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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">bNyf99QD7bJyzs5fyWtCJJr</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022000700143</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20220412</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220412</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Diretrizes</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Diretriz de Miocardites da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2022</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8922-4075</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Montera</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Westerlund</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2533-5638</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marcondes-Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiana G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6553-8387</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sim&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4741-322X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moura</surname>
            <given-names>L&#237;dia Ana Zytynski</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9323-8805</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0894-1131</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mangine</surname>
            <given-names>Sandrigo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Amarino Carvalho de</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Aurea Lucia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1588-5492</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ianni</surname>
            <given-names>B&#225;rbara Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9493-0687</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>de Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Clerio F.</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Freitas</surname>
            <given-names>Dhayn Cassi de Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>Dirceu Thiago Pessoa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9204-485X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bocchi</surname>
            <given-names>Edimar Alcides</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Horowitz</surname>
            <given-names>Estela Suzana Kleiman</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1654-4531</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Villacorta</surname>
            <given-names>Humberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5959-9359</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rossi</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Manoel</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Marcos Bemfica</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2555-1402</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Albuquerque de</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Luiz</surname>
            <given-names>Louise Freire</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5645-2055</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
            <given-names>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5702-210X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Beck-da-Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Luis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9103-8906</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Antonio de Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5774-2780</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Danzmann</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Cl&#225;udio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1206-9489</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bittencourt</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Imbroinise</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garcia</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Iorio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3712-1175</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Avila</surname>
            <given-names>Monica Samuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4207-3809</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Clausell</surname>
            <given-names>Nadine Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Nilson Araujo de</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silvestre</surname>
            <given-names>Odilson Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8722-7504</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Olga Ferreira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2501-302X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mourilhe-Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1033-3672</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1122-7695</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Al-Kindi</surname>
            <given-names>Sadeer G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7210-6486</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rassi</surname>
            <given-names>Salvador</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3093-9743</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Silvia Marinho Martins</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9271-8233</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Silvia Moreira Ayub</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6306-2522</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rizk</surname>
            <given-names>St&#233;phanie Itala</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>Tiago Azevedo Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5116-5655</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barzilai</surname>
            <given-names>Vitor</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff32">
            <sup>32</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2185-3710</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Schultheiss</surname>
            <given-names>Heinz-Peter</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff33">
            <sup>33</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Curitiba</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Curitiba, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense,Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (HCOR), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Vit&#243;ria</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Vit&#243;ria, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>9</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Duke University</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Durham</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Duke University, Durham &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>10</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Acre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio Branco</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AC</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Acre, Rio Branco, AC &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>11</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Campinas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>12</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul/Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia,Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label>13</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Ensino e Treinamento Edson de Godoy Bueno</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">UHG</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Ensino e Treinamento Edson de Godoy Bueno / UHG, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label>14</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Cleveland</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Ohio</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15">
        <label>15</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16">
        <label>16</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Amazonas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Boca do Acre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AM</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Amazonas, Boca do Acre, AM &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17">
        <label>17</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Maranh&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Lu&#237;s</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Maranh&#227;o, S&#227;o Lu&#237;s, MA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18">
        <label>18</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19">
        <label>19</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20">
        <label>20</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21">
        <label>21</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Luterana do Brasil</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Canoas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Luterana do Brasil, Canoas, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22">
        <label>22</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff23">
        <label>23</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff24">
        <label>24</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho (HUCFF) da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff25">
        <label>25</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Rede Dor S&#227;o Luiz de Hospitais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede Dor S&#227;o Luiz de Hospitais, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff26">
        <label>26</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#237;rio Liban&#234;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#237;rio Liban&#234;s, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff27">
        <label>27</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Harrington Heart and Vascular Institute,</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">University Hospitals</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Case Western Reserve University</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Cleveland</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Ohio</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Harrington Heart and Vascular Institute, University Hospitals and Case Western Reserve University,Cleveland, Ohio &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff28">
        <label>28</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff29">
        <label>29</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco (PROCAPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff30">
        <label>30</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff31">
        <label>31</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Cardiologia do Distrito Federal</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff32">
        <label>32</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff33">
        <label>33</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Berlim</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="DE">Alemanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy (IKDT), Berlim &#8211; Alemanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: 20020-907. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>11</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>119</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>143</fpage>
      <lpage>211</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="32"/>
        <table-count count="90"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="477"/>
        <page-count count="69"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <table-wrap>
        <table>
          <colgroup>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>Diretriz de Miocardites da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2022</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th>O relat&#243;rio abaixo lista as declara&#231;&#245;es de interesse conforme relatadas &#224; SBC pelos especialistas durante o per&#237;odo de desenvolvimento deste posicionamento, 2021.</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th>Especialista</th>
              <th>Tipo de relacionamento com a ind&#250;stria</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Amarino Carvalho de Oliveira J&#250;nior</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Aurea Lucia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de Souza</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Participa&#231;&#227;o societ&#225;ria de qualquer natureza e qualquer valor economicamente apreci&#225;vel de empresas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, de ensino ou em empresas concorrentes ou fornecedoras da SBC:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>&#8211; Cardiologia: Curso PROKIDS Assist&#234;ncia Multidisciplinar LTDA</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>B&#225;rbara Maria Ianni</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carlos Eduardo Rochitte</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Claudio Tinoco Mesquita</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Servier: Vastarel.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Alnylan: Onpatro.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Clerio F. Azevedo</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Dhayn Cassi de Almeida Freitas</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Dirceu Thiago Pessoa de Melo</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Daiichi Sankyo.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Pfizer.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Edimar Alcides Bocchi</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- AstraZeneca: ISGLT2; Bayer: ISGLT2, Vericiguat; Boehringer: ISGLT2.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Estela Suzana Kleiman Horowitz</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Jansen: Rivaroxabana.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>C - Financiamento de pesquisa (pessoal), cujas receitas tenham sido provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Jansen: Rivaroxabana.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos V&#237;nculo empregat&#237;cio com a ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, Equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras, assim como se tem rela&#231;&#227;o v&#237;nculo empregat&#237;cio com operadoras de planos de sa&#250;de ou em auditorias m&#233;dicas (incluindo meio per&#237;odo) durante o ano para o qual voc&#234; est&#225; declarando:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- UnitedHealth Group.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Fabiana G. Marcondes Braga</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Palestras; AstraZeneca: Palestras e Conselho Consultivo; Boehringer: Conselho Consultivo.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Fabio Fernandes</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Pfizer: Tafamidis; Alnylan: Patisiran.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Guilherme H. Oliveira</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Heinz-Peter Schultheiss</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Humberto Villacorta</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca; Roche: Biomarcadores; Servier: Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>C - Financiamento de pesquisa (pessoal), cujas receitas tenham sido provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Roche: GDF-15.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Jo&#227;o Manoel Rossi Neto</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Aulas; AstraZeneca: Aulas.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Jo&#227;o Marcos Bemfica Barbosa</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Entresto.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Jos&#233; Albuquerque de Figueiredo Neto</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>L&#237;dia Ana Zytynski Moura</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Forxiga.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- AstraZeneca: Forxiga.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Louise Freire Luiz</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o Hajjar</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luis Beck-da-Silva</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca; AstraZeneca: Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Amgen: Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luiz Antonio de Almeida Campos</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Luiz Cl&#225;udio Danzmann</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Forxiga; Servier: Procoralan.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcelo Imbroise Bittencourt</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- GENEONE - DASA: Testes gen&#233;ticos; Sanofi: Terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica; AstraZeneca: Forxiga.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcelo Iorio Garcia</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcelo Westerlund Montera</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Sim&#245;es</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Amgen: Omecamtiv/Mecarbil; Beringher Ingelheim: Empagliflozina.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Monica Samuel Avila</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Nadine Oliveira Clausell</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Nilson Araujo de Oliveira Jr.</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Johnson e Johnson: Cateteres para eletrofisiologia invasiva. B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Biotronik: Dispositivos de estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros lacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Johnson e Johnson: Cateteres para eletrofisiologia.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Odilson Marcos Silvestre</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Olga Ferreira de Souza</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ricardo Mourilhe-Rocha</td>
              <td>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina; Boehringer: Empagliflozina; Novartis: Sacubitril/Valsartana. B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: - PROADI/SUS: Telemedicina; Boehriner: Empagliflozina.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Roberto Kalil Filho</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Sadeer G. Al-Kindi</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Salvador Rassi</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Entresto; Servier: Procoralan</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Entresto; Servier: Procoralan; Boehringer Ingelheim: Jardiance.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Entresto; Servier: Procoralan.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Sandrigo Mangine</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Novartis: Sacubitril/Valsartan; Pfizer: Doen&#231;as raras.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Pfizer: Doen&#231;as raras.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Silvia Marinho Martins Alves</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Silvia Moreira Ayub Ferreira</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Abbott: Mitraclip; Novartis: Entresto.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Abbott: Heartmate II e HeartMate 3.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>St&#233;phanie Itala Rizk</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Tiago Azevedo Costa Mattos</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Vitor Barzilai</td>
              <td>Nada a ser declarado</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Wolney de Andrade Martins</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores,ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Bayer: Cardio-oncologia.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </p>
    <sec>
      <title>Sum&#225;rio</title>
      <p>1. Epidemiologia 149</p>
      <p>2. Defini&#231;&#227;o e Etiologia 150</p>
      <p>2.1. Fator Gen&#233;tico na Etiopatogenia das Miocardites 151</p>
      <p>3. Fisiopatogenia 151</p>
      <p>4. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Diagn&#243;stica 152</p>
      <p>4.1. Crit&#233;rios Diagn&#243;sticos de Suspeita de Miocardite 152</p>
      <p><bold>4.1.1. Fluxograma de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Diagn&#243;stica</bold> 152</p>
      <p>4.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica: Situa&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas de Suspei&#231;&#227;o 152</p>
      <p>4.3. Biomarcadores 154</p>
      <p><bold>4.3.1. Marcadores Laboratoriais de Agress&#227;o Inflamat&#243;ria</bold> 154</p>
      <p><bold>4.3.2. Marcadores Laboratoriais de Pesquisa Etiopatog&#234;nica</bold> 155</p>
      <p>4.4. Eletrocardiograma 155</p>
      <p><bold>4.4.1. Crit&#233;rio de diagn&#243;stico por eletrocardiograma/ Holter/testes de estresse</bold> 156</p>
      <p><bold>4.4.2. Progn&#243;stico</bold> 157</p>
      <p>4.5. Eletrocardiograma 157</p>
      <p>4.6. Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Card&#237;aca 157</p>
      <p>4.7. Medicina Nuclear 158</p>
      <p><bold>4.7.1. Radiotra&#231;adores para Cintilografia por Emiss&#227;o de F&#243;ton &#218;nico (SPECT)</bold> 159</p>
      <p><bold>4.7.2. Radiotra&#231;adores para Tomografia por Emiss&#227;o de P&#243;sitrons (SPECT)</bold> 160</p>
      <p><bold>4.7.3. Perspectivas Adicionais</bold> 161</p>
      <p>4.8. Angiotomografia de Coron&#225;rias e Coronariografia 161</p>
      <p>4.9. Bi&#243;psia Endomioc&#225;rdica: Indica&#231;&#245;es, T&#233;cnica e Complica&#231;&#245;es 162</p>
      <p><bold>4.9.1. Pondera&#231;&#245;es para Indica&#231;&#227;o</bold> 162</p>
      <p><bold>4.9.2. Progn&#243;stico</bold> 163</p>
      <p><bold>4.9.3. T&#233;cnica</bold> 163</p>
      <p><bold>4.9.4. Complica&#231;&#245;es</bold> 164</p>
      <p>4.10. An&#225;lise Histol&#243;gica e Pesquisa Viral &#8211; Biologia Molecular e Genoma 164</p>
      <p><bold>4.10.1. An&#225;lise Histol&#243;gica</bold> 164</p>
      <p><bold>4.10.2. An&#225;lise Imuno-histoqu&#237;mica</bold> 164</p>
      <p><bold>4.10.3. An&#225;lise do Perfil Gen&#233;tico</bold> 165</p>
      <p><bold>4.10.4. Virologia</bold> 164</p>
      <p>5. Tratamento 164</p>
      <p>5.1. Fluxogramas Terap&#234;uticos 164</p>
      <p>5.2. Imunossupress&#227;o: Indica&#231;&#245;es e Tipos 164</p>
      <p>5.3. Antivirais: Indica&#231;&#245;es e Tipos 168</p>
      <p>5.4. IImunomodula&#231;&#227;o (Imunoglobulina &#8211; Imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o): Indica&#231;&#245;es e Tipos de Imunoglobulinas 169</p>
      <p><bold>5.4.1. Imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o</bold> 169</p>
      <p>5.5. Terap&#234;utica Cardioprotetora Convencional 169</p>
      <p><bold>5.5.1. Sem Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular</bold> 169</p>
      <p><bold>5.5.2. Com Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular Hemodin&#226;mica Est&#225;vel</bold> 170</p>
      <p><bold>5.5.3. Paciente com Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular e Hemodin&#226;mica Inst&#225;vel: Abordagem Terap&#234;utica</bold> 170</p>
      <p>5.6. Cuidados Gerais: Atividade F&#237;sica e Vacina&#231;&#227;o 170</p>
      <p>6. Situa&#231;&#245;es Especiais 171</p>
      <p>6.1. Miocardite Fulminante 171</p>
      <p><bold>6.1.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Diagn&#243;stica</bold> 172</p>
      <p><bold>6.1.2. Abordagem Terap&#234;utica</bold> 173</p>
      <p>6.2. Sarcoidose 173</p>
      <p><bold>6.2.1. Diagn&#243;stico</bold> 173</p>
      <p><bold>6.2.2. Tratamento e Progn&#243;stico</bold> 175</p>
      <p><bold>6.2.3. Progn&#243;stico</bold> 175</p>
      <p>6.3. C&#233;lulas Igantes 176</p>
      <p><bold>6.3.1. Tratamento</bold> 176</p>
      <p><bold>6.3.2. Manifesta&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica e Diagn&#243;stico</bold> 178</p>
      <p>6.4. Miocardite chag&#225;sica aguda e reagudiza&#231;&#227;o 179</p>
      <p><bold>6.4.1. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas e meios de Infec&#231;&#227;o, Reagudiza&#231;&#227;o nos Pacientes Imunossuprimidos</bold> 179</p>
      <p><bold>6.4.2. Diagn&#243;stico</bold> 179</p>
      <p><bold>6.4.3. Tratamento</bold> 179</p>
      <p>6.5. Miocardite por Doen&#231;as Tropicais 180</p>
      <p>6.6. Miocardite por Covid-19 181</p>
      <p><bold>6.6.1. Poss&#237;vel Fisiopatologia da Miocardite Relacionada ao SARS-CoV-2</bold> 181</p>
      <p><bold>6.6.2. Les&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica Viral Direta</bold> 181</p>
      <p><bold>6.6.3. Diagn&#243;stico de Miocardite Relacionada &#224; Covid-19</bold> 182</p>
      <p><bold>6.6.4. Laborat&#243;rio</bold> 183</p>
