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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">w9YzM9TSm8xwvFKTVPfnTcH</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="previous-pid" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022005017204</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022001300931</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20220045</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220045</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fen&#243;tipo Inflamat&#243;rio por Imagem de OCT Coron&#225;ria: Caracter&#237;sticas Espec&#237;ficas Entre Les&#245;es <italic>De Novo</italic>, Hiperplasia Intimal e Neoaterosclerose Intra-Stent</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pinheiro</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Fernando M</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn_ast1">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5705-4865</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Garzon</surname>
            <given-names>Stefano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn_ast1">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mariani</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233;</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr.</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Prado</surname>
            <given-names>Guy F. Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Caixeta</surname>
            <given-names>Adriano Mendes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Breno Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label> 2 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label> 3 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola Paulista de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Escola Paulista de Medicina , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspond&#234;ncia: Luiz Fernando Pinheiro &#8226; Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein &#8211; Av. Albert Einstein, 627. CEP 05652-900, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>luizfmpinheiro34@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="equal" id="fn_ast1">
          <label>*</label>
          <p> Os autores contribu&#237;ram igualmente na realiza&#231;&#227;o deste manuscrito.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Mariani J, Caixeta AM, Lemos PA; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Mariani J, Prado GA, Caixeta AM, Almeida BO, Lemos PA; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Prado GA, Caixeta AM, Lemos PA; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Lemos PA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>119</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>931</fpage>
      <lpage>937</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p>A estenose coron&#225;ria pode ser causada por <italic>de novo</italic> aterosclerose, reestenose intra-stent e neoaterosclerose intra-stent, tr&#234;s entidades que se desenvolvem a partir de diversos meios fisiopatol&#243;gicos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p>Este estudo tem como objetivo investigar, por meio da tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica (OCT), se as les&#245;es coronarianas relacionadas a esses processos diferem em seu perfil inflamat&#243;rio local.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p>An&#225;lise retrospectiva de pacientes com les&#245;es coron&#225;rias diagnosticadas ou suspeitas que realizaram exames de OCT por motivos cl&#237;nicos. Macr&#243;fagos e neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o intraplaca foram avaliados por OCT e utilizados como marcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o local. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia &lt; 0,05 foi adotado como estatisticamente significante.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p>Das 121 les&#245;es, 74 eram <italic>de novo</italic> , 29 eram reestenose e 18 eram neoaterosclerose. Neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o foi encontrada em 65,8% das <italic>de novo</italic> , 10,3% na reestenose e 94,4% na neoaterosclerose (p&lt;0,01 para todos). O volume de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o foi diferente entre os tipos de les&#227;o (950 vs. 0 vs. 6.220, respectivamente [valores medianos em 1000 x &#181;m <sup>3</sup> /mm]; p&lt;0,01 para todos), sendo significativamente maior na neoaterosclerose e menor na reestenose. A presen&#231;a de macr&#243;fagos diferiu entre as les&#245;es (95,9% em <italic>de novo</italic> vs. 6,9% em reestenose vs. 100% em neoaterosclerose [p&lt;0,01 para todos]). Al&#233;m disso, a intensidade da infiltra&#231;&#227;o macrof&#225;gica foi diferente entre os tipos de les&#227;o (2,5 vs. 0,0 vs. 4,5, respectivamente [valores medianos do escore de macr&#243;fagos]; p&lt;0,01 para todos), significativamente maior na neoaterosclerose e menor na reestenose.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p>Quando comparados pela OCT coronariana, <italic>de novo</italic> , reestenose intra-stent e neoaterosclerose apresentaram fen&#243;tipos inflamat&#243;rios marcadamente diferentes.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Reestenose Coron&#225;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>Aterosclerose</kwd>
        <kwd>Stents</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="10"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="35"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica coronariana &#233; uma causa prevalente de morbimortalidade em todo o mundo, frequentemente tratada com implante de stent. No entanto, &#233; bem conhecido que um novo estreitamento do l&#250;men do stent pode ocorrer nos primeiros meses ap&#243;s a interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea, um fen&#244;meno conhecido como reestenose. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Ambas entidades ( <italic>de novo</italic> aterosclerose e reestenose intra-stent) originam-se marcadamente de mecanismos patogen&#233;ticos distintos. A forma&#231;&#227;o de placa ateroscler&#243;tica &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o complexa, multifatorial e de longa dura&#231;&#227;o modulada por m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco sist&#234;micos e locais. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Por outro lado, a reestenose intra-stent &#233; secund&#225;ria ao crescimento do tecido neointimal, uma resposta de cicatriza&#231;&#227;o vascular desencadeada pela les&#227;o do vaso ap&#243;s o implante do dispositivo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, a neoaterosclerose foi descrita como outra causa distinta de estreitamento do l&#250;men intra-stent. &#201; largamente aceito que seja uma forma acelerada de forma&#231;&#227;o de placa ateroscler&#243;tica, provavelmente induzida por uma resposta tecidual local sustentada pelo pr&#243;prio suporte met&#225;lico do stent. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> O ac&#250;mulo de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias tem sido descrito como um evento central para o desenvolvimento da <italic>de novo</italic> aterosclerose <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> e reestenose intra-stent, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> bem como para neo-aterosclerose. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Acredita-se que a inflama&#231;&#227;o local seja parte integrante dessas condi&#231;&#245;es, funcionando como a etapa decisiva pela qual a parede do vaso &#233; modificada dinamicamente &#224; medida que o processo patol&#243;gico progride. At&#233; o momento, no entanto, tem sido mal descrito se os perfis inflamat&#243;rios variam de acordo com o tipo de condi&#231;&#227;o subjacente e se as diferen&#231;as potenciais podem ser avaliadas por ferramentas cl&#237;nicas. A tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica intravascular (OCT) fornece imagens in vivo pr&#243;ximas ao n&#237;vel histol&#243;gico, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> que tem sido amplamente utilizada para investigar pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Al&#233;m de medir quantitativamente par&#226;metros dimensionais, a OCT foi validada como uma ferramenta para avaliar as caracter&#237;sticas qualitativas da parede do vaso, como tipo de componentes do tecido, acidentes de placa e forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m de forma importante, a OCT demonstrou detectar com precis&#227;o a infitra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> e a forma&#231;&#227;o de neovasos intra-arteriais <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> dois achados associados &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o local subjacente. O presente estudo tem como objetivo investigar se aterosclerose, reestenose intra-stent e neo-aterosclerose diferem em seu fen&#243;tipo inflamat&#243;rio (ou seja, presen&#231;a e quantidade de macr&#243;fagos e neovasos) conforme avaliado por imagem de OCT.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Sele&#231;&#227;o de pacientes</title>
