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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">y67FD7NZyzdvKnDtsmxRqMy</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022001300970</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20220194</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220194</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Mortalidade Hospitalar Por Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe: Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica e Metan&#225;lise</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4184-7083</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ziegelmann</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia K.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Victor</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio Grande</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Rio Grande, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Leonardo Alves &#8226;</bold>, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande &#8211; Departamento de Medicina - Gen Os&#243;rio. CEP <postal-code>96201-900</postal-code>, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>leoalvesrg@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>19</day>
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>119</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>970</fpage>
      <lpage>978</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>A maioria das mortes por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares ocorrem em pa&#237;ses de renda baixa e m&#233;dia, e o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; uma das condi&#231;&#245;es com maior risco de morte.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p>Avaliar a mortalidade hospitalar por todas as causas em pacientes admitidos por infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IAMCSST e IAMSSST) na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe no ano de 2000 em diante.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Realizamos uma busca sistem&#225;tica em bancos de dados eletr&#244;nicos por estudos do tipo coorte que relataram morte hospitalar por IAMCSST e IAMSSST. Foi realizada uma metan&#225;lise e um valor de p&lt;0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Identificamos 38 estudos (29 com pacientes com IAMCSST, 3 com IAMSSST e 6 com IAMCSST e IAMSSST). A mortalidade por IAMCSST agrupada foi de 9,9% (IC95%: 9,1 &#8211; 10,7). Observou-se importante heterogeneidade (<italic>I<sup>2</sup></italic> = 74% e o intervalo de predi&#231;&#227;o foi de 6,6 &#8211; 14.5). A porcentagem de terapia de reperfus&#227;o e a d&#233;cada em que os estudos foram conduzidos explicam parte dessa heterogeneidade (<italic>I<sup>2</sup></italic> = 54%). Quanto maior a taxa de terapia de reperfus&#227;o, menor a mortalidade hospitalar (coeficiente = &#8722;0,009, IC95%: &#8722;0,013 a &#8722;0,006, p&lt;0,001). A mortalidade foi maior na primeira d&#233;cada em compara&#231;&#227;o com a mortalidade na segunda d&#233;cada (coeficiente = &#8722;0,14, IC95%: &#8722;0,27 a &#8722;0,02, p=0,047). A mortalidade hospitalar por IAMSSST foi de 6,3% (IC95%: 5,4 &#8211; 7,4) e a heterogeneidade foi nula.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>A mortalidade por IAMCSST em pa&#237;ses de renda baixa e m&#233;dia foi maior em compara&#231;&#227;o com as taxas relatadas em outros pa&#237;ses. Para melhorar essas estimativas, deve-se buscar um maior uso de terapia de reperfus&#227;o. A mortalidade hospitalar por IAMSSST agrupada foi similar &#224;s taxas descritas em pa&#237;ses de alta renda. Contudo, esse dado foi baseado em poucos estudos, cuja maioria foi conduzida em dois pa&#237;ses.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio/mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Pobreza/estat&#237;stica e dados num&#233;ricos</kwd>
        <kwd>Am&#233;rica Latina</kwd>
        <kwd>Caribe</kwd>
        <kwd>Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Metan&#225;lise</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="66"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs) s&#227;o a principal causa de morte em adultos em todo o mundo. Mais de tr&#234;s quartos das mortes por DCVs ocorrem em pa&#237;ses de renda baixa e m&#233;dia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Consequentemente, na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe, onde esses pa&#237;ses prevalecem,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> as DCVs representam um peso significativo em suas economias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Na Agenda de Sa&#250;de Sustent&#225;vel para as Am&#233;ricas 2018-2030, a Organiza&#231;&#227;o Panamericana de Sa&#250;de (OPAS) declarou que a redu&#231;&#227;o no peso das DCVs &#233; uma de suas metas, uma vez que essas doen&#231;as s&#227;o as principais doen&#231;as n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica &#233; respons&#225;vel pela maioria das mortes por DCV bem como por mortes prematuras e incapacidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Uma de suas principais manifesta&#231;&#245;es &#233; o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, uma situa&#231;&#227;o comum de emerg&#234;ncia, potencialmente fatal. O infarto do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; classificado como Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio com Eleva&#231;&#227;o do Segmento ST (IAMCSST) ou como Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio sem Eleva&#231;&#227;o do Segmento ST (IAMSSST), ambos com progn&#243;stico e terapia diferentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O manejo do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio melhorou nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas. No IAMCSST, agentes fibrinol&#237;ticos e aspirina, juntamente com interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea e agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios mais potentes, diminu&#237;ram as taxas de mortalidade para 5-6%. Da mesma forma, no IAMSSST, a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o precoce associada com anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e novos agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios tamb&#233;m promoveram melhora dos desfechos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Para avaliar o manejo contempor&#226;neo do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio em pa&#237;ses de renda baixa e m&#233;dia, conduzimos uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica para investigar mortalidade hospitalar por todas as causas em pacientes admitidos por IAMCSST e IAMSSST em hospitais na Am&#233;rica Latina e Caribe do ano 2000 em diante.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica foi conduzida de acordo com o checklist do <italic>Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology</italic> (MOOSE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> O protocolo foi registrado no <italic>International Prospective Register of Systematic Review</italic> (PROSPERO, n&#250;mero CRD42019109184).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Terminologia</title>
        <p>Nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, a regi&#227;o da Am&#233;rica Latina e do Caribe foi definida como a &#225;rea geogr&#225;fica composta de todos os pa&#237;ses do continente americano, exceto os Estados Unidos, Canad&#225; e ilhas Bermudas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Essa regi&#227;o tem uma popula&#231;&#227;o de 645 milh&#245;es; 82% moram em &#225;reas urbanas. O Brasil e o M&#233;xico s&#227;o os pa&#237;ses mais populosos, contribuindo com mais da metade da popula&#231;&#227;o total, e Argentina, Col&#244;mbia, Peru, Venezuela e Chile com cerca de um ter&#231;o da popula&#231;&#227;o. A regi&#227;o do Caribe abrange menos de 10% da popula&#231;&#227;o, e 70% dessa concentram-se em Cuba, Haiti, e Rep&#250;blica Dominicana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A lista de todos os pa&#237;ses pode ser acessada no Material Suplementar.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Crit&#233;rios de sele&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica incluiu estudos que preencheram os seguintes crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o: (1) estudos que inclu&#237;ram adultos com idade igual ou maior que 18 anos, do sexo masculino ou feminino; (2) estudos conduzidos na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe; (3) estudos que coletaram dados de pacientes admitidos em 2000 em diante; (4) estudos prospectivos e retrospectivos do tipo coorte; e (5) estudos que relataram mortalidade hospitalar por todas as causas por IAMCSST e IAMSSST.</p>
        <p>Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o consistiram em (1) estudos cujas amostras eram compostas por um grupo espec&#237;fico da popula&#231;&#227;o alvo (tais como adultos mais velhos, mulheres, diab&#233;ticas); (2) estudos cujas amostras eram compostas por um grupo com uma condi&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica (como pacientes que se submeteram a uma terapia de reperfus&#227;o espec&#237;fica, pacientes em choque cardiog&#234;nico, pacientes que n&#227;o se submeteram &#224; terapia de reperfus&#227;o); e (3) estudos baseados em dados administrativos. Em estudos avaliando o efeito de um protocolo de tratamento comparando-se coortes antes e ap&#243;s sua implementa&#231;&#227;o, n&#243;s selecionados o segundo per&#237;odo por fornecer dados mais recentes. Para coortes repetitivos, consideramos aqueles com dados originais e mais recentes. Tivemos o cuidado para evitar dupla contagem dos pacientes inclu&#237;dos em diferentes coortes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estrat&#233;gia de busca</title>