      <p><bold>6.6.5. Eletrocardiograma</bold> 183</p>
      <p><bold>6.6.6. Imagem</bold> 184</p>
      <p><bold>6.6.7. Bi&#243;psia Endomioc&#225;rdica</bold> 184</p>
      <p>6.7. Cardiotoxidade Aguda por Terap&#234;utica Antineopl&#225;sica 185</p>
      <p><bold>6.7.1. Agentes Antineopl&#225;sicos Indutores de Cardiotoxidade Aguda</bold> 185</p>
      <p><bold>6.7.2. Diagn&#243;stico da Cardiotoxidade Aguda</bold> 186</p>
      <p><bold>6.7.3. Tratamento da Cardiotoxidade Aguda</bold> 186</p>
      <p><bold>6.7.4. Progn&#243;stico</bold> 188</p>
      <p><bold>6.7.5. Preven&#231;&#227;o</bold> 188</p>
      <p>6.8. Miocardite em Crian&#231;as e Adolescentes 189</p>
      <p><bold>6.8.1. Fatores Causais</bold> 189</p>
      <p><bold>6.8.2. Progn&#243;stico</bold> 190</p>
      <p>6.9. Miocardites com Envolvimento Peric&#225;rdico 192</p>
      <p><bold>6.9.1. Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento</bold> 192</p>
      <p>6.10. Miocardite Simulando Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio 192</p>
      <p>7. Cardite Reum&#225;tica 193</p>
      <p>8. Miocardites por Doen&#231;as Autoimunes 195</p>
      <p>9. Manejo das Arritmias Card&#237;acas na Miocardite 196</p>
      <p>9.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o N&#227;o Invasiva e Invasiva das Arritmias na Fase Aguda e Cr&#244;nica das Diversas Causa das Miocardites 196</p>
      <p>9.2. Tratamento de Arritmias e Preven&#231;&#227;o da Morte S&#250;bita na Fase Aguda e Subaguda 197</p>
      <p>10. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Progn&#243;stica e Seguimento 198</p>
      <p>10.1. Marcadores de Progn&#243;stico e Evolu&#231;&#227;o 198</p>
      <p>10.2 Seguimento Ambulatorial nas Avalia&#231;&#245;es dos M&#233;todos Complementares 198</p>
      <p>Refer&#234;ncias 199</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>1. Epidemiologia</title>
      <p>A real incid&#234;ncia de miocardite &#233; dif&#237;cil de ser determinada, uma vez que as apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas s&#227;o muito heterog&#234;neas e grande parcela dos casos cursa de forma subcl&#237;nica, al&#233;m de haver uma frequ&#234;ncia muito baixa de emprego da bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica (BEM), o padr&#227;o-ouro para o diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Levantamento de diferentes s&#233;ries de estudos necrosc&#243;picos em indiv&#237;duos jovens v&#237;timas de morte s&#250;bita inexplicada mostrou incid&#234;ncia muito vari&#225;vel de miocardite, podendo corresponder por at&#233; 42% dos casos.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> O Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 usou os c&#243;digos da Classifica&#231;&#227;o Internacional de Doen&#231;as em an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas regionais e globais de 187 pa&#237;ses, estimando a incid&#234;ncia anual de miocardite em torno de 22 casos para cada 100.000 pacientes atendidos.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup> Em coortes de pacientes com apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de miocardiopatia dilatada de etiologia n&#227;o definida, miocardite comprovada por BEM pode ser detectada em at&#233; 16% dos pacientes adultos,<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> e em at&#233; 46% de pacientes pedi&#225;tricos.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Muitos estudos indicam maior preval&#234;ncia da miocardite aguda em homens do que em mulheres<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref> , <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> </sup> Alguns estudos sugerem que, em adultos, a manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica mais comum seja a miocardite linfoc&#237;tica, com mediana de idade de 42 anos, enquanto pacientes com miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes t&#234;m mediana de 43 anos de idade.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> Entretanto, rec&#233;m-nascidos e crian&#231;as exibem mais tipicamente apresenta&#231;&#227;o de miocardite fulminante e s&#227;o mais suscet&#237;veis &#224; patogenicidade induzida por v&#237;rus do que adultos.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>A miocardite engloba um amplo espectro de progn&#243;sticos, dependendo da gravidade do quadro cl&#237;nico inicial e da sua etiologia. Pacientes com sintomas leves e sem disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular exibem com grande frequ&#234;ncia resolu&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea e excelente progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup> No entanto, estima-se que cerca de 30% dos casos de miocardite mais graves, documentados com BEM e cursando com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular evoluam para miocardiopatia dilatada e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) com progn&#243;stico reservado. Em pacientes pedi&#225;tricos, o progn&#243;stico parece ser pior, com relatos de sobrevida em 10 anos livre de transplante card&#237;aco de apenas 60%.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. Defini&#231;&#227;o e Etiologia</title>
      <p>A miocardite pode ser definida como doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria do mioc&#225;rdio, diagnosticada por crit&#233;rios histol&#243;gicos, imunol&#243;gicos e imuno-histoqu&#237;micos. Os crit&#233;rios histol&#243;gicos incluem evid&#234;ncia de infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio envolvendo o mioc&#225;rdio associado com degenera&#231;&#227;o e necrose de cardiomi&#243;citos e de origem n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica. Os crit&#233;rios imuno-histoqu&#237;micos quantitativos para identificar um infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio anormal, indicativos de miocardite ativa, s&#227;o: contagem de leuc&#243;citos &#8805;14 c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>2</sup>, incluindo at&#233; 4 mon&#243;citos/mm<sup>2</sup>, com a presen&#231;a de linf&#243;citos-T CD3 positivos &#8805;7 c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>2</sup>.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Adicionalmente, conforme o tipo celular, o tipo de infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio observado no diagn&#243;stico histol&#243;gico pode classificar a miocardite em linfoc&#237;tica, eosinof&#237;lica, polim&#243;rfica, miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes e sarcoidose card&#237;aca.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Miocardite pode ser causada por uma grande variedade de agentes infecciosos, incluindo v&#237;rus, protozo&#225;rios, bact&#233;rias, clam&#237;dias, rick&#233;ttsias, fungos e espiroquetas ( <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref> ), bem como pode ser desencadeada por mecanismos n&#227;o infecciosos como a miocardite t&#243;xica (drogas, metais pesados, radia&#231;&#227;o), miocardite por mecanismos autoimunes e de hipersensibilidade (miocardite eosinof&#237;lica, colagenoses, induzida por v&#237;rus, rejei&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o transplantado).<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Etiologia da miocardite aguda*</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>1 &#8211; Miocardite infecciosa</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>Viral</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>V&#237;rus RNA</td>
                <td>V&#237;rus Coxsackie A e B, echo-v&#237;rus, poliov&#237;rus, v&#237;rus da influenza A e B, v&#237;rus sincicial respirat&#243;rio, v&#237;rus da caxumba, v&#237;rus do sarampo, v&#237;rus da rub&#233;ola, v&#237;rus da hepatite C, v&#237;rus da dengue, v&#237;rus da febre amarela, v&#237;rus da Chikungunya, v&#237;rus Junin, v&#237;rus da febre de Lassa, <italic>Rabies virus</italic> , v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana-1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> V&#237;rus DNA</td>
                <td>Adenov&#237;rus, parvov&#237;rus B19, citomegalov&#237;rus, herpes-v&#237;rus humano-6, v&#237;rus Epstein-Barr, v&#237;rus varicela-z&#243;ster, herpes-v&#237;rus simples, v&#237;rus da var&#237;ola, v&#237;rus vaccinia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Bact&#233;rias</td>
                <td><italic>Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pneumococcus, Meningococcus, Gonococcus, Salmonella, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Haemophilus influenzae, Mycobacterium </italic> (tuberculose) <italic>, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Brucella</italic></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Espiroquetas</td>
                <td><italic>Borrelia</italic> (doen&#231;a de Lyme), <italic>Leptospira</italic> (doen&#231;a de Weil)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fungos</td>
                <td>
                  <italic>Aspergillus, Actinomyces, Blastomyces, Candida, Coccidioides, Cryptococcus, Histoplasma, Mucormycoses, Nocardia, Sporothrix</italic>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Protozo&#225;rios</td>
                <td>
                  <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi, Toxoplasma gondii, Entamoeba, Leishmania</italic>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Parasitas</td>
                <td>
                  <italic>Trichinella spiralis, Echinococcus granulosus, Taenia solium</italic>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rick&#233;ttsias</td>
                <td><italic>Coxiella burnetii </italic> (Febre Q), <italic>R. Rickettsii </italic> (febre maculosa das Montanhas Rochosas), <italic>R. tsutsugamushi</italic></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>2 &#8211; Miocardite imunomediada</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Al&#233;rgenos</td>
                <td>Toxoide tet&#226;nico, vacinas, doen&#231;a do soro Drogas: penicilina, cefaclor, conchicina, furosemida, isoniazida, lidoca&#237;na, tetraciclina, sulfonamidas, fenito&#237;na, fenilbutazona, metildopa, diur&#233;ticos tiaz&#237;dicos, amitriptlina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Aloant&#237;genos</td>
                <td>Rejei&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o transplantado</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Autoant&#237;genos</td>
                <td>Miocardite linfoc&#237;tica infec&#231;&#227;o-negativa, miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes infec&#231;&#227;o-negativa associadas a dist&#250;rbios autoimunes: l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico, artrite reumatoide, s&#237;ndrome de Churg-Strauss, doen&#231;a de Kawasaki, doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria intestinal, esclerodermia, polimiosite, miastenia grave, diabetes melito dependente de insulina, sarcoidose, granulomatose de Wegener, febre reum&#225;tica, imunoterapia oncol&#243;gica (inibidores de check-point imunol&#243;gico)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>3 &#8211; Miocardite t&#243;xica</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Drogas</td>
                <td>Anfetaminas, antraciclinas, coca&#237;na, ciclofosfamida, etanol, fluouracil, l&#237;tio, catecolaminas, hemetina, trastuzumab, clozapina, interleucina-2, inibidores de check-point imunol&#243;gico</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Metais pesados</td>
                <td>Cobre, ferro, chumbo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Miscel&#226;nea</td>
                <td>Picada de escorpi&#227;o, picada de cobra, picada de aranha, picada de abelha e vespa, mon&#243;xido de carbono, inalantes, f&#243;sforo, ars&#234;nico, azida de s&#243;dio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Horm&#244;nios</td>
                <td>Feocromocitoma</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Agentes f&#237;sicos</td>
                <td>Radia&#231;&#227;o, choque el&#233;trico</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Fonte: *Adaptada de Caforio et al.<sup>5</sup></attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Dentre todos esses desencadeantes de miocardite, a infec&#231;&#227;o viral &#233; a mais prevalente, particularmente em crian&#231;as. Os v&#237;rus cardiotr&#243;picos mais prevalentes s&#227;o: enterov&#237;rus, parvov&#237;rus B19 (PVB19), adenov&#237;rus, v&#237;rus influenza A, herpes-v&#237;rus humano (HHV), v&#237;rus Epstein-Barr, citomegalov&#237;rus, v&#237;rus da hepatite C e v&#237;rus do HIV. Algumas evid&#234;ncias sugerem que possa haver diferen&#231;as regionais em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; preval&#234;ncia dos diferentes agentes virais, com predom&#237;nio de adenov&#237;rus, parvov&#237;rus e herpes na popula&#231;&#227;o europeia<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup> e preponder&#226;ncia de enterov&#237;rus na popula&#231;&#227;o americana.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> Entretanto, parte dessas diferen&#231;as epidemiol&#243;gicas pode ser decorrente de surtos de infec&#231;&#245;es virais espec&#237;ficas ocorrendo ao longo dos anos nas diversas regi&#245;es do mundo, bem como a diferen&#231;as nas t&#233;cnicas de detec&#231;&#227;o viral, permanecendo o debate acerca da real influ&#234;ncia da distribui&#231;&#227;o geogr&#225;fica quanto &#224;s infec&#231;&#245;es virais cardiotr&#243;picas.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Na Am&#233;rica do Sul e, especialmente, em algumas regi&#245;es do Brasil, a miocardite chag&#225;sica causada pelo protozo&#225;rio <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> &#233; uma das causas mais prevalentes de miocardite aguda, particularmente frente ao registro recente de surtos de casos associados &#224; transmiss&#227;o oral na Amaz&#244;nia brasileira.<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup> Doen&#231;as sist&#234;micas autoimunes como a s&#237;ndrome de Churg-Strauss e a s&#237;ndrome hipereosinof&#237;lica est&#227;o associadas &#224; miocardite eosinof&#237;lica. A miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes e a sarcoidose, embora raras, revestem-se de especial import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica, uma vez que, se diagnosticadas precocemente, t&#234;m tratamento espec&#237;fico, o que pode garantir melhora do progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>Miocardite autoimune pode ocorrer como acometimento org&#226;nico isolado ou manifestar-se no contexto de doen&#231;as autoimunes com manifesta&#231;&#245;es sist&#234;micas, sendo as mais frequentes: sarcoidose, s&#237;ndrome hipereosinof&#237;lica, esclerodermia e l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico.</p>
      <p>Novos imunoter&#225;picos para tratamento do c&#226;ncer podem estar associados ao risco de miocardite, sendo mais recentemente reconhecidos os casos vinculados ao uso dos inibidores de <italic>checkpoint</italic> imunol&#243;gico, como nivolumab e ipilimumab.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> - <xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref> </sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Fator Gen&#233;tico na Etiopatogenia das Miocardites</title>
        <p>Nas descri&#231;&#245;es cl&#225;ssicas da etiopatogenia da miocardite, as evid&#234;ncias de mecanismos envolvendo a atua&#231;&#227;o de v&#237;rus e rea&#231;&#245;es autoimunes s&#227;o bem documentadas. Pouco se fala a respeito da predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica. Muitos autores acreditam que &#233; prov&#225;vel que fen&#244;menos gen&#233;ticos possam contribuir para o desenvolvimento de miocardite viral e/ou autoimune.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Dados laboratoriais consistentes com este argumento foram documentados em um estudo com 342 familiares de pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada (CMPD), em que se constatou a presen&#231;a de anticorpos card&#237;acos com intensidade maior do que foi observado no grupo controle.<sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, tamb&#233;m &#233; largamente reconhecida a probabilidade de uma intera&#231;&#227;o complexa entre causas gen&#233;ticas (predisposi&#231;&#227;o individual) e n&#227;o gen&#233;ticas (ligadas ao agente agressor) na evolu&#231;&#227;o final para cardiomiopatia dilatada. O problema &#233; que as evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas que suportam tal argumento s&#227;o escassas.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que, em cepas de camundongos suscet&#237;veis, a infec&#231;&#227;o e a inflama&#231;&#227;o desencadeiam rea&#231;&#245;es autoimunes no cora&#231;&#227;o, geralmente como resultado da necrose dos mi&#243;citos e subsequente libera&#231;&#227;o de autoant&#237;genos anteriormente ocultos no sistema imunol&#243;gico. As mesmas linhagens de animais geneticamente predispostas desenvolvem miocardite linfoc&#237;tica ou de c&#233;lula gigante autoimune e depois cardiomiopatia dilatada ap&#243;s imuniza&#231;&#227;o com autoant&#237;genos card&#237;acos (p. ex., miosina card&#237;aca).<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; a evid&#234;ncia de que a miocardite pode estar presente em cardiomiopatias espec&#237;ficas (p. ex., cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica), levando a altera&#231;&#245;es no fen&#243;tipo e progress&#227;o abrupta da doen&#231;a. Nesse contexto, algumas muta&#231;&#245;es podem aumentar a suscetibilidade &#224; miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Entretanto, no geral, a miocardite segue classificada como um dist&#250;rbio adquirido n&#227;o familiar, com evid&#234;ncias de estudos experimentais que indicam que altera&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas possam proporcionar suscetibilidade maior a esta doen&#231;a.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Fisiopatogenia</title>
      <p>De forma simplificada, podemos dividir a fisiopatologia das miocardites em infecciosas e n&#227;o infecciosas. As infecciosas s&#227;o as mais comuns e incluem uma enorme gama de v&#237;rus, bact&#233;rias, protozo&#225;rios, fungos e outros pat&#243;genos mais raros (ver <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref> ). Os agentes virais s&#227;o os mais comumente envolvidos e estudados experimentalmente. Do ponto de vista n&#227;o infeccioso, a autoimunidade est&#225; presente, mediante doen&#231;as espec&#237;ficas, drogas e autoanticorpos; a predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica exerce papel importante em ambas (ver <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref> ).</p>
      <p>Modelos murinos de miocardite viral sugerem que seu desenvolvimento apresenta tr&#234;s fases: aguda (alguns dias), subaguda (algumas semanas a meses) e cr&#244;nica (desenvolvimento da miocardiopatia dilatada);<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup> al&#233;m disso, dois mecanismos patog&#234;nicos s&#227;o descritos: les&#227;o citop&#225;tica direta induzida pelos microrganismos e resposta imune anticard&#237;aca induzida pelos microrganismos.</p>
      <p>A fase 1 corresponde &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o inicial, que pode curar at&#233; mesmo sem sequela ou levar &#224; IC ou morte, ou progredir para as fases 2/3.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup> Na maioria dos pacientes com miocardite viral, o pat&#243;geno &#233; eliminado e o sistema imune reduz sua atividade sem outras complica&#231;&#245;es adicionais. Entretanto, em uma minoria de pacientes, o v&#237;rus n&#227;o &#233; eliminado, resultando em les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica persistente e inflama&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o de anticorpos.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> Assim, a miocardite viral poderia ser considerada um dos precursores para o desenvolvimento da miocardiopatia dilatada, sendo observada essa evolu&#231;&#227;o em 21% dos casos de miocardite ao final de 3 anos.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os enterov&#237;rus, em especial o Coxsackie B3 (CVB3), iniciam a miocardite por meio do acoplamento ao receptor CAR (Coxsackie v&#237;rus e adenov&#237;rus receptor) e DAF (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>decay accelarating fator</italic> ), culminado em morte celular atrav&#233;s de apoptose<sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref></sup> ou necroptose.<sup><xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref></sup> Cardiomi&#243;citos infectados tornam-se lisados, o que resulta em libera&#231;&#227;o citos&#243;lica de prote&#237;nas e produtos virais. Ap&#243;s a fase aguda, o curso da doen&#231;a depende da base gen&#233;tica, podendo evoluir para miocardiopatia dilatada ou haver resolu&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> - <xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref> </sup> Infec&#231;&#227;o por Coxsackie ativa respostas imunes inatas e adaptativas, incluindo, em primeiro momento, a produ&#231;&#227;o de interferon e ativa&#231;&#227;o de receptores <italic>toll-like</italic> (TLR).<sup><xref rid="B40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref></sup> Na resposta adaptativa, a defici&#234;ncia de c&#233;lulas T e B leva &#224; persist&#234;ncia viral e piora evolutiva.<sup><xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref> , <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>Outro aspecto importante &#233; a produ&#231;&#227;o de autoanticorpos espec&#237;ficos contra os cardiomi&#243;citos, que ocorre por meio da libera&#231;&#227;o de pept&#237;dios card&#237;acos, havendo mimetismo molecular entre as prote&#237;nas card&#237;acas e os agentes virais. Na presen&#231;a de citocinas coestimuladoras como TNF e IL1, esses anticorpos promovem resposta efetora de linf&#243;citos T.<sup><xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outros v&#237;rus como o parvov&#237;rus B19 e o herpes-v&#237;rus-6 t&#234;m sido cada vez mais descritos em bi&#243;psias card&#237;acas, havendo uma tend&#234;ncia de redu&#231;&#227;o de identifica&#231;&#227;o de enterov&#237;rus e adenov&#237;rus.<sup><xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref></sup> No entanto, a presen&#231;a desses microrganismos tamb&#233;m tem sido observada em cora&#231;&#245;es sem miocardite ou miocardiopatias de outras etiologias, tornando complexa a interpreta&#231;&#227;o da associa&#231;&#227;o entre a presen&#231;a de agentes infecciosos no tecido card&#237;aco e o desenvolvimento de miocardite, bem como a influ&#234;ncia da persist&#234;ncia desses agentes na evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s miocardites n&#227;o infecciosas, modelos animais de miocardite autoimune envolvem linhagens suscet&#237;veis geneticamente que demonstram a presen&#231;a de linf&#243;citos T CD4+ reativos a autoant&#237;genos, como a cadeia pesada da miosina, na aus&#234;ncia de agentes infecciosos.<sup><xref rid="B46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da resposta autoimune linfocit&#225;ria, podemos observar respostas envolvendo macr&#243;fagos, como nas miocardites granulomatosas e eosin&#243;filos nas situa&#231;&#245;es de hipersensibilidade.</p>