        <p>Realizamos uma busca no banco de dados de nossa institui&#231;&#227;o por pacientes que realizaram OCT coronariano em art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias nativas por condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica est&#225;vel ou s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, entre janeiro de 2012 e dezembro de 2019. Todas as execu&#231;&#245;es de OCT de cada paciente foram revisadas e selecionadas para an&#225;lise final se apresentassem: i ) uma ou mais les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas <italic>de novo</italic> (definidas como um arco de placa &#8805; 180&#176;), ou ii) uma ou mais les&#245;es em um stent previamente implantado (definido como pelo menos 300 &#181;m de espessura de tecido no stent). Les&#245;es no mesmo vaso foram consideradas discretas e contadas como tal, se separadas por um segmento normal maior que 10 mm. As les&#245;es nas bordas do stent (5 mm proximal ou distal) n&#227;o foram inclu&#237;das para an&#225;lise. Al&#233;m disso, o presente relato incluiu apenas les&#245;es cujo exame de OCT foi realizado antes de qualquer interven&#231;&#227;o. Este estudo foi aprovado pelo comit&#234; de &#233;tica local e est&#225; de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinque.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagem e an&#225;lise</title>
        <p>A aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagem foi realizada usando t&#233;cnicas padr&#227;o, durante a inje&#231;&#227;o de meio de contraste, conforme descrito em toda parte, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> usando um sistema OCT no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia (sistema C7 ou Ilumien OPTIS, cat&#233;teres de imagem C7 DragonFly ou DragonFly II, St. Jude Medical, St. Paul, MN ).</p>
        <p>Dois revisores independentes, cegos para qualquer informa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, realizaram as avalia&#231;&#245;es de todas as imagens de OCT. Qualquer discord&#226;ncia entre os revisores foi resolvida por consenso. As les&#245;es foram classificadas como <italic>de novo</italic> , reestenose intra-stent ou neoaterosclerose intra-stent. Esta &#250;ltima les&#227;o intra-stent foi diferenciada da anterior pela presen&#231;a de dep&#243;sitos calcificados ou lip&#237;dicos nas les&#245;es neoateroscler&#243;ticas, em oposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; apar&#234;ncia homog&#234;nea do tecido reesten&#243;tico neointimal ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Imagem de OCT de uma art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria normal (A), aterosclerose de novo (B),reestenose intra-stent (C) e neoaterosclerose (D). Reestenose intra-stent &#233; caracterizada por uma apar&#234;ncia homog&#234;nea do tecido reesten&#243;tico neointimal enquanto a neoaterosclerose apresenta dep&#243;sitos lip&#237;dicos e calcificados intra-stent.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>As les&#245;es foram analisadas usando defini&#231;&#245;es padr&#227;o, como sugerido em outros lugares. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> O tecido lip&#237;dico foi definido como regi&#245;es de sinal pobre com bordas difusas mal definidas. O tecido fibroso foi definido como uma regi&#227;o com alto retroespalhamento e um sinal relativamente homog&#234;neo. Dep&#243;sitos calcificados foram identificados como estruturas sem sinal ou heterog&#234;neas com bordas bem delineadas. O arco de c&#225;lcio foi medido no quadro com maior extens&#227;o de dep&#243;sito calc&#225;rio. Os macr&#243;fagos foram identificados pela presen&#231;a de imagens pontilhadas ricas em sinal, distintas ou confluentes excedendo a intensidade do salpicado de fundo ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2A</xref> ); o ac&#250;mulo de macr&#243;fagos foi classificado usando uma pontua&#231;&#227;o de 0 a 4 em cada quadro e, em seguida, somado as gradua&#231;&#245;es para toda a les&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> A neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o foi definida como estruturas intraplacas sem sinal, sem conex&#227;o com o l&#250;men do vaso, medindo entre 50-300 &#181;m e reconhecido em &#8805; 3 quadros consecutivos ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2B</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> O volume de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o foi calculado pela soma da &#225;rea de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o em cada quadro e, em seguida, aplicando a regra de Simpson. Tanto o ac&#250;mulo de macr&#243;fagos quanto o volume de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o foram indexados pelo comprimento da placa, para permitir a compara&#231;&#227;o entre as les&#245;es. Trombo foi definido como uma massa que se projeta no l&#250;men do vaso, tipicamente com contornos irregulares, descont&#237;nuo da superf&#237;cie da parede do vaso ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3A</xref> ). Os fibroateromas de capa fina (FCF) foram definidos como uma regi&#227;o com arco lip&#237;dico m&#225;ximo superior a 90&#176; e espessura da capa &lt;65 &#956;m. A placa r&#244;ta foi definida pela presen&#231;a de lacera&#231;&#227;o da &#237;ntima, ruptura ou dissec&#231;&#227;o da capa ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3B</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Imagens de OCT de infiltra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos e neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o. Os asteriscos brancos em A indicam imagens puntiformes ricas em sinal compat&#237;veis com infiltra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos em imagens de OCT. As setas brancas em B indicam imagens intraplacas sem sinal compat&#237;veis com neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Imagens de OCT de trombo e placa rota. Os asteriscos brancos indicam trombo (A) e a seta branca indica ruptura da placa (B).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>As an&#225;lises OCT quantitativas off-line utilizaram um pacote de software dedicado (QIvus 3.0, Medis Medical, Holanda). Os par&#226;metros quantitativos inclu&#237;ram o comprimento da placa, a &#225;rea de sec&#231;&#227;o transversal luminal m&#237;nima (AST) e a estenose luminal m&#225;xima (AST m&#237;nima &#247; m&#233;dia [distal e proximal] l&#250;men de refer&#234;ncia AST). Para les&#245;es intra-stent, a &#225;rea neointimal (Stent AST menos l&#250;men AST) e a espessura neointimal (medida perpendicularmente da haste do stent ao l&#250;men) tamb&#233;m foram calculadas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas usando SPSS 26.0 (IBM Corp. Armonk, NY, EUA). As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas s&#227;o apresentadas como contagens e frequ&#234;ncias e foram analisadas pelo teste de Qui-quadrado ou teste exato de Fisher quando apropriado. Para testar a normalidade de distribi&#231;&#227;o, n&#243;s realizamos o teste Shapiro-Wilks. Vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas n&#227;o apresentaram distribui&#231;&#227;o normal, entretanto, seus resultados s&#227;o apresentados como mediana e intervalo interquartil (IQR). N&#243;s usamos o teste n&#227;o param&#233;trico Kruskall-Wallis para compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas. Quando necess&#225;rio, compara&#231;&#245;es emparelhadas foram realizadas utilizando a abordagem por Dunn-Bonferroni. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia &lt; 0.05 foi adotado como estatisticamente significante.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>110 pacientes com 123 les&#245;es tiveram pelo menos uma OCT de boa qualidade que mostrou uma les&#227;o por inteiro antes de qualquer manipula&#231;&#227;o intervencionista e compuseram a popula&#231;&#227;o do presente estudo. A maioria dos pacientes eram do sexo masculino, acima de 60 anos, com m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco para doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e apresentando s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) na admiss&#227;o hospitalar ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e demogr&#225;ficas (n=110 pacientes)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Sexo masculino</th>
