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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">rHfw5Mt6ZmjGdWQdST86WQx</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022001000604</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20210708</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20210708</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Envelhecimento Vascular e Rigidez Arterial</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5537-9033</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana Camargo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Miguel Guimar&#227;es Marques</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5487-4649</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vitorino</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Valverde de Oliveria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Luiza Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Deus</surname>
            <given-names>Gilcimar Divino</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa</surname>
            <given-names>Audes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Costa Duarte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Mota</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5333-013X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Cesar B. Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1265-1930</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Liga de Hipertens&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s , Liga de Hipertens&#227;o , Goi&#226;nia , GO &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label> 2 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Minho</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Braga</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade do Minho Escola de Medicina , Braga , Portugal </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label> 3 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola de Ci&#234;ncias Sociais e da Sa&#250;de</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s - Escola de Ci&#234;ncias Sociais e da Sa&#250;de , Goi&#226;nia , GO &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label> 4 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s &#8211; Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de , Goi&#226;nia , GO &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label> 5 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola de Ci&#234;ncias Exatas e da Computa&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s &#8211; Escola de Ci&#234;ncias Exatas e da Computa&#231;&#227;o , Goi&#226;nia , GO &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label> 6 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade de Pernambuco , Recife , PE &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label> 7 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Pernambuco , Recife , PE &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label> 8 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Complexo Hospitalar Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Complexo Hospitalar Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Porto Alegre &#8211; Cardiologia, Porto Alegre , RS &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label> 9 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universitario CESMAC</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Macei&#243;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AL</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Centro Universitario CESMAC &#8211; Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o , Macei&#243; , AL &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspond&#234;ncia: Adriana Camargo Oliveira &#8226;Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Liga de Hipertens&#227;o &#8211; R. 235, s/n. CEP 74605-050, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>adrianacardiologista@hotmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Oliveira AC, Barroso WKS; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Oliveira AC, Cunha PMGM, Vitorino PVO, Souza ALL, Deus GD, Feitosa A, Barbosa ECD, Gomes MM, Jardim PCBV, Barroso WKS.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>21</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>119</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>604</fpage>
      <lpage>615</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2022</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>O envelhecimento biol&#243;gico &#233; reflexo da intera&#231;&#227;o entre gen&#233;tica, idade cronol&#243;gica e fatores externos; &#233; a base para novos conceitos em envelhecimento vascular, cuja progress&#227;o &#233; determinada pela diferen&#231;a entre idade biol&#243;gica e cronol&#243;gica. Do ponto de vista estrutural, os efeitos do envelhecimento vascular s&#227;o mais evidentes na camada m&#233;dia das grandes art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas e resultam em aumento da rigidez arterial, da dilata&#231;&#227;o do l&#250;men e da espessura da parede. Esses efeitos s&#227;o descritos no <italic>continuum</italic> de envelhecimento cardiovascular (proposto por Dzau em 2010) em que as etapas progressivas de les&#245;es da microvasculatura de cora&#231;&#227;o, rins e c&#233;rebro, t&#234;m in&#237;cio a partir do processo de envelhecimento. O aumento da rigidez arterial pode ser verificado de forma n&#227;o invasiva por v&#225;rios m&#233;todos. Os eventos cardiovasculares t&#234;m sido tradicionalmente previstos utilizando escores que combinam fatores de risco convencionais para aterosclerose. No <italic>continuum</italic> cardiovascular cl&#225;ssico (Dzau, 2006), &#233; desafiador avaliar o peso exato da contribui&#231;&#227;o de cada fator de risco; entretanto, por refletir o dano precoce e cumulativo desses fatores de riscos cardiovascular, a rigidez arterial reflete o verdadeiro dano &#224; parede arterial. Este artigo fornece uma vis&#227;o geral dos mecanismos da fisiopatogenia, altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais das art&#233;rias e consequ&#234;ncias hemodin&#226;micas do envelhecimento arterial; m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da rigidez arterial e da medida central da press&#227;o arterial; o <italic>continuum</italic> de envelhecimento cardiovascular, e aplica&#231;&#227;o do conceito de rigidez arterial na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Rigidez Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco de Doen&#231;as Card&#237;acas</kwd>
        <kwd>An&#225;lise de Onda de Pulso</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodela&#231;&#227;o Vascular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>CNPq</funding-source>
          <award-id>313481/2020-2</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por CNPq, processo 313481/2020-2.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="10"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="52"/>
        <page-count count="12"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Fisiopatogenia do envelhecimento vascular</title>
      <p>O envelhecimento &#233; um dos principais fatores de risco para doen&#231;as e eventos cardiovasculares, principais causas de morte no mundo. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Entretanto, mais importante que a idade cronol&#243;gica (tempo desde o nascimento), &#233; a qualidade, a velocidade do envelhecimento e a forma como ele se reflete em anos livres de doen&#231;a. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O envelhecimento sist&#234;mico &#233; reflexo n&#227;o somente da idade cronol&#243;gica, mas tamb&#233;m do decl&#237;nio na fun&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica (idade biol&#243;gica), impulsionado pela exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica a baixos n&#237;veis de inflama&#231;&#227;o - &#8220;pr&#243;-inflama&#231;&#227;o&#8221;, contribuindo para senesc&#234;ncia celular e envelhecimento patol&#243;gico. Modifica&#231;&#245;es pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias celulares e da matriz, associadas &#224; idade, s&#227;o a base para um envelhecimento vascular acelerado (EVA), em que a idade biol&#243;gica supera a cronol&#243;gica, com aumento exponencial na patog&#234;nese da hipertens&#227;o e aterosclerose, predispondo a doen&#231;as CVs e mortalidade precoces. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Com avan&#231;ar da idade, o estresse f&#237;sico, mental e ambiental aumenta devido &#224;s cont&#237;nuas adapta&#231;&#245;es &#224;s mudan&#231;as nas circunst&#226;ncias de vida. O aumento do estresse desencadeia ativa&#231;&#227;o neuroend&#243;crina do sistema renina angiotensina aldosterona (SRAA), sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico (SNS) e endotelina-1 (ET-1). Esses eventos de &#8220;sinaliza&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria&#8221; atuam nas c&#233;lulas vasculares arteriais promovendo secre&#231;&#227;o e produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas e quimiocinas que se acumulam na parede arterial, como: prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos 1 (MCP-1), fator de transforma&#231;&#227;o do crescimento beta 1 (TGF-&#946;1), metaloproteinases da matriz (MMPs), calpa&#237;na-1 e gl&#243;bulo de gordura do leite - fator de crescimento epid&#233;rmico (MFG-E8), conhecidas como fen&#243;tipo secretor arterial associado &#224; idade, bem como ativa&#231;&#227;o ou inativa&#231;&#227;o de fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o (Ets-1, NF-&#954;B, Nrf2 ou Sirt1). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS) est&#227;o aumentadas na parede arterial envelhecida, e sua principal fonte &#233; a nicotinamida adenina dinucleot&#237;deo fosfato (NADPH) oxidase. Os n&#237;veis das prote&#237;nas antioxidantes cobre-zinco super&#243;xido dismutase (Cu/Zn SOD), SOD e SOD da matriz extracelular s&#227;o regulados negativamente durante o envelhecimento. Este desequil&#237;brio, juntamente com aumento da angiotensina II e ET-1, aumenta a express&#227;o de NADPH e a produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS com consequente pr&#243;-inflama&#231;&#227;o, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e enrijecimento da parede arterial envelhecida. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) regula dilata&#231;&#227;o arterial, enrijecimento e inflama&#231;&#227;o com o envelhecimento. Na parede arterial, a express&#227;o da NO sintase e NO est&#227;o diminu&#237;das. Al&#233;m disso, NO interage com ROS para gerar peroxinitrito (ONOO&#8211;), que reduz a biodisponibilidade do NO, prejudicando relaxamento do endot&#233;lio e aumentando vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e pr&#243;-inflama&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Essas altera&#231;&#245;es fenot&#237;picas moleculares pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias eventualmente levam a altera&#231;&#245;es fenot&#237;picas celulares e de matriz extracelular, devido ao estresse oxidativo e danos ao DNA, como senesc&#234;ncia replicativa (redu&#231;&#227;o dos tel&#244;meros e inativa&#231;&#227;o da telomerase) e senesc&#234;ncia prematura induzida por estresse (sem envolvimento dos tel&#244;meros). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As c&#233;lulas arteriais sofrem diminui&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia mit&#243;tica, aumento no volume celular e encurtamento dos tel&#244;meros. A cascata de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o da angiotensina II leva redu&#231;&#227;o da sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular, autofagia funcional e aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de ROS. No n&#237;vel celular, as c&#233;lulas vasculares transformam-se em fen&#243;tipos heterog&#234;neos: um subconjunto de c&#233;lulas endoteliais e c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares torna-se senescente, enquanto outro torna-se mais proliferativo, invasivo/migrat&#243;rio, secretor e r&#237;gido. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A matriz extracelular sofre altera&#231;&#245;es como fibrose, elast&#243;lise, calcifica&#231;&#227;o, amiloidose e glicoxida&#231;&#227;o. A fibrose desenvolve-se pelo aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o e deposi&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno nas paredes arteriais, mediada pelas MMPs e TGF-&#946;1, levando ao enrijecimento arterial. A elast&#243;lise ocorre devido &#224; ruptura da rede de elastina interlamelar, pelas MMPs e elastase, resultando na diminui&#231;&#227;o da capacidade de armazenamento de energia el&#225;stica, complac&#234;ncia e resili&#234;ncia arterial. Al&#233;m disso, os produtos da elast&#243;lise participam da inflama&#231;&#227;o e calcifica&#231;&#227;o arterial. No processo de calcifica&#231;&#227;o, dep&#243;sitos de c&#225;lcio na parede arterial aumentam devido &#224; secre&#231;&#227;o de substratos semelhantes a ossos (como o col&#225;geno II); ocorre elevada express&#227;o de fosfatase alcalina (mol&#233;cula pr&#243;-calcifica&#231;&#227;o) e redu&#231;&#227;o de mol&#233;culas anti-calcifica&#231;&#227;o (osteonectina e osteopontina). Na amiloidose, as prote&#237;nas e fibrilas amil&#243;ides n&#227;o compactadas aumentam na parede arterial, aumentando a rigidez e calcifica&#231;&#227;o. Os produtos de glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada encontram-se aumentados e contribuem para m&#250;ltiplas altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais no sistema arterial, como senesc&#234;ncia, pr&#243;-inflama&#231;&#227;o e enrijecimento. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>No n&#237;vel tecidual, a pr&#243;-inflama&#231;&#227;o leva ao aumento do espessamento m&#233;dio-intimal arterial, da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, do enrijecimento arterial e da press&#227;o arterial. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es compreendem a &#8220;s&#237;ndrome da rigidez arterial pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria&#8221;. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Envelhecimento vascular &#8211; altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais das art&#233;rias</title>
      <p>O efeito da idade &#233; mais evidente nas grandes art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas. Principais altera&#231;&#245;es incluem aumento da rigidez (diminui&#231;&#227;o da distensibilidade), do di&#226;metro do l&#250;men e da espessura m&#233;dio-intimal da parede. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A estrutura da &#225;rvore arterial consiste em tr&#234;s partes. Aorta, mais el&#225;stica, &#233; a parte mais proximal e maior; as art&#233;rias musculares s&#227;o a parte intermedi&#225;ria e as arter&#237;olas s&#227;o a parte mais distal e menor. Toda &#225;rvore arterial atua como conduto (distribuindo sangue do cora&#231;&#227;o para capilares) e como amortecedor (alterando fluxo puls&#225;til gerado pela contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca intermitente em fluxo constante). Diferentes partes da &#225;rvore arterial desempenham pap&#233;is diferentes, as grandes art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas funcionam como amortecedores, enquanto as pequenas art&#233;rias e arter&#237;olas funcionam como condutores. Diferen&#231;as entre art&#233;rias predominantemente el&#225;sticas ou musculares implicam na forma como reagem ao processo de envelhecimento, &#224;s mudan&#231;as de volume e press&#227;o, e a fatores aterog&#234;nicos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A camada m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria &#233; a principal respons&#225;vel pelas propriedades distens&#237;veis da parede vascular; consiste em fibras el&#225;sticas, c&#233;lulas musculares lisas, fibras col&#225;genas e subst&#226;ncia fundamental. A mudan&#231;a dependente da idade &#233; explicada pelo &#8220;estresse c&#237;clico&#8221;. A sucess&#227;o dos ciclos card&#237;acos provoca altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais nas art&#233;rias devido &#224; contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca intermitente e acomoda&#231;&#227;o das varia&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas de press&#227;o entre s&#237;stole e di&#225;stole. Esse estresse puls&#225;til leva &#224; desorganiza&#231;&#227;o da camada m&#233;dia das grandes art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas, por meio do afinamento gradual, divis&#227;o, desgaste e fragmenta&#231;&#227;o da elastina. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Observa-se substitui&#231;&#227;o desse material el&#225;stico por col&#225;geno e forma&#231;&#227;o de uma matriz mais r&#237;gida, com diferencia&#231;&#227;o osteog&#234;nica das c&#233;lulas arteriais e calcifica&#231;&#227;o. O processo resulta em enrijecimento da camada m&#233;dia pela transfer&#234;ncia de estresse de fibras el&#225;sticas mais distens&#237;veis para fibras col&#225;genas menos distens&#237;veis. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Essa degenera&#231;&#227;o &#233; conhecida como &#8220;arteriosclerose&#8221; que deve ser diferenciado de &#8220;aterosclerose&#8221;, que afeta a &#237;ntima arterial, e n&#227;o a m&#233;dia, por meio de um processo inflamat&#243;rio endotelial com ac&#250;mulo de lip&#237;dios (estenose luminal). Embora essas duas les&#245;es coexistam, a arteriosclerose tende a ser difusa nas art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas, enquanto as les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas s&#227;o mais localizadas nas art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas e musculares suscet&#237;veis (bifurca&#231;&#227;o carot&#237;dea e art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais nas grandes art&#233;rias devido &#224; hipertens&#227;o s&#227;o semelhantes &#224;s do envelhecimento (arteriosclerose), mas aparecem mais cedo, indicando que a hipertens&#227;o acelera o envelhecimento arterial. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As art&#233;rias musculares de tamanho m&#233;dio dificilmente s&#227;o afetadas pelo envelhecimento, pois s&#227;o menos distens&#237;veis que as art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas e, portanto, est&#227;o expostas a um estiramento c&#237;clico muito menor. Nos jovens, as art&#233;rias s&#227;o mais el&#225;sticas; com o avan&#231;ar da idade, ocorre desaparecimento gradual da uniformidade el&#225;stica entre o sistema arterial proximal e distal, levando &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o progressiva da amplifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de pulso e preju&#237;zo na intera&#231;&#227;o ventricular-arterial. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A dilata&#231;&#227;o do l&#250;men ocorre ap&#243;s a degenera&#231;&#227;o e fratura da elastina, levando a uma parede arterial enfraquecida. A parede se torna mais r&#237;gida com a press&#227;o de distens&#227;o, pois ocorre aumento da quantidade de fibras de col&#225;geno. Assim, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre tens&#227;o (press&#227;o) e deforma&#231;&#227;o (di&#226;metro) &#233; n&#227;o linear, com concavidade em dire&#231;&#227;o ao eixo de distens&#227;o, de modo que h&#225; diminui&#231;&#227;o da distens&#227;o com o aumento da for&#231;a. Esta propriedade &#233; essencial para o funcionamento eficiente das art&#233;rias como condutos, de modo que, com a manuten&#231;&#227;o do estresse residual, os vasos n&#227;o colapsam, garantindo o fluxo sangu&#237;neo. A tens&#227;o da parede (T) equilibrada pela press&#227;o transmural (P) e raio (r) (T = P &#183; r, lei de Laplace) tem um &#250;nico ponto de opera&#231;&#227;o na curva press&#227;o-di&#226;metro. O estresse na parede arterial torna-se ainda maior em consequ&#234;ncia de um l&#250;men dilatado. Portanto, a dilata&#231;&#227;o e a degenera&#231;&#227;o arterial criam um ciclo vicioso que acelera ainda mais o envelhecimento vascular. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O aumento da espessura da parede depende da hiperplasia intimal. Os poss&#237;veis mecanismos respons&#225;veis pelo espessamento da &#237;ntima incluem aterosclerose, eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o local e altera&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas com a idade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Fatores de risco [hipertens&#227;o, tabagismo, excesso de sal, dislipidemia, diabetes, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (DRC), inflama&#231;&#227;o, stress oxidativo, programa&#231;&#227;o fetal e gen&#233;tica] podem potencializar processo de envelhecimento arterial fazendo com que o sistema vascular apresente, mais cedo que o esperado, caracter&#237;sticas biol&#243;gicas que levar&#227;o ao desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as CVs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Envelhecimento vascular: consequ&#234;ncias hemodin&#226;micas</title>
      <p>As art&#233;rias n&#227;o exibem propriedades viscoel&#225;sticas uniformes e possuem mecanismos adaptativos. A elasticidade diminui das art&#233;rias proximais em dire&#231;&#227;o as distais, enquanto a rigidez segue o caminho inverso. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Embora essa heterogeneidade tenha dificultado o desenvolvimento de modelos matem&#225;ticos capazes de avaliar a complac&#234;ncia arterial, outros modelos foram concebidos para explicar caracter&#237;sticas hemodin&#226;micas da &#225;rvore arterial. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      <p>No modelo de Windkessel, o sistema arterial &#233; comparado com carro de bombeiros, representando as grandes art&#233;rias como a c&#250;pula de ar, as art&#233;rias de tamanho m&#233;dio como a mangueira de inc&#234;ndio e as pequenas arter&#237;olas como o bocal. Assim, as art&#233;rias possuem duas caracter&#237;sticas bem definidas: amortecimento (grandes art&#233;rias transformando fluxo puls&#225;til em fluxo constante para &#243;rg&#227;os) e condu&#231;&#227;o (pequenas art&#233;rias e arter&#237;olas distribuindo o sangue do cora&#231;&#227;o para &#243;rg&#227;os). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O modelo de Windkessel possui limita&#231;&#245;es, pois assume que a velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP) tem valor infinito. Esse n&#227;o poderia ser o caso, pois as fun&#231;&#245;es de amortecedor e conduto n&#227;o est&#227;o confinadas a art&#233;rias espec&#237;ficas, mas coexistem, levando &#224; heterogeneidade da VOP ao longo da &#225;rvore arterial. Al&#233;m disso, ocorre perda progressiva da fun&#231;&#227;o de amortecimento da aorta para as art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas mais musculares e r&#237;gidas, predominando a fun&#231;&#227;o de condu&#231;&#227;o. Tal fen&#244;meno de &#8220;reflex&#227;o de onda&#8221; ocasiona um aumento da amplitude da onda de pulso nos vasos do cora&#231;&#227;o em dire&#231;&#227;o a periferia, conhecida como press&#227;o de amplifica&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a rigidez das art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas de tamanho m&#233;dio &#233; modulada pelo t&#244;nus vasomotor, dependente da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, SNS e SRAA.</p>
      <p>Por isso, &#233; melhor aplicar modelos propagativos ao sistema circulat&#243;rio. Esses assumem que a VOP que viaja ao longo de determinada art&#233;ria tem valor finito. A equa&#231;&#227;o de Moens-Korteweg: co&#188;p(Eh/2Rr), onde (co) representa velocidade da onda, (E) m&#243;dulo de Young na dire&#231;&#227;o circunferencial, (h) espessura da parede, (R) raio e (r) densidade de fluido derivou a equa&#231;&#227;o: co&#188;p(V.dP/r.dV), onde (dV) &#233; a mudan&#231;a no volume arterial (V) e (dP) &#233; a mudan&#231;a na press&#227;o que impulsiona a mudan&#231;a no volume. Essa segunda equa&#231;&#227;o &#233; utilizada na pesquisa cl&#237;nica e demonstra que a VOP est&#225; inversamente relacionada &#224; distensibilidade do tubo arterial, expressa em dV/V.dP. A VOP fornece uma maneira direta de quantificar a rigidez arterial, quanto mais r&#237;gida a art&#233;ria, maior a VOP. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Assim, em vez do modelo de Windkessel, um modelo mais realista da &#225;rvore arterial seria o &#8220;modelo propagativo&#8221; constitu&#237;do por tubo distens&#237;vel simples que termina com resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica, mas cujas propriedades el&#225;sticas distribu&#237;das permitem gera&#231;&#227;o de onda de press&#227;o que percorre o tubo, no qual as fun&#231;&#245;es de conduto e amortecedor s&#227;o combinadas. A extremidade proximal do tubo corresponde &#224; aorta e a distal &#224;s arter&#237;olas de alta resist&#234;ncia. A onda de press&#227;o gerada pela eje&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca viaja ao longo desse tubo da extremidade proximal &#224; distal, onde essa onda direta &#233; refletida de volta. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Tais modelos tornam poss&#237;vel explicar os fen&#244;menos observados no sistema arterial real que n&#227;o eram interpret&#225;veis pelo modelo de Windkessel. Esses fen&#244;menos incluem: uma onda de press&#227;o secund&#225;ria na di&#225;stole ou s&#237;stole tardia, e amplifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de pulso da aorta proximal para as art&#233;rias musculares distais, e explicam por que a rigidez arterial aumenta a press&#227;o de pulso central e press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS). Em indiv&#237;duos jovens ou adultos com envelhecimento arterial saud&#225;vel, a onda retr&#243;grada originada ap&#243;s a reflex&#227;o deve se sobrepor, e aumentar a press&#227;o durante a di&#225;stole, e n&#227;o durante a s&#237;stole, aumentando a perfus&#227;o coron&#225;ria. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As ondas refletidas s&#227;o originadas em v&#225;rios locais, incluindo pontos de bifurca&#231;&#227;o das art&#233;rias de condu&#231;&#227;o e pequenas art&#233;rias musculares. A vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o resulta em pontos de reflex&#227;o pr&#243;ximos ao cora&#231;&#227;o, levando &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o precoce de ondas refletidas na aorta. O momento de chegada das ondas refletidas na aorta proximal depende da VOP dos vasos condutores. Al&#233;m disso, o aumento da rigidez arterial, observado em idosos e hipertensos, promove uma chegada precoce da onda refletida, que viaja rapidamente ao longo da &#225;rvore arterial. Portanto, pequenas e grandes art&#233;rias contribuem para a reflex&#227;o precoce da onda, que retorna antecipadamente na s&#237;stole e se sobrep&#245;e &#224; onda de frente. Esse processo causa aumento na press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS), e redu&#231;&#227;o nas varia&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica (PAD) e na press&#227;o arterial ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>A rigidez arterial nas grandes art&#233;rias. Em adultos jovens saud&#225;veis, uma aorta complacente (esquerda): 1) protege efetivamente o excesso de pulsatilidade causado pela eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda intermitente; e 2) exibe uma velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP) mais lenta, permitindo que as ondas de pulso refletidas cheguem ao cora&#231;&#227;o durante a di&#225;stole, aumentando a press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o coronariana diast&#243;lica, mas n&#227;o a p&#243;s-carga. V&#225;rios fatores, como envelhecimento e estilo de vida, aumentam a rigidez da parede a&#243;rtica, o que leva a v&#225;rias consequ&#234;ncias hemodin&#226;micas adversas. O enrijecimento a&#243;rtico leva ao aumento da imped&#226;ncia da raiz a&#243;rtica, com consequente aumento da amplitude da onda e chegada precoce de ondas refletidas ao cora&#231;&#227;o. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas resultam em padr&#245;es adversos de carga puls&#225;til para o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo na s&#237;stole e redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o coronariana na di&#225;stole, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, promovendo remodelamento mioc&#225;rdico, disfun&#231;&#227;o e redu&#231;&#227;o da reserva de perfus&#227;o (mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a coronariana epic&#225;rdica). Esse padr&#227;o hemodin&#226;mico inverso tamb&#233;m resulta em pulsatilidade excessiva na aorta, que &#233; transmitida preferencialmente para leitos vasculares de baixa resist&#234;ncia (como rim, placenta e c&#233;rebro), pois nesses &#243;rg&#227;os a press&#227;o microvascular est&#225; mais diretamente associada &#224;s flutua&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o da arterial a&#243;rtica. Fonte: autores.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Uma onda de press&#227;o que se propaga ao longo de tubo viscoel&#225;stico com numerosas ramifica&#231;&#245;es &#233; progressivamente amplificada do conduto central em dire&#231;&#227;o distal devido &#224;s reflex&#245;es de onda e maior VOP em uma art&#233;ria perif&#233;rica mais r&#237;gida. Como resultado a amplitude da onda de press&#227;o &#233; maior em art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas do nas centrais - &#8220;fen&#244;meno de amplifica&#231;&#227;o&#8221;. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>M&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos para avalia&#231;&#227;o de rigidez arterial</title>
      <p>A rigidez arterial pode ser avaliada em n&#237;veis sist&#234;mico, local e regional. A an&#225;lise sist&#234;mica s&#243; pode ser realizada por modelos de circula&#231;&#227;o, enquanto a rigidez arterial local e regional podem ser medidas diretamente de forma n&#227;o invasiva, tendo como vantagem que os par&#226;metros utilizados est&#227;o fortemente ligados &#224; rigidez da parede arterial ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dispositivos e m&#233;todos usados para determinar a rigidez arterial regional, local e sist&#234;mica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Ano da primeira publica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>Dispositivo</th>
                <th>M&#233;todo</th>
                <th>S&#237;tio da Medida</th>
                <th>Valor preditivo para eventos CV (ano da primeira publica&#231;&#227;o)</th>
                <th>Facilidade de utiliza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Rigidez arterial regional</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1984a</td>
                <td align="center">Complior&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Mecanotransdutor</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPcfb</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (1999)</td>
                <td align="center">++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1990a</td>
                <td align="center">Sphygmocor&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Tonometria</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPcfb</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2011)</td>
                <td align="center">++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1991</td>
                <td align="center">WallTrack&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Echotracking</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPcfb</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1994</td>
                <td align="center">QKD</td>
                <td align="center">ECG +</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPcfb</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2005)</td>
                <td align="center">++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1997a</td>
                <td align="center">Cardiovasc. Eng. Inc&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Tonometria</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPcfb</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2010)</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2002</td>
                <td align="center">Artlab&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Echotracking</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPcfb</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2002</td>
                <td align="center">Sistema de ultrassom</td>
                <td align="center">Sonda de Doppler</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPcfb</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2002)</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2002</td>
                <td align="center">Omron VP-1000&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Manguito de press&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPbtb</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2005)</td>
                <td align="center">+++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2007</td>
                <td align="center">CAVI-Vasera&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">ECG + manguito de press&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPctb</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2014)</td>
                <td align="center">+++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2008</td>
                <td align="center">Arteriograph&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Manguito de press&#227;o braquial</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPaab</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2013)</td>
                <td align="center">++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2009</td>
                <td align="center">RMN, ArtFun&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">RMN</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPaab</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2014)</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2010</td>
                <td align="center">Mobil-O-Graph&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Manguito de press&#227;o braquial</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPcfc</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2010</td>
                <td align="center">Ultrafast&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Ecografia</td>
                <td align="center">Car&#243;tida comum</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2013</td>