      <p>A miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes &#233; uma forma autoimune de agress&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e caracteriza-se histologicamente por um infiltrado de c&#233;lulas gigantes multinucleadas, al&#233;m de infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio de c&#233;lulas T, eosin&#243;filos e histi&#243;citos. A presen&#231;a marcante de c&#233;lulas CD8 (citot&#243;xicas), libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias e mediadores do estresse oxidativo leva a uma intensa agress&#227;o &#224;s c&#233;lulas mioc&#237;ticas e reposi&#231;&#227;o por fibrose, culminando em r&#225;pida perda da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica desfavor&#225;vel. Em 20% dos casos, existe associa&#231;&#227;o com doen&#231;as autoimunes como tireoidite de Hashimoto, artrite reumatoide, miastenia grave, arterite de Takayasu, entre outras.<sup><xref rid="B47" ref-type="bibr">47</xref></sup> A sarcoidose tem car&#225;ter multissist&#234;mico, envolvendo o pulm&#227;o em 90% dos casos, associada a ac&#250;mulo de linf&#243;citos T, fag&#243;citos mononucleares e granulomas n&#227;o caseosos nos tecidos envolvidos.<sup><xref rid="B48" ref-type="bibr">48</xref> , <xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>Na miocardite induzida por drogas, a resposta de sensibilidade pode variar de horas a meses. Parte da justificativa da hipersensibilidade se d&#225; em resposta a componentes quimicamente reativos que se ligam a prote&#237;nas promovendo modifica&#231;&#245;es estruturais. Essas part&#237;culas s&#227;o fagocitadas pelas c&#233;lulas de defesa, por vezes macr&#243;fagos, os quais as apresentam na superf&#237;cie dessas c&#233;lulas aos linf&#243;citos T. Como uma resposta de hipersensibilidade retardada, s&#227;o liberadas citocinas como interleucina 5, estimulante de eosin&#243;filos. Esse ac&#250;mulo de interleucina 5 promove um grande infiltrado eosinof&#237;lico com aumento da resposta de hipersensibilidade e maior les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. A predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica parece favorecer esse padr&#227;o de resposta.<sup><xref rid="B50" ref-type="bibr">50</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A s&#237;ndrome hipereosinof&#237;lica pode ocorrer em associa&#231;&#227;o a diversas doen&#231;as com manifesta&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, como s&#237;ndrome de Churg-Strauss, c&#226;ncer, infec&#231;&#245;es parasit&#225;rias e helm&#237;nticas, ou estar relacionada a vacina&#231;&#245;es. Estas podem promover uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria intensa no mioc&#225;rdio, levando &#224; les&#227;o celular com disfun&#231;&#227;o e IC.<sup><xref rid="B51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref> , <xref rid="B52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref> </sup> Do ponto de vista fisiopatol&#243;gico, assim como em outros &#243;rg&#227;os, ocorre um intenso infiltrado eosinof&#237;lico no mioc&#225;rdio, infiltrado este que promove a libera&#231;&#227;o de mediadores altamente agressivos ao mi&#243;cito, levando a necrose e perda da estrutura mioc&#225;rdica. Entre os fatores agressores, est&#227;o a neurotoxina, derivada dos eosin&#243;filos, a prote&#237;na cati&#244;nica do eosin&#243;filo e a protease eosinof&#237;lica. Al&#233;m desses fatores, a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias como IL 1, TNF-alfa, IL 6, IL 8, IL3, IL5 e prote&#237;nas inflamat&#243;rias do macr&#243;fago promove a les&#227;o e perda de mi&#243;citos, com evolu&#231;&#227;o para disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref rid="B53" ref-type="bibr">53</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Mais recentemente, o nivolumab, droga antitumoral que atua como inibidor de <italic>checkpoint</italic> , tem sido considerado como causa de miocardite linfocit&#225;ria. Poss&#237;vel mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico sugere que as c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas poderiam compartilhar ant&#237;genos com as c&#233;lulas tumorais, sendo, consequentemente, alvos de c&#233;lulas T ativadas, resultando em infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio e desenvolvimento de IC e dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B54" ref-type="bibr">54</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Diagn&#243;stica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>4.1. Crit&#233;rios Diagn&#243;sticos de Suspeita de Miocardite</title>
        <p>A suspeita cl&#237;nica do diagn&#243;stico de miocardite pelo consenso do grupo de doen&#231;as do mioc&#225;rdio e peric&#225;rdio da sociedade europeia de cardiologia baseia-se na associa&#231;&#227;o da apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica com exames complementares alterados sugestivos de les&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Por meio de an&#225;lise das apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas mais frequentes da miocardite e na acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica dos m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o complementar em prognosticar a presen&#231;a de agress&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria mioc&#225;rdica, prop&#245;e-se estratificar a suspeita cl&#237;nica diagn&#243;stica de miocardite em tr&#234;s n&#237;veis: baixa, intermedi&#225;ria e alta suspei&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica ( <xref rid="f01" ref-type="fig">Figura 1</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref> , <xref rid="B56" ref-type="bibr">56</xref> - <xref rid="B63" ref-type="bibr">63</xref> </sup> Esses crit&#233;rios de suspei&#231;&#227;o foram estabelecidos por consenso de especialistas, e necessitam de valida&#231;&#227;o futura por registros cl&#237;nicos ou estudos multic&#234;ntricos.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Algoritmo de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de suspeita cl&#237;nica diagn&#243;stica de miocardite.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; BNP: pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico B; BNP: pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B; ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico; HAS: hipertens&#227;o arterial; PCRT: prote&#237;na C reativa titulada; PR: segmento PR; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; RT: realce tardio; ST: segmento ST; TV: taquicardia ventricular; TVNS: taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1.1. Fluxograma de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Diagn&#243;stica</title>
          <p>O fluxograma de avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da miocardite se baseia no grau de suspeita cl&#237;nica e progn&#243;stica do paciente (ver <xref rid="f01" ref-type="fig">Figura 1</xref> ). Os pacientes com baixa suspeita cl&#237;nica apresentam um progn&#243;stico favor&#225;vel, sendo seguidos em acompanhamento cl&#237;nico e avaliados quanto &#224; necessidade de extratifica&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC). Os pacientes com suspeita intermedi&#225;ria com evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica favor&#225;vel t&#234;m a mesma linha de seguimento cl&#237;nico e de investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica que os pacientes de baixo risco. Os pacientes que evoluem com manuten&#231;&#227;o ou piora cl&#237;nica, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, arritmias ou bloqueio AV devem ser submetidos a coronariografia (CAT) e BEM. Os pacientes com alta suspeita diagn&#243;stica, em geral, apresentam um pior progn&#243;stico, devem ser submetidos a CAT e BEM, para defini&#231;&#227;o etiol&#243;gica, com objetivo de definir um tratamento espec&#237;fico para melhora do progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref> , <xref rid="B56" ref-type="bibr">56</xref> , <xref rid="B64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref> , <xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica: Situa&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas de Suspei&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A miocardite pode se manifestar de diferentes formas, variando desde quadro leve e oligossintom&#225;tico at&#233; quadro grave, associado a arritmias ventriculares, instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica e choque cardiog&#234;nico. Raramente, pode se apresentar como morte s&#250;bita (variando de 8,6% a 12%), principalmente na inf&#226;ncia ou em adultos jovens.<sup><xref rid="B66" ref-type="bibr">66</xref> , <xref rid="B67" ref-type="bibr">67</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>O quadro mais comum ocorre em pacientes jovens com dor tor&#225;cica sugestiva de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) com coron&#225;rias normais ap&#243;s infec&#231;&#227;o viral respirat&#243;ria ou intestinal, embora os sintomas virais nem sempre precedam os quadros de miocardite (pode variar de 10% a 80% dos casos).<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> - <xref rid="B70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref> </sup> Apesar de ocorrer predominantemente em pacientes jovens, a s&#237;ndrome pode surgir em qualquer idade. Pode ocorrer tamb&#233;m quadro de miocardite subcl&#237;nica, eleva&#231;&#227;o transit&#243;ria de troponina ou altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas ap&#243;s quadro viral agudo, o qual se manifesta com sintomas inespec&#237;ficos como febre, mialgia, sintomas respirat&#243;rios ou gastrointestinais.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>H&#225; diferentes formas de apresenta&#231;&#227;o dessa doen&#231;a:<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> </sup></p>
      <list list-type="alpha-lower">
        <list-item>
          <p>Quadro cl&#237;nico semelhante &#224; s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (dor tor&#225;cica, altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas sugestiva de isquemia; eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica com coron&#225;rias normais).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Sintomas novos agudos de IC (entre 3 dias e 3 meses) na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a coronariana ou causa conhecida para os sintomas.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Sintomas de IC de in&#237;cio recente nos &#250;ltimos meses (&gt; 3 meses) na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a coronariana ou causa conhecida para os sintomas.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Condi&#231;&#245;es amea&#231;adoras da vida: arritmias ventriculares inexplicadas e/ou s&#237;ncope e/ou morte s&#250;bita abortada; choque cardiog&#234;nico sem doen&#231;a coronariana associada.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>A) Manifesta&#231;&#227;o como dor tor&#225;cica</title>
      <p>Pacientes que se apresentam com dor tor&#225;cica podem ter altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas vari&#225;veis: supra ou infradesnivelamento do segmento ST; invers&#227;o de onda T ou ondas Q patol&#243;gicas. Altera&#231;&#245;es segmentares ao ecodopplercardiograma e eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, especialmente troponina, em pacientes com coron&#225;rias normais sugerem a hip&#243;tese de miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref> </sup> Na maioria dos estudos, esses pacientes t&#234;m bom progn&#243;stico em curto prazo, sendo o grau de comprometimento ventricular preditor de risco de morte.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref> </sup> Uma minoria desenvolve miopericardite persistente e recorrente com fun&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) normal que podem responder &#224; colchicina.<sup><xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">75</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>B) Manifesta&#231;&#227;o como insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda</title>
      <p>A forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o pode ser aguda, associada ao aparecimento dos sintomas de IC em dias, mas tamb&#233;m subagudo/cr&#244;nico, cardiomiopatia de in&#237;cio recente em paciente sem causa aparente para a altera&#231;&#227;o de fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
      <p>A apresenta&#231;&#227;o da miocardite por sintomas de IC (dispneia, fadiga, intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio) pode ocorrer associada a leve comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular (fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo [FEVE] entre 40% e 50%) que melhora em semanas a meses. Contudo, n&#250;mero menor de pacientes pode apresentar disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular importante (FEVE &lt;35%) e, destes, 50% desenvolvem disfun&#231;&#227;o de VE cr&#244;nica; cerca de 25% necessitar&#227;o de transplante card&#237;aco ou dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular, enquanto os outros 25% ter&#227;o melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ao longo do seguimento; uma minoria dos casos pode evoluir com quadro de choque cardiog&#234;nico e necessidade de suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">76</xref> - <xref rid="B79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref> </sup> O risco de morte ou necessidade de transplante est&#225; fortemente associado ao grau de comprometimento hemodin&#226;mico e da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e direita, que podem responder ao tratamento medicamentoso padr&#227;o para IC.<sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A apresenta&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a na forma fulminante caracteriza-se pelo aparecimento abrupto (dias) dos sintomas de IC avan&#231;ada. Esses pacientes, em geral, t&#234;m grave disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular com pouca altera&#231;&#227;o dos di&#226;metros ventriculares. Trata-se de apresenta&#231;&#227;o dram&#225;tica que necessita de interven&#231;&#227;o precoce.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref> </sup>Quando o quadro fulminante est&#225; associado &#224; taquicardia ventricular persistente ou n&#227;o h&#225; resposta &#224; terap&#234;utica padr&#227;o, o progn&#243;stico &#233; pior, e formas mais graves de miocardite, como miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes, devem ser consideradas e investigadas.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>C) Manifesta&#231;&#227;o como insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica ou progressiva</title>
      <p>Miocardite confirmada por crit&#233;rio imuno-hitopatol&#243;gico est&#225; presente em at&#233; 40% dos pacientes com cardiomiopatia cr&#244;nica que persistem sintom&#225;ticos a despeito do tratamento medicamentoso. A presen&#231;a de inflama&#231;&#227;o acessada por histologia est&#225; associada a pior progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>D) Manifesta&#231;&#227;o como condi&#231;&#227;o amea&#231;adora da vida</title>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Arritmias ou dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Pacientes com miocardite podem, ainda, apresentar dist&#250;rbios do sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o, tais como bloqueio atrioventricular (BAV) de 2&#176; ou 3&#176; grau ou total, principalmente aqueles que apresentam sinais ecocardiogr&#225;ficos de hipertrofia por edema intersticial.<sup><xref rid="B82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de bloqueio card&#237;aco ou arritmias ventriculares sintom&#225;ticas ou sustentadas em pacientes com cardiomiopatia deve levantar a suspeita de miocardite com causa definida (doen&#231;a de Lyme; sarcoidose; displasia arritmog&#234;nica de ventr&#237;culo direito ou Chagas em &#225;reas end&#234;micas).<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup></p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Choque cardiog&#234;nico</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Subgrupo pequeno de pacientes que se apresentam com quadro s&#250;bito de IC dentro de 2 semanas de quadro viral pode precisar de suporte inotr&#243;pico e/ou suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico. Em geral, ocorre recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular quando sobrevivem ao quadro inicial, por&#233;m necessitam de institui&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica adequada o mais precoce poss&#237;vel.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>A <xref rid="t3" ref-type="table">Tabela 2</xref> resume as principais s&#237;ndromes cl&#237;nicas de suspei&#231;&#227;o de miocardite e sugere poss&#237;veis agentes respons&#225;veis por cada forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref rid="B83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Descri&#231;&#227;o do quadro cl&#237;nico e poss&#237;vel causa das diferentes s&#237;ndromes cl&#237;nicas da miocardite</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>S&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica</th>
                <th>Quadro cl&#237;nico</th>
                <th>Poss&#237;vel causa</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Dor tor&#225;cica aguda</td>
                <td>Sintomas de angina; DAC afastada; altera&#231;&#227;o de segmento ST/T; arritmias; eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina I/T e NtproBNP intermitentes</td>
                <td>Parvov&#237;rus B19 ou outros v&#237;rus com tropismo pelo cora&#231;&#227;o associado ou n&#227;o &#224; pericardite</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IC aguda</td>
                <td>Dispneia; edema; disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e/ou diast&#243;lica de VE; altera&#231;&#227;o de ECG; eleva&#231;&#227;o troponina I/T e NTproBNP intermitentes</td>
                <td>Miocardite viral ou n&#227;o viral ou cardiomiopatia inflamat&#243;ria</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IC cr&#244;nica</td>
                <td>Todos os sintomas de IC por algum tempo; DAC afastada; altera&#231;&#245;es do ECG como BRE, BRD, BAV; eleva&#231;&#227;o troponina I/T e NtproBNP intermitentes</td>
                <td>Miocardite focal viral ou n&#227;o viral ou cardiomiopatia inflamat&#243;ria</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IC/arritmia amea&#231;adoras da vida</td>
                <td>Choque cardiog&#234;nico; IC NYHA III/IV; troponina e NTproBNP elevados; arritmia grave; DAC afastada</td>
                <td>Miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes; miocardite eosinof&#237;lica; miocardite t&#243;xica</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; BRD: bloqueio de ramo direito; BRE: bloqueio de ramo esquerdo; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; ECG: eletrocardiograma; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; ST/T: segmento ST e onda T; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.3. Biomarcadores</title>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3.1. Marcadores Laboratoriais de Agress&#227;o Inflamat&#243;ria</title>
        <p>Nenhum biomarcador, isoladamente, &#233; suficiente para diagnosticar miocardite; contudo, alguns biomarcadores podem ser &#250;teis como marcadores progn&#243;sticos. A seguir, comentaremos acerca dos principais biomarcadores usados nessa avalia&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Marcadores inflamat&#243;rios. </bold> Contagem de leuc&#243;citos, velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o (VHS) e prote&#237;na C reativa (PC-R) podem estar elevadas em pacientes com miocardite. No entanto, n&#227;o apresentam valor diagn&#243;stico, pois s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Troponinas. </bold> As troponinas s&#227;o mais espec&#237;ficas que CPK e CKMB para les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas e est&#227;o frequentemente elevadas em pacientes com miocardite. <xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr"><sup>84</sup></xref> No entanto, troponinas normais n&#227;o excluem o diagn&#243;stico. Embora n&#227;o sejam suficientes para estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, podem sugerir o diagn&#243;stico, desde que exclu&#237;das causas &#243;bvias como IAM e IC aguda. Em um estudo pequeno, em que v&#225;rios biomarcadores foram avaliados, troponinas foram preditores do diagn&#243;stico de miocardite confirmada por bi&#243;psia, com &#225;rea sob a curva de 0,87, sensibilidade de 83% e especificidade de 80%. <xref rid="B85" ref-type="bibr"><sup>85</sup></xref> Troponina &#233; &#250;til para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite em pacientes com miocardiopatia de instala&#231;&#227;o aguda.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> </sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Pept&#237;dios natriur&#233;ticos. </bold> BNP e NT-proBNP podem estar elevados na miocardite. <xref rid="B86" ref-type="bibr"><sup>86</sup></xref> No entanto, n&#227;o s&#227;o &#250;teis para confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, uma vez que se elevam frente a diferentes causas de IC. Contudo, podem ser marcadores progn&#243;sticos. Em um estudo com miocardite confirmada por bi&#243;psia, entre v&#225;rios biomarcadores avaliados, somente o NT-proBNP acima do &#250;ltimo quartil (&gt;4.245pg/mL) foi preditor de morte ou transplante card&#237;aco. <xref rid="B85" ref-type="bibr"><sup>85</sup></xref> </p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3.2. Marcadores Laboratoriais de Pesquisa Etiopatog&#234;nica</title>
        <p><bold>Sorologias virais. </bold> S&#227;o de valor limitado no diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, uma vez que anticorpos IgG de v&#237;rus cardiotr&#243;picos s&#227;o muito prevalentes na popula&#231;&#227;o geral na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca viral. Em um estudo, n&#227;o se observou correla&#231;&#227;o entre sorologia viral e achados da bi&#243;psia.<sup><xref rid="B87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref></sup> Em situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas, podem ser &#250;teis a sorologia para hepatite C, pesquisa de v&#237;rus HIV em indiv&#237;duos de alto risco e doen&#231;a de Lyme em &#225;reas end&#234;micas. A pesquisa de marcadores sorol&#243;gicas deve ser ditada pela elevada suspei&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica para aquela doen&#231;a ( <xref rid="t4" ref-type="table">Tabela 3</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es na avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial inicial da miocardite</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Uso de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Biomarcadores de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica para auxiliar o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BNP ou NT-ProBNP para auxiliar o diagn&#243;stico e estratifica&#231;&#227;o de progn&#243;stico de miocardite</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Investiga&#231;&#227;o sorol&#243;gica e/ou detec&#231;&#227;o de ant&#237;genos e/ou RT-PCR para diagn&#243;stico de Covid-19 em casos suspeitos</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Investiga&#231;&#227;o sorol&#243;gica e/ou detec&#231;&#227;o de ant&#237;genos e/ou RT-PCR para avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial de pacientes em situa&#231;&#245;es especiais de suspeita de miocardite por etiologias espec&#237;ficas</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sorologias virais na investiga&#231;&#227;o de rotina de todos os casos de miocardite</td>
                  <td>III</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>
                  <italic>BNP: pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B; RT-PCR: rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia de polimerase.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p><bold>Marcadores imuno-histoqu&#237;micos e an&#225;lise de genoma viral. </bold> S&#227;o superiores aos crit&#233;rios de Dallas e, portanto, &#250;teis no diagn&#243;stico etiol&#243;gico. A taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es com a BEM &#233; baixa ( <xref rid="t4" ref-type="table">Tabela 3</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B88" ref-type="bibr">88</xref> - <xref rid="B90" ref-type="bibr">90</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.4. Eletrocardiograma</title>
      <p>O eletrocardiograma (ECG) &#233; comumente solicitado para triagem de miocardite, mas com especificidade limitada, embora os pacientes frequentemente apresentem alguma altera&#231;&#227;o no ECG.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Taquicardia sinusal pode ser a forma mais comum de apresenta&#231;&#227;o do ECG.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> Algumas altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG s&#227;o mais sugestivas de miocardite do que outras. Por exemplo, a eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST-T na miocardite &#233; tipicamente c&#244;ncava (em vez de convexa na isquemia mioc&#225;rdica), difusa sem altera&#231;&#245;es rec&#237;procas, transit&#243;ria e revers&#237;vel na evolu&#231;&#227;o ( <xref rid="f02" ref-type="fig">Figura 2</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>- Curso evolutivo do padr&#227;o de repolariza&#231;&#227;o precoce na miocardite aguda.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Adaptada de Oka et al.<sup>91</sup></attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>O padr&#227;o de repolariza&#231;&#227;o precoce (RP) no ECG de alguns pacientes com miocardite aguda pode ser a evid&#234;ncia de inflama&#231;&#227;o/edema localizado no epic&#225;rdico do VE. Oka et al.<sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref></sup> mostraram que o padr&#227;o de RP no ECG da miocardite aguda foi transit&#243;rio, revers&#237;vel e n&#227;o estava associado a um pior progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O BAV, na presen&#231;a de dilata&#231;&#227;o leve do VE, pode ser devido a v&#225;rias causas (incluindo laminopatia), mas tamb&#233;m pode ser sugestivo de doen&#231;a de Lyme, sarcoidose card&#237;aca ou miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes. Ogunbayo identificou que, em 31.760 pacientes com diagn&#243;stico prim&#225;rio de miocardite, o bloqueio card&#237;aco foi relatado em 540 (1,7%), sendo 21,6% com BAV de primeiro grau, 11,2% com BAV de segundo grau e 67,2% com BAV de alto grau. O BAV de alto grau apresentou associa&#231;&#227;o independente com o aumento da morbimortalidade.<sup><xref rid="B92" ref-type="bibr">92</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Recente metan&#225;lise mostrou que o alargamento de QRS esteve presente como caracter&#237;stica precoce da miocardite fulminante.<sup><xref rid="B93" ref-type="bibr">93</xref></sup> Em um estudo em que pacientes internados agudamente com miocardite sem IC pr&#233;via foram submetidos &#224; BEM, o alargamento do QRS foi preditor independente de morte card&#237;aca ou transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Uma propor&#231;&#227;o significativa de pacientes com miocardite aguda apresenta morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca, presumivelmente por arritmia card&#237;aca. Estudo recente de Adegbala mostrou um total de 32.107 interna&#231;&#245;es por miocardite aguda entre 2007 e 2014, nos EUA, das quais 10.844 (33,71%) apresentaram arritmias, sendo as mais comuns taquicardia ventricular (22,3%) e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (26,9%), e a presen&#231;a dessas arritmias teve impacto na mortalidade.<sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Resumidamente, o ECG fornece uma ferramenta conveniente para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e a triagem inicial, mas com valor diagn&#243;stico fraco.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>4.4.1. Crit&#233;rio de diagn&#243;stico por eletrocardiograma/ <italic>Holter</italic> /testes de estresse <xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr"><sup>12</sup></xref> </title>