                <th style="font-weight:normal">88 (80,0)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade, anos</td>
                <td align="center">63 (56 &#8211; 71)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hipertens&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">75 (68,2)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Diabetes</td>
                <td align="center">33 (30,0)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dislipidemia</td>
                <td align="center">90 (81,8)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tabagismo (atual ou pr&#233;vio)</td>
                <td align="center">61 (55,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hist&#243;ria familiar de DAC</td>
                <td align="center">60 (54,5)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>S&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda</td>
                <td align="center">69 (62,7)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>N&#250;meros s&#227;o calculados (porcentagem) ou mediana (intervalo interquartil). DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> , n&#243;s apresentamos as caracter&#237;sticas de acordo com o tipo de placa. A maioria das caracter&#237;sticas foram diferentes entre os grupos. A neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o foi encontrada em 65,8% dos <italic>de novo</italic> , 10,3% na reestenose e 94,4% na neoaterosclerose (p&lt;0,01 para todos) ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> ). Assim, o volume de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o foi diferente entre os tipos de les&#227;o (950 vs. 0 vs. 6.220, respectivamente [valores medianos em 1000 x &#181;m <sup>3</sup> /mm]; p &lt; 0,01 para todos), sendo significativamente maior na neoaterosclerose e menor na reestenose ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Caracter&#237;sticas da OCT em les&#245;es <italic>de novo,</italic> neo&#237;ntima e neoaterosclerose (n=121)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                <th><italic>De novo</italic> (n=74)</th>
                <th>Reestenose intra-stent (n=29)</th>
                <th>Neoaterosclerose Intra-stent (n=18)</th>
                <th>p*</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Calcifica&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">56 (75,7)</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">10 (55,6)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>FCF</td>
                <td align="center">17 (23,3)</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">7 (38,9)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ruptura de placa</td>
                <td align="center">10 (13,9)</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">7 (38,9)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Trombo</td>
                <td align="center">9 (12,5)</td>
                <td align="center">0</td>
                <td align="center">4 (22,2)</td>
                <td align="center">0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">48 (65,8)</td>
                <td align="center">3 (10,3)</td>
                <td align="center">17 (94,4)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Macr&#243;fago</td>
                <td align="center">71 (95,9)</td>
                <td align="center">2 (6,9)</td>
                <td align="center">18 (100)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Extens&#227;o de placa, em mm</td>
                <td align="center">24,1 (17,2-36,8)</td>
                <td align="center">25,8 (18,0-33,0)</td>
                <td align="center">23,5 (17,8-29,0)</td>
                <td align="center">0,9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luminal m&#237;nimo AST, mm <sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">2,42 (1,64-3,51)</td>
                <td align="center">2,72 (1,77-4,52)</td>
                <td align="center">1,85 (1,35-3,18)</td>
                <td align="center">0,07</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luminal Max. de estenose, %</td>
                <td align="center">65,5 (54,8-74,6)</td>
                <td align="center">45,7 (33,1-63,0)</td>
                <td align="center">66,2 (53,9-76,2)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Max. IS tecido espessura, mm</td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">0,74 (0,59-0,98)</td>
                <td align="center">1,13 (0,95-1,34)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Max. IS tecido AST, mm <sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">-</td>
                <td align="center">3,54 (2,87-4,69)</td>
                <td align="center">4,96 (4,22-6,21)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt;0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Neovasc. vol., 1000 x &#181;m <sup>3</sup> /mm</td>
                <td align="center">950 (0-3400)</td>
                <td align="center">0 (0-0)</td>
                <td align="center">6220 (1250-13430)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Escore de macr&#243;fago</td>
                <td align="center">2,5 (0,9-4,9)</td>
                <td align="center">0,0 (0,0-0,0)</td>
                <td align="center">4,5 (3,1-7,3)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,01</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>
                <italic>N&#250;meros s&#227;o calculados (porcentagem) ou mediana (intervalo interquartil). AST: &#225;rea de sec&#231;&#227;o transversal; IS: intra-stent; ADA: art&#233;ria descendente anterior; ACX: art&#233;ria circunflexa; Max: m&#225;ximo; Neovasc: neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o; ACD: art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria direita; FCF: fibroateroma de capa fina; Vol: volume. *Valor de p para compara&#231;&#227;o geral entre os grupos.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Volume de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o por tipo de les&#227;o.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>A presen&#231;a de macr&#243;fagos diferiu entre as les&#245;es (95,9% em <italic>de novo</italic> vs. 6,9% em reestenose vs. 100% em neoaterosclerose [p&lt;0,01 para todos]). Al&#233;m disso, a intensidade da infiltra&#231;&#227;o macrof&#225;gica foi diferente entre os tipos de les&#227;o (2,5 vs. 0,0 vs. 4,5, respectivamente [valores medianos do escore de macr&#243;fagos]; p&lt;0,01 para todos) ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 5</xref> ), significativamente maior na neoaterosclerose e <italic>de novo</italic> aterosclerose e menor na reestenose ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 5</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f05">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Escore de macr&#243;fagos por tipo de placa.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Quando comparados aos pacientes est&#225;veis, pacientes com s&#237;ndromes agudas tiveram maior presen&#231;a de trombo (16,2 versus 2,4, p=0,029) e menor intensidade de infiltra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos (3,8 [1,2 &#8211; 5,9] versus 1,2 [0 &#8211; 3,6], p=0,008). Todos os outros achados de OCT (tipo de placa, presen&#231;a de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o, macr&#243;fagos, FCF, ruptura de placa e volume de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o) n&#227;o foram significativamente diferentes entre os grupos (p&gt;0,05 para todos).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nosso estudo comparou tr&#234;s diferentes causas de estenose coron&#225;ria, a saber, les&#245;es <italic>de novo</italic> , reesten&#243;ticas e neoateroscler&#243;ticas, e demonstrou diferen&#231;as marcantes entre elas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao seu fen&#243;tipo inflamat&#243;rio por OCT, avaliado pela presen&#231;a e grau de ac&#250;mulo de macr&#243;fagos e neovasos intra-les&#227;o.</p>