                <td align="center">pOpmetre&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Pletismografia</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta, VOPdpb</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2017</td>
                <td align="center">Withings&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Balistocardiografia</td>
                <td align="center">Aorta</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Rigidez arterial local</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1991</td>
                <td align="center">WallTrack&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Echo-tracking</td>
                <td align="center">ACCd, ACF <sup>d</sup> , AB <sup>d</sup> .</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1992</td>
                <td align="center">NIUS&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Echo-tracking</td>
                <td align="center">AR <sup>d</sup></td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+/&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2002</td>
                <td align="center">Artlab&#174;, Mylab&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Echo-tracking</td>
                <td align="center">ACCd, ACF, AB</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2014)</td>
                <td align="center">++</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2017</td>
                <td align="center">Ultrasound systems</td>
                <td align="center">Echography</td>
                <td align="center">ACCd, ACF, AB</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2009</td>
                <td align="center">RMN, ArtFun&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">RMN</td>
                <td align="center">AA <sup>d</sup> , AD <sup>d</sup></td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="6">
                  <bold>Rigidez arterial sist&#234;mica</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1989</td>
                <td align="center">M&#233;todo de &#225;rea</td>
                <td align="center">Decaimento diast&#243;lico</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+/&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1995</td>
                <td align="center">HDI PW CR-2000&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Windkessel modificado</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>1997a</td>
                <td align="center">Cardiovasc. Eng. Inc&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">Tonometria/Doppler/ Eco</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td align="center">Sim (2010)</td>
                <td align="center">+/&#8211;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>2009</td>
                <td align="center">RMN, ArtFun&#174;</td>
                <td align="center">RMN</td>
                <td align="center">AA, AD</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">+</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic><sup>a</sup> Aparelho usado em estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos pioneiros que mostram o valor preditivo da rigidez a&#243;rtica para eventos cardiovasculares; <sup>b</sup> VOP: velocidade da onda de pulso; cf: car&#243;tido-femoral; bt: braquial-tornozelo; ct: tornozelo card&#237;aco; aa: arco a&#243;rtico; dp: dedo da m&#227;o - p&#233;. <sup>c</sup> Estimado, n&#227;o medido; <sup>d</sup> Todas as art&#233;rias superficiais, incluindo particularmente aquelas mencionadas; Ao: aorta; ACC: art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum; AFC: art&#233;ria femoral comum; AB: art&#233;ria braquial; AR: art&#233;ria radial; AA: aorta ascendente; AD: aorta descendente. Fonte: Adaptado de Laurent et al. (2019, p. 143-144)</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Medida regional da rigidez arterial</title>
        <p>A aorta &#233; o vaso utilizado para determina&#231;&#227;o do enrijecimento arterial regional, pois as aortas tor&#225;cica e abdominal s&#227;o os maiores &#8220;amortecedores&#8221; da &#225;rvore arterial, e a VOP a&#243;rtica &#233; preditor independente de desfechos CVs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A medida da VOP carot&#237;deo-femoral (VOPcf) &#233; o m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo, padr&#227;o-ouro para avalia&#231;&#227;o da rigidez arterial. Diversos estudos utilizaram a VOPcf e demonstraram que a rigidez arterial est&#225; relacionada a eventos CVs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> A VOPcf &#233; medida de forma transcut&#226;nea (ton&#244;metro), utilizando o m&#233;todo da velocidade &#8220;p&#233;-p&#233;&#8221; entre as ondas obtidas na art&#233;ria car&#243;tida direita e na femoral direita ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref> ). O &#8220;p&#233;&#8221; da onda &#233; definido no final da di&#225;stole, quando inicia a subida acentuada da frente de onda. A VOPcf &#233; calculada pela f&#243;rmula: VOPcf (m/s) = <italic>D</italic> (metros) / &#8710; <italic>t</italic> (segundos). A ( <italic>D</italic> ) pode ser calculada: (1) dist&#226;ncia total medida entre os dois s&#237;tios (car&#243;tida e femoral); (2) subtraindo a dist&#226;ncia do s&#237;tio carot&#237;deo at&#233; a jun&#231;&#227;o man&#250;brio-esternal da dist&#226;ncia total ou (3) subtraindo a dist&#226;ncia do s&#237;tio carot&#237;deo at&#233; a jun&#231;&#227;o man&#250;brio-esternal da dist&#226;ncia da jun&#231;&#227;o man&#250;brio-esternal at&#233; o s&#237;tio femoral. De todas as dist&#226;ncias atualmente utilizadas, 80% da dist&#226;ncia car&#243;tida-femoral direta (dist&#226;ncia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum at&#233; art&#233;ria femoral comum x 0,8) demonstrou ser mais precisa. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Medida da velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo-femoral com o m&#233;todo &#8220;p&#233;-a-p&#233;&#8221;. Medida da velocidade da onda de pulso carot&#237;deo-femoral com o m&#233;todo p&#233;-p&#233;. As formas de onda s&#227;o geralmente obtidas por via transcut&#226;nea na art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum direita e na art&#233;ria femoral direita. O atraso de tempo (&#916;t ou tempo de tr&#226;nsito) &#233; medido entre os p&#233;s das duas formas de onda. A dist&#226;ncia (&#916;L) percorrida pelas ondas &#233; geralmente a dist&#226;ncia da superf&#237;cie entre os dois locais de registro, ou seja, a art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum e a art&#233;ria femoral comum. A Velocidade de Onda de Pulso (VOP) &#233; calculada como VOP = 0,8 &#215; &#916;L (m) / &#916;t (s). Fonte: autores</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A medi&#231;&#227;o da VOPcf por tonometria apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es como: a) o registro preciso da forma de onda de press&#227;o femoral pode ser dificultado em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, obesidade e doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica; b) presen&#231;a de estenose a&#243;rtica, il&#237;aca ou femoral proximal, pode atenuar e atrasar a onda e c) a obesidade abdominal, especialmente em homens, e busto volumoso em mulheres podem influenciar na acur&#225;cia da dist&#226;ncia medida. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Assim, a an&#225;lise da VOP utilizando &#250;nico local simplifica a medi&#231;&#227;o. Foram desenvolvidos dispositivos que calculam a VOP em uma determinada via arterial a partir da an&#225;lise da onda de press&#227;o braquial obtida com manguito. Esses m&#233;todos incluem a determina&#231;&#227;o da diferen&#231;a de tempo entre a onda Q no eletrocardiograma e os sons de Korotkoff no n&#237;vel braquial. Arteriograph <sup>&#174;</sup> estima VOP a partir de um manguito braquial em &#250;nico ponto, usando m&#233;todo oscilom&#233;trico de determina&#231;&#227;o suprassist&#243;lica. Mobil-O-Graph <sup>&#174;</sup> (Brasil, Dyna Mapa AOP <sup>&#174;</sup> ) aproveita registros oscilom&#233;tricos, obtidos por tripla aferi&#231;&#227;o, da forma de onda da press&#227;o da art&#233;ria braquial, no n&#237;vel da PA m&#233;dia (calibra&#231;&#227;o C1) ou diast&#243;lica (calibra&#231;&#227;o C2), para compor onda de pulso aplicando fun&#231;&#227;o de transfer&#234;ncia (algoritmo ARCSolver <sup>&#174;</sup> ). Nesse &#250;ltimo, a idade e a PA s&#227;o usadas para refinar a estimativa da VOP. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Valores de refer&#234;ncia para a VOPcf (tonometria) foram estabelecidos para indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis e naqueles com fatores de risco CV em pa&#237;ses europeus. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Ainda, valores de refer&#234;ncia para o m&#233;todo oscilom&#233;trico, da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica central (PASc), &#237;ndice de incremento a&#243;rtico (AIx) e VOP para indiv&#237;duos com e sem fatores de risco CV foram estabelecidos para a popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Valores de refer&#234;ncia para press&#227;o arterial central, velocidade da onda pulso e &#237;ndice de amplifica&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtico (AIx) para homens e mulheres, com e sem fatores de risco cardiovasculares</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3">Categoria da Idade</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Sem Fatores de risco cardiovascular</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Com Fatores de risco cardiovascular</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="4" rowspan="1">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Mulheres</th>
                  <th>Homens</th>
                  <th>Mulheres</th>
                  <th>Homens</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>PASc</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">101 (90; 93; 113; 119)</td>
                  <td align="center">113 (104; 109; 120; 123)</td>
                  <td align="center">118 (102; 109; 127; 131)</td>
                  <td align="center">123 (107; 114; 132; 144)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">109 (96; 102; 117; 123)</td>
                  <td align="center">114 (102; 110; 121; 127)</td>
                  <td align="center">120 (102; 110; 130; 143)</td>
                  <td align="center">125 (108; 116; 133; 141)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">110 (99; 103; 117; 122)</td>
                  <td align="center">116 (102; 109; 122; 126)</td>
                  <td align="center">121 (104; 112; 134; 146)</td>
                  <td align="center">123 (108; 115; 131; 141)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">110 (97; 104; 120; 124)</td>
                  <td align="center">112 (100; 106; 1 18; 124)</td>
                  <td align="center">124 (106; 114; 135; 146)</td>
                  <td align="center">124 (105; 114; 134; 144)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">114 (100; 105; 120; 125)</td>
                  <td align="center">112 (96; 101; 120; 127)</td>
                  <td align="center">127 (105; 115; 141; 154)</td>
                  <td align="center">123 (103; 112; 136; 149)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">113 (100; 103; 121; 126)</td>
                  <td align="center">116 (94; 104; 125; 129)</td>
                  <td align="center">131 (108; 118; 146; 165)</td>
                  <td align="center">125 (102; 111; 140; 156)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>PADc</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">73 (60; 66; 77; 85)</td>
                  <td align="center">76 (66; 71; 82; 87)</td>
                  <td align="center">82 (68; 73; 90; 97)</td>
                  <td align="center">83 (72; 77; 93; 100)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">77 (67; 71; 83; 88)</td>
                  <td align="center">80 (7 1; 75; 85; 88)</td>
                  <td align="center">86 (71; 77; 95; 105)</td>
                  <td align="center">88 (75; 80; 96; 103)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">79 (67; 73; 84; 88)</td>
                  <td align="center">81 (74; 77; 86; 89)</td>
                  <td align="center">86 (71; 78; 94; 103)</td>
                  <td align="center">90 (75; 82; 97; 104)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">76 (64; 70; 82; 85)</td>
                  <td align="center">82 (70; 77; 86; 88)</td>
                  <td align="center">84 (71; 77; 92; 100)</td>
                  <td align="center">88 (75; 80; 97; 103)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60-69 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">76 (66; 71; 81; 87)</td>
                  <td align="center">80 (68; 72; 83; 87)</td>
                  <td align="center">81 (67; 74; 90; 98)</td>
                  <td align="center">85 (71; 77; 93; 101)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">76 (60; 70; 79; 83)</td>
                  <td align="center">79 (60; 70; 84; 90)</td>
                  <td align="center">81 (66; 72; 89; 97)</td>
                  <td align="center">82 (68; 74; 91; 98)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>PPc</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">29 (23; 27; 37; 43)</td>
                  <td align="center">36 (26; 32; 43; 53)</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (24; 28; 41; 48)</td>
                  <td align="center">38 (26; 31; 46; 52)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">30 (22; 26; 37; 44)</td>
                  <td align="center">35 (25; 29; 42; 50)</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (24; 28; 38; 46)</td>
                  <td align="center">36 (25; 31; 41; 48)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">31 (22; 27; 36; 42)</td>
                  <td align="center">32 (25; 28; 38; 45)</td>
                  <td align="center">35 (25; 29; 43; 53)</td>
                  <td align="center">33 (23; 28; 37; 46)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (25; 28; 42; 49)</td>
                  <td align="center">30 (25; 27; 35; 42)</td>
                  <td align="center">39 (28; 32; 47; 58)</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (25; 28; 41; 49)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60--09 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">35 (28; 31; 43; 52)</td>
                  <td align="center">31 (24; 28; 36; 49)</td>
                  <td align="center">44 (30; 36; 55; 66)</td>
                  <td align="center">37 (25; 31; 46; 58)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">39 (28; 34; 45; 52)</td>
                  <td align="center">37 (19; 27; 41; 51)</td>
                  <td align="center">50 (33; 41; 63; 77)</td>
                  <td align="center">42 (28; 34; 52; 66)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>VOP</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">4,9 (4,4;,4,5; 5,0; 5,3)</td>
                  <td align="center">5,2 (4,9; 5,1; 5,4; 5,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">5,3 (4,7; 5,0; 5,6; 6,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">5,5 (5,0; 5,3; 5,8; 6,3)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">5,4 (5,0; 5,2; 5,8; 6,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">5,7 (5,3; 5,5; 5,9; 6,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">5,8 (5,3; 5,5; 6,2; 6,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">6,1 (5,5; 5,8; 6,4; 6,7)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">6,4 (5,7; 6,0; 6,7; 6,9)</td>
                  <td align="center">6,5 (5,9; 6,2; 6,8; 7,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">6,8 (6,0; 6,4; 7,2; 7,7)</td>
                  <td align="center">6,8 (6,2; 6,4; 7,1; 7,5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">7,5 (6,7; 7,0; 7,8; 8,2)</td>
                  <td align="center">7,4 (6,9; 7,2; 7,9; 8,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">7,9 (7,1; 7,5; 8,3; 8,8)</td>
                  <td align="center">7,9 (7,1; 7,5; 8,3; 8,7)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60-09 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">8,9 (8,1; 8,5; 9,2; 9,4)</td>
                  <td align="center">8,9 (8,2; 8,6; 9,1; 9,6)</td>
                  <td align="center">9,3 (8,4; 8,8; 9,8; 10;4)</td>
                  <td align="center">9,2 (8,4; 8,7; 9,7;10,2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">11,3 (10,2;10,4;12,5; 13;2)</td>
                  <td align="center">11.0 (10,1; 10,6; 11,6; 12,3)</td>
                  <td align="center">11,8 (10,2; 10,8; 12,9; 14,0)</td>
                  <td align="center">11,2 (9,9; 10,4; 12,1; 13,2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>AIx</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">20 (11; 13; 27; 33)</td>
                  <td align="center">16 (4; 10; 23; 27)</td>
                  <td align="center">28 (11; 20; 34; 38)</td>
                  <td align="center">16 (2; 8;23; 30)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (12; 16; 28; 34)</td>
                  <td align="center">14 (1; 7; 18; 24)</td>
                  <td align="center">26 (11; 18; 32; 37)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (3; 9; 2 1; 27)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">23 (9; 15; 29; 35)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (0; 6; 21; 25)</td>