        <p>O ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es &#233; pr&#225;tica usual na investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e na avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica da miocardite ( <xref rid="t5" ref-type="table">Tabela 4</xref> ). As altera&#231;&#245;es mais frequentemente associadas com a miocardite no ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es e/ou <italic>Holter</italic> e/ou testes de estresse, com qualquer um dos seguintes: bloqueio atrioventricular de I a III graus ou bloqueio de ramo, altera&#231;&#227;o de ST/T (eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST ou sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST, invers&#227;o da onda T), parada sinusal, taquicardia ou fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventriculares e assistolia, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, redu&#231;&#227;o da altura da onda R, atraso da condu&#231;&#227;o intraventricular (complexo QRS alargado), ondas Q anormais, baixa voltagem, batimentos prematuros frequentes, taquicardia supraventricular.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Tabela 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es de eletrocardiograma para avalia&#231;&#227;o de miocardite</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Eletrocardiograma na suspeita de miocardite</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Eletrocardiograma para avaliar progn&#243;stico na miocardite</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.4.2. Progn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>Alargamento do QRS, BAV de alto grau, taquicardia ventricular e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial aumentaram a mortalidade.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.5. Ecocardiograma</title>
      <p>O ecocardiograma tem um papel limitado no diagn&#243;stico da miocardite propriamente dita. Trata-se de uma ferramenta muito importante na exclus&#227;o de outras patologias, devendo sempre ser realizada quando ocorre a suspeita cl&#237;nica ( <xref rid="t6" ref-type="table">Tabela 5</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B96" ref-type="bibr">96</xref> , <xref rid="B97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref> </sup> N&#227;o existe um achado ecocardiogr&#225;fico espec&#237;fico, e as altera&#231;&#245;es encontradas apenas v&#227;o espelhar um quadro inflamat&#243;rio mioc&#225;rdico. Portanto, podemos evidenciar desde altera&#231;&#245;es segmentares (diagn&#243;stico diferencial com as cardiopatias isqu&#234;micas) at&#233; altera&#231;&#245;es difusas (hipocinesia global de um ou ambos os ventr&#237;culos).<sup><xref rid="B98" ref-type="bibr">98</xref> , <xref rid="B99" ref-type="bibr">99</xref> </sup> Quando o acometimento &#233; agudo e grave, as cavidades ventriculares s&#227;o pequenas (n&#227;o dilatadas) e podemos evidenciar a presen&#231;a de edema mioc&#225;rdico (aumento da espessura parietal), bem como derrame peric&#225;rdico, achados esses comuns na miocardite fulminante. O acometimento do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) geralmente reflete um progn&#243;stico mais reservado.<sup><xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">100</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t6">
          <label>Tabela 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiograma na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial da miocardite</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                <th>Classe</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Ecocardiograma para avalia&#231;&#227;o de estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ecocardiograma para avalia&#231;&#227;o e estratifica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ecocardiograma para guiar a bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Um papel interessante do ecocardiograma &#233; como adjunto na realiza&#231;&#227;o da BEM, visando n&#227;o s&#243; ao s&#237;tio ideal para a retirada dos fragmentos, mas tamb&#233;m guiando o intervencionista e evitando complica&#231;&#245;es ( <xref rid="t6" ref-type="table">Tabela 5</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B101" ref-type="bibr">101</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.6. Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Card&#237;aca</title>
      <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com miocardite, assim como na avalia&#231;&#227;o de outras cardiomiopatias n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) apresenta grande utilidade na determina&#231;&#227;o dos par&#226;metros morfol&#243;gicos e funcionais ventriculares. De fato, j&#225; foi amplamente validada para quantificar os volumes, a massa e a fun&#231;&#227;o tanto do VE quanto do VD, e &#233; considerada, atualmente, a modalidade diagn&#243;stica padr&#227;o-ouro para essa avalia&#231;&#227;o. Dada a sua alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial e temporal, e devido a sua natureza tridimencional, que a torna independente de premissas geom&#233;tricas, a RMC apresenta excelente acur&#225;cia e reprodutibilidade caracter&#237;sticas especialmente &#250;teis ao acompanhamento longitudinal dos pacientes.<sup><xref rid="B102" ref-type="bibr">102</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Entretanto, o maior valor da RMC na avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com suspeita ou diagn&#243;stico confirmado de miocardite consiste na sua capacidade de proporcionar detalhada caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual. Dessa maneira, permite identificar tanto a les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica inflamat&#243;ria das fases aguda e subaguda quanto as les&#245;es cicatriciais frequentemente presentes na fase cr&#244;nica da doen&#231;a. As principais t&#233;cnicas de RMC classicamente utilizadas na caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica dos pacientes com miocardite s&#227;o as sequ&#234;ncias ponderadas em T2 (&#8220; <italic>T2 imaging</italic> &#8221;) e a t&#233;cnica do realce tardio.<sup><xref rid="B103" ref-type="bibr">103</xref> - <xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>Nas imagens adquiridas pelas sequ&#234;ncias ponderadas em T2, quanto maior for o conte&#250;do l&#237;quido de um determinado tecido, maior ser&#225; sua intensidade de sinal. Portanto, essa t&#233;cnica permite avaliar o edema mioc&#225;rdico secund&#225;rio ao processo inflamat&#243;rio nos pacientes com miocardite aguda (&#8220; <italic>edema imaging</italic> &#8221;).<sup><xref rid="B102" ref-type="bibr">102</xref> - <xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">105</xref> </sup> A t&#233;cnica do realce tardio, por sua vez, permite identificar as regi&#245;es de necrose no caso das miocardites agudas ou subagudas, e as regi&#245;es de fibrose no caso das miocardites cr&#244;nicas.<sup><xref rid="B106" ref-type="bibr">106</xref> , <xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref> - <xref rid="B110" ref-type="bibr">110</xref> </sup> Cabe ressaltar que o padr&#227;o de realce tardio da miocardite &#233; muito diferente daquele observado nos casos de IAM. A principal diferen&#231;a &#233; que, no caso do infarto, o realce tardio sempre acomete o subendoc&#225;rdio. O acometimento pode at&#233; ser transmural, mas a camada subendoc&#225;rdica sempre est&#225; envolvida. No caso da miocardite, o realce tardio &#233; mais frequentemente mesoepic&#225;rdico, na maior parte das vezes poupando o endoc&#225;rdio. Al&#233;m disso, enquanto, no infarto, as regi&#245;es de realce tardio tendem a ser &#250;nicas, homog&#234;neas e distribu&#237;das de acordo com os territ&#243;rios coronarianos, no caso da miocardite, as regi&#245;es de realce costumam ser multifocais, heterog&#234;neas e esparsas, n&#227;o respeitado os territ&#243;rios coronarianos.</p>
      <p>O Consenso de Lake Louise (CLL) original,<sup><xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">105</xref></sup> publicado em 2009, se baseava em tr&#234;s t&#233;cnicas de RMC. Al&#233;m da t&#233;cnica de imagem ponderada em T2 (&#8220; <italic>edema imaging</italic> &#8221;) e da t&#233;cnica do realce tardio, ambas mencionadas anteriormente, inclu&#237;a tamb&#233;m a chamada t&#233;cnica do realce mioc&#225;rdico precoce. Esta &#250;ltima acabou por ser exclu&#237;da na atualiza&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos, ap&#243;s ficar demonstrado que n&#227;o adicionava valor diagn&#243;stico incremental &#224;s demais t&#233;cnicas. Na pr&#225;tica, o realce mioc&#225;rdico precoce j&#225; n&#227;o vinha sendo utilizado clinicamente na maior parte dos centros de RMC do mundo.</p>
      <p>Recentemente, novas t&#233;cnicas de RMC capazes de medir os tempos de relaxamento longitudinal (T1) e transversal (T2) do mioc&#225;rdico foram introduzidas como m&#233;todos potencialmente sens&#237;veis e espec&#237;ficos para a detec&#231;&#227;o de processo inflamat&#243;rio mioc&#225;rdico.<sup><xref rid="B111" ref-type="bibr">111</xref></sup> Em geral, os valores de T1 ou T2 s&#227;o medidos <italic>pixel</italic> a <italic>pixel</italic> e apresentados na forma de mapas param&#233;tricos, os chamados mapas T1 e T2 do mioc&#225;rdio. O mapa T1 pode ser adquirido antes do contraste (T1 nativo) e 15 a 20 minutos ap&#243;s contraste (momento de relativo equil&#237;brio da concentra&#231;&#227;o de gadol&#237;nio), permitindo, assim, o c&#225;lculo do volume extracelular do mioc&#225;rdio (VEC ou ECV [do ingl&#234;s, <italic>extracellular volume</italic> ]). O mapa T2 &#233; usualmente adquirido apenas antes da administra&#231;&#227;o do contraste.</p>
      <p>A incorpora&#231;&#227;o dos mapas T1 e T2 constituiu a motiva&#231;&#227;o central para a recente atualiza&#231;&#227;o do CLL para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite pela RMC. De acordo com o novo consenso,<sup><xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">104</xref></sup> esse diagn&#243;stico se baseia na presen&#231;a de dois crit&#233;rios principais que podem estar ou n&#227;o associados a crit&#233;rios de suporte ( <xref rid="t7" ref-type="table">Tabela 6</xref> ). O primeiro crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico principal tem por objetivo identificar a presen&#231;a de edema mioc&#225;rdico e se fundamenta na utiliza&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas baseadas em T2: (1) t&#233;cnica de imagem ponderada em T2 (&#8220; <italic>edema imaging</italic> &#8221;) e/ou (2) t&#233;cnica de mapeamento T2. O segundo crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico principal tamb&#233;m permite detectar a presen&#231;a de edema mioc&#225;rdico, mas tem por objetivo primordial identificar a presen&#231;a de necrose, fibrose e extravasamento capilar. Este segundo crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico principal se fundamenta na utiliza&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas baseadas em T1: (1) t&#233;cnica do realce tardio e/ou (2) t&#233;cnicas de mapeamento T1 (T1 nativo ou VEC).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t7">
          <label>Tabela 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Crit&#233;rios para diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, miopericardite ou perimiocardite</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Crit&#233;rio Lake Louise atualizado 1 CRIT&#201;RIO T2 POSITIVO + 1 CRIT&#201;RIO T1 POSITIVO</th>
                <th>Alvo diagn&#243;stico</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>CRIT&#201;RIOS PRINCIPAIS</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Imagem baseada no T2</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> Intensidade de sinal aumentada regional do VE (an&#225;lise visual) ou</td>
                <td>E</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> Intensidade de sinal global aumentada &#8211; rela&#231;&#227;o &#8805; 2 ou</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> Tempos de T2 (mapa T2) aumentados global ou regionalmente</td>
                <td>EDEMA</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Imagem baseada no T1 </bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> Aumento regional ou global nos tempos de T1 (mapa T1) ou VEC ou</td>
                <td>Aumento de T1 = edema (intra ou extracelular), hiperemia, extravasamento capilar, necrose, fibrose Aumento do VEC = edema (extracelular), hiperemia, extravasamento capilar, necrose, fibrose</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> &#193;reas com aumento de intensidade de sinal em padr&#227;o de distribui&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o isqu&#234;mico em imagens de realce tardio</td>
                <td>Realce Tardio = necrose, fibrose</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>CRIT&#201;RIOS DE SUPORTE</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Derrame peric&#225;rdico nas imagens de cine-RM ou aumento de intensidade de sinal do peric&#225;rdio em imagens de realce tardio, mapa T1 ou mapa T2</td>
                <td>Inflama&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Altera&#231;&#227;o de contratilidade do VE em imagens de cine-RM</td>
                <td>Disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>
                <italic>VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; RM: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica; VEC: volume extracelular.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Os novos crit&#233;rios para diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, miopericardite ou perimiocardite e publicados em 2018 est&#227;o listados na <xref rid="t7" ref-type="table">Tabela 6</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">104</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A acur&#225;cia da RMC na avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com suspeita de miocardite no primeiro CLL foi estimada em 78% (sensibilidade de 67% e especificidade de 91%).<sup><xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">105</xref></sup> Essas estimativas foram posteriormente confirmadas em uma metan&#225;lise que demonstrou acur&#225;cia de 83%, com uma sensibilidade de 80% e especificidade de 87%.<sup><xref rid="B112" ref-type="bibr">112</xref></sup> De modo similar, outra metan&#225;lise ainda mais recente demonstrou sensibilidade de 78% e especificidade de 88%, com uma &#225;rea sob a curva (AUC) de 83%.<sup><xref rid="B113" ref-type="bibr">113</xref></sup> Ainda n&#227;o existem dados consistentes avaliando a acur&#225;cia da RMC utilizando os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos propostos na segunda vers&#227;o do CLL. Entretanto, um pequeno estudo recente que incluiu apenas 40 pacientes com miocardite aguda demonstrou sensibilidade de 88% e especificidade de 96% da RMC utilizando os novos crit&#233;rios revisados (ver <xref rid="t7" ref-type="table">Tabela 6</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B114" ref-type="bibr">114</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso da RMC na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica dos pacientes com suspeita de miocardite aguda est&#227;o sumarizadas na <xref rid="t8" ref-type="table">Tabela 7</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B57" ref-type="bibr">57</xref> , <xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">104</xref> , <xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref> , <xref rid="B114" ref-type="bibr">114</xref> - <xref rid="B116" ref-type="bibr">116</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t8">
          <label>Tabela 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso da resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica dos pacientes com suspeita de miocardite aguda</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                <th>Classe</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com eleva&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica e coron&#225;rias normais na avalia&#231;&#227;o angiogr&#225;fica</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes portadores de cardiomiopatia dilatada e suspeita de miocardite &gt; 6 meses de evolu&#231;&#227;o, com o objetivo de auxiliar na investiga&#231;&#227;o etiol&#243;gica, excluir poss&#237;veis diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais e proporcionar informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Reavalia&#231;&#227;o em at&#233; 4 semanas para pacientes com risco progn&#243;stico intermedi&#225;rio ou alto ap&#243;s o epis&#243;dio agudo, com o objetivo de diferenciar uma evolu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o complicada de um curso complicado</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>B</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Com base no conjunto das evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas acumuladas desde a primeira vers&#227;o desta diretriz da SBC, podemos, hoje, indicar uma posi&#231;&#227;o da RMC mais estruturada na tomada de decis&#227;o de pacientes com suspeita de miocardite como proposto na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco a seguir, na <xref rid="t9" ref-type="table">Tabela 8</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref> , <xref rid="B115" ref-type="bibr">115</xref> , <xref rid="B117" ref-type="bibr">117</xref> </sup> Tal estratifica&#231;&#227;o deve ser integrada &#224; estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco ampla que inclui a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e outros exames complementares.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t9">
          <label>Tabela 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e probabilidade da indica&#231;&#227;o de bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica baseada nos par&#226;metros de resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC)</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Risco progn&#243;stico</th>
                <th>Par&#226;metro da RMC</th>
                <th>Conduta sugerida</th>
                <th>Indica&#231;&#227;o de bi&#243;psia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Baixo</td>
                <td>T1 e T2, sem altera&#231;&#227;o Sem disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular</td>
                <td>Seguimento cl&#237;nico</td>
                <td>Sem indica&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Intermedi&#225;rio</td>
                <td>T1 ou T2, positivos Realce tardio n&#227;o extenso (&lt;17g e 13% da massa do VE) Fun&#231;&#227;o normal ou leve disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE</td>
                <td>Seguimento cl&#237;nico Repeti&#231;&#227;o da RMC em 1, 3 e 6 meses</td>
                <td>Est&#225;vel: sem indica&#231;&#227;o Progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o: poss&#237;vel indica&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Alto</td>
                <td>T1 ou T2, positivos Realce tardio extenso (&gt;17g ou 13% da massa do VE), ou com envolvimento do septo interventricular, e/ou disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE moderada ou importante</td>
                <td>Seguimento cl&#237;nico Repeti&#231;&#227;o da RMC em 1, 3 e 6 meses</td>
                <td>Poss&#237;vel indica&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>
                <italic>VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.7. Medicina Nuclear</title>
      <p>A medicina nuclear tem tido um papel crescente na avalia&#231;&#227;o do paciente com miocardite. Novos radiotra&#231;adores e novos equipamentos t&#234;m tra&#231;ado todo um novo espectro de contribui&#231;&#245;es para o manejo de pacientes com suspeita de doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
      <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas dos diversos tipos de miocardite v&#227;o formar a base para o uso das t&#233;cnicas de medicina nuclear: o processo inflamat&#243;rio que leva &#224; les&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; caracterizado por infiltra&#231;&#227;o de linf&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos no mioc&#225;rdio, pelo aumento da permeabilidade vascular e pelo consumo aumentado de glicose no s&#237;tio de inflama&#231;&#227;o e pela necrose celular com redu&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o tecidual em compara&#231;&#227;o com o mioc&#225;rdio &#237;ntegro. Essas caracter&#237;sticas v&#227;o se traduzir pela maior capta&#231;&#227;o de citrato de G&#225;lio-67 no mioc&#225;rdio (especialmente &#250;til nos casos de sarcoidose), pelo aumento do ac&#250;mulo de glicose marcada com fl&#250;or radioativo (<sup>18</sup>F-FDG) e pela redu&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica vista com tra&#231;adores com 99mTc-Sestamibi ou 201 T&#225;lio. A <xref rid="t46" ref-type="table">Tabela 9</xref> lista os principais radiotra&#231;adores utilizados na miocardite.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t46">
          <label>Tabela 9</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Principais exames de medicina nuclear empregados em pacientes com suspeita ou diagn&#243;stico de miocardite</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Exame de medicina nuclear</th>
                <th>Principais indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                <th>Vantagens</th>
                <th>Desvantagens</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Cintilografia com G&#225;lio-67</td>
                <td>Miocardite e sarcoidose</td>
                <td>Ampla disponibilidade</td>
                <td>Menor sensibilidade</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG</td>
                <td>Sarcoidose, miocardite l&#250;pica, arritmias card&#237;acas inexplic&#225;veis</td>
                <td>Elevada sensibilidade, uso no acompanhamento da resposta ao tratamento</td>
                <td>Menor disponibilidade, maior custo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cintilografia com <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG</td>
                <td>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de arritmias ventriculares</td>
                <td>Identifica pacientes em risco de morte s&#250;bita</td>
                <td>Menor disponibilidade de acesso</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <p>
                <italic>PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodesoxiglicose.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>4.7.1. Radiotra&#231;adores para Cintilografia por Emiss&#227;o de F&#243;ton &#218;nico (SPECT)</title>