      <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o &#233; o pilar para a compreens&#227;o desses tr&#234;s processos diferentes que causam estenose coronariana. A patog&#234;nese da aterosclerose coronariana nativa tem sido extensivamente investigada nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> e envolve m&#250;ltiplas vias inflamat&#243;rias. No entanto, como o stent coron&#225;rio &#233; uma t&#233;cnica um tanto recente, a reestenose intra-stent &#233; uma entidade patol&#243;gica que n&#227;o existia anteriormente e ainda n&#227;o &#233; totalmente compreendida. Ap&#243;s a interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea, ocorrem dist&#250;rbios do fluxo sangu&#237;neo, migra&#231;&#227;o e prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas e fibroblastos para a &#237;ntima, causando deposi&#231;&#227;o de matriz extracelular, col&#225;geno, linf&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Est&#237;mulo inflamat&#243;rio cont&#237;nuo causado pelas estruturas met&#225;licas duradouras do stent tamb&#233;m leva &#224; rea&#231;&#227;o de corpo estranho intra-placa, acelerando mudan&#231;as ateroscler&#243;ticas <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> e aumentando a presen&#231;a de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a matura&#231;&#227;o incompleta das c&#233;lulas endoteliais devido a drogas anti-proliferativas liberadas pelos stents reduz a fun&#231;&#227;o de barreira normalmente executada pelo endot&#233;lio normal. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Tanto a presen&#231;a aumentada de neovasos quanto o endot&#233;lio imaturo s&#227;o provavelmente respons&#225;veis por permitir um influxo acentuado de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias no tecido neointimal. Ao contr&#225;rio da aterosclerose do vaso nativo, que se desenvolve ao longo de d&#233;cadas, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> a neoaterosclerose &#233; um processo ateroscler&#243;tico acelerado situado na parede do vaso anormalmente cicatrizado que pode ocorrer em poucos anos ou mesmo meses ap&#243;s o implante do stent, particularmente com stents farmacol&#243;gicos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Essas diferen&#231;as s&#227;o observadas <italic>in vivo</italic> em nosso estudo, com a neoaterosclerose apresentando volumes de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o e densidade de macr&#243;fagos significativamente maiores indicando uma alta atividade inflamat&#243;ria nestas placas.</p>
      <p>Acredita-se que a reestenose intra-stent devido &#224; hiperplasia neointimal esteja limitada a um determinado per&#237;odo de tempo ap&#243;s o implante do stent <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> e foi geralmente considerada um evento um tanto benigno e est&#225;vel, n&#227;o frequentemente relacionado a eventos coronarianos agudos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, no entanto, tem sido observado que a reestenose intra-stent pode se apresentar como s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda em mais de 50% dos casos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A neoaterosclerose provavelmente se desenvolve sobre a hiperplasia neointimal, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> ap&#243;s modifica&#231;&#245;es da placa infiltrada por lip&#237;dios e macr&#243;fagos, os quais s&#227;o associados &#224; ruptura da placa e eventos coronarianos agudos . Nossa popula&#231;&#227;o de estudo refletiu tais caracter&#237;sticas, com placas neoateroscler&#243;ticas sendo significativamente mais propensas &#224; ruptura do que placas <italic>de novo</italic> e reesten&#243;ticas, al&#233;m de apresentarem maior espessura neointimal e tamanhos de l&#250;men, o que pode ser resultado de tais modifica&#231;&#245;es da placa.</p>
      <p>Nosso estudo tem v&#225;rias limita&#231;&#245;es. Trata-se de um estudo explorat&#243;rio, observacional, retrospectivo, com uma popula&#231;&#227;o altamente selecionada de indiv&#237;duos com alta carga de fatores de risco cardiovascular e doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, e a maioria de nossa popula&#231;&#227;o (62,7%) foi composta por pacientes internados no hospital com s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas. Assim, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel extrapolar esses achados para outros contextos cl&#237;nicos. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas apresentaram baixos n&#237;veis de ilfiltra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos em nossa amostra. Este achado pode ser explicado pelo fato que pacientes agudos apresentaram significativamente mais trombos quando comparados aos pacientes est&#225;veis tornando imposs&#237;vel em muitos casos o acesso &#224; infiltra&#231;&#227;o macrof&#225;gica nestas regi&#245;es. Embora com aus&#234;ncia de informa&#231;&#245;es a respeito do tempo entre a inser&#231;&#227;o dos stents e a imagem de OCT, sobre o per&#237;odo ou tipo de stents implantados, em nossa opini&#227;o isso n&#227;o prejudicou a interpreta&#231;&#227;o de nossos achados, uma vez que est&#225;vamos analisando apenas as caracter&#237;sticas da placa.</p>
      <p>N&#227;o obstante, este &#233; suposto ser um estudo gerador de hip&#243;teses. A neoaterosclerose &#233; uma importante causa de fal&#234;ncia tardia do stent n&#227;o reduzida com o uso de stents farmacol&#243;gicos e tem impacto direto nos resultados das interven&#231;&#245;es percut&#226;neas coronarianas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Fatores de risco como dislipidemia,tabagismo e filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular reduzida, todos fatores que regulam a inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, est&#227;o associados com altos &#237;ndices de neoaterosclerose. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a inflama&#231;&#227;o por si s&#243; tem sido associada ao aumento do risco cardiovascular. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Novas evid&#234;ncias surgiram comprovando <italic>in vivo</italic> que a modula&#231;&#227;o da resposta inflamat&#243;ria e controle dos fatores de risco podem reduzir as taxas de eventos cardiovasculares maiores <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> e reduzir o volume da placa ateroscler&#243;tica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> No entanto, esses efeitos ainda n&#227;o foram comprovados nas redu&#231;&#245;es das taxas de hiperplasia neointimal e neoaterosclerose. Em publica&#231;&#227;o recente, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Hashikata et al. demonstraram que o uso de empaglifozina reduziu a hiperplasia neointimal em 12 meses em pacientes diab&#233;ticos quando comparado &#224; terapia padr&#227;o de redu&#231;&#227;o de glicose. As m&#233;dias de espessura, volume e porcentagem neointimal foram significativamente menores no grupo empaglifozina. Curiosamente, essa redu&#231;&#227;o foi independente de n&#237;veis reduzidos de glicose, sugerindo um poss&#237;vel mecanismo subjacente multifatorial. Atualmente, o estudo HUYGENS <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> incluiu pacientes com quadro de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio sem supradesnivel do segmento ST que foram tratados com evolucumab ou placebo al&#233;m de agressiva terapia com estatinas