                  <td align="center">25 (10; 17; 34; 38)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (2; 8; 23; 30)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (7; 12; 33; 39)</td>
                  <td align="center">12 (2; 4; 19; 22)</td>
                  <td align="center">24 (8; 14; 33; 39)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (3; 7; 24; 32)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60--09 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">23 (9; 1 4; 34; 42)</td>
                  <td align="center">17 (1; 5; 27; 43)</td>
                  <td align="center">28 (11; 18; 37; 44)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 7 (3;9; 26; 34)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ anos</td>
                  <td align="center">28 (11; 20; 39; 42)</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (5; 10; 33; 41)</td>
                  <td align="center">33 (17; 25; 42; 48)</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (4; 12; 31; 41)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>
                  <italic>PASc: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica central; PADc: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica central; PPc: press&#227;o de pulso central; VOP: velocidade da onda de pulso e AIx: &#237;ndice de aumenta&#231;&#227;o. * Valores indicados como 50&#186; (10&#186;. 25&#186;. 75&#186;. E 90&#186;) pontos percentuais. &#8224;N&#250;mero de mulheres e homens CVRF-No: &lt;30 anos (n=50 e 80): 30-39 anos (n=134 e 70): 40-49 anos (n=114 e 55): 50-59 anos (n=121 e 67): 60-69 anos (n=80 e 38): 70+ anos (n=32 e 26). &#8225; N&#250;mero de mulheres e homens CVRF-Sim: &lt;30 anos (n=94 e 152): 30-39 anos (n=240 e 297): 40-49 anos (n=418 e 385): 50-59 anos (n=827 e 638); 60-69 anos (n= 919 e 561): 70+ anos (n=671 e 430). &#167; Fatores de risco cardiovascular CVRF. Fonte: Adaptado de Paiva et al. (2020).</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Apesar de sua relev&#226;ncia na predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos CVs e na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, a VOP ainda &#233; subutilizada. Um grupo europeu prop&#244;s um escore cl&#237;nico, o SAGE, capaz de identificar indiv&#237;duos com prioridade para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da VOP considerando vari&#225;veis facilmente dispon&#237;veis: &#8220;S&#8221;, <italic>systolic blood pressure</italic> (press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, PAS), &#8220;A&#8221; <italic>age</italic> (idade), &#8220;G&#8221; <italic>fasting plasma glucose</italic> (glicemia de jejum) e &#8220;E&#8221; <italic>estimated glomerular filtration rate</italic> (taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular estimada pelo CKD-EPI). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Esse escore foi aplicado na popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira com m&#233;todo oscilom&#233;trico e identificou que hipertensos com SAGE &#8805;8 deveriam ser encaminhados para an&#225;lise da rigidez arterial, devido alta probabilidade de VOP aumentada. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medida local da rigidez arterial</title>
        <p>A rigidez arterial local pode ser avaliada diretamente usando ultrassonografia das art&#233;rias car&#243;tidas por <italic>echo-tracking</italic> de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o. O m&#233;todo tem como vantagem alta precis&#227;o para determinar di&#226;metro na di&#225;stole e mudan&#231;as de curso no di&#226;metro, em compara&#231;&#227;o com an&#225;lise cl&#225;ssica de v&#237;deo-imagem. A resson&#226;ncia nuclear magn&#233;tica tor&#225;cica permite determina&#231;&#227;o combinada da estrutura e da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e a&#243;rtica com precis&#227;o anat&#244;mica indiscut&#237;vel, mas ao custo de menor resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial e temporal. No entanto, a maioria dos estudos fisiopatol&#243;gicos e farmacol&#243;gicos utilizou t&#233;cnicas de ecotracking. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medida sist&#234;mica da rigidez arterial</title>
        <p>Metodologia fundamentada em circuito el&#233;trico utilizando modelo de Windkessel modificado desenvolvido para determinar complac&#234;ncia capacitiva proximal e complac&#234;ncia oscilat&#243;ria distal. A complac&#234;ncia arterial sist&#234;mica tamb&#233;m pode ser determinada usando o &#8220;m&#233;todo da &#225;rea&#8221;, que requer a medi&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo a&#243;rtico (veloc&#237;metro em incisura supraesternal) e press&#227;o motriz associada &#224; tonometria de aplana&#231;&#227;o sobre a art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum direita. Limita&#231;&#245;es te&#243;ricas, t&#233;cnicas e pr&#225;ticas prejudicam sua aplica&#231;&#227;o generalizada em ambiente cl&#237;nico. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medida da press&#227;o arterial central</title>
        <p>A forma da onda da PA deve ser analisada ao n&#237;vel central (aorta ascendente) uma vez que representa verdadeira carga imposta ao cora&#231;&#227;o, c&#233;rebro, rins e parede arterial. A abordagem mais utilizada &#233; a tonometria da art&#233;ria radial, seguida pela aplica&#231;&#227;o de fun&#231;&#227;o de transfer&#234;ncia (SphygmoCor, AtCor, Sydney, Austr&#225;lia) para calcular a forma de onda de press&#227;o a&#243;rtica. A art&#233;ria radial, por ser sustentada por tecido &#243;sseo, torna mais f&#225;cil a aplana&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A onda de press&#227;o a&#243;rtica pode ser estimada por tonometria das art&#233;rias carot&#237;deas comuns, que exige maior conhecimento t&#233;cnico, mas n&#227;o necessita de fun&#231;&#227;o de transfer&#234;ncia, pois os s&#237;tios arteriais s&#227;o muito pr&#243;ximos e as formas de onda semelhantes. Novos m&#233;todos t&#234;m sido desenvolvidos para determinar o valor da PASc usando segundo pico sist&#243;lico (PAS2) nas ondas de press&#227;o radial ou braquial. A calibra&#231;&#227;o externa &#233; necess&#225;ria, feita com a PAS e a PAD braquial para calibrar a tonometria da art&#233;ria radial, e em seguida com a press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia e PAD radial para calibrar as formas de onda da aorta ou car&#243;tida. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A onda de press&#227;o &#233; composta pela onda de frente gerada pela contra&#231;&#227;o ventricular e pela onda retr&#243;grada, gerada pela reflex&#227;o nos s&#237;tios de bifurca&#231;&#227;o. Nos vasos el&#225;sticos, a VOP &#233; baixa, e a onda refletida retorna &#224; raiz da aorta durante a di&#225;stole. Na presen&#231;a de rigidez arterial, a VOP aumenta e a onda refletida retorna precocemente, adicionando &#8220;aumento&#8221; durante a s&#237;stole. Este fen&#244;meno pode ser quantificado pelo AIx, diferen&#231;a entre segundo e primeiro pico sist&#243;lico (P2 &#8211; P1), em porcentagem, ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref> ). A idade e VOP s&#227;o os principais determinantes do AIx. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>A forma da onda de press&#227;o carot&#237;dea registrada por tonometria de aplana&#231;&#227;o. O fen&#244;meno da reflex&#227;o da onda pode ser quantificado por meio do &#237;ndice de aumento (AIx) - definido como a diferen&#231;a entre o segundo (P2) e o primeiro (P1) picos sist&#243;licos (P2 - P1 = PA, ou seja, press&#227;o de aumento) expresso como uma porcentagem de PP (press&#227;o de pulso), AIx = PA / PP. Fonte: autores.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Amplitude da onda de press&#227;o nas art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas &#233; maior que nas art&#233;rias centrais devido ao &#8220;fen&#244;meno de amplifica&#231;&#227;o&#8221;; portanto, a PAS perif&#233;rica e a press&#227;o de pulso braquial superestimam os valores da PAS e de pulso central em jovens. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> A onda de pulso deve ser analisada por meio da press&#227;o de pulso central (PPc), da PASc e do AIx. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Esses par&#226;metros s&#227;o preditores independentes de mortalidade por todas as causas <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> e de eventos CVs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os valores de refer&#234;ncia para PASc e AIx foram definidos para popula&#231;&#227;o europeia <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> utilizando o m&#233;todo tonom&#233;trico e para a popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira pelo m&#233;todo oscilom&#233;trico <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> ).</p>
        <p>A PASc, PPc, AIx e VOP n&#227;o podem ser utilizados indistintamente como &#237;ndices de rigidez arterial, pois s&#227;o determinantes diferentes. A PASc, PPc e AIx dependem da VOP, da amplitude da onda refletida, do ponto de reflex&#227;o e da dura&#231;&#227;o e padr&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular, especialmente relacionadas &#224;s mudan&#231;as na frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) e contratilidade ventricular. Condi&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas e f&#225;rmacos podem modificar PPc e AIx sem alterar VOP a&#243;rtica, sugerindo efeito predominante da onda refletida, da FC e da eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular, e nenhuma mudan&#231;a na rigidez a&#243;rtica. A influ&#234;ncia da idade &#233; maior no AIx do que na VOP antes dos 50 anos e maior na VOP que no AIx ap&#243;s essa idade. Portanto, a VOP, &#233; uma medida direta da rigidez arterial, enquanto a PASc e o AIx s&#227;o medidas indiretas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Rigidez arterial e o continuum cardiovascular</title>
      <p>A descri&#231;&#227;o cl&#225;ssica do <italic>Continuum Cardiovascular,</italic> publicada por Dzau et al. (2006) <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> descreve a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a CV ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref> ) fundamentada no processo de aterosclerose, que se inicia com exposi&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de risco (hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, dislipidemia, tabagismo e obesidade), evoluindo em etapas que culminam na obstru&#231;&#227;o das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, isquemia e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, doen&#231;a card&#237;aca terminal, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e morte. Embora este modelo destaque aspectos fisiopatol&#243;gicos relacionados a genes, mol&#233;culas, processos qu&#237;micos e mecanismos intracelulares associados &#224; aterosclerose, ignora contribui&#231;&#245;es do envelhecimento cardiovascular, derivado de altera&#231;&#245;es f&#237;sicas e mec&#226;nicas das estruturas vasculares. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Compara&#231;&#227;o entre o continuum cardiovascular cl&#225;ssico (A) e o continuum do envelhecimento cardiovascular (B). Fonte: Barroso; Barbosa; Mota-Gomes, 2020.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf04.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Em 2010, foi proposto novo modelo, o <italic>Continuum do Envelhecimento Cardiovascular</italic> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref> ), que tem como base o processo de arteriosclerose, e se inicia com o envelhecimento arterial, e progride para desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a microvascular card&#237;aca, cerebral e renal terminal, incapacidade e morte. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Esta nova abordagem enfatiza a degenera&#231;&#227;o progressiva da aorta com consequentes efeitos nocivos para &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. A abordagem amplia as considera&#231;&#245;es da doen&#231;a arterial para al&#233;m daquelas causadas por obstru&#231;&#227;o e isquemia, para um progressivo enrijecimento das art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas que ocorre com o avan&#231;ar da idade e se manifesta como aumento da VOP e AIx. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> O aumento na VOP a&#243;rtica em 1 m/s associou-se a um incremento de 15% na mortalidade CV e por todas as causas. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Os par&#226;metros de PASc, VOP e o AIx demonstraram ser melhores preditores de risco CV e mortalidade do que a press&#227;o arterial perif&#233;rica. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O <italic>continuum</italic> de envelhecimento CV &#233; dividido em quatro est&#225;gios descritos a seguir: ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 5</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f05">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o do continuum cardiovascular cl&#225;ssico com o Continuum do envelhecimento cardiovascular; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; ICC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica. Fonte: Barroso; Barbosa; Mota-Gomes, 2020.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Est&#225;gio 1: Os batimentos card&#237;acos levam &#224; fadiga e fratura das lamelas de elastina, com consequente dilata&#231;&#227;o da aorta e transfer&#234;ncia do stress mec&#226;nico para fibras de col&#225;geno, respons&#225;veis pela rigidez arterial. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Est&#225;gio 2: Enrijecimento a&#243;rtico leva a uma eleva&#231;&#227;o da PAS, resultado tanto do aumento da rigidez da aorta proximal quanto do retorno precoce da onda refletida durante a s&#237;stole. Consequentemente, ocorrem aumento da p&#243;s-carga ventricular, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE), maior consumo de oxig&#234;nio pelo mioc&#225;rdio e redu&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o coron&#225;ria. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Est&#225;gio 3: A contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca intermitente transmite o fluxo puls&#225;til para a aorta enrijecida (diminui&#231;&#227;o da capacidade de amortecimento) e se estende perifericamente para a microvasculatura, com aumento das for&#231;as de cisalhamento, especialmente nas pequenas art&#233;rias de &#243;rg&#227;os com alto fluxo sangu&#237;neo e baixa resist&#234;ncia microvascular (c&#233;rebro, rins, test&#237;culos, f&#237;gado e placenta). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Est&#225;gio 4: o cora&#231;&#227;o hipertrofiado contrai mais lentamente, de modo que a dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo da s&#237;stole &#233; aumentada e da di&#225;stole &#233; reduzida em qualquer FC. Estas altera&#231;&#245;es comprometem fluxo sangu&#237;neo coron&#225;rio, que n&#227;o consegue suprir a demanda devido &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o a&#243;rtica durante a di&#225;stole e do tempo da di&#225;stole. A combina&#231;&#227;o entre maior demanda de oxig&#234;nio e diminui&#231;&#227;o da capacidade de perfus&#227;o coron&#225;ria predisp&#245;e &#224; isquemia, independente do estreitamento coron&#225;rio, que piora com aterosclerose. Surge ent&#227;o um ciclo vicioso: a isquemia causa maior comprometimento do relaxamento do ventr&#237;culo e prolongamento do tempo de eje&#231;&#227;o, que consequentemente leva ao aparecimento de mais isquemia. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Os dois &#8220;cont&#237;nuos&#8221; podem ser vistos independentemente, mas interagem no desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a CV em est&#225;gio final. As vias finais s&#227;o as mesmas, descrevendo complica&#231;&#245;es da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e a evolu&#231;&#227;o para doen&#231;a card&#237;aca terminal, como consequ&#234;ncia do enrijecimento e estreitamento arterial. Os dois cont&#237;nuos s&#227;o combinados na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 5</xref> para explicar os efeitos nocivos da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica e do envelhecimento, &#224; medida que progridem ao longo de anos e culminam nas doen&#231;as da velhice. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; comumente associada a doen&#231;a microvascular cerebral e renal, causando deteriora&#231;&#227;o cognitiva e insufici&#234;ncia renal. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O c&#233;rebro requer alto fluxo sangu&#237;neo e baixa resist&#234;ncia arterial, sendo suscept&#237;vel ao trauma microvascular puls&#225;til e &#224; hipoperfus&#227;o, principalmente a subst&#226;ncia branca, menos vascularizada e perfundida que a cinzenta. Altera&#231;&#245;es da perfus&#227;o cerebral devido ao aumento da pulsatilidade, levam a remodelamento microvascular e baixa oxigena&#231;&#227;o, com progress&#227;o do decl&#237;nio cognitivo, dem&#234;ncia, infarto subcl&#237;nico e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico (AVE). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O rim exibe a maior taxa de fluxo sangu&#237;neo e a menor resist&#234;ncia vascular quando comparado aos demais &#243;rg&#227;os. Por isso, &#233; suscet&#237;vel ao trauma pelo fluxo puls&#225;til, que causa danos aos glom&#233;rulos, albumin&#250;ria e redu&#231;&#227;o da taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular. A DRC tamb&#233;m causa enrijecimento das grandes art&#233;rias devido ao desequil&#237;brio do metabolismo mineral &#243;sseo (aumento de osteoprotegerina, fator de crescimento dos fibroblastos e citocinas inflamat&#243;rias) e maior calcifica&#231;&#227;o dos vasos. A hiperatividade do SRAA e do SNA reduzem a elimina&#231;&#227;o do s&#243;dio, contribuindo com enrijecimento arterial. Em indiv&#237;duos com DRC, a VOP aumenta, particularmente nos diab&#233;ticos. A rigidez das grandes art&#233;rias prediz de forma independente maiores chances de eventos CVs em pacientes com DRC. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O envelhecimento leva ao enrijecimento arterial e modifica a microcircula&#231;&#227;o, ocasionando decl&#237;nio da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, cerebral e renal. &#201; poss&#237;vel que o dano microvascular possa ser prevenido e/ou retardado com tratamento destinado a reduzir a rigidez arterial e reflex&#227;o da onda. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Envelhecimento arterial e risco cardiovascular</title>