        <p>Conduzimos uma busca sistem&#225;tica nas seguintes bases de dados eletr&#244;nicas: MEDLINE, Embase, <italic>Web of Science</italic>, Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de (LILACS), Centro Nacional de Informa&#231;&#227;o de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Cuba (CUMED), Literatura do Caribe em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de (MEDCARIB) e <italic>Institutional Repository for Information Sharing/Pan America Health Organization</italic> (IRIS/PAHO). A estrat&#233;gia de busca combinou termos relacionados a &#8220;infarto do mioc&#225;rdio&#8221; e &#8220;Am&#233;rica Laitina e Caribe&#8221; e se restringiu a estudos publicados de 2000 em diante (Material Suplementar). Uma busca manual de refer&#234;ncias nos artigos selecionados tamb&#233;m foi conduzida.</p>
        <p>Todos os artigos identificados nas diferentes fontes foram exportados para o EndNote e reunidos em um mesmo arquivo, e os artigos duplicados foram removidos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sele&#231;&#227;o de artigos e extra&#231;&#227;o de dados</title>
        <p>O primeiro passo da sele&#231;&#227;o de estudos foi o rastreamento de artigos, a partir dos t&#237;tulos e resumos, seguindo os crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade. A segunda etapa envolveu a confirma&#231;&#227;o da elegibilidade pela leitura completa dos artigos selecionados. Nessa etapa, foram registradas as raz&#245;es da exclus&#227;o do artigo e, em caso de d&#250;vidas, os autores dos artigos foram contatados. Dois revisores independentes (L.A. e V.R.) selecionaram os estudos, e discord&#226;ncias foram resolvidas por consenso.</p>
        <p>Extra&#237;mos caracter&#237;sticas dos artigos &#8211; primeiro autor, ano de publica&#231;&#227;o, pa&#237;s, dura&#231;&#227;o, tamanho amostral, tipo de coorte, local de recrutamento, n&#250;mero de centros de sa&#250;de, sistema de sa&#250;de (p&#250;blico/privado); caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes &#8211; caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas e fatores de risco (hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, tabagismo, dislipidemia); dados relacionados ao IAMCSST &#8211; classe Killip III/IV, tempo de isquemia, tipo e frequ&#234;ncia de terapia de reperfus&#227;o &#8211; e ao IAMSSST &#8211; biomarcador de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, escore de risco, terapia antitromb&#243;tica, e revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio; e mortalidade hospitalar. Esse processo foi conduzido por dois revisores independentes (LA. E V.R.), e diverg&#234;ncias foram resolvidas por consenso.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de vi&#233;s</title>
        <p>O risco de vi&#233;s nos estudos inclu&#237;dos foi avaliado pela ferramenta QUIPS (<italic>Quality in Prognosis Studies</italic>) que contem seis dom&#237;nios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Nesta revis&#227;o, usamos tr&#234;s desses dom&#237;nios que abordam a representatividade da amostra do estudo, perda de seguimento, e a medida do desfecho. A fim de classificar a representatividade, consideramos estudos com alto risco aqueles que, no m&#237;nimo, foram conduzidos em uma &#250;nica unidade de terapia intensiva ou que n&#227;o realizaram (ou n&#227;o informaram) recrutamento consecutivo; estudos de baixo risco aqueles com amostras populacionais; e estudos de risco moderado aqueles que n&#227;o preencheram os crit&#233;rios anteriores. Ainda, classificamos a perda de seguimento em baixo risco (&lt; 10%), risco moderado (10 - 20%) ou alto risco (&gt; 20%).</p>
        <p>Estudos que tiveram ao menos um dom&#237;nio classificado como de alto risco foram classificados como de alto risco de vi&#233;s, e aqueles estudos que tiveram todos os dom&#237;nios classificados como de baixo risco foram classificados como de baixo risco de vi&#233;s. Estudos que n&#227;o preencheram os crit&#233;rios pr&#233;vios foram classificados como de risco moderado de vi&#233;s. Dois revisores independentes (L.A. e V.R.) conduziram essa avalia&#231;&#227;o e discord&#226;ncias foram solucionadas por consenso.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise dos dados</title>
        <p>Realizamos metan&#225;lises independentes para avaliar mortalidade hospitalar por IAMCSST e IAMSSST. A mortalidade foi exibida como propor&#231;&#227;o (n&#250;mero de mortes dividido pelo total de n&#250;mero de pacientes em risco no per&#237;odo de avalia&#231;&#227;o). Estimativas foram calculadas usando modelos de efeitos aleat&#243;rios (devido &#224; heterogeneidade, esperada em estudos observacionais como o nosso), com transforma&#231;&#227;o logit e m&#233;todo de vari&#226;ncia inversa. Usamos o m&#233;todo proposto por DerSimonian e Laird para estimar a variabilidade entre estudos.</p>
        <p>A heterogeneidade entre os estudos foi avaliada pela estat&#237;stica <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> teste de Cochran e intervalo de predi&#231;&#227;o de 95%. Esse intervalo fornece uma melhor perspectiva da variabilidade esperada de mortalidade entre diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es consideradas nos modelos de efeito aleat&#243;rios, ou seja, a relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica da heterogeneidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Para identificar fontes potenciais de heterogeneidade, conduzimos an&#225;lise de subgrupo (pa&#237;s, d&#233;cada do estudo) e meta-regress&#227;o. Tamb&#233;m conduzimos an&#225;lise de sensibilidade (excluindo estudos com algumas caracter&#237;sticas, estudos com uma amostra pequena, estudo de alto risco de vi&#233;s e estudos <italic>outliers</italic>) para avaliar heterogeneidade e a robustez dos resultados.</p>
        <p>Efeitos de estudos pequenos, causados, entre outros, por vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> foram avaliados usando um gr&#225;fico de funil constru&#237;do com a transforma&#231;&#227;o logit de mortalidade versus o tamanho amostral. O uso do tamanho da amostra &#233; mais preciso para avaliar estudos de propor&#231;&#245;es que uma medida de precis&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Esse efeito, observado como assimetria no gr&#225;fico de funil, foi avaliado analiticamente usando-se o teste de Peters, o qual tamb&#233;m se baseia no tamanho da amostra.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> O programa R para metan&#225;lise foi usado para todas as an&#225;lises.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Um valor de p&lt;0,05 foi considerado como estatisticamente significativo.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Resultados da busca</title>
        <p>Nossa estrat&#233;gia de busca identificou 9244 artigos (01 de setembro de 2018; atualizada em 15 de abril de 2020). Ap&#243;s a exclus&#227;o de duplicatas, rastreamos 7597 artigos pela an&#225;lise do t&#237;tulo e do resumo; 381desses tiveram o texto completo avaliado quanto &#224; elegibilidade. Inclu&#237;mos um estudo conduzido por nosso grupo de pesquisa, que ainda n&#227;o havia sido publicado at&#233; a data da &#250;ltima pesquisa, e cinco artigos encontrados pela busca na lista de refer&#234;ncia de cada artigo completo inclu&#237;do na revis&#227;o. N&#227;o conseguimos ter acesso a 14 artigos na &#237;ntegra mesmo ap&#243;s busca exaustiva. Esse processo resultou em 38 estudos: 29 sobre IAMCSST, tr&#234;s sobre NSTEMI e seis que avaliaram ambos (Figura Suplementar 1).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Caracter&#237;sticas do estudo</title>
        <p>Um total de 28878 indiv&#237;duos de 35 estudos com STEMI<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> e um total de 2377 indiv&#237;duos de nove estudos sobre IAMSSST<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> foram inclu&#237;dos na revis&#227;o. Os estudos sobre IAMCSST foram conduzidos no Brasil (n=15), Cuba (n=6), Argentina (n=5), M&#233;xico (n=3), Col&#244;mbia (n=2), Chile (n=1), Paraguai (n=1), Peru (n=1) e Porto Rico (n=1), enquanto estudos sobre IAMSSST foram realizados no Brasil (n=6), Argentina (n=2) e Col&#244;mbia (n=1). A maioria dos estudos foram estudos multic&#234;ntricos, prospectivos, do tipo coorte, e o departamento de emerg&#234;ncia foi o local mais comum em que os pacientes foram recrutados. O per&#237;odo mediano de estudo foi de 18 meses (IQR: 12 &#8211; 37) para estudos sobre IAMCSST e 10 meses (IQR: 12 &#8211; 37) para estudos sobre IAMSSST. Caracter&#237;sticas dos estudos selecionados s&#227;o apresentadas nas Tabelas Suplementares 1 (IAMCSST) e 2 (IAMSSST).</p>
        <p>Nos estudos sobre IAMCSST, a idade m&#233;dia variou de 55 a 65 anos de idade, e a maioria dos indiv&#237;duos eram do sexo masculino (56% ou mais em cada estudo). Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; sele&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes, alguns estudos usaram tempos espec&#237;ficos de isquemia como crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o (at&#233; 12, 24, 36, 48 8e 72 horas). O tempo de atraso do paciente foi relatado em menos de 50% dos estudos, enquanto o tempo de atraso do sistema foi relatado em poucos estudos. A porcentagem de terapia de reperfus&#227;o variou consideravelmente entre os estudos, de 21 a 99%; cerca de 60% mostraram porcentagens abaixo de 70%. Na primeira d&#233;cada, a terapia de reperfus&#227;o mais frequente foi fibrin&#243;lise (estreptoquinase). A interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea foi mais frequente na segunda d&#233;cada; no entanto, quando fibrin&#243;lise era uma op&#231;&#227;o, escolhia -se um agente espec&#237;fico &#224; fibrina. O principal motivo pela n&#227;o realiza&#231;&#227;o de terapia e reperfus&#227;o foi o fato de os pacientes buscaram assist&#234;ncia 12 horas ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio dos sintomas. O atraso no sistema e o subdiagn&#243;stico tamb&#233;m foram mencionados.</p>