por 52 semanas e submetidos a procedimentos seriados de imagem com OCT e ultrasson intra-vascular. O grupo evolucumab atingiu um menor n&#237;vel de LDL- colesterol e os achados de imagem incluiram um maior aumento da espessura da capa fibrosa, diminu&#231;&#227;o do arco lip&#237;dico e redu&#231;&#227;o da placa. Uma redu&#231;&#227;o mais intensa do perfil lip&#237;dico com um precoce acr&#233;scimo do inibidor de PCSK9 &#224;s estatinas ap&#243;s um IAMSSST produz estabiliza&#231;&#227;o e regress&#227;o da aterosclerose coron&#225;ria. A melhora dos resultados cl&#237;nicos atingidos com n&#237;veis muito reduzidos de LDL-colesterol associado a mudan&#231;as no fen&#243;tipo da placa, prepara o caminho para estas novas op&#231;&#245;es de redu&#231;&#227;o do perfil lip&#237;dico tornarem-se uma perspectiva na preven&#231;&#227;o da neoaterosclerose intra-stent. Al&#233;m disso, esfor&#231;os est&#227;o sendo feitos na produ&#231;&#227;o de stents com novas estruturas absorv&#237;veis <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> e melhor libera&#231;&#227;o de drogas para modular a resposta tecidual, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> permitindo assim uma regenera&#231;&#227;o endotelial mais fisiol&#243;gica e reduzindo o substrato que origina a neoaterosclerose.</p>
      <p>At&#233; onde sabemos, este &#233; o primeiro estudo comparando diretamente a inflama&#231;&#227;o da placa de aterosclerose de vasos nativos com hiperplasia neointimal e neoaterosclerose utilizando OCT. Em nosso entendimento, esses achados refor&#231;am a import&#226;ncia da inflama&#231;&#227;o na patog&#234;nese da fal&#234;ncia do stent, sugerindo que o futuro da ICP provavelmente est&#225; no fino ajuste da resposta tecidual n&#227;o deixando para tr&#225;s uma pegada met&#225;lica.</p>
      <p>Estudos prospectivos adicionais com terapia lip&#237;dica agressiva, r&#237;gido controle da press&#227;o arterial e glicemia, abandono do tabagismo e controle da inflama&#231;&#227;o podem modificar a evolu&#231;&#227;o da neoaterosclerose.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Em resumo, quando comparados usando OCT <italic>, de novo</italic> aterosclerose, reestenose intra-stent e neoaterosclerose intra-stent apresentaram fen&#243;tipos inflamat&#243;rios marcadamente diferentes (ou seja, volume de neovasos e quantifica&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos).</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <mixed-citation>1. Dangas GD, Claessen BE, Caixeta A, Sanidas EA, Mintz GS, Mehran R. In-stent Restenosis in the Drug-Eluting Stent Era. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(23):1897-907. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.07.028. PMID: 21109112..</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
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            <name>
              <surname>Dangas</surname>
              <given-names>GD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte do projeto de p&#243;s-doutorado de Luiz Fernando Pinheiro pelo Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica do Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 3.722.061. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Inflammatory Phenotype by OCT Coronary Imaging: Specific Features Among <italic>De Novo</italic> Lesions, In-Stent Neointima, and In-Stent Neo-Atherosclerosis</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pinheiro</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Fernando M</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn_ast1001">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5705-4865</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Garzon</surname>
            <given-names>Stefano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn_ast1001">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mariani</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233;</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr.</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Prado</surname>
            <given-names>Guy F. Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Caixeta</surname>
            <given-names>Adriano Mendes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Breno Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Escola Paulista de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address Luiz Fernando Pinheiro &#8226; Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein &#8211; Av. Albert Einstein, 627. Postal code 05652-900, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: luizfmpinheiro34@gmail.com</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="equal" id="fn_ast1001">
          <label>*</label>
          <p>The authors contributed equally to this work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Mariani J, Caixeta AM, Lemos PA; Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data: Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Mariani J, Prado GA, Caixeta AM, Almeida BO, Lemos PA; Statistical analysis: Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Prado GA, Caixeta AM, Lemos PA; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual contente: Pinheiro LF, Garzon S, Lemos PA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>Coronary stenosis can be caused de novo atherosclerosis, in-stent restenosis, and in-stent neoatherosclerosis, three entities that develop from a diverse pathophysiological milieu.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p>This study aims to investigate, using optical coherence tomography (OCT), whether or not coronary lesions related to these processes differ in their local inflammatory profile.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>Retrospective analysis of patients with diagnosed or suspected coronary lesions who had undergone OCT imaging for clinical reasons. Macrophage and intra-plaque neovascularization were assessed by OCT and used as surrogates of local inflammation. A significance level of &lt; 0.05 was adopted as statistically significant.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>From the 121 lesions, 74 were de novo, 29 were restenosis, and 18 were neoatherosclerosis. Neovascularization was found in 65.8% of de novo, 10.3% in restenosis, and 94.4% in neoatherosclerosis (p&lt;0.01 for all). The volume of neovascularization was different among lesion types (950 vs. 0 vs. 6220, respectively [median values in 1000 x &#181;m<sup>3</sup>/mm]; p&lt;0.01 for all), which were significantly higher in neoatherosclerosis and lower in restenosis. The presence of macrophages differed among the lesions (95.9% in de novo vs. 6.9% in restenosis vs. 100% in neoatherosclerosis [p&lt;0.01 for all]). Moreover, the intensity of macrophagic infiltration was different among lesion types (2.5 vs. 0.0 vs. 4.5, respectively [median values of macrophage score]; p&lt;0.01 for all), significantly higher in neoatheroscleosis and lower in restenosis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p>When compared using coronary OCT, de novo atherosclerosis, in-stent restenosis, and neoatherosclerosis presented markedly different inflammatory phenotypes.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Coronary Restenosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Atherosclerosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Stents</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Coronary atherosclerotic disease is a ubiquitous cause of morbimortality worldwide, frequently treated with stent implantation. However, it is well known that re-narrowing of the lumen of the stent may occur within the first months following percutaneous intervention, a phenomenon referred to as restenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Both entities (i.e. <italic>de novo</italic> atherosclerosis and in-stent restenosis) originate from markedly distinct pathogenetic mechanisms. Atherosclerotic plaque formation is a complex, multifactorial, long-lasting condition modulated by multiple systemic and local risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> On the other hand, in-stent restenosis is secondary to neointimal tissue growth, a vascular healing response triggered by vessel injury following device implantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> More recently, neoatherosclerosis has been described as another distinct cause of in-stent lumen narrowing. It is largely believed to be an accelerated form of atherosclerotic plaque formation probably induced by a sustained local tissular response to the stent metallic scaffold itself.