      <p>Parte do risco CV residual em hipertensos tem sido relacionado ao processo de EVA. A detec&#231;&#227;o precoce permite prote&#231;&#227;o CV mais eficaz. Na fisiopatologia do desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as CVs, h&#225; uma intera&#231;&#227;o bidirecional de EVA e hipertens&#227;o. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos s&#227;o importantes para selecionar, avaliar e direcionar orienta&#231;&#245;es de estilo de vida e terapia medicamentosa. No entanto, o risco de doen&#231;a CV ainda representa desafio; apesar da preven&#231;&#227;o e esfor&#231;os de tratamento, h&#225; uma necessidade de novos modelos fisiopatol&#243;gicos para melhor compreens&#227;o do risco CV e seu tratamento. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Foi demonstrado que a les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo, como HVE e aumento da microalbumin&#250;ria, representam etapa delimitadora entre fatores de risco e eventos CVs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, rigidez arterial, aumento da VOP e aumento da PASc s&#227;o preditores independentes de eventos CVs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Estes s&#227;o exemplos de um processo patol&#243;gico subjacente, porque o aumento da VOP pode determinar o grau de HVE pelo aumento da reflex&#227;o da onda de pulso na art&#233;ria, PPc e p&#243;s-carga. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Sendo assim, a rigidez arterial &#233; &#250;til para melhor orientar as investiga&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas em indiv&#237;duos com risco CV baixo e moderado. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Esses par&#226;metros, considerados &#8220;biomarcadores&#8221; arteriais, podem ser melhores preditores que a prote&#237;na C reativa de alta sensibilidade. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> A adi&#231;&#227;o da VOP durante a classifica&#231;&#227;o de risco melhorou a previs&#227;o de risco (13% para risco de doen&#231;as CVs em 10 anos para risco intermedi&#225;rio). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Essa informa&#231;&#227;o, quando adequadamente acessada e utilizada, pode evitar que pacientes com EVA, sejam erroneamente classificados como risco baixo ou moderado quando, na verdade, j&#225; apresentam alto risco. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Perspectivas</title>
      <p>O envelhecimento vascular &#233; respons&#225;vel pelo aumento do risco card&#237;aco residual e pela carga global de doen&#231;a CV. Estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para valida&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dos desfechos CVs, compara&#231;&#245;es entre diferentes m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o, e estudos de interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica mediados por redes de pesquisadores em envelhecimento vascular. &#201; necess&#225;ria a promo&#231;&#227;o de educa&#231;&#227;o continuada e o uso das tecnologias em estrat&#233;gias preventivas com objetivo de real&#231;ar a import&#226;ncia do papel do envelhecimento vascular e integr&#225;-lo na tomada de decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas por m&#233;dicos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A ci&#234;ncia tenta avan&#231;ar com o melhor entendimento e aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica de biomarcadores capazes de identificar precocemente o dano vascular. O objetivo &#233; aumentar a precis&#227;o na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco CV em indiv&#237;duos considerados de risco baixo ou intermedi&#225;rio. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> As avalia&#231;&#245;es da PASc e da rigidez arterial (VOP) ancoram-se em evid&#234;ncias robustas para identificar precocemente dano vascular, e identificar e reclassificar indiv&#237;duos inicialmente considerados como de risco baixo e intermedi&#225;rio, para um risco alto. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, os valores de VOP &#8805;10 m/s podem caracterizar a presen&#231;a de les&#227;o subcl&#237;nica em &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo e o aumento na PASc &#233; preditor do desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o arterial. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> &#201; poss&#237;vel que, &#224; medida que novas evid&#234;ncias sejam produzidas no contexto da doen&#231;a hipertensiva e das doen&#231;as CVs, esse m&#233;todo venha a ser mais fidedigno e seguro para ser incorporado &#224; pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, objetivando identificar ainda mais precocemente o dano vascular. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Esse tipo de abordagem, pensando na medicina de precis&#227;o, traz a possibilidade de uma pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica mais personalizada, com maior assertividade nas decis&#245;es relacionadas &#224; classifica&#231;&#227;o e ao tratamento das doen&#231;as CVs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de mestrado de Adriana Camargo Oliveira pelo Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG).</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por CNPq, processo 313481/2020-2.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Vascular Aging and Arterial Stiffness</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5537-9033</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana Camargo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Miguel Guimar&#227;es Marques</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5487-4649</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vitorino</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Valverde de Oliveria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Luiza Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Deus</surname>
            <given-names>Gilcimar Divino</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa</surname>
            <given-names>Audes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Costa Duarte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Mota</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5333-013X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Cesar B. Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1265-1930</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Liga de Hipertens&#227;o, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Minho Escola de Medicina, Braga &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s &#8211; Escola de Ci&#234;ncias Sociais e da Sa&#250;de, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s - Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Goi&#225;s &#8211; Escola de Ci&#234;ncias Exatas e da Computa&#231;&#227;o, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de Porto Alegre &#8211; Cardiologia, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universitario CESMAC - Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, Macei&#243;, AL &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Adriana Camargo Oliveira &#8226; Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Liga de Hipertens&#227;o - R. 235, s/n. Postal Code 74605-050, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil E-mail: adrianacardiologista@hotmail.com</corresp>
        <fn id="fn1001">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Writing of the manuscript: Oliveira AC, Barroso WKS; Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Oliveira AC, Cunha PMGM, Vitorino PVO, Souza ALL, Deus GD, Feitosa A, Barbosa ECD, Gomes MM, Jardim PCBV, Barroso WKS.</p>
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Biological aging occurs as a result of the interaction between genetics, chronological age and external factors. It is the basis for new concepts of vascular aging, whose progression is determined by the difference between biological and chronological age. From the structural point of view, the effects of vascular aging are more evident in the tunica media of large elastic arteries, marked by increased arterial stiffness, lumen dilation and wall thickness. These effects are described in the continuum of cardiovascular aging (proposed by Dzau in 2010), in which the progressive steps of microvasculature lesions of the heart, kidney and brain are initiated from the aging process. The increase of arterial stiffness can be detected by several non-invasive methods. Cardiovascular events have been traditionally described using scores that combine conventional risk factors for atherosclerosis. In the classic cardiovascular continuum (Dzau, 2006), to determine the exact contribution of each risk factor is challenging; however, since arterial stiffness reflects both early and cumulative damage of these cardiovascular risk factors, it is an indicator of the actual damage to the arterial wall. This article provides a general overview of pathophysiological mechanisms, arterial structural changes, and hemodynamic consequences of arterial stiffness; non-invasive methods for the assessment of arterial stiffness and of central blood pressure; the cardiovascular aging continuum, and the application of arterial stiffness in cardiovascular risk stratification.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Vascular Stiffness</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Disease Risk Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Pulse Wave Analysis</kwd>
        <kwd>Vascular Remodeling</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Physiopathology of vascular aging</title>
        <p>Aging is one of the main risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and events, the main cause of death in the world.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> More important than chronological age (passage of time from birth), however, is the quality and velocity of aging and how it is reflected in disease-free years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Systemic aging reflects not only the chronological age, but also the decline in physiological function (biological age), promoted by chronic exposure to low inflammation &#8211; &#8220;pro-inflammation&#8221;, contributing to cellular senescence and pathological aging. Matrix-degrading and pro-inflammatory cellular changes, associated with aging, are the basis for the accelerated vascular aging (AVA), in which biological age surpasses the chronological one, with an exponential increase in the pathogenesis of hypertension and atherosclerosis, predisposing to CVD and early mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>With aging, physical, mental, and environmental stress increase due to the need for continuous adaptation to life changes. The increase in stress triggers neuroendocrine activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), sympathetic nervous system (ANS) and endothelin-1 (ET-1). These events are &#8220;pro-inflammatory signals&#8221; that act on vascular cells promoting the production and secretion of cytokines and chemokines that accumulate on the arterial wall, such as: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-&#946;), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), calpain-1, and milk fat globule-epidermal growth factor 8 (MFG-E8), known as age-associated arterial secretory phenotypes, as well as activation or inactivation of transcription factors (Ets-1, NF-&#954;B, Nrf2 or Sirt1).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are increased in aged arterial wall, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NADPH). The levels of the antioxidant proteins copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn SOD), SOD, and extracellular SOD are negatively regulated during aging. This imbalance, combined with the increase in angiotensin II and ET-1 levels, increases NADPH expression and ROS production, with consequent pro-inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and stiffening of the aged wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nitric oxide (NO) regulates aging-associated arterial dilation, stiffening and inflammation. In the arterial wall, the expression of both NO synthase and NO are decreased. In addition, NO interacts with ROS to generate peroxynitrite (ONOO &#8211;), which reduces NO bioavailability, affecting endothelial relaxation and increasing vasoconstriction and pro-inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>These proinflammatory molecular phenotype alterations eventually lead to cellular and matrix phenotypic changes due to oxidative stress and DNA damage, like replicative senescence (shortened telomeres and inactivation of telomerase) and stress-induced premature senescence (without telomere involvement).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In arterial cells, mitotic rate is reduced, which is accompanied by cell volume increase and telomere shortening. The angiotensin II signaling cascade leads to intracellular signaling inhibition, functional autophagy, and increased ROS production. At cellular level, vascular cells develop several phenotypes &#8211; a subgroup of endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells become senescent, and another subgroup become more proliferative, invasive/migratory, secretory, and rigid.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Changes in the extracellular matrix occur, including fibrosis, elastolysis, calcification, amyloidosis and glucose oxidation, increased collagen synthesis and deposition in the arterial walls, mediated by MMPs and TGF-&#946;1, leading to arterial stiffening. Elastolysis occurs due to rupture of interlamellar elastin fibers by MMPs and elastase, resulting in decreased arterial elastic energy storage, complacence, and resilience. Besides, the products of elastolysis seem to be involved in the arterial inflammation and calcification processes. Calcium deposits increase in the arterial wall due to secretion of bone-like substrate (like collagen II). In parallel, there is an overexpression of alkaline phosphatase (pro-calcification molecule) and reduction of anti-calcification molecules (osteonectin and osteopontin). In amyloidosis, increased uncompacted amyloid proteins and fibrils in the arterial wall causes arterial stiffening and calcification. The products of advanced glycation are elevated and contribute to several structural and functional changes in the arterial system, including senescence, pro-inflammation and stiffening.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>At tissue level, pro-inflammation leads to an increase of intima media thickness, endothelial dysfunction, and arterial stiffening and blood pressure. These changes form the basis for the proinflammatory arterial stiffness syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vascular Aging &#8211; Arterial Structural Changes</title>