        <p>O citrato de G&#225;lio-67 &#233; um tra&#231;ador consagrado para pesquisa de infec&#231;&#227;o em medicina nuclear que se liga a c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias em s&#237;tios de aumento de permeabilidade vascular gra&#231;as &#224; sua caracter&#237;stica liga&#231;&#227;o com as prote&#237;nas transportadoras do ferro como a lactoferina e nos lisossomos leucocit&#225;rios. O G&#225;lio-67 tem baixa sensibilidade (36%) para detec&#231;&#227;o de miocardite em pacientes com miocardiopatia dilatada de in&#237;cio recente e n&#227;o deve ser empregado de rotina com essa indica&#231;&#227;o ( <xref rid="t47" ref-type="table">Tabela 10</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B118" ref-type="bibr">118</xref></sup> O &#250;nico tipo de miocardite com alto rendimento positivo para a cintilografia com G&#225;lio-67 &#233; a decorrente da sarcoidose, em que os granulomas com c&#233;lulas gigantes s&#227;o especialmente &#225;vidos para a reten&#231;&#227;o do radiotra&#231;ador. A presen&#231;a de cintilografia com G&#225;lio-67 positiva &#233; considerada como um crit&#233;rio maior para o diagn&#243;stico de sarcoidose card&#237;aca pelo consenso de especialistas da Heart Rhythm Society (HRS).<sup><xref rid="B119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref></sup> Outro achado significativo observado em pacientes com sarcoidose card&#237;aca &#233; a altera&#231;&#227;o de perfus&#227;o decorrente da presen&#231;a de constri&#231;&#227;o microvascular mioc&#225;rdica nos vasos circunjacentes aos granulomas. O defeito de perfus&#227;o observado na cintilografia em repouso pode desaparecer na imagem de estresse, um padr&#227;o denominado redistribui&#231;&#227;o reversa que pode ser associado &#224; sarcoidose.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t47">
            <label>Tabela 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso dos exames de medicina nuclear na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica dos pacientes com suspeita de miocardite aguda</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG para auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico de miocardite</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cintilografia com G&#225;lio-67 para auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico de miocardite</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <p>
                  <italic>PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodesoxiglicose.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A cintilografia com G&#225;lio-67 pode ser empregada como alternativa a pacientes sem acesso ou que tenham contraindica&#231;&#227;o &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o de RMcom gadol&#237;nio (claustrofobia, alergia ao contraste, insufici&#234;ncia renal) e pode contribuir em casos suspeitos de miocardite por crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos (febre, hist&#243;ria recente de infec&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria ou intestinal, eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de necrose), sendo &#250;til tamb&#233;m no diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre IAM com coron&#225;rias normais e miocardite, conforme o estudo de Hung et al.,<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup> em que a t&#233;cnica se mostrou positiva quando realizada precocemente ap&#243;s o surgimento de sintomas.<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup> Alguns casos de miocardite podem apresentar agress&#227;o regional no mioc&#225;rdio e ser a etiologia de arritmias, <bold>onde os</bold> estudos com G&#225;lio-67 podem demonstrar ac&#250;mulo focal em &#225;reas dos ventr&#237;culos e at&#233; mesmo dos &#225;trios isoladamente.<sup><xref rid="B121" ref-type="bibr">121</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.7.2. Radiotra&#231;adores para Tomografia por Emiss&#227;o de P&#243;sitrons (SPECT)</title>
        <p>O <sup>18</sup>F-FDG &#233; captado pelas c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias como transporte ativo de modo independente da a&#231;&#227;o da insulina. Dessa maneira, quando &#233; realizada uma adequada supress&#227;o da capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelo mioc&#225;rdio, o PET com<sup> 18</sup>F-FDG se transforma em uma sens&#237;vel ferramenta para diagn&#243;stico de inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e para acompanhamento da mesma em resposta ao tratamento ( <xref rid="t47" ref-type="table">Tabela 10</xref> ).</p>
        <p>O maior n&#250;mero de estudos do uso do PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG na miocardite est&#225; concentrado na sarcoidose card&#237;aca, em que recente metan&#225;lise demonstrou sensibilidade de 84% e especificidade de 83%.<sup><xref rid="B122" ref-type="bibr">122</xref></sup> Para que o PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG seja &#250;til na sarcoidose ou em outras afec&#231;&#245;es inflamat&#243;rias card&#237;acas como miocardite, endocardite infecciosa ou na rejei&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s transplante, &#233; crucial o adequado preparo do paciente para evitar que insulina circulante leve a ac&#250;mulo n&#227;o inflamat&#243;rio de <sup>18</sup>F-FDG no mioc&#225;rdio. Entre os diversos esquemas de preparo indicados, o uso do jejum prolongado de 12 horas a 18 horas antes da inje&#231;&#227;o do radiotra&#231;ador &#233; um dos mais aplicados, bem como a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de uma dieta rica em lip&#237;dios e prote&#237;nas, enquanto o uso da heparina n&#227;o &#233; consensual.<sup><xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref> , <xref rid="B124" ref-type="bibr">124</xref> </sup> O marco diagn&#243;stico de atividade inflamat&#243;ria &#233; a capta&#231;&#227;o focal do <sup>18</sup>F-FDG no mioc&#225;rdio, enquanto h&#225; significado progn&#243;stico a presen&#231;a de capta&#231;&#227;o de <sup>18</sup>F-FDG no VD e a presen&#231;a de capta&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria em &#225;reas de hipoperfus&#227;o, as denominadas &#225;reas de discord&#226;ncia ( <italic>mismatch</italic> ): metabolismo aumentado com perfus&#227;o reduzida.<sup><xref rid="B124" ref-type="bibr">124</xref></sup> A utiliza&#231;&#227;o do PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG tamb&#233;m &#233; empregada para acompanhamento da resposta ao tratamento na sarcoidose card&#237;aca e para avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade da doen&#231;a extracard&#237;aca. Um algoritmo proposto de acompanhamento &#233; o da <xref rid="f03" ref-type="fig">Figura 3</xref> , adaptado de Young et al.<sup><xref rid="B125" ref-type="bibr">125</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Algoritmo proposto para diagn&#243;stico e acompanhamento da resposta ao tratamento na sarcoidose card&#237;aca. PET 18F-FDG: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons 18F-fluorodesoxiglicose.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Adaptado de Young et al.<sup>125</sup></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A miocardite n&#227;o associada &#224; sarcoidose tem como t&#233;cnica diagn&#243;stica padr&#227;o a RMC. O aumento da intensidade de sinal das imagens pesadas em T2 (edema), o aumento do realce precoce de gadol&#237;nio (hiperemia) e a impregna&#231;&#227;o tardia de gadol&#237;nio no mioc&#225;rdio (realce tardio para necrose) t&#234;m, combinados, sensibilidade de 67% e especificidade de 91% para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite. Entretanto, em muitos casos, h&#225; limita&#231;&#245;es para uso adequado da t&#233;cnica como baixa qualidade do sinal nas imagens em T2, artefatos e impossibilidade do uso do contraste gadol&#237;nio. Nesses casos, o uso do PET <sup>18</sup>F- FDG pode ser bastante &#250;til na complementa&#231;&#227;o da investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, seja em equipamentos de PET-CT ou mais modernamente em equipamentos de PET-RM, que associam ao PET um equipamento de RM.<sup><xref rid="B126" ref-type="bibr">126</xref></sup> Estudos com PET-RM t&#234;m demonstrado que o PET &#233; superior &#224; RM na identifica&#231;&#227;o de &#225;reas de inflama&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em atividade.<sup><xref rid="B127" ref-type="bibr">127</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O PET-CT com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG tem sido utilizado em condi&#231;&#245;es como l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico,<sup><xref rid="B128" ref-type="bibr">128</xref></sup> miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes,<sup><xref rid="B129" ref-type="bibr">129</xref></sup> esclerodermia<sup><xref rid="B130" ref-type="bibr">130</xref></sup> e at&#233; mesmo na cardite reum&#225;tica,<sup><xref rid="B131" ref-type="bibr">131</xref></sup>como t&#233;cnica para identifica&#231;&#227;o de inflama&#231;&#227;o em atividade com sucesso. Outro uso recente do PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG que vem crescendo &#233; na investiga&#231;&#227;o da etiologia de arritmias: sarcoidose card&#237;aca e miocardite cr&#244;nica, incluindo doen&#231;a de Chagas, como causa de arritmias ventriculares,<sup><xref rid="B132" ref-type="bibr">132</xref></sup> bem como na investiga&#231;&#227;o de dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o, especialmente indiv&#237;duos com menos de 50 anos de idade e bloqueio atrioventricular em que o PET tem identificado diversos casos de sarcoidose e mesmo de tuberculose card&#237;aca como causa do dist&#250;rbio de condu&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup> No estudo de Tung et al., 50% dos pacientes com miocardiopatia e arritmias ventriculares inexplic&#225;veis tiveram o PET com <sup>18</sup>F-FDG positivo, indicando a presen&#231;a de miocardite n&#227;o suspeita por outras t&#233;cnicas.<sup><xref rid="B134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.7.3. Perspectivas Adicionais</title>
        <p>Novos radiotra&#231;adores t&#234;m sido avaliados em pacientes com inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, como &#233; o caso do 68G&#225;lio-dotatate, que tem afinidade pelos receptores de somatostatina que est&#227;o expressos em c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias. Outro radiotra&#231;ador que tem sido analisado &#233; o 123I-MIBG, que avalia o estado da inerva&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica pr&#233;- sin&#225;ptica card&#237;aca. Apesar de o radiotra&#231;ador n&#227;o identificar de modo direto o estado inflamat&#243;rio, ele tem rela&#231;&#227;o importante com o risco aumentado de arritmias ventriculares, em especial, em pacientes com miocardite cr&#244;nica chag&#225;sica, demonstrando as &#225;reas de mioc&#225;rdio vi&#225;vel que s&#227;o denervadas e, por isso, mais vulner&#225;veis &#224; taquicardia ventricular sustentada.<sup><xref rid="B135" ref-type="bibr">135</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.8. Angiotomografia de Coron&#225;rias e Coronariografia</title>
      <p>A miocardite aguda pode mimetizar IAM com dor tor&#225;cica t&#237;pica, anormalidades no ECG similares ao IAM com ou sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, eleva&#231;&#227;o das enzimas card&#237;acas e instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica.<sup><xref rid="B136" ref-type="bibr">136</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Na suspeita de miocardite com apresenta&#231;&#227;o parecida com um infarto, &#233; necess&#225;rio excluir DAC por coronariografia percut&#226;nea ou angiotomografia de coron&#225;rias. A cinecoronariografia de rotina tamb&#233;m deve ser realizada durante a investiga&#231;&#227;o de uma nova cardiomiopatia dilatada.<sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise de 46 publica&#231;&#245;es avaliando a fisiopatologia subjacente de IAM com art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias n&#227;o obstrutivas (MINOCA) revelou um infarto t&#237;pico na RMC em apenas 24% dos pacientes, miocardite em 33% e sem anomalia significativa em 26%.<sup><xref rid="B138" ref-type="bibr">138</xref></sup> A idade jovem e a PCR estavam associadas &#224; miocardite, enquanto sexo masculino, hiperlipidemia tratada, alta raz&#227;o de troponina e baixa PCR estavam associados ao IAM verdadeiro.<sup><xref rid="B139" ref-type="bibr">139</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Como pacientes com miocardite aguda que imitam o IAM com supradesniveamento do segmento ST t&#234;m um progn&#243;stico favor&#225;vel, &#233; importante estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico correto para evitar tratamentos desnecess&#225;rios e potencialmente perigosos.<sup><xref rid="B139" ref-type="bibr">139</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A angiotomografia computadorizada de coron&#225;rias (angio-TC) &#233; um exame simples e r&#225;pido, e fornece uma avalia&#231;&#227;o abrangente das caracter&#237;sticas das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias e do tecido mioc&#225;rdico. Na pr&#225;tica, a aquisi&#231;&#227;o da angio-TC em primeira passagem permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o da anatomia coronariana e do realce do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. A aquisi&#231;&#227;o tardia de angio-TC &#233; realizada 3 a 5 minutos mais tarde, sem necessidade de reinje&#231;&#227;o do meio de contraste, permitindo a capta&#231;&#227;o de iodo em imagens tardias com contraste real&#231;ados de maneira semelhante &#224; RM do cora&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B140" ref-type="bibr">140</xref> , <xref rid="B141" ref-type="bibr">141</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>A angio-TC e a RM do cora&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m maneiras pr&#243;prias e exclusivas de evitar uma angiografia coronariana invasiva, para excluir DAC (significativa) e para detectar outras doen&#231;as, como dissec&#231;&#227;o aguda da aorta, embolia pulmonar, miocardite ou cardiomiopatia de estresse.<sup><xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">142</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A grande disponibilidade da angio-TC, combinada com a possibilidade de descartar s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) com angiografia coronariana durante o mesmo exame, torna-a promissora no refinamento das imagens de miocardite aguda ( <xref rid="t48" ref-type="table">Tabela 11</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B141" ref-type="bibr">141</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t48">
          <label>Tabela 11</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Indica&#231;&#227;o de angiotomografia computadorizada de coron&#225;rias na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica dos pacientes com suspeita de miocardite aguda</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Indica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th>Classe</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Angiotomografia de coron&#225;rias para exclus&#227;o de coronariopatia obstrutiva grave na investiga&#231;&#227;o de miocardite como alternativa &#224; coronariografia em pacientes com probabilidade pr&#233;-teste baixa ou intermedi&#225;ria de DAC</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN7">
              <p>
                <italic>DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Em crian&#231;as com suspeita de miocardite e doen&#231;a de Kawasaki, a angiotomografia computadorizada pode ser usada na avalia&#231;&#227;o das anormalidades nas art&#233;rias coronarianas.<sup><xref rid="B143" ref-type="bibr">143</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A &#250;ltima diretriz da European Society of Cardiology (ESC) sugere que, na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana angiograficamente significativa (estenose &#8805;50%) ou condi&#231;&#245;es preexistentes que poderiam explicar o cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico, pacientes que t&#234;m pelo menos uma das cinco apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas (dor tor&#225;cica aguda; IC aguda ou com piora com &#8804;3 meses de dispneia, fadiga e/ou sinais de IC; IC cr&#244;nica com &gt;3 meses de dispneia, fadiga e/ou sinais de IC; palpita&#231;&#245;es, sintomas de arritmias inexplic&#225;veis e/ou s&#237;ncope e/ou morte abortada; choque cardiog&#234;nico inexplic&#225;vel) e/ou certos testes diagn&#243;sticos de suporte (ECG, <italic>Holter</italic> , troponina, anormalidades de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e edema e/ou realce tardio do gadol&#237;nio com padr&#227;o mioc&#225;rdico cl&#225;ssico) devem ser considerados como tendo &#8220;suspeita cl&#237;nica de miocardite&#8221; e, assim, justificar uma avalia&#231;&#227;o adicional.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> </sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.9. Bi&#243;psia Endomioc&#225;rdica: Indica&#231;&#245;es, T&#233;cnica e Complica&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <p>A an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica do tecido do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; ferramenta importante para diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico nos pacientes com miocardite. A bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica (BEM) utilizando crit&#233;rios histopatol&#243;gicos padronizados (crit&#233;rios de Dallas)<sup><xref rid="B144" ref-type="bibr">144</xref></sup> e imuno-histoqu&#237;micos &#233; o atual padr&#227;o-ouro para diagn&#243;stico de miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os crit&#233;rios de Dallas, isoladamente, apresentam limita&#231;&#245;es, em virtude do alto grau de variabilidade interobservador na interpreta&#231;&#227;o patol&#243;gica e detec&#231;&#227;o de processos inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o celulares, diagnosticando em torno 10% a 20% dos pacientes.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Assim, de acordo com a defini&#231;&#227;o da OMS, a imuno-histoqu&#237;mica com o uso de painel de anticorpos monoclonais e policlonais &#233; mandat&#243;ria para diferenciar os componentes inflamat&#243;rios presentes.<sup><xref rid="B145" ref-type="bibr">145</xref> , <xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">146</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise gen&#244;mica viral no mioc&#225;rdio doente, quando acoplada com as an&#225;lises imuno-histoqu&#237;micas, melhorou a precis&#227;o e a utilidade diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica da BEM.<sup><xref rid="B147" ref-type="bibr">147</xref></sup> &#201; recomendada a triagem viral: enterov&#237;rus, influenza, adenov&#237;rus, citomegalov&#237;rus, v&#237;rus Epstein-Barr, parvov&#237;rus B19, herpes-v&#237;rus humano.<sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref></sup></p>
      <p>No entanto, como alguns genomas virais (p. ex., PVB19) podem ser detectados em cora&#231;&#245;es normais e em doen&#231;as card&#237;acas isqu&#234;micas e valvares,<sup><xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">148</xref></sup> pode ser necess&#225;rio o uso complementar de mRNA espec&#237;ficos de DNA virais para definir infec&#231;&#227;o ativa.<sup><xref rid="B149" ref-type="bibr">149</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>4.9.1. Pondera&#231;&#245;es para Indica&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A BEM realizada precocemente na apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica grave auxilia no diferencial diagn&#243;stico de tipos espec&#237;ficos de miocardite (c&#233;lulas gigantes, al&#233;rgica, eosinof&#237;lica, sarcoidose) que implicam diferentes tratamentos (p. ex., imunossupressores) e progn&#243;stico ( <xref rid="t49" ref-type="table">Tabela 12</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B150" ref-type="bibr">150</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t49">
            <label>Tabela 12</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica (BEM)</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>IC de in&#237;cio recente (&lt;2 semanas), sem causa definida, n&#227;o responsiva ao tratamento usual e com deteriora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IC de in&#237;cio recente (2 semanas a 3 meses), sem causa definida e associada a arritmias ventriculares ou bloqueios atrioventriculares de segundo ou terceiro grau</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Na presen&#231;a de suspeita cl&#237;nica de miocardite linfoc&#237;tica grave, miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes, miocardite eosinof&#237;lica necrosante</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IC com in&#237;cio &gt;3 meses e &lt;12 meses, sem causa definida, n&#227;o responsiva &#224; terapia-padr&#227;o otimizada</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IC decorrente de cardiomiopatia dilatada de qualquer dura&#231;&#227;o, com suspeita de rea&#231;&#227;o al&#233;rgica e/ou eosinofilia</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Arritmias ventriculares frequentes na presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de sintomas, sem causa definida</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Suspeita cl&#237;nica apoiada por m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos n&#227;o invasivos de miocardite</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>
                  <italic>IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, fornece diagn&#243;stico diferencial de doen&#231;as que podem simular miocardite (cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito, cardiomiopatia de Takotsubo, cardiomiopatia periparto, dist&#250;rbios inflamat&#243;rios/de armazenamento).<sup><xref rid="B150" ref-type="bibr">150</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Atualmente, a principal indica&#231;&#227;o para BEM ocorre em pacientes com IC de in&#237;cio recente (menos de 2 semanas), acompanhada de apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica grave (instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, uso de suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico ou inotr&#243;pico, refratariedade ao tratamento cl&#237;nico) ou arritmias de alto risco (arritmias ventriculares sustentada ou sintom&#225;tica ou bloqueios card&#237;acos de alto grau) ( <xref rid="t49" ref-type="table">Tabela 12</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B151" ref-type="bibr">151</xref> , <xref rid="B152" ref-type="bibr">152</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>No entanto, sabe-se as recomenda&#231;&#245;es antecedentes foram baseadas notadamente nos crit&#233;rios de Dallas, nos quais diagn&#243;stico, valor progn&#243;stico e terap&#234;utico &#233; limitada. Com o uso da an&#225;lise imuno-histoqu&#237;mica e gen&#244;mica viral, cresce a tend&#234;ncia de uma aplica&#231;&#227;o mais liberal da BEM na suspeita de miocardite clinicamente independente do padr&#227;o e gravidade da apresenta&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Por outro lado, o valor de BEM &#233; question&#225;vel em pacientes que apresentam s&#237;ndromes de baixo risco e respondem a tratamento padr&#227;o sem perspectiva de implica&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica ou progn&#243;stica. Finalmente, no cen&#225;rio de s&#237;ndromes de risco intermedi&#225;rio, a BEM deve ser considerada no caso de manuten&#231;&#227;o ou agravamento dos sintomas, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, arritmias, dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o ( <xref rid="f04" ref-type="fig">Figura 4</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B153" ref-type="bibr">153</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma terap&#234;utico de miocardite com base no grau de suspei&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e no progn&#243;stico.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; BEM: bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica; BRA: bloqueador do receptor da angiotensina; CAT: coronariografia; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico; ESV: extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares; IECA: inibidor da enzima de convers&#227;o; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; TC: tomografia computadorizada.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.9.2. Progn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>Enquanto os crit&#233;rios de Dallas n&#227;o s&#227;o um preditor preciso de resultados cl&#237;nicos, as evid&#234;ncias imuno-histol&#243;gicas de inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica est&#227;o associadas a um risco aumentado de morte cardiovascular e necessidade de transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B153" ref-type="bibr">153</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na miocardite por c&#233;lulas gigantes, a gravidade da necrose e fibrose est&#225; associada a um risco aumentado de morte e transplante.<sup><xref rid="B154" ref-type="bibr">154</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A aus&#234;ncia ou presen&#231;a de genomas enterovirais residuais em amostras repetidas correlacionou-se com a progress&#227;o para a cardiomiopatia em est&#225;gio terminal, enquanto depura&#231;&#227;o viral espont&#226;nea foi associada &#224; melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica.<sup><xref rid="B155" ref-type="bibr">155</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.9.3. T&#233;cnica</title>
        <p>O procedimento deve ser realizado no laborat&#243;rio de hemodin&#226;mica, por hemodinamicista com experi&#234;ncia na realiza&#231;&#227;o desse procedimento. A anestesia &#233; local com seda&#231;&#227;o consciente, se necess&#225;rio, sempre sob a supervis&#227;o do anestesiologista.</p>