        <p>Em estudos de IAMSSST, a idade m&#233;dia variou de 63 a 64 anos e a maioria dos indiv&#237;duos era do sexo masculino (60% ou mais em cada estudo). Nenhum estudo apresentou escores de risco ou relatou o uso de troponina como biomarcador de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Cinco estudos apresentaram informa&#231;&#245;es sobre terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria dupla e terapia de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, e somente dois estudos mostraram dados de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana precoce.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Risco de vi&#233;s</title>
        <p>O risco total de vi&#233;s em estudos de IAMCSST foi de 14%, 49% e 37% para estudos de risco baixo, moderado e alto, respectivamente, e de 22%, 56% e 22% para estudos de IAMSSST com risco baixo, moderado e alto, respectivamente (Tabela Suplementar 3). O vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o (dom&#237;nio da representatividade) foi a principal preocupa&#231;&#227;o, ao passo que a medida do desfecho e a perda de seguimento n&#227;o representaram riscos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Desfechos de IAMCSST</title>
        <p>As taxas de mortalidade variaram substancialmente entre os estudos, de 4,9% a 17.5%. A mortalidade hospitalar agrupada foi 9,9% (IC95%: 9,1 &#8211; 10,7) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). A amplitude do intervalo de predi&#231;&#227;o (6,6 &#8211; 14,5) mostrou uma heterogeneidade relativamente importante entre os estudos. A porcentagem de vari&#226;ncia n&#227;o explicada por erro de amostragem (estat&#237;stica <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup>) foi 74% (p&lt;0,001). A metarregress&#227;o univaridada revelou que quanto maior a porcentagem de terapia de reperfus&#227;o, menor a mortalidade hospitalar (coeficiente &#8722;0,010, IC95%: &#8722;0,014 a &#8722;0,006, p&lt;0,001; <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> residual = 56%) (Tabela Suplementar 4 e Figura Suplementar 2). O efeito linear sobre a taxa de mortalidade encontra-se na escala logit; assim, para uma melhor interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos resultados, s&#227;o apresentadas estimativas de mortalidade para algumas porcentagens de reperfus&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). A an&#225;lise de subgrupo tamb&#233;m identificou mortalidade hospitalar mais baixa na segunda d&#233;cada (2010 a 2020) ao se comparar com a primeira d&#233;cada (2000 a 2009) desta revis&#227;o (9,1%, IC95%: 8,2 &#8211; 10,1 <italic>vs</italic> 10,7%, IC95%: 9,6 &#8211; 11,9; p=0,036) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> e Tabela Suplementar 4). Considerando a mortalidade por pa&#237;s, a taxa de mortalidade mais baixa foi no Chile (8,5, IC95%: 5,3 &#8211; 13,5), e a mais alta foi na Col&#244;mbia (15%, IC95%; 10,1 &#8211; 21,7) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>); no entanto, n&#227;o foi encontrada diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica entre os pa&#237;ses (p=0,47) (Tabela Suplementar 4).</p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Mortalidade hospitalar agrupada em pacientes admitidos por Infarto do Mioc&#237;rdio com Eleva&#231;&#227;o do Segmento ST (IAMCSST) na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe do ano 2000 em diante</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0970-20194-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Estimativa de mortalidade hospitalar ap&#243;s an&#225;lise de metarregress&#227;o univariada e multivariada</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Mortalidade % (IC95%)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">
                  <bold>An&#225;lise bruta</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Taxa de terapia de reperfus&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">20%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">14,4 (12,3 &#8211; 16,8)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">30%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">13,2 (11,6 &#8211; 15,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">40%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">12,1 (11,0 &#8211; 13,4)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">50%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">11,1 (10,3 &#8211; 12,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">60%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">10,2 (9,5 &#8211; 10,8)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">70%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">9,3 (8,7 &#8211; 9,9)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">80%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">8,5 (7,8 &#8211; 9,2)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>D&#233;cada</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2"/>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Primeira</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">10,7 (9,6 &#8211; 11,9)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Segunda</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">9,1 (8,2 &#8211; 10,1)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Pa&#237;s (N de estudos)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Chile (1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">8,5 (5,3 &#8211; 13,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">M&#233;xico (3)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">8,6 (6,5 &#8211; 11,4)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Argentina (5)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">9,6 (7,6 &#8211; 12,1)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Brasil (15)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">9,6 (8,3 &#8211; 11,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Cuba (6)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">10,0 (8,2 &#8211; 12,1)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Peru (1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">10,9 (6,5 &#8211; 17,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Porto Rico (1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">12,5 (7,0 &#8211; 21,2)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Paraguai (1)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">12,8 (7,7 &#8211; 20,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Col&#244;mbia (2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">15,0 (10,1 &#8211; 21,7)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000;">
                  <bold>An&#225;lise ajustada</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Primeira d&#233;cada</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Segunda d&#233;cada</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Taxa de terapia de reperfus&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">20%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">15,0 (12,8 &#8211; 17,5)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">13,3 (11,2 &#8211; 15,8)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">30%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">13,8 (12,1 &#8211; 15,7)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">12,3 (10,6 &#8211; 14,2)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">40%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">12,7 (11,4 &#8211; 14,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">11,3 (10,0 &#8211; 12,7)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">50%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">11,7 (10,7 &#8211; 12,9)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">10,4 (9,4 &#8211; 11,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">60%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">10,8 (9,9 &#8211; 11,8)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">9,5 (8,8 &#8211; 10,4)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">70%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">9,9 (9,4 &#8211; 10,9)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">8,8 (8,0 &#8211; 9,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">80%</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">9,1 (8,2 &#8211; 10,2)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">8,0 (7,3 &#8211; 8,9)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>No modelo de meta-regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla, somente a taxa de reperfus&#227;o e a d&#233;cada mantiveram associa&#231;&#227;o independente com mortalidade hospitalar (Tabela Suplementar 4). Independentemente da d&#233;cada, o logit da mortalidade diminuiu linearmente com o aumento da taxa de reperfus&#227;o (coeficiente &#8722;0,009, IC 95%: &#8722;0,013 a &#8722;0,006, p&lt;0,001). Independentemente da taxa de reperfus&#227;o, o logit da mortalidade foi maior na primeira d&#233;cada em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; segunda (coeficiente &#8722;0,14, IC95%: &#8722;0,27 a &#8722;0,02, p=0,047). As estimativas de mortalidade variaram de 15% a 9,1% na primeira d&#233;cada e de 13,3% a 8% na segunda d&#233;cada, dependendo da taxa de reperfus&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). A diferen&#231;a na mortalidade ao longo das d&#233;cadas variou de 1,7 ponto percentual para taxa de reperfus&#227;o de 20% a 1,1 ponto percentual para taxa de reperfus&#227;o de 80% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). Finalmente, a heterogeneidade diminuiu, e foi em parte explicada por essas caracter&#237;sticas (<italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> residual =54%).</p>