        <p>The effects of age are more evident in large elastic arteries. The main changes include the increase of arterial wall stiffness (reduced distensibility), lumen diameter, and intima media thickness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The structure of the arterial tree consists of three parts. The aorta, the most elastic segment, is the most proximal and largest portion; the intermediate segment is composed of muscle arteries, and arterioles are the smallest and most distal portion. The arterial tree act as both a conduit (distributing blood from the heart to the capillaries) and cushion (changing pulsatile flow generated by cardiac intermittent contraction to steady flow). Different parts of the arterial tree play different roles; while large elastic arteries act as a cushion, arterioles work as conduits. Differences between predominantly elastic and muscular arteries influence their responses to aging process, to volume and pressure changes and to atherogenic factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The tunica media is the main responsible for the distensibility of the vascular wall and consists of elastic fibers, smooth muscle cells, collagen fibers and fundamental substance. Age-dependent change is explained by the &#8220;cyclic stress&#8221;. The succession of cardiac cycles causes structural changes in the arteries because of intermittent cardiac contraction and hemodynamic pressure changes between systole and diastole. This pulsatile stress leads to disorganization of the tunica media of large elastic arteries, through the gradual thinning, division, deterioration, and fragmentation of elastin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> This elastic material is replaced by collagen, with formation of a rigid matrix, osteogenic differentiation of arterial cells and calcification. The process results in stiffening of the tunica media by transference of the stress from more distensible elastic fibers to less distensible collagen fibers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This degeneration is known as &#8220;arteriosclerosis&#8221;, which should be differentiated from &#8220;atherosclerosis&#8221;, that affects the tunica intima, rather than the tunica media, through an endothelial inflammatory process with lipid accumulation (luminal stenosis). Although the two lesions coexist, arteriosclerosis tend to be more diffuse in the elastic arteries, while the atherosclerotic lesions are more located in susceptible elastic and muscular arteries (carotid bifurcation and coronary arteries).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Structural changes in large arteries due to hypertension are similar to aging-related changes (arteriosclerosis), but have an earlier onset, indicating that hypertension accelerates arterial aging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Medium-sized muscular arteries are hardly affected by aging as they are less distensible than elastic arteries and are hence exposed to lower cyclic stretching. In young individuals, arteries are more elastic; with aging, there is a gradual disappearance of elastic uniformity between proximal and distal arterial system, leading to progressive decrease in pulse pressure amplification and negatively affecting the ventricular-arterial interaction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Lumen dilatation occurs after elastin fracture and degeneration, resulting in weakening of the arterial wall. The arterial wall becomes stiffer with the distension pressure, due to the increase of collagen fibers. Thus, there is a non-linear relationship between tension (pressure) and deformation (diameter), with concavity toward the distension axis, such that distension decreases as force increases. This is essential for an effective functioning of the arteries as conduits, with maintenance of a residual stress, without artery collapse, promoting good blow flow. Wall tension (T), balanced by transmural pressure (P) and radius (r) (T = P &#183; r, law of Laplace) has a unique operating point in the pressure-diameter curve. The arterial wall stress is even greater as a consequence of a dilated lumen. Therefore, arterial dilatation and degeneration generates a vicious cycle that contributes to acceleration of vascular aging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The increase in wall thickness depends on intimal hyperplasia. The possible mechanisms responsible for increased intima&#8211;media thickness include atherosclerosis, elevation of local pressure, and biochemical changes with age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Risk factors &#8211; hypertension, smoking, excess salt consumption, dyslipidemia, diabetes, metabolic syndrome chronic kidney disease (CKD), inflammation, oxidative stress, fetal and genetic programming, can potentiate the process of arterial aging and the early development of biological features by the vascular system that will lead to the development of CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vascular Aging: Hemodynamic Consequences</title>
        <p>Arteries do not have uniform viscoelastic properties and exhibit adaptative mechanisms. While elasticity decreases from the proximal to the distal arteries, stiffness follows the opposite pattern.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Although such heterogeneity made it difficult to develop mathematical models to assess arterial compliance, other models have been constructed to explain hemodynamic characteristics of the arterial tree.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In the Windkessel model, the arterial system is compared to a fire truck, in which large vessels would represent the air chamber, medium-sized arteries the fire hose and small arterioles the spout. Therefore, the arteries have two well-defined characteristics - the cushioning function (large arteries transforming pulsatile flow into constant flow to the organ) and the conduit function (small arteries and arterioles delivering blood from heart to organs and tissues).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The Windkessel model has limitations, as it assumes an infinite pulse wave velocity (PWV). This could not be the case, because both conduit and cushioning functions are not limited to specific arteries, but rather coexist, leading to the heterogeneity of PWV. Besides, there is a progressive loss of the cushioning function from the aorta to the more muscular and rigid peripheral arteries, and a predominant conduit function. This phenomenon, of &#8220;wave reflection&#8221;, leads to an increase in the amplitude of the pressure wave from the heart vessels to the periphery, known as pressure amplification. In addition, the stiffness of medium-sized peripheral arteries is modulated by the vasomotor tone, depending on the endothelial function, the ANS and RAAS.</p>
        <p>For this reason, it is better to apply propagative models to the circulatory system. These assume that PWV that travels along an artery has a finite value. The Moens&#8211;Korteweg equation: co&#188;p(Eh/2Rr), where &#8220;co&#8221; represents wave speed, &#8220;E&#8221; the Young&#8217;s modulus in the circumferential direction, &#8220;h&#8221; the wall thickness, &#8220;R&#8221; the radius, and &#8220;r&#8221; the density of fluid] derived the equation: co&#188;p(V.dP/r.dV), where dV is the change in arterial volume (V) and dP is the change in pressure driving the change in volume. This second equation is currently widely used in the clinical research and demonstrates that the PWV is inversely related to the distensibility of the arterial tube, expressed asdV/V.dP. The PWV provides a straightforward way to quantify arterial stiffness; the stiffer the artery the higher the PWV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Thus, rather than the Windkessel model, a more realistic model of the arterial tree would be a &#8220;propagative model&#8221; consisting of a simple distensible tube which terminates at the peripheral resistance. However, its elastic properties allow the generation of a pressure wave which travels along the tube, in which conduit and cushioning functions are combined. The proximal end of the tube corresponds to the central aorta, and the distal end to the high-resistance arterioles. The pressure wave generated by cardiac ejection travels along this tube from the proximal end to the distal end, where this forward wave is reflected back.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>These models make it possible to explain several phenomena that were observed in the real arterial system but not interpretable by the Windkessel model. These include a secondary pressure wave in diastole or late systole, and amplification of the pressure pulse from the proximal aorta to the distal muscular arteries, explaining why arterial stiffness increases central pulse pressure and systolic arterial pressure (SAP). In young individuals and adults with healthy arterial aging, reflected waves generate retrograde waves, which must be superimposed, elevating the pressure during diastole, rather than systole, increasing coronary perfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Wave reflections originate in various locations, including bifurcations of conducting arteries and small muscular arteries. Vasoconstriction results in reflection points close to the heart, leading to early aortic wave reflections. The moment when wave reflections arrive at the proximal aorta depends on the PWV of conduit arteries. In addition, increased arterial stiffness, observed in older or hypertensive individuals, promotes an earlier arrival of the reflected wave, which travels rapidly along the arterial tree. Thus, both small and large arteries contribute to early wave reflection, which returns early in systole and superimposes on the forward wave. This process causes an increase in systolic blood pressure (SBP) and reductions in diastolic fluctuations and blood pressure ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Arterial stiffness in large arteries. In a young health individual, a compliant aorta (left): 1) protects excess pulsatility caused by the intermittent left ventricular ejection and 2) exhibits a slow pulse wave velocity (PWV), allowing that reflected waves arrive to the heart during diastole, increasing diastolic coronary perfusion pressure but not after-load. Factors like aging and lifestyle increase aortic wall stiffness, leading to adverse hemodynamic consequences. Aortic stiffness leads to a rise in aortic root impedance, with consequent increase in forward wave amplitude and earlier arrival of the reflected waves to the heart. These hemodynamic changes result in adverse patterns of pulsatile load to the left ventricle during systole and a reduction in perfusion reserve (even in the absence of epicardial coronary disease). This inverse hemodynamic pattern also causes excess pulsatility in the aorta, which is preferably transferred to low-resistance beds, such as the kidney, placenta, and brain. In these organs, microvascular pressure is more directly associated with fluctuations in aortic pressure. AIx@75: augmentation index adjusted at heart rate. Source: the authors.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A pressure wave that propagates along a viscoelastic tube with numerous branches is progressively amplified from the central conduit towards distal arteries due to wave reflections and higher PWV in a stiffer peripheral artery. As a result, the amplitude of the pressure wave is higher in peripheral arteries than in central arteries, the so-called &#8220;amplification phenomenon&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Non-Invasive Methods For The Assessment Of Arterial Stiffness</title>
        <p>Arterial stiffness can be assessed at systemic, local, and regional levels. While systemic assessment of arterial stiffness can only be performed by models of the circulation, regional and local arterial stiffness can be measured directly, by non-invasive methods, with the advantage that the parameters used in these analyses are strongly linked to wall stiffness ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Device and methods used for determining regional, local, and systemic arterial stiffness and wave reflections</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="17%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Year of first publication</th>
                  <th>Device</th>
                  <th>Method</th>
                  <th>Measurement site</th>
                  <th>Predictive value for CV events (year of first publication) clinical application</th>
                  <th>Easy clinical application</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Regional arterial stiffness</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1984a</td>
                  <td align="center">Complior&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Mechanotransducer</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, cfPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (1999)</td>
                  <td align="center">++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1990a</td>
                  <td align="center">Sphygmocor&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Tonometer</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, cfPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2011)</td>
                  <td align="center">++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1991</td>
                  <td align="center">WallTrack&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Echotracking</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, cfPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1994</td>
                  <td align="center">QKD</td>
                  <td align="center">ECG +</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, cfPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2005)</td>
                  <td align="center">++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1997a</td>
                  <td align="center">Cardiovasc. Eng. Inc&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Tonometer</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, cfPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2010)</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2002</td>
                  <td align="center">Artlab&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Echotracking</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, cfPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2002</td>
                  <td align="center">Sistema de ultrassom</td>
                  <td align="center">Doppler probes</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, cfPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2002)</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2002</td>
                  <td align="center">Omron VP-1000&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Pressure cuff</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, baPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2005)</td>
                  <td align="center">+++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2007</td>
                  <td align="center">CAVI-Vasera&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">ECG + Pressure cuff</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, ctPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2014)</td>
                  <td align="center">+++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2008</td>
                  <td align="center">Arteriograph&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Brachial pressure cuff</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, aaPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2013)</td>
                  <td align="center">++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2009</td>
                  <td align="center">RMN, ArtFun&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Magnetic resonance imaging</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, aaPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2014)</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2010</td>
                  <td align="center">Mobil-O-Graph&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Brachial pressure cuff</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, cfPWVc</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2010</td>
                  <td align="center">Ultrafast&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Echography</td>
                  <td align="center">Common carotid</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8211;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2013</td>
                  <td align="center">pOpmetre&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Plethysmography</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta, dpPWVb</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2017</td>
                  <td align="center">Withings&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Ballistocardiography</td>
                  <td align="center">Aorta</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Local arterial stiffness</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1991</td>
                  <td align="center">WallTrack&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Echotracking</td>
                  <td align="center">CCAd, CFA<sup>d</sup>, BA<sup>d</sup>.</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1992</td>
                  <td align="center">NIUS&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Echotracking</td>
                  <td align="center">RA<sup>d</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+/&#8211;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2002</td>
                  <td align="center">Artlab&#174;, Mylab&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Echotracking</td>
                  <td align="center">CCAd, CFA, BA</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2014)</td>
                  <td align="center">++</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2017</td>
                  <td align="center">Ultrasound systems</td>
                  <td align="center">Echography</td>
                  <td align="center">CCAd, CFA, BA</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2009</td>
                  <td align="center">RMN, ArtFun&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Magnetic resonance imaging</td>
                  <td align="center">AA<sup>d</sup>, DA<sup>d</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="6">