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The accumulation of inflammatory cells has been described as a central event for the development of <italic>de novo</italic> atherosclerosis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> and in-stent restenosis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> as well as for neo-atherosclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Local inflammation is believed to be an integral part of those conditions, functioning as the decisive step through which the vessel wall is dynamically modified as the pathologic process progresses. To date, however, it has been poorly described whether inflammatory profiles do vary according to the underlying type of condition, and if the potential differences can be assessed by clinical tools. Intravascular optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides <italic>in vivo</italic> near histology-level imaging,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> which has been largely used to investigate patients with coronary artery disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> In addition to quantitatively measuring dimensional parameters, OCT has been validated as a tool to assess qualitative characteristics of the vessel wall, such as tissue type components, plaque accidents, and thrombus formation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Also importantly, OCT has been shown to accurately detect macrophage infiltration<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> and intra-wall neovessel formation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> two features associated with subjacent local inflammation. The present study aims at investigating whether atherosclerosis, in-stent restenosis, and neo-atherosclerosis differ in their inflammatory phenotype (i.e., macrophage and neovessel presence and quantity) as assessed by OCT imaging.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Patient selection</title>
          <p>We conducted a search in our institution&#8217;s database for patients who had undergone coronary OCT in native coronary arteries for clinical indications, between January of 2012 and December of 2019. All OCT runs from every patient were revised, and selected for final analysis if presenting: i) one or more <italic>de novo</italic> atherosclerotic lesions (defined as a plaque arc &#8805; 180&#176;), or ii) one or more lesions in a previously implanted stent (defined as at least 300 &#181;m of in-stent tissue thickness). Lesions in the same vessel were considered discrete, and counted as such, if separated by a normal segment longer than 10 mm. Lesions at the stent edges (5-mm proximal or distal) were not included for analysis. Also, the present report only included lesions which OCT examination was performed prior to any intervention. This study was approved by the local ethics committee and is in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Image acquisition and analysis</title>
          <p>Image acquisition was performed using standard techniques, during injection of contrast media as described elsewhere,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> using a frequency-domain OCT system (C7 or Ilumien OPTIS system, C7 DragonFly or DragonFly II imaging catheters, St. Jude Medical, St. Paul, MN).</p>
          <p>Two independent reviewers blinded to any clinical information performed the evaluations of all OCT images. Any disagreement between the reviewers was resolved by consensus. Lesions were classified as <italic>de novo</italic> , in-stent restenosis, or in-stent neoatherosclerosis. The latter in-stent lesion was differentiated from the former by the presence of calcific or lipidic deposits in neoatherosclerotic lesions, as opposed to the homogenous appearance of the neointimal restenotic tissue ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>OCT images of a normal coronary artery (A), de novo atherosclerosis (B), in-stent restenosis (C) and neoatherosclerosis (D). In-stent restenosis is characterized by the homogenous appearance of the neointimal restenotic tissue, while neoatherosclerosis presents in-stent lipidic and calcific deposits.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Lesions were analyzed using standard definitions, as suggested elsewhere.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Lipid tissue was defined as signal-poor regions with poorly defined, diffuse borders. Fibrous tissue was defined as a region with high backscattering and a relatively homogeneous signal. Calcific deposits were identified as signal-poor or heterogeneous structures with sharply delineated borders. The arc of calcium was measured at the frame with the largest extension of calcific deposit. Macrophages were identified by the presence of signal-rich, distinct, or confluent punctate images exceeding the intensity of background speckle noise ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2A</xref> ); macrophage accumulation was graded using a score from 0 to 4 in each frame and then summed the gradings for the whole lesion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Neovascularization was defined as no-signal, intra-plaque structures without connection to the vessel lumen measuring between 50-300 &#181;m and recognized in &#8805; 3 consecutive frames ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2B</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The volume of neovascularization was calculated by summing the area of neovascularization in each frame and then applying Simpson&#8217;s rule. Both macrophage accumulation and volume of neovascularization were indexed by plaque length, to allow for comparison among lesions. Thrombus was defined as a mass protruding into the vessel lumen, typically with irregular contours, discontinuous from the surface of the vessel wall ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3A</xref> ). Thin-cap fibroatheromas (TCFA) were defined as a region with maximal lipid arc more than 90&#176;and cap thickness &lt;65 &#956;m. Ruptured plaque was defined by the presence of intimal tearing, disruption, or dissection of the cap ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3B</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>OCT images of macrophage infiltration and neovascularization. The white asterisks in A indicate signal-rich, punctate images compatible with macrophage infiltration in OCT images. The white arrows in B indicate no-signal, intra-plaque images compatible with neovascularization.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>OCT images of thrombus and ruptured plaque. The white asterisks indicate thrombus (A) and the white arrow indicates plaque rupture (B).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Off-line quantitative OCT analyses utilized a dedicated software package (QIvus 3.0, Medis Medical, The Netherlands). Quantitative parameters included plaque length, minimal luminal cross-sectional area (CSA), and maximal luminal stenosis (minimal CSA &#247; mean [distal and proximal] reference lumen CSA). For <italic>in-stent</italic> lesions, neointimal area (stent CSA minus lumen CSA) and neointimal thickness (measured perpendicularly from stent strut to lumen) were also calculated.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 26.0 (IBM Corp. Armonk, NY, USA). Categorical variables are presented as counts and frequencies and were analyzed using Chi-square or Fisher&#8217;s exact test when appropriate. To test the normality of distribution, we performed a Shapiro-Wilks test. Continuous variables did not present normal distribution; therefore, their results are presented as median and interquartile range (IQR). We used the non-parametric Kruskall-Wallis test for multiple comparisons. When needed, pairwise comparisons were performed using the Dunn-Bonferroni approach. A significance level of &lt; 0.05 was adopted as statistically significant.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>Out of a total of 499 patients found in our database, 110 patients had at least one good-quality OCT run that imaged an entire lesion prior to any interventional manipulation, and comprised the present study population. Most patients were males, over 60 years of age, with multiple risk factors for coronary artery disease and presenting with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) upon hospital admission ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Demographic and clinical characteristics (n=110 patients)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal">Males</th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">88 (80.0)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age, years</td>