        <p>As an&#225;lises de sensibilidade exclu&#237;ram estudos retrospectivos do tipo coorte, estudos com uma pequena amostra (menos de 100 participantes), estudos que usaram tempo de isquemia do paciente &lt; 12 horas como crit&#233;rio de inclus&#227;o, e estudos com alto vi&#233;s n&#227;o afetaram muito os resultados como um todo.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Desfechos de IAMSSST</title>
        <p>As taxas de mortalidade por IAMSSST variaram de 4,9% a 8,5%, exceto um estudo cuja taxa foi de 16,5% (estudo outlier). A mortalidade hospitalar agrupada foi 7,2% (IC95%: 5,5 &#8211; 9,3) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>). A amplitude do intervalo de predi&#231;&#227;o (3,2 &#8211; 15,2) mostrou uma heterogeneidade importante entre os estudos. A porcentagem de vari&#226;ncia n&#227;o explicada por erro de amostragem (estat&#237;stica <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup>) foi de 63%. Na an&#225;lise de sensibilidade (Tabela Suplementar 6), a heterogeneidade foi totalmente explicada (<italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> = 0%) pela exclus&#227;o do estudo outlier (que tamb&#233;m apresenta um vi&#233;s elevado). Consequentemente, a estimativa agrupada diminuiu para 6,3% (IC95%: 5,4 &#8211; 7,4) e o intervalo de predi&#231;&#227;o diminuiu para 5,1 &#8211; 7,7. A exclus&#227;o de um estudo com alto risco de vi&#233;s e de tr&#234;s estudos com pequeno tamanho amostral (menor que 100 pacientes) n&#227;o afetou os resultados. Nenhum dos estudos teve impacto individual sobre os resultados, exceto o estudo outlier como previamente mencionado.</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Mortalidade hospitalar agrupada em pacientes admitidos por Infarto do Mioc&#237;rdio sem Eleva&#231;&#227;o do Segmento ST (IAMSSST) na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe do ano 2000 em diante</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0970-20194-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Efeitos de estudos pequenos</title>
        <p>A an&#225;lise visual do gr&#225;fico de funil n&#227;o sugeriu efeitos de estudos pequenos sobre a mortalidade por IAMCSST, uma vez que n&#227;o foi observada assimetria (Figura Suplementar 3), o que n&#227;o foi corroborado pelo teste de Peters (p=0,04). Contudo, ap&#243;s a imputa&#231;&#227;o de dois estudos hipot&#233;ticos pelo m&#233;todo &#8220;aparar e preencher&#8221;, ou &#8220;<italic>trim and fill</italic>&#8221; em ingl&#234;s (an&#225;lise de sensibilidade), a mortalidade agrupada n&#227;o sofreu muita altera&#231;&#227;o (9,7%; IC95%: 8,9 &#8211; 10,5). Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos estudos de IAMSSST, n&#227;o tivemos muitos estudos para avaliar esse efeito.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, investigamos a mortalidade hospitalar por infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IAMCSST e IAMSSST) na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe ao longo das &#250;ltimas duas d&#233;cadas. A mortalidade hospitalar agrupada foi de 9,3% e 6,3% para IAMCSST e IAMSSST, respectivamente, ap&#243;s exclus&#227;o do estudo <italic>outlier</italic> e do estudo com alto risco de vi&#233;s. Em nosso conhecimento, esta &#233; a primeira revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica que avaliou mortalidade por infarto do mioc&#225;rdio nesta &#225;rea geogr&#225;fica.</p>
      <p>A taxa de mortalidade hospitalar por IAMCSST variou entre os estudos. A principal fonte dessa heterogeneidade foi a terapia de reperfus&#227;o cuja associa&#231;&#227;o com mortalidade est&#225; bem estabelecida. O mesmo fato &#233; observado na Europa, cujos registros conduzidos por v&#225;rios pa&#237;ses mostraram taxas de mortalidade que variaram entre 4% e 13%, e grande varia&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m na terapia de reperfus&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Assim, o baixo uso dessa terapia, observado em muitos estudos em nossa revis&#227;o, &#233; uma preocupa&#231;&#227;o em termos da qualidade do cuidado m&#233;dico. As principais raz&#245;es para essa situa&#231;&#227;o foram atraso do paciente em buscar cuidado m&#233;dico, al&#233;m do atraso no sistema e subdiagn&#243;stico. Essas quest&#245;es podem ser resolvidas principalmente com a implementa&#231;&#227;o de um sistema de assist&#234;ncia estruturado, que envolve avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-hospitalar, triagem, e transfer&#234;ncia, juntamente com protocolos padronizados. Essa estrutura pode melhorar o acesso a estabelecimentos de aten&#231;&#227;o terci&#225;ria, diminuir o n&#250;mero de pacientes &#8220;eleg&#237;veis mas n&#227;o tratados&#8221;, e reduzir o tempo para o tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Medidas educacionais sobre dor tor&#225;cica na popula&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m devem ser implementadas. Resultados favor&#225;veis dessas estrat&#233;gias foram descritas em estudos conduzidos em pa&#237;ses da Am&#233;rica Latina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A mortalidade hospitalar agrupada por IAMCSST &#233; maior que as taxas descritas em registros de pa&#237;ses de alta renda, tais como 5,1% e 7%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> nos Estados Unidos e 6,8% no Canad&#225;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> Essa diferen&#231;a pode ser devido &#224;s baixas porcentagens de terapia de reperfus&#227;o. Esse fato &#233; corroborado pelo estudo que avaliou desfechos em pacientes com STEMI em ensaios cl&#237;nicos que mostraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o negativa entre mortalidade e renda nacional bruta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Essa associa&#231;&#227;o foi independente de outros preditores, tais como gravidade dos casos, tempo de isquemia e manejo de perfus&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Outra fonte de heterogeneidade encontrada nos estudos com pacientes com IAMCSST relacionou-se ao per&#237;odo em que os estudos foram conduzidos. Na primeira d&#233;cada dessa revis&#227;o, observamos uma maior mortalidade que na segunda d&#233;cada, o que pode ser devido ao uso predominante de agentes n&#227;o espec&#237;ficos &#224; fibrina para a fibrin&#243;lise e menor uso de terapia antitromb&#243;tica. Deve-se salientar que o resultado dessa fonte de heterogeneidade foi muito pr&#243;ximo ao limite arbitr&#225;rio da signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica.</p>
      <p>Finalmente, a mortalidade hospitalar variou ente os pa&#237;ses em que os estudos foram desenvolvidos, mas essa fonte de heterogeneidade n&#227;o foi estatisticamente significativa. Apesar de a Am&#233;rica Latina e o Caribe serem compostos de pa&#237;ses de renda baixa e m&#233;dia, existem diferen&#231;as em suas rendas nacionais brutas e seus sistemas de sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Nesse caso, o fato de a presente revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica n&#227;o ter poder estat&#237;stico suficiente pode ter influenciado no resultado.</p>
      <p>Dois grandes registros de IAMCSST conduzidos na Am&#233;rica Latina (M&#233;xico e Brasil) devem ser destacados. Esses estudos relataram a mortalidade cardiovascular hospitalar<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> e em 30 dias<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> em vez de mortalidade hospitalar por todas as causas, como em nossa revis&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> No registro mexicano, 71% dos pacientes receberam terapia de reperfus&#227;o e a mortalidade cardiovascular foi 9,4% (ap&#243;s implementa&#231;&#227;o do protocolo de manejo). Essa taxa tamb&#233;m &#233; mais elevada que as taxas encontradas nos registros em pa&#237;ses de alta renda. No registro brasileiro, a terapia de reperfus&#227;o foi aplicada em 88% dos pacientes enquanto a mortalidade cardiovascular em 30 dias foi de 3,4%. Essa taxa foi mais baixa que aquelas observadas em pa&#237;ses de alta renda embora essa tenha considerado apenas mortes cardiovasculares. As raz&#245;es para esse fato podem incluir a participa&#231;&#227;o de centros de tratamento card&#237;aco de refer&#234;ncia, al&#233;m dos m&#233;todos de amostragem e recrutamento usados.</p>
      <p>H&#225; limita&#231;&#245;es a serem consideradas. Alguns estudos adotaram limites diferentes de tempos de isquemia devido ao atraso do paciente como crit&#233;rio de inclus&#227;o (outros n&#227;o mencionaram se os usaram). Uma vez que o tempo de isquemia est&#225; associado com mortalidade, esses estudos poderiam selecionar pacientes com diferentes progn&#243;sticos. Ainda, a falta de dados sobre tempo de isquemia (atraso do paciente ou do sistema) nos estudos n&#227;o permitiu avali&#225;-lo como uma fonte de heterogeneidade, uma vez que a mortalidade est&#225; associada n&#227;o s&#243; com a realiza&#231;&#227;o de terapia de reperfus&#227;o, como tamb&#233;m com o per&#237;odo em que foi realizada. Outras fontes potenciais de heterogeneidade, tais como idade e propor&#231;&#227;o de mulheres n&#227;o foram avaliadas devido &#224; falta de informa&#231;&#227;o. Por fim, deve-se considerar a quest&#227;o da representatividade dos estudos. Esta revis&#227;o de estudos sobre IAMCSST incluiu apenas nove pa&#237;ses, e a maioria dos estudos foram conduzidos em servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de bem estruturados, que geralmente apresentam melhores resultados.</p>