                    <bold>Systemic arterial stiffness</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1989</td>
                  <td align="center">Area method</td>
                  <td align="center">Diastolic decay</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+/&#8211;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1995</td>
                  <td align="center">HDI PW CR-2000&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Modified Windkessel</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>1997a</td>
                  <td align="center">Cardiovasc. Eng. Inc&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Tonometry/Doppler/ Echo</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (2010)</td>
                  <td align="center">+/&#8211;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>2009</td>
                  <td align="center">MRI, ArtFun&#174;</td>
                  <td align="center">Magnetic resonance imaging</td>
                  <td align="center">AA, DA</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">+</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic><sup>a</sup>Device used in pioneer epidemiological studies that describe the predictive value of aortic stiffness for cardiovascular events;<sup>b</sup>PWV: pulse wave velocity, cf: carotid-femoral, ba: brachial-ankle, ca: cardiac-ankle, aa: aortic arch, ft: finger-toe.<sup>c</sup>Estimated (not measured).<sup>d</sup>All superficial arteries, including those particularly mentioned; Ao: aorta, CCA: common carotid artery, CFA: common femoral artery, BA: brachial artery, RA: radial artery, AA: ascendent aorta, DA: descendent aorta. Source: Adapted from Laurent at al. (2019, p. 143-144)</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Regional determination of arterial stiffness</title>
        <p>The aorta is the main vessels used for determination of regional arterial stiffness, since the thoracic and abdominal aorta are the main &#8220;cushions&#8221; of the arterial tree, and the aortic PWV is an independent predictor of cardiovascular outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The carotid-femoral PWV (cfPWV) is the gold-standard, non-invasive method for arterial stiffness determination. Several studies using cfPWV measures have shown that arterial stiffness is related to cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> cfPWV is determined by transcutaneous measures (tonometry) using the &#8220;foot-to-foot&#8221; velocity method in right carotid and femoral arteries ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref> ). The &#8220;foot&#8221; of the wave is defined at the end of diastole, when the sharp rise of the wavefront begins. cfPWV (m/s) is calculated by the formula cfPWV (m/s) = <italic>D</italic> (meters) /&#8710; <italic>t</italic> (seconds). ( <italic>D</italic> ) can be calculated as the (1) distance between two sites (carotid and femoral artery); (2) by subtracting the distance between the carotid site and manubrium sterni from total distance; (3) subtracting the distance between the carotid site and manubrium sterni from the distance between the manubrium sterni and the femoral site. Of all currently used measures, the 80% of the distance from the common carotid to the common femoral artery has been shown to be the most accurate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Measurement of carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity with the foot-to- foot method. Measurement of carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity with the foot-to-foot method. The waveforms are usually obtained transcutaneously, at the right common carotid artery and the right femoral artery. The time delay (&#916;t, or transit time) is measured between the feet of the two waveforms (Figure 1). The distance (&#916;L) covered by the waves is usually the surface distance between two recording sites, i.e., the common carotid and the femoral artery. Pulse wave velocity (PWV) is calculated as PWV = 0.8 x &#916;L (m)/&#916;t (s). Source: the authors.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>The determination of cfPWV by tonometry has limitations, such as: a) the precise registration of the femoral pressure waveform may be difficult in patients with metabolic syndrome, obesity, and peripheral arterial disease; b) stenosis of the aorta, iliac artery, or proximal femoral artery may attenuate and halt pulse wave progression; and c) abdominal obesity, particularly in men, and large bust size in women can affect the accuracy of distance measurements.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Therefore, the analysis of PWV from a unique site simplifies the measurement. Several devices have been developed to estimate the PWV in a given arterial pathway from the analysis of brachial pressure wave using an arm cuff. These methods include the determination of the time difference between onset time of electrocardiogram Q wave and onset time of Korotkoff sounds. Arteriograph&#174; provides a single-point estimate of the PWV using a brachial cuff and supra-systolic oscillometry. The Mobil-O-Graph&#174; (Brasil, Dyna Mapa AOP&#174;) uses oscillometric registries obtained by three measurements of the brachial pressure waveform, at mean blood pressure (C1 calibration) or DBP (C2 calibration) to compose the pulse wave by the transfer function (ARCSolver&#174; algorithm). In this last method, both age and blood pressure are used to refine the estimates of PWV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Reference values for cfPWV (tonometry) have been established for healthy individuals and those with cardiovascular risk factors from European countries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Also, reference values for the oscillometric method, of central systolic blood pressure (cSBP), aortic augmentation index (AIx) and PWV for individuals with and without cardiovascular risk factors have been established for the Brazilian population ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Reference values for central blood pressure, pulse wave velocity, and aortic augmentation index (AIx) for men and women, with and without cardiovascular risk factors</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="3">Age groups</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Without cardiovascular risk factors</th>
                  <th colspan="2">With cardiovascular risk factors</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="4" rowspan="1">
                    <hr/>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Women</th>
                  <th>Men</th>
                  <th>Women</th>
                  <th>Men</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>cSBP</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 years</td>
                  <td align="center">101 (90; 93; 113; 119)</td>
                  <td align="center">113 (104; 109; 120; 123)</td>
                  <td align="center">118 (102; 109; 127; 131)</td>
                  <td align="center">123 (107; 114; 132; 144)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 years</td>
                  <td align="center">109 (96; 102; 117; 123)</td>
                  <td align="center">114 (102; 110; 121; 127)</td>
                  <td align="center">120 (102; 110; 130; 143)</td>
                  <td align="center">125 (108; 116; 133; 141)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 years</td>
                  <td align="center">110 (99; 103; 117; 122)</td>
                  <td align="center">116 (102; 109; 122; 126)</td>
                  <td align="center">121 (104; 112; 134; 146)</td>
                  <td align="center">123 (108; 115; 131; 141)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 years</td>
                  <td align="center">110 (97; 104; 120; 124)</td>
                  <td align="center">112 (100; 106; 1 18; 124)</td>
                  <td align="center">124 (106; 114; 135; 146)</td>
                  <td align="center">124 (105; 114; 134; 144)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60-69 years</td>
                  <td align="center">114 (100; 105; 120; 125)</td>
                  <td align="center">112 (96; 101; 120; 127)</td>
                  <td align="center">127 (105; 115; 141; 154)</td>
                  <td align="center">123 (103; 112; 136; 149)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ years</td>
                  <td align="center">113 (100; 103; 121; 126)</td>
                  <td align="center">116 (94; 104; 125; 129)</td>
                  <td align="center">131 (108; 118; 146; 165)</td>
                  <td align="center">125 (102; 111; 140; 156)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="5">
                    <bold>cDBP</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 years</td>
                  <td align="center">73 (60; 66; 77; 85)</td>
                  <td align="center">76 (66; 71; 82; 87)</td>
                  <td align="center">82 (68; 73; 90; 97)</td>
                  <td align="center">83 (72; 77; 93; 100)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 years</td>
                  <td align="center">77 (67; 71; 83; 88)</td>
                  <td align="center">80 (7 1; 75; 85; 88)</td>
                  <td align="center">86 (71; 77; 95; 105)</td>
                  <td align="center">88 (75; 80; 96; 103)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 years</td>
                  <td align="center">79 (67; 73; 84; 88)</td>
                  <td align="center">81 (74; 77; 86; 89)</td>
                  <td align="center">86 (71; 78; 94; 103)</td>
                  <td align="center">90 (75; 82; 97; 104)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 years</td>
                  <td align="center">76 (64; 70; 82; 85)</td>
                  <td align="center">82 (70; 77; 86; 88)</td>
                  <td align="center">84 (71; 77; 92; 100)</td>
                  <td align="center">88 (75; 80; 97; 103)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60-69 years</td>
                  <td align="center">76 (66; 71; 81; 87)</td>
                  <td align="center">80 (68; 72; 83; 87)</td>
                  <td align="center">81 (67; 74; 90; 98)</td>
                  <td align="center">85 (71; 77; 93; 101)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ years</td>
                  <td align="center">76 (60; 70; 79; 83)</td>
                  <td align="center">79 (60; 70; 84; 90)</td>
                  <td align="center">81 (66; 72; 89; 97)</td>
                  <td align="center">82 (68; 74; 91; 98)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>cPP</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 years</td>
                  <td align="center">29 (23; 27; 37; 43)</td>
                  <td align="center">36 (26; 32; 43; 53)</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (24; 28; 41; 48)</td>
                  <td align="center">38 (26; 31; 46; 52)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 years</td>
                  <td align="center">30 (22; 26; 37; 44)</td>
                  <td align="center">35 (25; 29; 42; 50)</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (24; 28; 38; 46)</td>
                  <td align="center">36 (25; 31; 41; 48)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 years</td>
                  <td align="center">31 (22; 27; 36; 42)</td>
                  <td align="center">32 (25; 28; 38; 45)</td>
                  <td align="center">35 (25; 29; 43; 53)</td>
                  <td align="center">33 (23; 28; 37; 46)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 years</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (25; 28; 42; 49)</td>
                  <td align="center">30 (25; 27; 35; 42)</td>
                  <td align="center">39 (28; 32; 47; 58)</td>
                  <td align="center">34 (25; 28; 41; 49)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60-69 years</td>
                  <td align="center">35 (28; 31; 43; 52)</td>
                  <td align="center">31 (24; 28; 36; 49)</td>
                  <td align="center">44 (30; 36; 55; 66)</td>
                  <td align="center">37 (25; 31; 46; 58)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ years</td>
                  <td align="center">39 (28; 34; 45; 52)</td>
                  <td align="center">37 (19; 27; 41; 51)</td>
                  <td align="center">50 (33; 41; 63; 77)</td>
                  <td align="center">42 (28; 34; 52; 66)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>PWV</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 years</td>
                  <td align="center">4.9 (4.4;.4.5; 5.0; 5.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.2 (4.9; 5.1; 5.4; 5.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.3 (4.7; 5.0; 5.6; 6.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.5 (5.0; 5.3; 5.8; 6.3)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 years</td>
                  <td align="center">5.4 (5.0; 5.2; 5.8; 6.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.7 (5.3; 5.5; 5.9; 6.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">5.8 (5.3; 5.5; 6.2; 6.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">6.1 (5.5; 5.8; 6.4; 6.7)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 years</td>
                  <td align="center">6.4 (5.7; 6.0; 6.7; 6.9)</td>
                  <td align="center">6.5 (5.9; 6.2; 6.8; 7.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">6.8 (6.0; 6.4; 7.2; 7.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">6.8 (6.2; 6.4; 7.1; 7.5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 years</td>
                  <td align="center">7.5 (6.7; 7.0; 7.8; 8.2)</td>
                  <td align="center">7.4 (6.9; 7.2; 7.9; 8.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">7.9 (7.1; 7.5; 8.3; 8.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">7.9 (7.1; 7.5; 8.3; 8.7)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60-69 years</td>
                  <td align="center">8.9 (8.1; 8.5; 9.2; 9.4)</td>
                  <td align="center">8.9 (8.2; 8.6; 9.1; 9.6)</td>
                  <td align="center">9.3 (8.4; 8.8; 9.8; 10;4)</td>
                  <td align="center">9.2 (8.4; 8.7; 9.7;10.2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ years</td>
                  <td align="center">11.3 (10.2;10.4;12.5; 13;2)</td>
                  <td align="center">11.0 (10.1; 10.6; 11.6; 12.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">11.8 (10.2; 10.8; 12.9; 14.0)</td>
                  <td align="center">11.2 (9.9; 10.4; 12.1; 13.2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>AIx</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&lt;30 years</td>
                  <td align="center">20 (11; 13; 27; 33)</td>
                  <td align="center">16 (4; 10; 23; 27)</td>
                  <td align="center">28 (11; 20; 34; 38)</td>
                  <td align="center">16 (2; 8;23; 30)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>30-39 years</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (12; 16; 28; 34)</td>
                  <td align="center">14 (1; 7; 18; 24)</td>
                  <td align="center">26 (11; 18; 32; 37)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (3; 9; 2 1; 27)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>40-49 years</td>
                  <td align="center">23 (9; 15; 29; 35)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (0; 6; 21; 25)</td>
                  <td align="center">25 (10; 17; 34; 38)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (2; 8; 23; 30)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>50-59 years</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (7; 12; 33; 39)</td>
                  <td align="center">12 (2; 4; 19; 22)</td>
                  <td align="center">24 (8; 14; 33; 39)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (3; 7; 24; 32)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>60-69 years</td>
                  <td align="center">23 (9; 1 4; 34; 42)</td>
                  <td align="center">17 (1; 5; 27; 43)</td>
                  <td align="center">28 (11; 18; 37; 44)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 7 (3;9; 26; 34)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>70+ years</td>
                  <td align="center">28 (11; 20; 39; 42)</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (5; 10; 33; 41)</td>
                  <td align="center">33 (17; 25; 42; 48)</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (4; 12; 31; 41)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>