                  <td align="center">63 (56 &#8211; 71)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hypertension</td>
                  <td align="center">75 (68.2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diabetes</td>
                  <td align="center">33 (30.0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hyperlipidemia</td>
                  <td align="center">90 (81.8)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Smoking (current or former)</td>
                  <td align="center">61 (55.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Family history of CAD</td>
                  <td align="center">60 (54.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acute coronary syndrome</td>
                  <td align="center">69 (62.7)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>Numbers are counts (percentage) or median (interquartile range). CAD: coronary artery disease.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>In <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> , we present the characteristics among the different types of plaque. Most characteristics were different among the groups. Neovascularization was found in 65.8% of <italic>de novo</italic> , 10.3% in restenosis, and 94.4% in neoatherosclerosis (p&lt;0.01 for all) ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> ). Accordingly, the volume of neovascularization was different among lesion types (950 vs. 0 vs. 6220, respectively [median values in 1000 x &#181;m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> /mm]; p&lt;0.01 for all), being significantly higher in neoatherosclerosis and lower in restenosis ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>OCT characteristics of de novo, neointimal, and neoatherosclerotic lesions (n=121)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>De novo (n=74)</th>
                  <th>In-stent restenosis (n=29)</th>
                  <th>In-stent neoatherosclerosis (n=18)</th>
                  <th>p*</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Calcification</td>
                  <td align="center">56 (75.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (55.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TCFA</td>
                  <td align="center">17 (23.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (38.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Plaque rupture</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (13.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (38.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Thrombus</td>
                  <td align="center">9 (12.5)</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">4 (22.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.03</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Neovascularization</td>
                  <td align="center">48 (65.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">3 (10.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">17 (94.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Macrophage</td>
                  <td align="center">71 (95.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (6.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">18 (100)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Plaque length, in mm</td>
                  <td align="center">24.1 (17.2-36.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">25.8 (18.0-33.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">23.5 (17.8-29.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Minimal luminal CSA, mm<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">2.42 (1.64-3.51)</td>
                  <td align="center">2.72 (1.77-4.52)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.85 (1.35-3.18)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.07</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Max. luminal stenosis, %</td>
                  <td align="center">65.5 (54.8-74.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">45.7 (33.1-63.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">66.2 (53.9-76.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Max. IS tissue thickness, mm</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center">0.74 (0.59-0.98)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.13 (0.95-1.34)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Max. IS tissue CSA, mm<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                  <td align="center">3.54 (2.87-4.69)</td>
                  <td align="center">4.96 (4.22-6.21)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt;0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Neovasc. vol., 1000 x &#181;m<sup>3</sup>/mm</td>
                  <td align="center">950 (0-3400)</td>
                  <td align="center">0 (0-0)</td>
                  <td align="center">6220 (1250-13430)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Macrophage score</td>
                  <td align="center">2.5 (0.9-4.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.0 (0.0-0.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">4.5 (3.1-7.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.01</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>
                  <italic>Numbers are counts (percentage) or median (interquartile range). CSA: cross sectional area; IS: in-stent; LAD: left anterior descending artery; LCx: left circumflex artery; Max: maximal; Neovasc: neovascularization; RCA: right coronary artery; TCFA: Thin-cap fibroatheroma; Vol: volume. *P-value for the overall comparison among the groups.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04001">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Neovascularization volume by lesion type.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>The presence of macrophages differed among the lesions (95.9% in <italic>de novo</italic> vs. 6.9% in restenosis vs. 100% in neoatherosclerosis [p&lt;0.01 for all]). Also, the intensity of macrophagic infiltration was different among lesion types (2.5 vs. 0.0 vs. 4.5, respectively [median values of macrophage score]; p&lt;0.01 for all) ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5</xref> ), significantly higher in neoatheroscleosis and lower in restenosis ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05001">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Macrophage score by plaque type.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-06-0931-20045-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>When compared to stable patients, acute patients had more thrombus (16.2% versus 2.4%, p = 0.029) and lower intensity of macrophage infiltration (3.8 [1.2 &#8211; 5.9] versus 1.2 [0 &#8211; 3.6], p = 0.008). All other OCT features (plaque type; presence of neovascularization, macrophage, TCFA and plaque rupture; and volume of neovascularization) were not significantly different between the groups (p &gt; 0.05 for all).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Our study compared three different causes of coronary narrowing, namely de novo, restenotic and neoatherosclerotic lesions, and demonstrated marked differences among them in relation to their inflammatory phenotype by OCT, assessed by the presence and degree of macrophage accumulation and intra-lesion neovessels.</p>