      <p>A mortalidade hospitalar por IAMCSST entre os estudos, ap&#243;s excluir o estudo outlier e de alto risco de vi&#233;s. As estimativas acumuladas foram similares &#224;s taxas de mortalidade de grandes registros, tais como 5% no estudo GRACE e 7,6% no registro Kaiser.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Contudo, h&#225; algumas ressalvas a ser consideradas nessas an&#225;lises. A escassez de dados sobre mortalidade hospitalar por IAMSSST isolada deve-se ao fato de que, na maioria dos estudos, a mortalidade por IAMSSST estar combinada com outras causas como angina inst&#225;vel. Al&#233;m disso, os estudos foram conduzidos principalmente em dois pa&#237;ses (Brasil e Argentina), o que pode prejudicar a generaliza&#231;&#227;o das estimativas para toda a regi&#227;o. Ainda, os estudos n&#227;o apresentaram nenhum escore de risco; assim, n&#227;o conseguimos avaliar a gravidade da popula&#231;&#227;o estudada para fins comparativos.</p>
      <p>Finalmente, o risco global de vi&#233;s foi classificado em alto e moderado de acordo com o vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o. Assim, deve-se prestar aten&#231;&#227;o aos m&#233;todos de amostragem para evitar uma estimativa enviesada. Ainda, a defini&#231;&#227;o do dom&#237;nio de representatividade nesta revis&#227;o foi arbitr&#225;ria, o que foi uma limita&#231;&#227;o. Consequentemente, esses fatos devem ser considerados na avalia&#231;&#227;o das estimativas de mortalidade hospitalar.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>A mortalidade hospitalar por IAMCSST agrupada em pa&#237;ses de renda baixa e m&#233;dia foi elevada em compara&#231;&#227;o a taxas encontradas em pa&#237;ses de renda alta. Para melhorar essas estimativas, &#233; fundamental aumentar a porcentagem da terapia de reperfus&#227;o, o que pode ser alcan&#231;ado focando-se na organiza&#231;&#227;o do sistema de sa&#250;de e na sa&#250;de da popula&#231;&#227;o. A mortalidade hospitalar por IAMSSST foi similar &#224;s encontradas em pa&#237;ses de alta renda; no entanto, tal estimativa baseou-se em poucos estudos, cuja maioria foi conduzida em dois pa&#237;ses. Assim, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos dados de IAMSSST, devem-se avaliar mais registros de diferentes pa&#237;ses para se obter uma estimativa mais precisa. Por fim, pesquisadores devem focar na qualidade dos m&#233;todos de amostragem e de recrutamento para se evitar o risco de vi&#233;s e, consequentemente, melhorar as estimativas.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Leonardo Alves pela Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <p>
          <bold>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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    <sec>
      <title>*Material suplementar</title>
      <p>Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, clique aqui.</p>
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          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ziegelmann</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia K.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Victor</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio Grande</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Rio Grande, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Leonardo Alves &#8226;</bold>, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande &#8211; Departamento de Medicina &#8211; Gen Os&#243;rio. Postal Code <postal-code>96201-900</postal-code>, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>leoalvesrg@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Most cardiovascular deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries and myocardial infarction is one of the main life-threatening conditions.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>We assessed all-cause in-hospital mortality in patients admitted for myocardial infarction (STEMI and NSTEMI) in Latin America and the Caribbean from 2000 onward.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>We systematically searched in electronic bibliographic databases for cohort studies which reported in-hospital mortality due to STEMI and NSTEMI. A meta-analysis was performed and a p-value &lt; 0.05 was considered significant.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>We identified 38 studies (29 STEMI, 3 NSTEMI and 6 both). Pooled STEMI in-hospital mortality was 9.9% (95% CI: 9.1 &#8211; 10.7). Heterogeneity was not trivial (I<sup>2</sup> = 74% and prediction interval = 6.6 &#8211; 14.5). The percentage of reperfusion therapy and decade explain part of the heterogeneity (I<sup>2</sup> = 54%). The higher the rate of reperfusion therapy, the lower the in-hospital mortality (coefficient = &#8722;0.009, 95% CI: &#8722;0.013 to &#8722;0.006, p&lt;0.001). This mortality was higher in the first decade as compared with the second (coefficient = &#8722;0.14, 95% CI: &#8722;0.27 to &#8722;0.02, p=0.047). Pooled NSTEMI in-hospital mortality was 6.3% (95% CI: 5.4 &#8211; 7.4) and heterogeneity was null.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Pooled STEMI in-hospital mortality in low- and middle-income countries was high in comparison with rates reported in high income countries. To improve these estimates, higher use of reperfusion therapy must be pursued. Pooled NSTEMI in-hospital mortality was similar to the ones found in high-income countries; however, it was based on few studies and most of them were carried out in two countries.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction/mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Poverty/statistics &amp; Numeral data</kwd>
        <kwd>Latin America</kwd>
        <kwd>Caribbean Region</kwd>
        <kwd>Systematic Review</kwd>
        <kwd>Meta-Analysis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the main cause of mortality among adults worldwide. Over three quarters of CVD deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> As a result, in Latin American and the Caribbean, where these countries prevail,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> CVD represent a significant burden on their economies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In the Sustainable Health Agenda for the Americas 2018-2030, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) declared that decrease in the CVD burden is one of its goals since these disorders are the main noncommunicable diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Ischemic heart disease is responsible for most deaths caused by CVD as well as for premature death and disability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> One of its main clinical manifestations is myocardial infarction, a common life-threatening emergency. It is classified as ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) or non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), and both have different prognosis and therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Management of myocardial infarction has improved in last decades. In STEMI, fibrinolytic agents and aspirin, along with percutaneous coronary intervention and more powerful new antiplatelet agents, have decreased hospital mortality rates to 5-6%. Likewise, in NSTEMI, early revascularization associated with anticoagulation and new antiplatelet agents has also improved the outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In order to evaluate the contemporary management of myocardial infarction in low- and middle-income countries, we carried out a systematic review to assess all-cause in-hospital mortality in patients admitted for STEMI and NSTEMI in hospitals in Latin America and the Caribbean from 2000 onward.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>This systematic review was performed according to the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) checklist.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> The protocol was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, number CRD42019109184).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Terminology</title>
          <p>In this systematic review, the Latin America and the Caribbean region was defined as the geographic composed of all countries in the American continent, except the USA, Canada and the Bermuda Islands.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The region has a population of 645 million; 82% live in urban areas. Brazil and Mexico are the most populous countries, accounting for more than a half of the total population, and Argentina, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela and Chile for about one third. The Caribbean region accounts for less than 10% of the population and approximately 70% of this concentrates in Cuba, Haiti and Dominican Republic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The list of all countries may be accessed in the Supplementary Material.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Selection criteria</title>