        <p>A BEM pode ser realizada de maneira segura, guiada por fluoroscopia direta, e deve ter aux&#237;lio do ecocardiograma na sua realiza&#231;&#227;o que servir&#225; de guia para o posicionamento correto do bi&#243;tomo para que se evite puncionar a parede livre do VD.</p>
        <p>A RMC &#233; particularmente &#250;til para facilitar uma abordagem guiada, em virtude de sua utilidade na distin&#231;&#227;o entre mioc&#225;rdio normal e doente, e tem sido avaliada para aumentar valores preditivos.<sup><xref rid="B155" ref-type="bibr">155</xref></sup></p>
        <p>N&#227;o existem estudos comparativos para que se recomende a bi&#243;psia endoc&#225;rdica do VD ou do VE; entretanto, a realiza&#231;&#227;o da BEM do VE deve ser criteriosamente analisada em casos de doen&#231;a restrita ou predominante em VE.</p>
        <p>As amostras devem ser obtidas no ventr&#237;culo direito, especialmente a por&#231;&#227;o distal do septo interventricular e a &#225;rea trabeculada apical, evitando-se a parede livre do VD. O n&#250;mero de amostras depender&#225; da pesquisa a ser realizada. No caso de investiga&#231;&#227;o de miocardite viral, devem ser 10 amostras (6 para pesquisa viral, 2 para hematoxilina-eosina e 2 para imuno-histoqu&#237;mica). No caso de investiga&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as infiltrativas ou de dep&#243;sito, 6 fragmentos (2 para hematoxilina-eosina, 2 para imuno-histoqu&#237;mica e 2 para microscopia eletr&#244;nica). As amostras para HE e imuno-histoqu&#237;mica devem ser colocadas em frasco de formalina tamponada a 10% e n&#227;o devem ser refrigeradas. As amostras para pesquisa viral devem ser colocadas em microtubos tipo Eppendorf&#174; (sem solu&#231;&#245;es de transporte), e estes em recipientes com gelo seco, e rapidamente transferidas para refrigeradores &#8211;70 graus para armazenamento. As amostras para microscopia eletr&#244;nica devem ser acondicionadas em tubos Eppendorf&#174; com solu&#231;&#227;o oct.</p>
        <p>A BEM pode ser repetida, se necess&#225;rio, para monitorar a resposta &#224; terapia dirigida &#224; etiologia ou se houver suspeita de erro de amostragem em um paciente com progress&#227;o inexplicada de IC.<sup><xref rid="B156" ref-type="bibr">156</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.9.4. Complica&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>Embora a BEM tradicional seja considerada um procedimento seguro, diferentes complica&#231;&#245;es foram relatadas.</p>
        <p>Quando realizada em centros experientes, sua principal taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es &#233; &lt;1%, o que &#233; semelhante ao da angiografia coronariana.<sup><xref rid="B97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref></sup> A utiliza&#231;&#227;o do ecocardiograma associado &#224; fluoroscopia reduz de forma significativa a possibilidade de pun&#231;&#227;o inadvertida que possa ocasionar perfura&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou les&#227;o de coron&#225;ria.<sup><xref rid="B155" ref-type="bibr">155</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Podemos distinguir complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao acesso vascular e inser&#231;&#227;o da bainha e complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; remo&#231;&#227;o de amostras. As complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao acesso vascular s&#227;o: pun&#231;&#227;o arterial incidental; sangramento prolongado; hematoma e dissec&#231;&#227;o vascular.</p>
        <p>As comumente descritas s&#227;o: rea&#231;&#227;o vasovagal, BAV de graus variados, perfura&#231;&#227;o de parede livre de VD, pneumot&#243;rax, perfura&#231;&#227;o do septo interventricular, hematoma de s&#237;tio de pun&#231;&#227;o, f&#237;stulas intracard&#237;acas, hematoma retroperitoneal (acesso femoral), derrame peric&#225;rdico, deslocamento de trombos, tamponamento card&#237;aco, ruptura de cordoalhas tric&#250;spides, arritmias ventriculares.<sup><xref rid="B157" ref-type="bibr">157</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em resumo, o risco da BEM depende da condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dos pacientes, da experi&#234;ncia do operador e de todas as ferramentas tecnol&#243;gicas dispon&#237;veis para prevenir, diagnosticar e gerenciar complica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4.10. An&#225;lise Histol&#243;gica e Pesquisa Viral &#8211; Biologia Molecular e Genoma</title>
      <sec>
        <title>4.10.1. An&#225;lise Histol&#243;gica</title>
        <p>A miocardite &#233; definida como uma doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria do mioc&#225;rdio diagnosticada por crit&#233;rios histol&#243;gicos e imuno-histol&#243;gicos. De acordo com os crit&#233;rios de Dallas, a miocardite ativa &#233; histologicamente definida como uma infiltra&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria do mioc&#225;rdio com necrose de mi&#243;citos adjacentes, enquanto a miocardite lim&#237;trofe &#233; diagnosticada quando o infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio est&#225; presente, mas n&#227;o &#233; demonstrada les&#227;o/necrose nas pr&#243;prias c&#233;lulas card&#237;acas.<sup><xref rid="B158" ref-type="bibr">158</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No entanto, os crit&#233;rios de Dallas s&#227;o considerados inadequados no diagn&#243;stico de paciente com suspeita de miocardite clinicamente devido &#224; sua limita&#231;&#227;o quanto &#224; variabilidade na interpreta&#231;&#227;o, falta de valor progn&#243;stico e baixa sensibilidade em virtude de erro amostral. Essa limita&#231;&#227;o pode ser superada pelo envolvimento de manchas imuno-histol&#243;gicas de c&#233;lulas infiltrativas (leuc&#243;citos/linf&#243;citos T/macr&#243;fagos) e ant&#237;genos de superf&#237;cie (ICAM-1/HLA-DR).</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m do diagn&#243;stico da miocardite, a avalia&#231;&#227;o histopatol&#243;gica dos crit&#233;rios histol&#243;gicos &#233; essencial para alcan&#231;ar uma classifica&#231;&#227;o da miocardite nas formas linfoc&#237;tica, eosinof&#237;lica, c&#233;lula gigante, granulomatosa e/ou polim&#243;rfica, que geralmente refletem etiopatog&#234;nese diferente do processo inflamat&#243;rio.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, o exame histol&#243;gico das se&#231;&#245;es de parafina por diferentes protocolos de colora&#231;&#227;o (HE, EvG, PAS, Azan) &#233; usado para detectar morte celular do mioc&#225;rdio, cicatrizes, fibrose, disfun&#231;&#245;es, altera&#231;&#245;es dos cardiomi&#243;citos e condi&#231;&#245;es vasculares patol&#243;gicas. Amiloidose, dep&#243;sitos de ferro, glicog&#234;nio e outras doen&#231;as de armazenamento podem ser exclu&#237;das ou especificadas por colora&#231;&#227;o adicional.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.10.2. An&#225;lise Imuno-histoqu&#237;mica</title>
        <p>A imuno-histoqu&#237;mica aumentou significativamente a sensibilidade da BEM e fornece informa&#231;&#245;es sobre o progn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico. A precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da imuno- histologia para detec&#231;&#227;o de inflama&#231;&#227;o &#233; maior que a dos crit&#233;rios histol&#243;gicos. A avalia&#231;&#227;o imuno-histoqu&#237;mica &#233; baseada na an&#225;lise de rea&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica ant&#237;geno-anticorpo. Um valor &gt;14 leuc&#243;citos/mm<sup>2</sup> com presen&#231;a de pelo menos linf&#243;citos T &gt;7 c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>2</sup> foi considerado um corte realista para se chegar ao diagn&#243;stico de miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quantifica&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas infiltrativas adicionais, incluindo macr&#243;fagos (Mac- 1/CD69), c&#233;lulas CD4+, CD8+, c&#233;lulas citot&#243;xicas (perforina) e quantifica&#231;&#227;o do ant&#237;geno leucocit&#225;rio humano (HLA-DR) e mol&#233;cula intracelular de ades&#227;o celular- 1 (ICAM- 1) &#233; obrigat&#243;ria para caracterizar ainda mais as popula&#231;&#245;es de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias. Assim, a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o e a quantifica&#231;&#227;o exata da inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; relevante para o progn&#243;stico e para identificar diferentes marcadores de miocardite cr&#244;nica/autoimune aguda, infecciosa, negativa por v&#237;rus (ver <xref rid="f04" ref-type="fig">Figura 4</xref> ).</p>
        <p>Outras manchas de imunofluoresc&#234;ncia devem ser usadas para definir a rejei&#231;&#227;o humoral na BEM de transplante card&#237;aco, como C3d e C4d, ou para subtipagem de formas amiloides.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.10.3. An&#225;lise do Perfil Gen&#233;tico</title>
        <p>Miocardite idiop&#225;tica de c&#233;lulas gigantes e sarcoidose card&#237;aca s&#227;o dist&#250;rbios raros que causam IC aguda com choque cardiog&#234;nico e/ou arritmias ventriculares com risco de vida na aus&#234;ncia de outras etiologias e apresentam progn&#243;stico extremamente ruim, com taxas de sobrevida em 4 anos inferiores a 20%.<sup><xref rid="B159" ref-type="bibr">159</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O principal problema para o diagn&#243;stico correto &#233; o erro de amostragem pelo exame histol&#243;gico das BEM. Foram identificados perfis gen&#233;ticos diferenciais distintos que permitiram uma clara discrimina&#231;&#227;o entre os tecidos que abrigam c&#233;lulas gigantes e aqueles com miocardite aguda ou controles livres de inflama&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, os perfis g&#234;nicos espec&#237;ficos da doen&#231;a mudam durante o tratamento eficaz e podem ser aplicados no monitoramento da terapia.<sup><xref rid="B160" ref-type="bibr">160</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.10.4. Virologia</title>
        <p>Os genomas microbianos s&#227;o determinados, quantificados e sequenciados usando m&#233;todos baseados em PCR, incluindo nested-PCR-RT e PCR quantitativo, determinando a an&#225;lise da carga viral. A sequencia&#231;&#227;o do produto gen&#233;tico viral amplificado &#233; obrigat&#243;ria.</p>
        <p>Em especial, &#233; poss&#237;vel analisar todos os v&#237;rus que podem ser respons&#225;veis pela doen&#231;a. Os genomas de v&#237;rus cardiotr&#243;picos mais comuns relatados no mioc&#225;rdio s&#227;o parvov&#237;rus B19 (B19V), enterov&#237;rus (EV), adenov&#237;rus (ADV), v&#237;rus da gripe, v&#237;rus do herpes humano-6 (HHV-6), v&#237;rus de Epstein-Barr, citomegalov&#237;rus, v&#237;rus da hepatite C e v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana (HIV) ( <xref rid="t50" ref-type="table">Tabela 13</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t50">
            <label>Tabela 13</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; V&#237;rus comuns na BEM</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>V&#237;rus comuns na BEM</th>
                  <th> </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Adenov&#237;rus</td>
                  <td>Parvov&#237;rus B19</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Arbov&#237;rus</td>
                  <td>Poliomielite</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Arenav&#237;rus</td>
                  <td>Raiva</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Coronav&#237;rus</td>
                  <td>V&#237;rus sincisial respirat&#243;rio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Coxsackie v&#237;rus (A, B)</td>
                  <td>Rub&#233;ola</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Citomegalov&#237;rus</td>
                  <td>Vaccinia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dengue</td>
                  <td>Varicela-z&#243;ster</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Echo v&#237;rus</td>
                  <td>Var&#237;ola</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Encefalomiocardite</td>
                  <td>V&#237;rus da Zika</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Epstein-Barr</td>
                  <td>HIV</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hepatite B</td>
                  <td>Influenza (A, B)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hepatite C</td>
                  <td>Metapneumov&#237;rus</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Herpes simples</td>
                  <td>Caxumba</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Herpes-v&#237;rus 6</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN9">
                <p>
                  <italic>BEM: bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O PVB19 &#233; o v&#237;rus cardiotr&#243;pico predominante encontrado na miocardite. O impacto cl&#237;nico no cora&#231;&#227;o ainda est&#225; em discuss&#227;o. O PVB19 cardiotr&#243;pico transcripcionalmente ativo com intermedi&#225;rios de replica&#231;&#227;o positiva nas BEM parece ser clinicamente relevante, porque os pacientes com miocardite caracterizados por PVB19 cardiotr&#243;pico transcricionalmente ativo com intermedi&#225;rios de replica&#231;&#227;o positivos t&#234;m uma express&#227;o gen&#233;tica alterada em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes com controle PVB19 latente. No entanto, a PCR pode resultar negativa, embora o organismo causal tenha origem viral, devido &#224; depura&#231;&#227;o viral.</p>
        <p>Embora se pense que os v&#237;rus sejam a causa mais comum de miocardite, os t&#237;tulos virais n&#227;o s&#227;o &#250;teis no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Tratamento</title>
      <sec>
        <title>5.1. Fluxogramas Terap&#234;uticos</title>
        <p>A maioria das miocardites apresenta um progn&#243;stico favor&#225;vel com regress&#227;o espont&#226;nea dos sintomas cl&#237;nicos e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular preservada sem necessidade de interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica. O fluxograma terap&#234;utico da miocardite na maioria dos pacientes &#233; guiado por meio da suspeita diagn&#243;stica, uma vez que somente uma minoria dos pacientes ser&#225; submetida &#224; investiga&#231;&#227;o por BEM ( <xref rid="f04" ref-type="fig">Figura 4</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os pacientes com baixa suspeita diagn&#243;stica de miocardite com apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica sem sinais de gravidade, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular preservada e sem arritmias ventriculares apresentam evolu&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica favor&#225;vel, sendo seguidos por acompanhamento cl&#237;nico sem utiliza&#231;&#227;o de terap&#234;utica medicamentosa. Nos pacientes com suspeita diagn&#243;stica intermedi&#225;ria, com fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular preservada ou com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular com melhora evolutiva, a terap&#234;utica &#233; cardioprotetora com betabloqueadores, inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o ou bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina com objetivo de preservar ou melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Os pacientes com alta suspeita diagn&#243;stica, que evoluem com algum dos indicadores de pior progn&#243;stico, como piora cl&#237;nica, instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, manuten&#231;&#227;o ou piora da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, arritmias ventriculares frequentes e dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o significativos, devem ser submetidos &#224; BEM, com objetivo de pesquisa de inflama&#231;&#227;o e do agente etiol&#243;gico, que oferecem a possibilidade de estabelecer terap&#234;utica espec&#237;fica com imunossupress&#227;o,<sup><xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">161</xref> , <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref> </sup> imunomodula&#231;&#227;o<sup><xref rid="B163" ref-type="bibr">163</xref> - <xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref> </sup> e antivirais,<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref> - <xref rid="B170" ref-type="bibr">170</xref> </sup> que poder&#227;o trazer benef&#237;cios na melhora cl&#237;nica, classe funcional, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e sobrevida<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> , <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref> , <xref rid="B171" ref-type="bibr">171</xref> - <xref rid="B175" ref-type="bibr">175</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="f05" ref-type="fig">Figura 5</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma terap&#234;utico da miocardite com base nos resultados da BEM.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>CMPD: cardiomiopatia dilatada; PCR: rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf05.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Imunossupress&#227;o: Indica&#231;&#245;es e Tipos</title>
        <p>A terap&#234;utica imunossupressora na miocardite tem como objetivo suprimir a resposta inflamat&#243;ria e a atividade autoimune, visando como alvo &#224; melhora cl&#237;nica, da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, al&#233;m de redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade.</p>
        <p>Na miocardite linfocit&#225;ria, apesar do racional fisiopatol&#243;gico para utiliza&#231;&#227;o de imunossupress&#227;o, com base na presen&#231;a de inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica por meio da BEM, associada &#224; pesquisa de genoma viral negativa, as evid&#234;ncias corroborando seu uso s&#227;o limitadas. Fatores como a regress&#227;o espont&#226;nea da inflama&#231;&#227;o, a falta de uniformidade dos estudos quanto aos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos, o reduzido n&#250;mero de pacientes na maioria dos ensaios, a heterogeneidade das caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas das popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas e a aus&#234;ncia de estudos com objetivo principal de avaliar a redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade de forma isolada dificultam a an&#225;lise dos benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos da terap&#234;utica imunossupressora na miocardite linfocit&#225;ria ( <xref rid="t51" ref-type="table">Tabela 14</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> , <xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">161</xref> , <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref> , <xref rid="B172" ref-type="bibr">172</xref> , <xref rid="B176" ref-type="bibr">176</xref> - <xref rid="B179" ref-type="bibr">179</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t51">
            <label>Tabela 14</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise dos benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos da terap&#234;utica imunossupressora na miocardite linfocit&#225;ria</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Autor</th>
                  <th>Desenho</th>
                  <th>Interven&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Placebo</th>
                  <th>N</th>
                  <th>Doen&#231;a</th>
                  <th>Dura&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas</th>
                  <th>Inclus&#227;o</th>
                  <th>BEM v&#237;rus positivo</th>
                  <th>FEVE</th>
                  <th>Resultados</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Parillo 1989</td>
                  <td>Randomizado controlado</td>
                  <td>Prednisona</td>
                  <td>N&#227;o</td>
                  <td>102</td>
                  <td>&lt;2 anos</td>
                  <td>M&#233;dia 8m</td>
                  <td>Idiop</td>
                  <td>Sim N&#227;o</td>
                  <td>&gt;35%</td>
                  <td>Neutro</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Latham 1989</td>
                  <td>Randomizado controlado</td>
                  <td>Prednisona</td>
                  <td>N&#227;o</td>
                  <td>52</td>
                  <td>MCD</td>
                  <td>&lt; 2 anos M&#233;dia 1,6 a 1,8 m</td>
                  <td>Idiop</td>
                  <td>Sim N&#227;o</td>
                  <td>&lt;40%</td>
                  <td>Neutro</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Wojnicz 2001</td>
                  <td>Randomizado controlado, aberto</td>
                  <td>Prednisona + Azatioprina</td>
                  <td>Sim</td>
                  <td>84</td>
                  <td>MCD</td>
                  <td>&gt;6 meses</td>
                  <td>HLA</td>
                  <td>Sim N&#227;o</td>
                  <td>&lt;40%</td>
                  <td>Melhora FE</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Wojnicz 2006</td>
                  <td>Randomizado controlado, aberto, 2 centros</td>
                  <td>Atorvastatina</td>
                  <td>N&#227;o</td>
                  <td>74</td>
                  <td>MCD</td>
                  <td>&gt;6 meses</td>
                  <td>HLA</td>
                  <td>Sim N&#227;o</td>
                  <td>&lt;40%</td>
                  <td>Melhora FE/CF NYHA</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Frustaci 2009</td>
                  <td>Randomizado controlado, duplo cego, multic&#234;ntrico</td>
                  <td>Prednisona + Azatioprina</td>
                  <td>Sim</td>
                  <td>85</td>
                  <td>MCD</td>
                  <td>&gt;6 meses</td>
                  <td>CD3&gt;7 CD45&gt;14 V&#237;rus neg</td>
                  <td>Sim Sim</td>
                  <td>&lt;45%</td>
                  <td>Melhora FE</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Merken 2018</td>
                  <td>S&#233;rie de Casos</td>
                  <td>Prednsiona + azatioprina</td>
                  <td>N&#227;o</td>
                  <td>180</td>
                  <td>MCD</td>
                  <td>M&#233;dia 8 a 11 m</td>
                  <td>CD3&gt;7 CD45&gt;14 V&#237;rus neg</td>
                  <td>Sim Sim</td>
                  <td>&lt;45%</td>
                  <td>Melhora sobrevida livre de TX/ FE</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN10">
                <p>
                  <italic>BEM: bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica; CF NYHA: classe funcional da New York Heart Association; CMD: cardiomiopatia dilatada; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; HLA: ant&#237;geno de histocompatibilidade; TXC: transplante card&#237;aco.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>No estudo MTT,<sup><xref rid="B178" ref-type="bibr">178</xref></sup> que incluiu pacientes com miocardite diagnosticada pelos crit&#233;rios de Dallas associada &#224; presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, o uso de imunossupress&#227;o por 6 meses n&#227;o demonstrou superioridade na melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e de sobrevida em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento convencional, apesar de n&#227;o ter realizado pesquisa de agentes infecciosos. O estudo italiano duplo-cego, randomizado, placebo-controlado TIMIC<sup><xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref></sup> demonstrou melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular com imunossupress&#227;o em pacientes com miocardite &#224; bi&#243;psia (acima de sete linf&#243;citos por campo), mais de 6 meses de IC e aus&#234;ncia de genoma viral na BEM. Dessa forma, apesar de momento evolutivo diferente em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; fase mais aguda da miocardite, esse estudo demonstrou o benef&#237;cio da imunossupress&#227;o na aus&#234;ncia de genoma viral no mioc&#225;rdio. No entanto, a n&#227;o identifica&#231;&#227;o de v&#237;rus espec&#237;ficos define que n&#227;o est&#227;o presentes os v&#237;rus pesquisados, n&#227;o afastando a possibilidade de que outros microrganismos poderiam estar presentes.<sup><xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o achado qualitativo de microrganismos em BEM n&#227;o estabelece uma rela&#231;&#227;o causal indubit&#225;vel com o desenvolvimento de miocardite/miocardiopatia, uma vez que podemos encontrar genoma viral em miocardiopatias de outras etiologias espec&#237;ficas e at&#233; mesmo em cora&#231;&#245;es normais.<sup><xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref> , <xref rid="B180" ref-type="bibr">180</xref> , <xref rid="B181" ref-type="bibr">181</xref> </sup> Tomando como exemplo o parvov&#237;rus B19, cuja presen&#231;a no tecido mioc&#225;rdico pela PCR qualitativa &#233; comum, outras t&#233;cnicas documentando a baixa quantidade de c&#243;pias<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref></sup> ou aus&#234;ncia de transcri&#231;&#227;o para RNA<sup><xref rid="B182" ref-type="bibr">182</xref></sup> poderiam inferir a n&#227;o correla&#231;&#227;o com desenvolvimento de miocardite/miocardiopatia, permitindo a considera&#231;&#227;o de imunossupress&#227;o, mesmo com o genoma desse v&#237;rus presente.</p>