        <p>Inflammation is the cornerstone for understanding these three different processes that cause coronary stenosis. Pathogenesis of native coronary atherosclerosis has been extensively investigated in the last decades<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> and involves multiple inflammatory pathways. However, since coronary stenting is a somewhat recent technique, in-stent restenosis is a pathological entity that did not exist previously and is not entirely understood yet. Following percutaneous intervention, blood flow disturbances, migration and proliferation of smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts into the intima ensues, causing deposition of extracellular matrix, collagen, lymphocytes and macrophages.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Continuous inflammatory stimulus caused by the enduring metallic structures of the stent also leads to intra-plaque foreign-body reaction, accelerating atherosclerotic changes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> and increasing the presence of neovascularization.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Also, incomplete maturation of endothelial cells due to the anti-proliferative drugs eluted by the stents impairs the barrier function usually carried out by the normal endothelium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Both increased neo-vessel presence and immature endothelium are likely responsible for allowing a steep inflow of inflammatory cells into the neointimal tissue. Unlike native vessel atherosclerosis, that develops over decades,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> neoatherosclerosis is an accelerated atherosclerotic process set in an abnormally healed vessel wall that can occur in a few years or even months following stent implantation, particularly with drug-eluting stents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> These differences are observed <italic>in vivo</italic> in our study, with neoatherosclerosis presenting significantly larger neovascularization volumes and macrophage density when compared to both <italic>de novo</italic> and restenotic lesions.</p>
        <p>In-stent restenosis due to neointimal hyperplasia is believed to be limited to a certain timeframe following stent implantation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> and was generally considered to be a somewhat benign, stable event, not frequently related to acute coronary events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> More recently, however, it has been observed that in-stent restenosis may present as acute coronary syndrome in more than 50% of the cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Neoatherosclerosis probably develops itself upon neointimal hyperplasia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> following plaque modifications that infiltrate lipids and macrophages, which are associated with plaque rupture and acute coronary events. Our study population reflected such characteristics, with neoatherosclerotic plaques being significantly more prone to rupture than <italic>de novo</italic> and restenotic plaques, as well as presenting larger neointimal thickness and lumen sizes, which can be the result of such plaque modifications.</p>
        <p>Our study has several limitations. It is an exploratory, observational, retrospective study, with a highly selected population of individuals with a high burden of cardiovascular risk factors and coronary artery disease, and most of our population (62.7%) was comprised of patients admitted to the hospital with acute coronary syndromes. Accordingly, it is not possible to extrapolate these findings to other clinical settings. Also, patients with acute coronary syndromes presented lower levels of macrophage infiltration in our sample. This finding may be explained by the fact that acute patients had significantly more thrombus when compared to stable patients, thus hindering the assessment of macrophage infiltration in these regions impossible in most cases. Although we had no information regarding the age or type of the stents implanted, in our opinion this was not detrimental to the interpretation of our findings, considering we were solely analyzing plaque characteristics.</p>
        <p>Notwithstanding, this is supposed to be a hypothesis-generating study. Neoatherosclerosis is an important cause of late stent failure not reduced with the use of drug eluting stents and has a direct impact on the outcomes of coronary percutaneous interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Risk factors such as hyperlipidemia, smoking and impaired renal function, all of which up-regulate systemic inflammation, have been associated with higher rates of neoatherosclerosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Additionally, inflammation by itself has been linked with increased cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> New evidence has emerged proving <italic>in vivo</italic> that modulation of the inflammatory response and risk factors control can reduce the rates of major cardiovascular events<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> and reduce atherosclerotic plaque volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Nonetheless, these effects are yet to be proven to reduce neointimal hyperplasia and neoatherosclerosis rates. In a recent article,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Hashikata et al. demonstrated that the use of empaglifozin reduced neointimal hyperplasia at 12 months in diabetic patients when compared to standard glucose-lowering therapy. Mean neointimal thickness, volume and percentage were significantly lower in the empaglifozin group. Interestingly, this reduction was independent of lower glucose levels, suggesting a possible multi-factorial underlying mechanism. The current HUYGENS trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> included patients with non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction who were treated with evolocumab or placebo in addition to intensive statin therapy for 52 weeks and underwent serial OCT and intravascular ultrasound imaging. The evolocumab group achieved lower LDL-C levels and imaging features that included a greater increase in minimum fibrous cap thickness, decrease in maximum lipid arc and plaque regression. More intensive lipid lowering with early addition of a PCSK9 inhibitor to statins after a NSTEMI produces stabilization and regression of coronary atherosclerosis. The improved clinical outcomes achieved with very low LDL-C levels associated with changes in plaque phenotype pave the way for these new lipid-lowering options become a perspective to prevent intra-stent neoatherosclerosis. Also, efforts are being made to produce stents with novel absorbable scaffolds<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> and better drug delivery to modulate tissular response,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> thus allowing a more physiologic endothelial regeneration and reducing the substrate that originates neoatherosclerosis.</p>
        <p>To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study directly comparing plaque inflammation of native vessel atherosclerosis with neointimal hyperplasia and neoatherosclerosis using OCT. In our understanding, these findings stress the importance of inflammation in the pathogenesis of stent failure, suggesting that the future of PCI probably lies in fine-tuning tissular response and not leaving a metallic footprint behind.</p>
        <p>Further prospective studies with aggressive lipid-lowering therapy, blood pressure and glucose control, smoking cessation, and control of inflammation may modify the evolution of neoatherosclerosis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>In summary, when compared using OCT, <italic>de novo</italic> atherosclerosis, in-stent restenosis and in-stent neoatherosclerosis presented markedly different inflammatory phenotypes (i.e., neovessel volume and macrophage quantification).</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the project of a postdoctoral submitted by Luiz Fernando Pinheiro, from Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein under the protocol number 3.722.061. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