          <p>This systematic review included studies that met the following inclusion criteria: (1) included male and female adults who are 18 years old and older; (2) carried out in countries in Latin America and the Caribbean; (3) collected data from patients admitted from 2000 onward; (4) prospective or retrospective cohort studies; and (5) reported all-cause in-hospital mortality due to STEMI and/or NSTEMI.</p>
          <p>Exclusion criteria consisted of studies (1) whose samples were a specific group of the target population (such as older adults, women, diabetics); (2) whose samples were a group with a specific condition (such as patients who underwent a specific reperfusion therapy, who were in cardiogenic shock, who did not undergo reperfusion therapy); and (3) studies based on administrative data. In studies using before-after cohorts to evaluate the effect of implementing a management protocol, we selected the second period, as it would provide more recent data. For repetitive cohorts, we considered the ones with original and more recent data. We were careful to avoid double counting of patients included in different cohorts.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Search strategy</title>
          <p>A systematic search was carried out in the following electronic databases: MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, Latin America and Caribbean Health Science Literature (LILACS), National Center of Cuba Medical Information (CUMED), Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (MEDCARIB) and Institutional Repository for Information Sharing/Pan America Health Organization (IRIS/PAHO). The search strategy combined terms related to &#8220;myocardial infarction&#8221; and &#8220;Latin America and the Caribbean&#8221; and was restricted to studies published from 2000 onward (Supplementary Material), and was not limited by language. A manual search of the references of selected articles was also conducted.</p>
          <p>All reports identified in the different sources were exported to EndNote, gathered in a same file, and duplicates were removed.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Study selection and data extraction</title>
          <p>The first step of study selection comprised the screening of reports, in agreement with eligibility criteria, through reading titles and abstracts. The second step involved the confirmation of eligibility through reading the full texts of the selected studies. In this step, reasons for exclusion were registered and, if there was any doubt, the authors were contacted. Two independent reviewers (L.A. and V.R.) selected the studies, and disagreements were resolved by consensus.</p>
          <p>We extracted study characteristics (first author, year of publication, country, time period, sample size, type of cohort, local of recruitment, number of health centers, funding health system); patient characteristics (demographic characteristics and risk factors &#8211; hypertension, diabetes, smoking and dyslipidemia); STEMI-related data (III/IV Killip classes, ischemic time and reperfusion therapy percentage and type) and to NSTEMI studies (biomarker of myocardial injury, risk score, antithrombotic therapy and myocardial revascularization); and in-hospital mortality. This process was conducted by two reviewers independently (L.A. and V.R.) and disagreements were resolved by consensus.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Risk of bias assessment</title>
          <p>The overall risk of bias in included studies was assessed by the Quality in Prognosis Studies (QUIPS) tool which consists of six domains.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> In this review, we used three of them that address representativeness of the study sample, loss to follow-up, and the outcome measurement. In order to rate representativeness, we considered high-risk studies those that, at least, conducted in a single intensive care unit or did not perform consecutive recruitment (or not reported); low-risk studies those with population-based samples; and moderate-risk studies those that did not meet the previous criteria. We rated loss to follow-up as low risk (&lt; 10%), moderate risk (10 &#8211; 20%) or high risk (&gt; 20%).</p>
          <p>Studies that had at least one domain rated as high risk were classified into overall high risk of bias, while the ones that had all domains rated as low risk were classified into overall low risk of bias. Studies that did not meet the previous criteria were classified into overall moderate risk of bias. Two independent reviewers (L.A. and V.R.) conducted this evaluation and disagreement was solved by consensus.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Data analysis</title>
          <p>We performed independent meta-analyses to assess STEMI and NSTEMI in-hospital mortality. Mortality was exhibited as proportion (number of deaths divided by the total number of patients at risk in the period under evaluation). Pooled estimates were calculated by using the random effect models (due to heterogeneity, which is expected in observational studies like ours) with logit transformation and inverse variance method (as a sensitive analysis, GLM was adjusted and the difference in results was unnoticeable). We used the DerSimonian and Laird method to estimate the between-study variability.</p>
          <p>Heterogeneity across studies was evaluated by <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> statistics,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Cochran test and 95% prediction interval. This interval gives a better picture of the mortality variability expected among different populations considered in the random effect models, that is, the clinical relevance of heterogeneity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> To identify potential sources of heterogeneity, we conducted subgroup analysis (country, decade of the study) and meta-regression. We also conducted sensitivity analysis (excluding studies with some characteristics, studies with a small sample size, high bias risk studies and outlier studies) to evaluate heterogeneity and the robustness of results.</p>
          <p>Small-study effects, which has publication bias as one of the causes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> were evaluated by funnel plot that was constructed with the logit transformation of mortality against the sample size. The use of sample size is more accurate to evaluate proportion studies than the use of a measure of precision.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> This effect, which is observed by asymmetry on funnel plot, was evaluated analytically by the Peters test that is also based on sample size.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> R software meta package was used to perform all analyses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A P value below &lt; 0.05 was considered statistically significant.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Search results</title>
          <p>Our search strategy identified 9,244 reports (1st September 2018; updated on 15th April 2020). After the exclusion of duplicates, we screened 7,597 reports through title and abstract analysis of which 381 full texts were assessed for eligibility. We included one study carried out by our research group that had not been published up to the date of the search update and five reports found by screening the reference list of each full text included in the review. We could not get access to 14 full text articles despite exhaustive search. This process resulted in 38 studies: 29 on STEMI, three on NSTEMI and six that evaluated both (Supplementary <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Pooled in-hospital mortality in patients admitted due to STEMI in Latin America and the Caribbean from 2000 onward.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0970-20194-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Study characteristics</title>
          <p>A total of 28,878 individuals from 35 STEMI studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> and a total of 2,377 individuals from nine NSTEMI studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> were included in this review. STEMI studies were conducted in Brazil (n=15), Cuba (n=6), Argentina (n=5), Mexico (n=3), Colombia (n=2), Chile (n=1), Paraguay (n=1), Peru (n=1) and Puerto Rico (n=1), while NSTEMI ones were conducted in Brazil (n=6), Argentina (n=2) and Colombia (n=1). Most studies were multicenter prospective cohort studies and emergency rooms were the most frequent locals of recruitment. Median study period was 18 months (IQR: 12 &#8211; 37 months) for STEMI studies and 10 months (IQR: 12 &#8211; 37 months) for NSTEMI studies. Characteristics of the selected studies are shown in Supplementary <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref> (STEMI) and Supplementary Table 2 (NSTEMI).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>In-hospital mortality estimation following univariate and multivariable meta-regression analysis</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristic</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Mortality % (95% CI)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3">