        <p>No contexto da miocardite por doen&#231;as autoimunes, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de imunossupress&#227;o &#233; bem estabelecida, e, para cada entidade, diferentes estrat&#233;gias podem ser consideradas, sendo a maioria envolvendo o uso de corticosteroide, geralmente combinado com outras drogas imunossupressoras ( <xref rid="t52" ref-type="table">Tabela 15</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> - <xref rid="B188" ref-type="bibr">188</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t52">
            <label>Tabela 15</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Indica&#231;&#227;o de imunossupress&#227;o na miocardite por doen&#231;a autoimune</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes</th>
                  <th>Rara, por&#233;m fulminante, melhora de progn&#243;stico com imunossupress&#227;o combinada</th>
                  <th>Corticosteroide em combina&#231;&#227;o (ciclosporina + azatioprina)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Sarcoidose</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Doen&#231;a sist&#234;mica, principalmente pulmonar. Miocardite em 10%, bloqueios, taquiarritmias e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular</td>
                  <td>Corticosteroide em combina&#231;&#227;o (ciclofosfamida, metotrexato) imunobiol&#243;gicos em casos refrat&#225;rios</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>L&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Miocardite em 50%, pode ser subcl&#237;nica; rara com imunossupress&#227;o atual; pode acelerar aterosclerose</td>
                  <td>Pulsoterapia com corticosteroide (depois VO em desmame), combina&#231;&#227;o (ciclofosfamida), plasmaf&#233;rese, IVIg</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Esclerose sist&#234;mica</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Miocardite ou secund&#225;ria &#224; hipertens&#227;o pulmonar. Arritmias, dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular</td>
                  <td>Corticosteroide em combina&#231;&#227;o (ciclosfamida, azatioprina)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Beh&#231;et</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Miocardite &#233; rara (0,5%), progn&#243;stico ruim</td>
                  <td>Corticosteroide em combina&#231;&#227;o (colchicina, anticoagula&#231;&#227;o)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>GEPA (Churg-Strauss)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Miocardite em at&#233; 50%; hist&#243;ria de asma, presen&#231;a de eosinofilia; dor tor&#225;cica, palpita&#231;&#245;es at&#233; choque cardiog&#234;nico</td>
                  <td>Corticosteroide em combina&#231;&#227;o (ciclofosfamida)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Artrite reumatoide</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Miocardite em 30%, pode ser subcl&#237;nica; rara com imunossupress&#227;o atual; pode acelerar aterosclerose</td>
                  <td>Corticosteroide em combina&#231;&#227;o (metotrexate, imunobiol&#243;gicos)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Devido &#224; gravidade do quadro cl&#237;nico, apesar da baixa incid&#234;ncia, o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes n&#227;o pode ser postergado, e seu tratamento envolve imunossupress&#227;o intensiva combinada. Trabalho cl&#225;ssico de Cooper et al.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup>demonstrou aumento de sobrevida de 3 para 12 meses, quando comparado ao n&#227;o uso de imunossupress&#227;o ou apenas corticosteroide em rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso combinado de imunossupress&#227;o (corticosteroide e/ou azatioprina e/ou ciclosporina e/ou anticorpo antilinf&#243;cito).<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> Casu&#237;stica mais recente demonstrou sobrevida de 58% em 5 anos com uso combinado de corticosteroide, ciclosporina e azatioprina.<sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref></sup> Em casos refrat&#225;rios, existe a descri&#231;&#227;o do uso de anticorpo antilinf&#243;cito,<sup><xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref></sup> micofenolato<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref></sup> e sirolimo.<sup><xref rid="B192" ref-type="bibr">192</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A miocardite eosinof&#237;lica pode ser secund&#225;ria &#224; rea&#231;&#227;o de hipersensibilidade a drogas, doen&#231;as autoimunes (granulomatose eosinof&#237;lica com poliange&#237;te ou s&#237;ndrome de Churg-Strauss), s&#237;ndrome hipereosinof&#237;lica, infec&#231;&#245;es e c&#226;ncer, ou idiop&#225;tica, sendo a imunossupress&#227;o tamb&#233;m considerada nesse contexto, habitualmente utilizando corticosteroide. Revis&#227;o recente dos casos de literatura demonstram presen&#231;a de eosinofilia perif&#233;rica em 75% dos casos, uso de imunossupress&#227;o em 80%, e combina&#231;&#227;o em 20% (especialmente Churg-Strauss e hipereosinof&#237;lica, com elevada mortalidade em 30 dias (13% hipereosinof&#237;lica, 17% idiop&#225;tica, 23% Churg-Strauss e 40% por hipersensibilidade).<sup><xref rid="B193" ref-type="bibr">193</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A terap&#234;utica imunossupressora mais comumente utilizada nos pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de miocardite envolve corticosteroide isoladamente ou em associa&#231;&#227;o com azatioprina ( <xref rid="t53" ref-type="table">Tabela 16</xref> ), havendo o diagn&#243;stico por BEM de inflama&#231;&#227;o com aus&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o viral como determinantes para a realiza&#231;&#227;o da imunossupress&#227;o ( <xref rid="t54" ref-type="table">Tabela 17</xref> ). Os pacientes submetidos &#224; terap&#234;utica imunossupressora devem ser clinicamente monitorados de modo cont&#237;nuo quanto ao desenvolvimento de paraefeitos, pois estes podem aumentar de forma significativa tanto a morbidade quanto a mortalidade.<sup><xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t53">
            <label>Tabela 16</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Terap&#234;utica imunossupressora com corticosteroide</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>Miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Pulsoterapia com corticosteroide &#8211; metilprednisolona 500 a 1.000 mg por 3 a 5 dias; prednisona &#8211; 1 mg/kg e, depois, retirada lenta e gradual</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Anticorpo antilinf&#243;cito &#8211; Thymoglobulina &#8211; 1,5 mg/kg/dia, conforme evolu&#231;&#227;o de linf&#243;citos T CD3 &#8211; Ciclosporina &#8211; 3 a 8 mg/kg</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Azatioprina &#8211; 2 mg/kg</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>Miocardite linfocit&#225;ria e eosinof&#237;lica</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Primeiras 4 semanas &#8211; 1 mg/kg</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>5 a 12 semanas &#8211; Redu&#231;&#227;o da posologia em 0,08 mg/kg/semana</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>13 a 20 semanas &#8211; manter a dose em 0,3 mcg/kg/dia</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>21 a 24 semanas &#8211; redu&#231;&#227;o da posologia 0,08 mg/kg/semana</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Estudo TIMIC: prednisona &#8211; 1 mg/kg por 4 semanas e 0,33 mg/kg por 5 meses; azatioprina &#8211; 2 g/kg por 6 meses</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>
                          <bold>Sarcoidose</bold>
                        </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Prednisona &#8211; 30 mg/dia &#8211; retirada de 5 mg por m&#234;s por 12 a 24 meses</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Associa&#231;&#227;o quando dificuldade de suspens&#227;o de corticosteroide: metotrexato &#8211; 10 - 20 mg/semana</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Azatioprina &#8211; 2 mg/kg; hidroxicloroquina &#8211; 200 a 400 mg/dia</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Leflunomida &#8211; 10 a 20 mg/dia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t54">
            <label>Tabela 17</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Indica&#231;&#245;es da terap&#234;utica imunossupressora na miocardite</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Na presen&#231;a de miocardite positiva &#8211; por c&#233;lulas gigantes, doen&#231;as autoimunes, sarcoidose e eosinof&#237;lica &#8211; associada &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Na presen&#231;a de miocardite positiva com pesquisa viral negativa, comprovada por bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica, em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica, com objetivo de melhora cl&#237;nica e da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda n&#227;o responsiva &#224; terap&#234;utica usual</td>
                  <td>III</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.3. Antivirais: Indica&#231;&#245;es e Tipos</title>
        <p>O progn&#243;stico da cardiomiopatia inflamat&#243;ria/miocardite &#233; afetado negativamente pela persist&#234;ncia do v&#237;rus. O curso da cardiomiopatia viral &#233; para certos v&#237;rus intimamente associados ao curso espont&#226;neo da infec&#231;&#227;o viral, pois a elimina&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea do v&#237;rus &#233; acompanhada de melhora cl&#237;nica, enquanto isso n&#227;o se aplica a pacientes que desenvolvem persist&#234;ncia do v&#237;rus.<sup><xref rid="B194" ref-type="bibr">194</xref> - <xref rid="B197" ref-type="bibr">197</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Pacientes com genomas enterovirais e adenovirais em CEM devem ser tratados com interferon beta (IFN-&#223;) (4 milh&#245;es de unidades por via subcut&#226;nea a cada 48 horas na primeira semana, 8 milh&#245;es de unidades por via subcut&#226;nea a cada 48 horas a partir da segunda semana e por 6 meses). Pode ser demonstrado em um estudo n&#227;o randomizado que a administra&#231;&#227;o de IFN-&#223; em pacientes positivos para EV e ADV induziu a elimina&#231;&#227;o do v&#237;rus, reduziu a les&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio e melhorou significativamente a sobrevida a longo prazo.<sup><xref rid="B198" ref-type="bibr">198</xref> , <xref rid="B199" ref-type="bibr">199</xref> </sup> Em um estudo de fase 2 seguinte &#8211; betaferon em um teste de cardiomiopatia viral cr&#244;nica (BICC) &#8211; 143 pacientes com sintomas de IC e confirma&#231;&#227;o por bi&#243;psia dos genomas de EV, ADV e/ou B19V foram aleatoriamente designados para tratamento duplo-cego e receberam placebo ou IFN-&#223; por 24 semanas, al&#233;m do tratamento padr&#227;o da IC. Em compara&#231;&#227;o ao placebo, a elimina&#231;&#227;o e/ou redu&#231;&#227;o da carga viral foram maiores nos grupos IFN-&#223;. O tratamento com IFN-&#223; foi associado a efeitos favor&#225;veis na melhora da classe funcional da NYHA, qualidade de vida e avalia&#231;&#227;o global do paciente. Em an&#225;lises retrospectivas, foi poss&#237;vel demonstrar que o tratamento com IFN-&#223; foi significativamente menos eficaz na elimina&#231;&#227;o da infec&#231;&#227;o por B19V.<sup><xref rid="B171" ref-type="bibr">171</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O herpes-v&#237;rus humano 6 foi detectado em alta preval&#234;ncia no tecido mioc&#225;rdico de pacientes que apresentaram sintomas de IC em um cen&#225;rio clinicamente suspeito de miocardite. Curiosamente, o HHV-6 &#233; capaz de integrar seu genoma em tel&#244;meros de cromossomos humanos, o que permite a transmiss&#227;o do HHV-6 atrav&#233;s da linha germinativa. O HHV-6 integrado no cromossomo (ciHHV-6) parece estar associado a um risco aumentado de miocardite e pode levar a um agravamento da IC. O HHV-6 tamb&#233;m n&#227;o &#233; eliminado pelo IFN-&#223;, mas os sintomas de reativa&#231;&#227;o e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca do HHV-6 diminuem ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de tratamento de 6 meses com ganciclovir seguido de valganciclovir (ganciclovir 1.000 mg/24h por via intravenosa por 5 dias, depois valganciclovir 900 mg/24h ou 1.800 mg/24h por 6 meses) em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com ciHHV6<sup><xref rid="B200" ref-type="bibr">200</xref></sup> reativado (RNA mensageiro positivo).</p>
        <p>A infec&#231;&#227;o por B19V do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco ainda &#233; motivo de discuss&#227;o. Os primeiros dados forneceram evid&#234;ncias de que inibidores antivirais da transcriptase reversa e an&#225;logos de nucleos&#237;dios como a telbivudina podem melhorar o resultado cl&#237;nico de pacientes com DNA positivo de B19V e intermedi&#225;rios replicativos.<sup><xref rid="B201" ref-type="bibr">201</xref></sup> No entanto, agora &#233; necess&#225;rio agendar um grande estudo cl&#237;nico randomizado, controlado por placebo, para avaliar os resultados.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.4. Imunomodula&#231;&#227;o (Imunoglobulina &#8211; Imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o): Indica&#231;&#245;es e Tipos de Imunoglobulinas</title>
        <p>O racional para uso das imunoglobulinas intravenosas (IVIG) no tratamento das miocardites est&#225; na sua ampla capacidade de interagir com o sistema imune. S&#227;o capazes de estimular o sistema complemento e c&#233;lulas imunol&#243;gicas a liberarem citocinas anti-inflamat&#243;rias e inibirem a libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref rid="B83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As imunoglobulinas t&#234;m sido estudadas em diferentes cen&#225;rios como na IC cr&#244;nica;<sup><xref rid="B202" ref-type="bibr">202</xref> , <xref rid="B203" ref-type="bibr">203</xref> </sup> na cardiomiopatia dilatada;<sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref> , <xref rid="B204" ref-type="bibr">204</xref> </sup> na cardiomiopatia periparto;<sup><xref rid="B205" ref-type="bibr">205</xref></sup> na miocardite aguda,<sup><xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref> , <xref rid="B165" ref-type="bibr">165</xref> , <xref rid="B206" ref-type="bibr">206</xref> , <xref rid="B207" ref-type="bibr">207</xref> </sup> na miocardite fulminante<sup><xref rid="B208" ref-type="bibr">208</xref></sup>e nas miocardites virais.<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref> , <xref rid="B169" ref-type="bibr">169</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Embora alguns desses estudos apontem para potencial benef&#237;cio do uso de imunoglobulina, estudo randomizado controlado em pacientes adultos com cardiomiopatia dilatada de in&#237;cio recente (&lt;6 meses) ou miocardite n&#227;o demonstrou benef&#237;cio do uso de imunoglobulina em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular quando comparado ao grupo controle. Houve melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e at&#233; mesmo normaliza&#231;&#227;o em 36% dos casos ao longo do seguimento, independentemente do grupo de tratamento. Vale destacar que n&#227;o foi realizada pesquisa viral na bi&#243;psia dos pacientes, e apenas 16% tinham quadro de miocardite comprovado por presen&#231;a de inflama&#231;&#227;o na bi&#243;psia.<sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em pacientes com miocardite aguda, os primeiros estudos apontavam para melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e tend&#234;ncia a melhor progn&#243;stico em 1 ano, com o uso de altas doses de IVIG.<sup><xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref></sup> No entanto, revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica realizada em 2005, envolvendo 62 estudos, encontrou apenas um estudo randomizado controlado sobre o tema, e n&#227;o demonstrou benef&#237;cio do uso da terap&#234;utica em pacientes com miocardite aguda, concluindo serem insuficientes as evid&#234;ncias para recomenda&#231;&#227;o rotineira do uso de IVIG nesse cen&#225;rio.<sup><xref rid="B207" ref-type="bibr">207</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, estudo multic&#234;ntrico randomizado pequeno (41 pacientes) avaliou o progn&#243;stico em curto prazo de pacientes com miocardite aguda ou cardiomiopatia de in&#237;cio recente, submetidos ao tratamento com IVIG comparado com pacientes que n&#227;o receberam IVIG e revelou melhor sobrevida em curto prazo entre os pacientes que receberam IVIG sem diferen&#231;a em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular que ocorreu nos dois grupos. No entanto, houve redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias no grupo tratado. Tal estudo levanta a hip&#243;tese de potencial benef&#237;cio das imunoglobulinas e sugere o mecanismo pelo qual tal benef&#237;cio pode ser observado; no entanto, devido ao pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes, o estudo n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para embasar a recomenda&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica de forma irrestrita para pacientes com miocardite aguda.<sup><xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No entanto, nas miocardites virais, h&#225; dados de literatura que demonstram benef&#237;cio do uso de imunoglobulina. Em estudo piloto em pacientes com miocardite por parvov&#237;rus B19, o uso de IVIG gerou redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da carga viral e melhorou a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref></sup> Em outra an&#225;lise incluindo 152 pacientes com miocardite por adenov&#237;rus ou parvov&#237;rus B19, o uso de imunoglobulina tamb&#233;m mostrou melhora da capacidade para o exerc&#237;cio; melhora da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de VE e melhora da classe funcional. Houve redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da inflama&#231;&#227;o nos dois grupos de pacientes e redu&#231;&#227;o expressiva da carga viral apenas entre os pacientes com miocardite por adenov&#237;rus; pacientes com parvovirose apresentaram persist&#234;ncia viral em torno de 40%.<sup><xref rid="B169" ref-type="bibr">169</xref></sup> Esses dados sugerem potencial benef&#237;cio de uso de imunoglobulina em pacientes com miocardite viral com comprova&#231;&#227;o por BEM.</p>
        <p>Os dados atuais, embora n&#227;o sejam suficientes para recomenda&#231;&#227;o rotineira da terap&#234;utica, apontam para potencial benef&#237;cio da imunoglobulina em pacientes com miocardite com inflama&#231;&#227;o comprovada por bi&#243;psia, especialmente nas miocardites virais por adenov&#237;rus e parvov&#237;rus B19.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>5.4.1. Imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>A patog&#234;nese da progress&#227;o para disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular na cardiomiopatia dilatada envolve processos inflamat&#243;rios que podem ser identificados e quantificados por m&#233;todos imuno-histoqu&#237;micos, o que sugere rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre miocardite e cardiomiopatia.<sup><xref rid="B210" ref-type="bibr">210</xref></sup> A presen&#231;a de linf&#243;citos, c&#233;lulas mononucleares e aumento da express&#227;o g&#234;nica de ant&#237;genos HLA &#233; frequente, assim como anticorpos contra prote&#237;nas mitocondriais e de contratilidade; receptores B1 e receptores muscar&#237;nicos tamb&#233;m t&#234;m sido descritos na cardiomiopatia dilatada.<sup><xref rid="B211" ref-type="bibr">211</xref> - <xref rid="B214" ref-type="bibr">214</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>A extra&#231;&#227;o desses anticorpos card&#237;acos &#233; poss&#237;vel por imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o, e alguns estudos t&#234;m testado a efic&#225;cia dessa metodologia no tratamento de pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada/miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref> , <xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">216</xref> </sup> Em estudo controlado pequeno, 25 pacientes foram randomizados para realizar imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o seguida de substitui&#231;&#227;o por IgG ou manter tratamento padr&#227;o sendo observada redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (c&#233;lulas CD3; linf&#243;citos CD4 e CD8, al&#233;m de reduzir a express&#227;o ant&#237;genos HLA classe II) no grupo tratado.<sup><xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref></sup> Em outros estudos pequenos randomizados, observa-se melhora da hemodin&#226;mica e da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.<sup><xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">216</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Dados atuais sugerem que imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o pode ser uma abordagem terap&#234;utica nova e promissora para pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada e presen&#231;a de anticorpos card&#237;acos. Contudo, at&#233; o momento, as evid&#234;ncias baseiam-se em estudos pequenos n&#227;o controlados ou estudos controlados abertos comparados &#224; terapia convencional, que precisam ter seus resultados confirmados por grandes estudos multic&#234;ntricos prospectivos randomizados.<sup><xref rid="B218" ref-type="bibr">218</xref></sup> No momento, est&#225; em andamento um estudo multic&#234;ntrico duplo-cego placebo-controlado que tem por objetivo avaliar os efeitos da imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o seguida de substitui&#231;&#227;o por IgG em pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada.<sup><xref rid="B219" ref-type="bibr">219</xref></sup> Apenas ap&#243;s os resultados deste grande estudo poderemos estabelecer grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o para essa terap&#234;utica no contexto da cardiomiopatia dilatada/miocardite.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5.5. Terap&#234;utica Cardioprotetora Convencional</title>
      <sec>
        <title>5.5.1. Sem Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular</title>
        <p>A abordagem terap&#234;utica dos pacientes com miocardite com fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular preservada tem como objetivo a preven&#231;&#227;o do desenvolvimento de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou de arritmias malignas. Nos pacientes com suspeita diagn&#243;stica e risco intermedi&#225;rio, podemos utilizar betabloqueadores e inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA) ou bloqueadores dos receptores de angiotensina (BRA) pelo per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo de 12 meses, com objetivos de redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade e morbidade. A decis&#227;o de manuten&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica al&#233;m desse per&#237;odo ser&#225; de acordo com a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e potencial arritmog&#234;nico. Como n&#227;o foram realizados ensaios cl&#237;nicos em pacientes com esse perfil de miocardite, o manuseio do tratamento deve seguir as orienta&#231;&#245;es da diretriz de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica e aguda pela SBC.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.5.2. Com Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular Hemodin&#226;mica Est&#225;vel</title>
        <p>O manejo terap&#234;utico da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular na miocardite deve estar alinhado com as diretrizes atuais de IC.<sup><xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> , <xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">220</xref> , <xref rid="B221" ref-type="bibr">221</xref> </sup> As medica&#231;&#245;es recomendadas para todos os pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sintom&#225;tica e hemodinamicamente est&#225;veis, como terapia cardioprotetora, salvo contraindica&#231;&#245;es, s&#227;o conhecidas como terapia tripla &#8211; IECA ou BRA, betabloqueadores e antagonistas dos receptores mineralocorticoides. Os IECA/BRA e betabloqueadores podem ser iniciados em todos os indiv&#237;duos com ICFER mesmo que assintom&#225;ticos, salvo contraindica&#231;&#245;es, e devem ser mantidos quando ocorre normaliza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. A espironolactona, representante dos antagonistas de receptores mineralocorticoides no Brasil, deve ser iniciada quando o paciente j&#225; est&#225; em uso das demais medica&#231;&#245;es, mantendo sintomas (CF NYHA II-IV), devendo ser evitada em pacientes com creatinina &gt;2,5 mg/dL ou com hipercalemia persistente ( <xref rid="t55" ref-type="table">Tabela 18</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t55">