                  <italic>cSBP: central systolic blood pressure; cDBP: central diastolic blood pressure; cPP: central pulse pressure; PVW: pulse wave velocity; AIx: augmentation index. * Values expressed as 50&#186; (10&#186;. 25&#186;. 75&#186;. 90&#186;) percentage points. &#8224;Number of women and men; without CVRF: &lt;30 years (n=50 and 80): 30-39 years (n=134 and 70): 40-49 years (n=114 and 55): 50-59 years (n=121e 67): 60-69 year (n=80 e 38): 70+ years (n=32 e 26). &#8225; Number of women and men with CVRF: &lt;30 years (n=94 and 152): 30-39 years (n=240 and 297): 40-49 years (n=418 and 385): 50-59 years (n=827 and 638); 60-69 years (n= 919 and 561): 70+ years (n=671 and 430). &#167; CVRF: cardiovascular risk factors. Source: Adapted from Paiva et al. (2020).</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Despite the importance of PWV estimates in the prediction of cardiovascular events and risk stratification, the method is underused in clinical practice. A European group has proposed a clinical score, the SAGE, to identify patients with priority for PWV estimation, based on easily available variables: systolic blood pressure (S), age (A), fasting plasma glucose (G), and estimated glomerular filtration rate (E) (using the CKD-EPI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> The score was applied in the Brazilian population using the oscillometric method and identified that hypertensive patients with SAGE &#8805; 8 should be referred for arterial stiffness analysis, due to the high risk of increased PWV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Assessment of local arterial stiffness</title>
          <p>Local arterial stiffness can be determined by carotid ultrasound using the high-resolution echo-tracking. The method is highly accurate to determine diameter at diastole and stroke changes in diameter when compared with the classical analysis with other video-image systems. Chest nuclear resonance allows the combined determination of both structure and function of the heart and the aorta, with undoubted accuracy, but at the expense of lower spatial and temporal resolution. However, most of pathophysiological and pharmacological studies used echotracking techniques.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Systemic arterial stiffness</title>
          <p>Method based on an electrical circuit using the modified Windkessel model, developed to determine the proximal capacitive compliance and distal oscillatory compliance. In addition, systemic arterial compliance can be determined using the &#8220;area method&#8221;, which requires the measurement of the aortic blood flow (velocity obtained from the suprasternal notch) and motor pressure associated with applanation tonometry on the right common carotid artery. Theoretical, technical, and practical limitations make the general application of this method in the clinical setting difficult.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Central blood pressure</title>
          <p>Arterial pressure waveform should be analyzed at the central level (ascending aorta) as it represents the load imposed on the heart, kidney and arterial wall. The most widely used approach is radial artery tonometry, followed by application of a transfer function (SphygmoCor, Atcor, Sydney Australia) to calculate the aortic pressure waveform. The radial artery is sustained by bone tissue, which makes applanation easier.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Aortic waveform can be estimated by common carotid artery tonometry, which requires more technical knowledge but does not require the transfer function, as the artery sites are very close, and the waveforms are similar. New methods have been developed to estimate central arterial pressure using the second systolic radial or brachial blood pressure peak. External calibration is necessary, made with brachial SBP and DBP to calibrate the radial artery tonometry, and with mean blood pressure and radial DBP to calibrate the aorta or carotid waveform.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The pressure wave is composed by the wavefront, generated by ventricular contraction, and the retrograde wave, generated by wave reflected at bifurcation points. In elastic vessels, PWV is low and the reflected wave travels back towards the aorta root during diastole. In the presence of arterial stiffness, PWV increases, and the reflected wave returns early, adding &#8220;augmentation&#8221; during systole. This phenomenon can be quantified by the AIx, <italic>i.e</italic> ., the difference between the first and the second systolic peak (P2 &#8211; P1), in percentage ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref> ). Age and PWV are the main determinants of AIx.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Carotid pressure waveform recorded by applanation tonometry. The wave reflection phenomenon can be quantified by the augmentation index (AIx), defined as the difference between the first (P1) and the second (P2) systolic peaks (P2 - P1 = AP, i.e., augmentation pressure), expressed as a percentage of pulse pressure (PP), AIx = AP / PP. Source: the authors.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>In peripheral arteries, pressure wave amplitude is greater than in central arteries due to the amplification phenomenon; thus, peripheral SBP and brachial pulse pressure overestimate SBP and central pulse values in young individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Pulse wave should be analyzed through central pulse pressure (cPP), central SBP and the AIx.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> These parameters are independent predictors of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Reference values for cSBP and AIx were defined for the European population<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> by tonometry and for the Brazilian population by the oscillometric method<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> ).</p>
          <p>cSBP, cPP, AIx and PWV cannot be used indistinctly as indicators of arterial stiffness, since they are different determinants. cSBP, cPP and AIx depend on PWV, amplitude of the reflected wave, the reflection point, and the ejection fraction duration and pattern, especially those related to changes in heart rate (HR) and ventricular contractility. Pathophysiological and pharmacological conditions can affect both cPP and AIx without affecting the aortic PWV, suggesting a predominant effect of the reflected wave, HR and ventricular ejection, and no change in aortic stiffness. The influence of age is greater on AIx than on PWV before the age of 50 and greater on PWV than AIx after this age. Therefore, while PWV is a direct measure of arterial stiffness, cSBP and AIx are indirect measures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Arterial stiffness and the cardiovascular continuum</title>
        <p>The classical description of the &#8220;cardiovascular continuum&#8221;, published by Dzau et al. (2006)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> reports the progression of CVD ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref> ) founded on the atherosclerosis process, which is initiated with the exposure to risk factors (hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, smoking, and obesity), progressing in stages that culminate in the obstruction of coronary arteries, ischemia, and myocardial infarction, end-stage heart disease, heart failure, and death. While this model highlights gene-related pathophysiological aspects, molecules, chemical processes and intracellular mechanisms associated with atherosclerosis, it ignores contributions from cardiovascular aging, derived from physical and mechanical changes of vascular structures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04001">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Comparison between classic cardiovascular continuum (A) and aging cardiovascular continuum (B). Source: Barroso; Barbosa; Mota-Gomes, 2020.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>In 2010, a novel model was proposed &#8211; the Cardiovascular Aging Continuum<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref> ) &#8211; based on the arteriosclerosis process. It initiates with arterial aging, progresses to end-stage cardiac, cerebral and renal microvascular disease, disability and death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This new approach highlights the progressive aorta degeneration with deleterious effect to the target organs. It extends the considerations of either obstructive or ischemic arterial disease to the progressive aging-related stiffening of elastic arteries, manifested as increased PWV and AIx.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> A 1m/s increase in aortic PWV was associated with a 15% increment in cardiovascular mortality and all-cause mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Analysis of cSBP, PWV and AIx revealed that they were better predictors of cardiovascular risk and mortality than peripheral blood pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The cardiovascular aging continuum is divided into four stages, as follows ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05001">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Association between classic cardiovascular continuum and aging cardiovascular continuum. LV: left ventricular; CAD: coronary artery disease; VE: ventricular enlargement. Source: Barroso; Barbosa; Mota-Gomes, 2020.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-04-0604-10708-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Stage 1: The heartbeats lead to fracture and fraying of elastic lamellae, with consequent aortic dilation and transfer of mechanical stress to collagen fibers, responsible for arterial stiffness.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Stage 2: Aortic stiffening leads to elevation of SBP, caused by stiffening of proximal aorta and an earlier return of the reflected wave during systole. Consequently, there is increase in ventricular afterload, left ventricular hypertrophy, increased myocardial oxygen consumption and reduction in coronary perfusion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Stage 3: Intermittent cardiac contractions transfer the pulsatile flow to the stiffened aorta (decreased cushioning capacity) and extend peripherally into the microvasculature, with consequent increase in shear stress, particularly in small arteries of organs with high resting blood flow and low microvascular resistance (the brain, kidney, testicles, liver and placenta).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Stage 4: contractions of the hypertrophied heart occur slowly, so that systole duration is increased, and diastole duration is decrease in any HR. These changes affect coronary blood flow, which fails to supply the demand as both aortic pressure during diastole and diastole period are decreased. The combination of higher supply and decreased coronary perfusion capacity predisposes to ischemia, regardless of coronary narrowing, which is aggravated in atherosclerosis. A vicious cycle is then established: ischemia causes prolongation of ventricular relaxation and ejection time, which, in turn, aggravates ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Although the two &#8220;continuums&#8221; can be seen independently, they interact in the development of end-stage CVD. They share the same final pathways, that describe complications of myocardial ischemia and progression to end-stage heart disease, as consequence of arterial stiffening and narrowing. The two continuums are combined in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5</xref> to explain the deleterious effects of atherosclerotic disease and of aging, as these progress over years and culminate in the diseases of old age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Cardiac insufficiency is commonly associated with cerebral and renal microvascular disease, causing intellectual deterioration and renal failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The brain requires a high blood supply and low arterial resistance, and is susceptible to pulsatile microvascular trauma and hypoperfusion, especially in white matter, which is less vascularized and less perfused than the grey matter. Changes in cerebral perfusion due to an increase in pulsatility lead to microvascular remodeling and low oxygenation, and progressive cognitive decline, dementia, subclinical infarction, and cerebrovascular accident.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The kidney exhibits the highest flow rate and the lowest vascular resistance as compared to the other organs. For this reason, it is susceptible to trauma due to pulsatile flow, and consequent glomerular damage, albuminuria, and reduction of glomerular filtration rate. CKD also causes stiffening of large arteries because of an imbalance in bone mineral metabolism (increase in osteoprotegerin, fibroblast growth factor and inflammatory cytokines), and increased vascular calcification. Hyperactivity of the ANS and the RAAS reduces sodium elimination, contributing to arterial stiffening. In individuals with CKD, particularly diabetic patients, PWV increases. The stiffening of large arteries independently predicts a higher risk of cardiovascular events in CKD patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Aging leads to increased vascular stiffening and changes in microcirculation, resulting in the decline of cardiac, cerebral, and renal function. It is possible that microvascular damage may be prevented and/or delayed with therapy aimed at reducing arterial stiffness and wave reflection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Arterial aging and cardiovascular risk</title>
        <p>Part of the residual cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients has been related to the AVA process. The early detection allows a more effective cardiovascular protection. In the pathophysiology of CVD, there is a bidirectional interaction between AVA and hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Classical risk factors are important for selecting, evaluating and guiding lifestyle habits and pharmacological therapy. However, the risk of CVD still represents a challenge; despite prevention and treatment efforts, there is still a need for new pathophysiological models for a better understanding of CV risk and of CVD treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        <p>It has been shown that target organ lesion, like LVH and increased microalbuminuria, represent the boundary between cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Besides, arterial stiffness, increased PWV and increased cSBP are independent predictors of cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> These are examples of an underlying pathological process, since an elevation in PWV can determine the degree of LVH by the increase in the arterial pulse wave reflection, CPP and after-load.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Therefore, arterial stiffness is useful to guide clinical investigations in individuals at low and moderate cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> These parameters, considered as arterial &#8220;biomarkers&#8221;, can be better predictors than high-sensitive C reactive protein.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> The addition of PWV during risk classification improved risk prediction (13% for CVD in 10 years for intermediate risk).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> This information, when correctly accessed and used, prevent the misclassification of high-risk patients as low or moderate risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perspectives</title>
        <p>Vascular aging is responsible for the increase of residual cardiovascular risk and the global CVD burden. Further studies are needed for clinical validation of the cardiovascular outcomes, comparisons between different assessment methods and studies of therapeutical interventions mediated by researchers&#8217; network on vascular aging. Continuous education and the wide use of technologies on preventive strategies should be encouraged, aimed at highlighting the role of vascular aging and integrating it into the clinical decision making.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Science has attempted to improve the understanding and the clinical applicability of biomarkers able to early identify vascular damage. The objective is to improve accuracy in cardiovascular risk stratification in low-to-moderate risk individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Analysis of cSBP and arterial stiffness (PWV) is support by strong evidence for early detection of vascular damage, and identification and reclassification of individuals who were initially classified as low/intermediate risk and were later classified as high risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> In addition, a PWV &#8805; 10m/s can be suggestive of subclinical target-organ damage, and the increase in cSBP is a predictor of arterial hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> It is possible that, as new evidence emerges in the context of hypertensive disease and CVD, this method becomes more reliable and safer to be incorporated into clinical practice, aiming to early identify vascular damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> In the realm of precision medicine, this approach allows a tailored clinical practice, with greater assertiveness in the decisions related to classification and treatment of CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
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      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Adriana Camargo Oliveira, from Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG).</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>Sources of Funding: This study was partially funded by CNPq, processo 313481/2020-2.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