                    <bold>Crude Analysis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Reperfusion therapy rate</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">20%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">14.4 (12.3 &#8211; 16.8)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">30%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">13.2 (11.6 &#8211; 15.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">40%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">12.1 (11.0 &#8211; 13.4)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">50%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">11.1 (10.3 &#8211; 12.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">60%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">10.2 (9.5 &#8211; 10.8)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">70%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">9.3 (8.7 &#8211; 9.9)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">80%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">8.5 (7.8 &#8211; 9.2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Decade</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2"/>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">First</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">10.7 (9.6 &#8211; 11.9)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Second</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">9.1 (8.2 &#8211; 10.1)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Country (N of studies)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Chile (1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">8.5 (5.3 &#8211; 13.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Mexico (3)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">8.6 (6.5 &#8211; 11.4)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Argentina (5)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">9.6 (7.6 &#8211; 12.1)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Brazil (15)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">9.6 (8.3 &#8211; 11.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Cuba (6)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">10.0 (8.2 &#8211; 12.1)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Peru (1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">10.9 (6.5 &#8211; 17.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Puerto Rico (1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">12.5 (7.0 &#8211; 21.2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Paraguay (1)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">12.8 (7.7 &#8211; 20.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Colombia (2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">15.0 (10.1 &#8211; 21.7)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000;">
                    <bold>Adjusted Analysis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <bold>First decade</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Second decade</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="3">
                    <bold>Reperfusion therapy rate</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">20%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">15.0 (12.8 &#8211; 17.5)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">13.3 (11.2 &#8211; 15.8)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">30%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">13.8 (12.1 &#8211; 15.7)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">12.3 (10.6 &#8211; 14.2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">40%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">12.7 (11.4 &#8211; 14.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">11.3 (10.0 &#8211; 12.7)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">50%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">11.7 (10.7 &#8211; 12.9)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">10.4 (9.4 &#8211; 11.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">60%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">10.8 (9.9 &#8211; 11.8)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">9.5 (8.8 &#8211; 10.4)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">70%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">9.9 (9.4 &#8211; 10.9)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">8.8 (8.0 &#8211; 9.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">80%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">9.1 (8.2 &#8211; 10.2)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">8.0 (7.3 &#8211; 8.9)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>CI: confidence interval.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>In STEMI studies, mean age varied from 55 to 65 years old and most individuals were males (56% or more in each study). Regarding patient selection, some studies used specific ischemic times as inclusion criterion (up to 12, 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours). Patient delay time was reported in less than 50% of the studies while system delay time was reported in very few studies. The percentage of reperfusion therapy varied considerably across studies, from 21% to 99%; around 60% of them showed percentages below 70%. In the first decade, the most frequent reperfusion therapy was fibrinolysis (streptokinase). Primary percutaneous coronary intervention was more frequent in the second decade; however, when fibrinolysis was an option, a fibrin-specific agent was chosen. The main cause of no reperfusion therapy was the fact that patients looked for assistance 12 hours after symptom onset. System delay time and under-diagnosis were also mentioned.</p>
          <p>In NSTEMI studies, mean age varied from 63 to 65 years old and most individuals were males (60% or more in each study). No study presented any risk scores or reported exclusive use of troponin as biomarker of myocardial injury. Five studies reported information about dual antiplatelet and anticoagulation therapy and only two reported data on early coronary revascularization.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Risk of bias</title>
          <p>Overall risk of bias in STEMI studies was 14%, 49% and 37% for low, moderate and high-risk studies, respectively, and 22%, 56% and 22% for low, moderate and high-risk studies on STEMI, respectively (Supplementary Table 3). The selection bias (representativeness domain) was the primary concern while outcome measurement and loss to follow-up did not represent any risk.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>STEMI outcomes</title>
          <p>Mortality rates varied substantially across the studies, from 4.9% to 17.5%. Pooled in-hospital mortality was 9.9% (95% CI: 9.1 &#8211; 10.7) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>). Width of the prediction interval (6.6 &#8211; 14.5) showed non-trivial heterogeneity across studies. Percentage of variance not explained by sampling error (<italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> statistics) was 74% (p &lt;0.001). Univariate meta-regression revealed that the higher the percentage of reperfusion therapy, the lower the in-hospital mortality (coefficient &#8722;0.010, 95% CI: &#8722;0.014 to &#8722;0.006, p&lt;0.001; residual <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> = 56%) (Supplementary Table 4 and Supplementary <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref>). The linear effect on mortality rate is on the logit scale; thus, to improve the interpretation of results, mortality estimates for some reperfusion percentages are shown (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>). Subgroup analysis also identified lower in-hospital mortality in the second decade (2010 to 2020) by comparison with the first decade (2000 to 2009) of this review (9.1%, 95% CI: 8.2 &#8211; 10.1 <italic>vs</italic> 10.7%, 95% CI: 9.6 &#8211; 11.9; p=0.036) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref> and Supplementary Table 4). Considering mortality by country, the lowest in-hospital mortality was in Chile (8.5, 95% CI: 5.3 &#8211; 13.5) while the highest was in Colombia (15%, 95% CI; 10.1 &#8211; 21.7) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>); however, no statistical difference was found among counties (p=0.47) (Supplementary Table 4).</p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Pooled in-hospital mortality in patients admitted due to NSTEMI in Latin America and the Caribbean from 2000 onward.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0970-20194-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>In the multiple meta-regression model, only reperfusion rate and decade kept independently associated with in-hospital mortality (Supplementary Table 4). Regardless of the decade, logit of mortality decreased linearly when reperfusion rate increased (coefficient &#8722;0.009, 95% CI: &#8722;0.013 to &#8722;0.006, p&lt;0.001). Regardless of the reperfusion rate, logit of mortality was higher in the first decade by comparison with the second one (coefficient &#8722;0.14, 95% CI: &#8722;0.27 to &#8722;0.02, p=0.047). Mortality estimates varied from 15% to 9.1% in the first decade and from 13.3% to 8% in the second decade, depending on reperfusion rate (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>). Difference in mortality throughout decades varied from 1.7 percentage point for 20% reperfusion rate to 1.1 percentage point for 80% rate (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>). Finally, heterogeneity decreased and was partially explained by these characteristics (residual <italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup>=54%).</p>
          <p>Sensitivity analyses excluding retrospective cohort studies, studies with a small sample size (below 100 patients), studies which used patient delay ischemic time &lt; 12 h as inclusion criterion and high bias studies did not affect much overall results (Supplementary Table 5). None of the studies individually impacted results.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>NSTEMI outcomes</title>