            <label>Tabela 18</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es de medidas farmacol&#243;gicas gerais na miocardite</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tratamento com medica&#231;&#245;es modificadoras de progn&#243;stico para pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, sintom&#225;ticos ou assintom&#225;ticos, de acordo com diretriz de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca vigente</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Manuten&#231;&#227;o de uso de terapia com bloqueio neuro-hormonal ap&#243;s normaliza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Considerar o uso de medica&#231;&#227;o com a&#231;&#227;o sobre bloqueio neuro-hormonal em pacientes com evid&#234;ncia de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica sem disfun&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.5.3. Paciente com Disfun&#231;&#227;o Ventricular e Hemodin&#226;mica Inst&#225;vel: Abordagem Terap&#234;utica</title>
        <p>Pacientes com miocardite aguda e presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica podem apresentar-se em distintos modelos cl&#237;nicos. Assim como a resposta cl&#237;nica &#224; terap&#234;utica &#233; bastante vari&#225;vel, podendo ou n&#227;o haver manifesta&#231;&#227;o clara de baixo d&#233;bito cl&#237;nico ou evid&#234;ncia de hipervolemia sist&#234;mica. O uso de inotr&#243;picos se justifica, pelo menos em tr&#234;s situa&#231;&#245;es: no contexto claro de baixo d&#233;bito, em s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal em refratariedade &#224; otimiza&#231;&#227;o diur&#233;tica e na presen&#231;a de SVO2 abaixo de 60% com crit&#233;rios hemodin&#226;micos invasivos de baixo d&#233;bito. Conforme a din&#226;mica do cuidado, deve-se discutir o monitoramento invasivo para os pacientes sem resposta clara &#224; essa terapia ( <xref rid="t56" ref-type="table">Tabela 19</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">222</xref> - <xref rid="B225" ref-type="bibr">225</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t56">
            <label>Tabela 19</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Inotr&#243;picos utilizados na miocardite com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e hemodin&#226;mica inst&#225;vel222-225</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th> </th>
                  <th>Dobutamina</th>
                  <th>Milrinona</th>
                  <th>Levosimendana</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica em miocardite</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Beta-agonista de a&#231;&#227;o seletiva B1, que promove o inotropismo por estimula&#231;&#227;o direta de betarreceptores.</td>
                  <td>Estudos experimentais em modelos murinos sugerem efeitos protetores relacionados &#224; vasodilata&#231;&#227;o em miocardite da milrinona e levosimendana em detrimento da dobutamina. Age como um inibidor de fosfodiesterase em qualquer dose, aumentando a concentra&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio no cardiomi&#243;cito. A vasodilata&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica contribui para o incremento no resultado de aumento de d&#233;bito card&#237;aco.</td>
                  <td>Existem estudos experimentais em modelos murinos demonstrando a redu&#231;&#227;o de apoptose celular e citocinas inflamat&#243;rias no uso de levosimendana em miocardite aguda. Entretanto, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia robusta que recomende sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o como cardioprotetora em pacientes com miocardite ou seu benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico frente a outros inotr&#243;picos. Funciona como um sensibilizador do c&#225;lcio at&#233; 0,2mcg/kg/min; em doses maiores, funciona como um inibidor de fosfodiesterase, sem uso cl&#237;nico testado. N&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica de seu uso cont&#237;nuo por mais de 48 horas.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Inotropismo</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Moderado</td>
                  <td>Importante</td>
                  <td>Importante</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Vasodilata&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Leve</td>
                  <td>Moderada a importante</td>
                  <td>Moderada a importante</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Aumento de d&#233;bito card&#237;aco</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Pequeno a moderado</td>
                  <td>Importante e associado &#224; vasodilata&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td>Importante</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Risco de hipotens&#227;o</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Pequeno</td>
                  <td>Importante e dose-dependente, assim como maior em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal estabelecida</td>
                  <td>Importante, principalmente em caso de bolus realizado. Aumenta conforme o aumento da dose.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Risco de arritmias</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Aumenta exponencialmente quando maior que 10mcg/kg/min</td>
                  <td>Aumenta em caso de dose de <italic>bolus</italic> (n&#227;o recomendada)</td>
                  <td>Aumenta em caso de <italic>bolus</italic> inicial, tamb&#233;m dose-dependente mais comum na dose de 0,2mcg/kg/min</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5.6. Cuidados Gerais: Atividade F&#237;sica e Vacina&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A miocardite &#233; uma importante causa de morte s&#250;bita em atletas, podendo ocorrer tanto na sua fase aguda como na fase cr&#244;nica. Est&#225; relacionada n&#227;o s&#243; ao grau de inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio, mas tamb&#233;m &#224; deflagra&#231;&#227;o de arritmias complexas e ao desenvolvimento de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref rid="B226" ref-type="bibr">226</xref> - <xref rid="B228" ref-type="bibr">228</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>Atletas competitivos ou recreacionais portadores de miocardite ativa n&#227;o devem praticar esportes competitivos ou exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos de alta intensidade at&#233; o t&#233;rmino do per&#237;odo de convalescen&#231;a. N&#227;o h&#225; consenso sobre esste per&#237;odo. At&#233; recentemente, era estabelecido um per&#237;odo de, no m&#237;nimo, 6 meses ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio das manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas. Atualmente, alguns especialistas j&#225; recomendam per&#237;odos menores, como de 3 meses, para a libera&#231;&#227;o de treinamentos e competi&#231;&#245;es, dependendo da presen&#231;a de sintomas, arritmias, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, marcadores inflamat&#243;rios e altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B229" ref-type="bibr">229</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="t57" ref-type="table">Tabela 20</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t57">
          <label>Tabela 20</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico na miocardite para atletas e n&#227;o atletas12,229</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                <th>Classe</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Os atletas podem retornar aos treinos e competi&#231;&#245;es, e os n&#227;o atletas, &#224;s suas atividades f&#237;sicas habituais, ap&#243;s 3 a 6 meses da miocardite, apenas se todos os crit&#233;rios a seguir forem preenchidos:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica de VE na faixa de normalidade</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Biomarcadores de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica normais</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Aus&#234;ncia de arritmias no <italic>Holter</italic> de 24h e no teste ergom&#233;trico</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Com miocardite pr&#233;via, devem ser reavaliados periodicamente, especialmente nos primeiros 2 anos, pelo risco aumentado de recorr&#234;ncia e progress&#227;o silenciosa da doen&#231;a.</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Considera-se o retorno a atividades competitivas em atletas e n&#227;o atletas assintom&#225;ticos, no per&#237;odo de 3 a 6 meses ap&#243;s o quadro miocardite, com realce tardio persistente na RMC se fun&#231;&#227;o de VE normal e aus&#234;ncia de arritmias no <italic>Holter</italic> de 24h e teste ergom&#233;trico, devendo ser seguido periodicamente pelo risco potencial de taquiarritmias. Na presen&#231;a de realce tardio positivo na RMC, devem ser avaliados anualmente.</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN11">
              <p>
                <italic>RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>O Consenso Europeu de Reabilita&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca e Preven&#231;&#227;o recomenda que, nos pacientes portadores de IC, incluindo os indiv&#237;duos com miocardite, a pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos deve ser de moderada intensidade (at&#233; 50% do VO2 pico ou 60% da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#225;xima prevista), desde que n&#227;o haja evid&#234;ncia laboratorial de inflama&#231;&#227;o ou arritmias.<sup><xref rid="B230" ref-type="bibr">230</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em fun&#231;&#227;o da pandemia pela Covid-19, os atletas profissionais necessitaram interromper ou postergar suas atividades profissionais pelo risco de contamina&#231;&#227;o. Com abrandamento das medidas de afastamento, temos o questionamento de como os atletas poder&#227;o retornar suas atividades de forma segura. Os atletas que foram acometidos pela Covid-19 podem vir a apresentar sintomas respirat&#243;rios, fadiga muscular e risco de eventos tromb&#243;ticos. Em decorr&#234;ncias de tais riscos, um fluxograma com recomenda&#231;&#245;es de avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e de libera&#231;&#227;o de atividades tem o objetivo de fornecer um guia para retomada das atividades f&#237;sicas ( <xref rid="f06" ref-type="fig">Figura 6</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f06">
          <label>Figura 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>- Fluxograma de retomada de exerc&#237;cio para altas p&#243;s-Covid-19.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>*Hist&#243;ria e exame f&#237;sico na pesquisa de complica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-Covid: neurol&#243;gico, gastrointestinal e dermatol&#243;gico. ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma transtor&#225;xico; PCRT: prote&#237;na C reativa titulada; PFP: prova de fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; TC de t&#243;rax: tomografia computadorizada de t&#243;rax; TECP: teste de exerc&#237;cio cardiopulmonar; Tp-AS: troponina de alta sensibilidade.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf06.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>A vacina&#231;&#227;o segue as mesmas recomenda&#231;&#245;es da imuniza&#231;&#227;o anual contra gripe e pneumococo feitas nos pacientes com IC e as demais vacinas dispon&#237;veis (caxumba, sarampo, rub&#233;ola, poliomielite). N&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias robustas de que estas predisp&#245;em a agudiza&#231;&#227;o ou o desenvolvimento de miocardite aguda para sobrepor os benef&#237;cios da imuniza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref> - <xref rid="B235" ref-type="bibr">235</xref> </sup> O mesmo racional se aplica na vacina&#231;&#227;o para Covid-19. Para serem vacinados, os pacientes n&#227;o podem estar na fase aguda da miocardite, sendo o mais aconselh&#225;vel cerca de 3 meses ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite ( <xref rid="t58" ref-type="table">Tabela 21</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t58">
          <label>Tabela 21</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es de vacina&#231;&#227;o na miocardite</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th> </th>
                <th>Classe</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Vacina contra gripe, pneumococo, caxumba, sarampo, rub&#233;ola, poliomielite e para Covid-19. Os pacientes n&#227;o devem estar na fase aguda de doen&#231;a, sendo recomendado com mais de 3 meses do in&#237;cio da suspeita diagn&#243;stica.</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. Situa&#231;&#245;es Especiais</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.1. Miocardite Fulminante</title>
        <p>Miocardite fulminante pode ser definida contempora- neamente de forma pragm&#225;tica, contemplando uma vis&#227;o predominantemente cl&#237;nica, independentemente de achados histol&#243;gicos, em que existe: 1) apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de sintomas graves de IC inferior a 30 dias; 2) instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica com choque cardiog&#234;nico e arritmias com risco de vida (incluindo parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria recuperada ou abortada); e 3) necessidade de suporte hemodin&#226;mico (inotr&#243;picos ou assist&#234;ncia circulat&#243;ria mec&#226;nica).<sup><xref rid="B236" ref-type="bibr">236</xref></sup> Al&#233;m dos exames j&#225; citados recomendados em casos de miocardite, o uso da BEM na miocardite fulminante &#233; recomendado, sendo usualmente positivo, demonstrando m&#250;ltiplos focos inflamat&#243;rios, possibilitando caracteriza&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica do tipo de miocardite em curso.<sup><xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">237</xref></sup> O curso cl&#237;nico da miocardite fulminante &#233; usualmente mais sombrio que outros tipos de miocardite n&#227;o fulminantes, com menor chance de recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, maior mortalidade e maior chance de transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B236" ref-type="bibr">236</xref> , <xref rid="B238" ref-type="bibr">238</xref> </sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Diagn&#243;stica</title>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico de miocardite fulminante envolve os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos de miocardite <italic>per se</italic> envolvendo quadro cl&#237;nico de IC aguda, eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponinas e de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, altera&#231;&#245;es inespec&#237;ficas no ECG, como invers&#245;es de onda T e/ou altera&#231;&#245;es de segmento ST, e altera&#231;&#227;o aguda da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. No cen&#225;rio de choque cardiog&#234;nico, cateterismo card&#237;aco direito e angiografia coron&#225;ria s&#227;o essenciais para orientar o manejo. A ecocardiografia &#233; ferramenta central no diagn&#243;stico, uma vez que os pacientes com miocardite fulminante frequentemente n&#227;o apresentam condi&#231;&#245;es para submeterem-se &#224; RM. Os achados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos s&#227;o altamente dependentes da forma e do tempo de apresenta&#231;&#227;o do paciente. Os pacientes com miocardite fulminante, em geral, apresentam dimens&#245;es diast&#243;licas normais, mas aumento na espessura septal na apresenta&#231;&#227;o, enquanto pacientes com miocardite viral aguda (n&#227;o fulminante) podem apresentar-se com dimens&#245;es diast&#243;licas tanto normal quanto aumentadas, mas espessura septal normal, consistente com outras formas de miocardiopatia dilatada.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> , <xref rid="B64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B98" ref-type="bibr">98</xref> , <xref rid="B239" ref-type="bibr">239</xref> , <xref rid="B240" ref-type="bibr">240</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>A decis&#227;o de realizar uma BEM no momento do cateterismo card&#237;aco est&#225; conforme as da for&#231;a-tarefa de 2013 da ESC<sup>15</sup> A BEM pode ser considerada o procedimento diagn&#243;stico inicial quando a RM n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel (p. ex., choque, presen&#231;a de dispositivos de metal), se operadores experientes e patologistas card&#237;acos est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis. De acordo com as diretrizes, portanto, as indica&#231;&#245;es para BEM estariam presentes para a maioria dos pacientes com miocardite fulminante ( <xref rid="f04" ref-type="fig">Figura 4</xref> ). Mais precis&#227;o pode ser alcan&#231;ada quando adicionados an&#225;lise do genoma viral, imuno-histologia ou biomarcadores transcript&#244;micos se houver incerteza diagn&#243;stica apesar da histologia.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m da confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de BEM na miocardite fulminante pode ser decisiva para defini&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica. A avalia&#231;&#227;o imuno-histoqu&#237;mica tem sido considerada obrigat&#243;ria em fun&#231;&#227;o das conhecidas limita&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas dos crit&#233;rios de Dallas, principalmente variabilidade interobservador, que, estima-se, vem trazer confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica em, no m&#225;ximo, 20% dos casos.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> , <xref rid="B64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B239" ref-type="bibr">239</xref> , <xref rid="B240" ref-type="bibr">240</xref> </sup> De acordo com defini&#231;&#227;o da OMS, para diagn&#243;stico de miocardite ativa, &#233; necess&#225;ria a detec&#231;&#227;o imuno-histoqu&#237;mica de infiltrados mononucleares (linf&#243;citos T ou macr&#243;fagos) usando um ponto de corte de mais de 14 c&#233;lulas/mm<sup>2</sup>, em adi&#231;&#227;o &#224; express&#227;o aumentada de mol&#233;culas HLA classe II.<sup><xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">146</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o de genoma viral nos esp&#233;cimes da bi&#243;psia &#233; fact&#237;vel (ainda pouco dispon&#237;vel no Brasil) e, quando acoplada &#224; an&#225;lise imuno-histoqu&#237;mica, aumenta a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica, al&#233;m de prover a etiologia e informa&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica.</p>
          <p>Para miocardites fulminantes, a indica&#231;&#227;o classe I, n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia C, j&#225; era considerada mesmo quando levava-se em conta apenas a an&#225;lise histol&#243;gica (crit&#233;rios de Dallas). A an&#225;lise histol&#243;gica convencional, amplamente dispon&#237;vel, permite diagn&#243;sticos etiol&#243;gicos que podem levar a mudan&#231;as de condutas terap&#234;utica e a tratamentos espec&#237;ficos, como em miocardites eosinof&#237;licas necrotizantes, miocardites de c&#233;lulas gigantes, sarcoidose, amiloidose e miocardites associadas a doen&#231;as autoimunes conhecidas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1.2. Abordagem Terap&#234;utica</title>
          <p>Do ponto de vista do tratamento espec&#237;fico da miocardite, o reconhecimento do fator causal por meio da investiga&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica por BEM permite o estabelecimento de estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas espec&#237;ficas, como a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de imunoglobulina nas miocardites virais e imunossupress&#227;o nas autoimunes sem presen&#231;a viral, ou o uso de corticosteroide em pacientes com sarcoidose, miocardite eosinof&#237;lica necrotizante ou miocardite por c&#233;lulas gigantes. Um ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado de imunossupress&#227;o em 85 pacientes com miocardite com comprovada aus&#234;ncia de persist&#234;ncia viral (TIMIC Study) demonstrou claro benef&#237;cio sobre a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes. No entanto, tratavam-se de pacientes com mais de 6 meses de diagn&#243;stico e comprovada aus&#234;ncia de v&#237;rus.<sup><xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref></sup> Ensaios cl&#237;nicos de imunossupress&#227;o em pacientes com miocardite fulminante n&#227;o existem. Uma op&#231;&#227;o que tem sido testada &#233; a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de altas doses de imunoglobulina, a qual se mostrou ben&#233;fica sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e classe funcional e demonstrou benef&#237;cio em sobrevida;<sup><xref rid="B208" ref-type="bibr">208</xref> , <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> , <xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref> </sup> embora tenha sido demonstrado em um ensaio cl&#237;nico com 62 pacientes, em que apenas 16% tinham miocardite comprovada por bi&#243;psia a ausencia de benef&#237;cio.<sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O tratamento de suporte deve ser realizado com f&#225;rmacos vasoativos e eventualmente vasopressores e em situa&#231;&#245;es nas quais seja poss&#237;vel a introdu&#231;&#227;o de vasodilatadores. O insucesso imediato no tratamento medicamentoso e acerto vol&#234;mico deve abrir perspectiva para indica&#231;&#227;o de suporte hemodin&#226;mico com assist&#234;ncia circulat&#243;ria. Os dispositivos mais utilizados s&#227;o bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico, dispositivos percut&#226;neos como <italic>tandem-heart </italic> e <italic>impella</italic> , circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea (ECMO) e ventr&#237;culos artificiais paracorp&#243;reos, como ponte para recupera&#231;&#227;o ou ponte para transplante card&#237;aco ( <xref rid="f07" ref-type="fig">Figura 7</xref> ). Os dispositivos de curta dura&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m sua indica&#231;&#227;o para suporte de 7 a 10 dias.<sup><xref rid="B241" ref-type="bibr">241</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s esse per&#237;odo e quando n&#227;o se consegue a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o do paciente, a indica&#231;&#227;o de ECMO ou ventr&#237;culos artificiais pode dar suporte por per&#237;odo maior, possibilitando mais chance de recupera&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup><xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref></sup> (ver se&#231;&#227;o <italic>Choque cardiog&#234;nico</italic> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f07">
              <label>Figura 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Abordagem para estabiliza&#231;&#227;o inicial de pacientes com choque cardiog&#234;nico.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>BIA: bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico; CRM: cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica; DAV: dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxigentaion; ICP: interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea; SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda. Adaptada de Kociol et al.<sup>63</sup></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf07.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.2. Sarcoidose</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2.1. Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>A sarcoidose &#233; uma doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria granulomatosa, de etiologia desconhecida, caracterizada por granulomas n&#227;o caseosos, podendo acometer v&#225;rios &#243;rg&#227;os, especialmente: pulm&#245;es (90%), pele, linfonodos, sistema nervoso central, olhos, f&#237;gado, cora&#231;&#227;o e outros &#243;rg&#227;os.<sup><xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref></sup> Embora a sarcoidose card&#237;aca clinicamente manifesta s&#243; ocorra em 5% a 10% dos pacientes com sarcoidose, estudos em aut&#243;psias revelaram que o envolvimento card&#237;aco est&#225; presente em 20% a 30% de estudos com imagem card&#237;aca avan&#231;ada; com o uso de CMR ou PET, demonstraram valores de 40% de comprometimento card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B244" ref-type="bibr">244</xref> - <xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">246</xref> </sup> Al&#233;m das diferen&#231;as de defini&#231;&#245;es para ela, outro fator que parece impactar no aumento da preval&#234;ncia dessa doen&#231;a &#233; o aprimoramento dos m&#233;todos de imagem.</p>
        <p>Atualmente, preconiza-se o uso das diretrizes da Sociedade Japonesa de Circula&#231;&#227;o (SJC) lan&#231;ada em 2019 ( <xref rid="t59" ref-type="table">Tabela 22</xref> , <xref rid="f08" ref-type="fig">Figuras 8</xref> e <xref rid="f09" ref-type="fig">9</xref> ). