</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Patient should be instructed about effort perception. If exercises are well tolerated (without symptoms or side effects), the intensity of exercises should not be different from that in healthy population. Intensity should be from moderate to vigorous</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Exercise duration should be increased according to patient tolerance. A target of 75min/week of vigorous exercise or 150min/week of moderate exercise should be aimed</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Rhythmic, prolonged exercises that use large muscle groups. Examples: swimming, walking, bicycling, dancing</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Resistance</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2-3 days a week</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Moderate intensity (60-70% maximum repetitions)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Sets of 8 - 12 repetitions</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Programs should include weights, resistance training equipment, functional tasks with weights, using the main large muscle groups</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Flexibility</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Exercises can be performed daily, according to patient's condition</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Programs should include stretching exercises. Attention to body parts with restricted mobility due to treatment</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>Source: Adapted from the American College of Sports Medicine guidelines for exercise testing and prescription.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><italic>47</italic></xref></sup></attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>The progression of PE should be slower in cancer survivors as compared with healthy individuals, particularly if the prescribed exercises result in greater fatigue and unexpected adverse effects, which serves as an alert to individual's capacity thresholds. There are no maximum loads for weight training exercises for these patients. Attention should be paid to symptoms in the arms and shoulders, including lymphedema, resulting in load decrease or interruption of specific exercises according to the symptom reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite all the benefits of regular physical activity described above, there is no consensus or clear standard of the magnitude of their benefits, the way of administration or the most effective PE for this population. Further research is needed to establish the ideal exercise prescription. Studies so far have evaluated the effects of different exercise modalities, frequencies, intensities and durations on specific outcomes in breast cancer survivors, which make generalization and standardization of results difficult.</p>
          <p>Finally, we reinforce the need of all health professionals involved &#8211; physicians, physical educators, physical therapists, psychologists, and nutritionists &#8211; be aware of the importance of encouraging these women to regularly exercise after breast cancer treatment, highlighting the benefits and excellent cost-effectiveness.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Regular exercise/physical activity should be encouraged among women, targeting primary prevention, improvement of life quality and reduction of mortality among survivors, although studies have not reported the strength of evidence for breast cancer control. It is also important to highlight the important role of PE in reducing the incidence of CVD, which reinforces the importance of encouraging these women to be physically active. Although attention should be paid to some details in exercise prescription to breast cancer patients, in general, it is not very different from that made to the general population. Future studies are needed to better guide individualized prescriptions for these patients.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