          <p>NSTEMI mortality ranged from 4.9% to 8.6% across the studies, except one study whose rate was 16.5% (outlier study). Pooled NSTEMI in-hospital mortality was 7.2% (95% CI: 5.5 &#8211; 9.3) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref>). The width of prediction interval (3.2 &#8211; 15.2) showed a substantial heterogeneity across studies. Percentage of variance not explained by sampling error (<italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup> statistics) was 63%. In sensitivity analysis (Supplementary Table 6), heterogeneity was totally explained (<italic>I</italic><sup>2</sup>=0%) by exclusion of the outlier study (which is also a high bias one). As a result, the pooled estimate decreased to 6.3% (95% CI: 5.4 &#8211; 7.4) and the prediction interval narrowed to 5.1 &#8211; 7.7. Exclusion of one study with high bias risk and of three studies with a small sample size (below 100 patients) did not affect results. None of the studies individually impacted results, except the outlier study as previously mentioned.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Small-study effects</title>
            <p>Visual inspection of funnel plot did not suggest small-study effects on STEMI mortality since asymmetry was not observed (Supplementary Figure 3), but it was not supported by the Peters test (p = 0.04). However, after the imputation of two hypothetical studies by the trim-and-fill method (sensitivity analysis), pooled mortality did not change much (9.7%; 95% CI: 8.9 &#8211; 10.5). Regarding NSTEMI studies, we did not have enough studies to assess this effect.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>In this systematic review, we investigated in-hospital mortality due to myocardial infarction (STEMI and NSTEMI) in Latin America and the Caribbean over the two last decades. Pooled in-hospital mortality was 9.9% and 6.3% for STEMI and NSTEMI, respectively, after exclusion of the outlier study with high-bias risk. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first systematic review that evaluated mortality due to myocardial infarction in this geographical area.</p>
        <p>In-hospital mortality rate for STEMI varied among studies. The main source of this heterogeneity was the reperfusion therapy whose association with mortality has been well-established. The same fact is observed in Europe, where registries carried out by several countries showed mortality rates that ranged from 4% to 13% while reperfusion therapy also varied much.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Therefore, low use of this therapy, which was observed in many studies in our review, is a concern in terms of the quality of medical care. The main reasons for this situation were patient delay in seeking medical care, besides system delay and under-diagnosis. These issues can be solved mainly with implementation of well-structured system of care which involves prehospital evaluation, triage, and transfer together with standardized protocols. This structure can improve access to tertiary care facilities, decrease the number of &#8220;eligible, but untreated&#8221; patients and shorten time-to-treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> Educational measures about chest pain in the population must also implemented. Favorable results of these strategies were described by studies conducted in Latin American countries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pooled in-hospital mortality rate for STEMI is higher than the ones found in registries in high-income countries, such as 5.1% and 7%<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> in the United States and 6.8% in Canada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> This difference may be due to low perfusion therapy percentages. This fact is also supported by the study that evaluated outcomes in STEMI patients in clinical trials which found negative association between mortality and gross national income.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> This association was independent of other predictors, such as severity of cases, ischemic time and perfusion management.</p>
        <p>Another source of heterogeneity that we found in STEMI studies was related to the period in which studies were carried out. In the first decade of this review, we observed higher mortality than in the second one, which may be due to predominant use of non-fibrin-specific agents for fibrinolysis and less anti-thrombotic therapy. It should be highlighted that the result of this source of heterogeneity was very close to the arbitrary limit of statistical significance.</p>
        <p>Finally, in-hospital mortality varied among the countries where the studies were carried out, but this source of heterogeneity was not statistically significant. Although the Latin America and the Caribbean are composed of low- and middle-income countries, there are differences in their gross national incomes and health systems.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> In this case, the fact that this systematic review did not have enough statistical power any power may have influenced the result.</p>
        <p>Two large STEMI registries conducted in Latin America (Mexico and Brazil) should also be highlighted. They reported in-hospital<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> and 30-day cardiovascular mortality<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> rather than all-cause in-hospital mortality, as in our review.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> In the Mexican registry, 71% of patients received reperfusion therapy and cardiovascular mortality was 9.4% (after implementation of management protocol). This rate is also higher than the ones found in registries in high income countries. In the Brazilian registry, reperfusion therapy was used in 88% of patients while 30-day cardiovascular mortality was 3.4%. This rate was lower than the ones observed in high income countries although it considered only cardiovascular deaths. Reasons for this fact may include the participation of referral cardiac care centers, besides sampling and recruitment methods under use.</p>
        <p>There are limitations to be considered. Some studies used different limits of ischemic times due to patient delay as an inclusion criterion (others did not mention whether they used it). Since ischemia time is associated with mortality, these studies could select patients with different prognosis. Likewise, lack of data on ischemia time (patient delay and system delay) in studies did not allow to evaluate it as a source of heterogeneity since mortality is not only associated with performing reperfusion therapy, but also with the time period in which it is performed. Other potential sources of heterogeneity, such as mean age and proportion of females were not also evaluated due to lack of information. Finally, concern about representativeness of studies should be considered. This systematic review of STEMI studies included only nine countries, and most studies were conducted in well-structured health services which usually have better results.</p>
        <p>In-hospital mortality for NSTEMI across studies did not change after excluding the one outlier study, with a high bias risk. Pooled estimates were similar to the mortality rates of large registries, such as 5% in the GRACE study and 7.6% in the Kaiser registry.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> However, there are caveats to be considered in these analyses. The shortage of data on in-hospital mortality from NSTEMI alone is due to the fact that most studies have combined mortality from NSTEMI with from other conditions like unstable angina. In addition, the studies were carried out mainly in two countries (Brazil and Argentina), which can harm generalization of the estimate in the region. The studies did not report any risk score; therefore, we could not evaluate and compare the severity level of the population under study.</p>
        <p>Finally, the overall risk of bias was classified into high and moderate risk according to the selection bias. Therefore, attention must be paid to sampling methods in order to avoid biased estimate. In addition, definition of the representativeness domain in this review was arbitrary, which was a limitation. As a result, these facts should be taken into account when in-hospital mortality estimates are considered.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Pooled STEMI in-hospital mortality in low- middle-income countries was high in comparison with rates found in high income countries. To improve these estimates, it is fundamental to increase the percentage of reperfusion therapy, which can be reached by focusing on organization of the health care system and population education. Pooled NSTEMI in-hospital mortality was similar to the ones found in high-income countries; however, it was based on few studies and most of them were carried out in two countries. Therefore, regarding NSTEMI data, more registries from different countries must be addressed to obtain a more accurate estimate. Finally, researchers must focus on quality of both sampling and recruitment methods in order to avoid bias risk and, consequently, improve estimates.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Leonardo Alves, from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p>
            <bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <sec sec-type="materials">
        <title>*Supplemental Materials</title>
        <p>For additional information, please click here.</p>
      </sec>
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</article>
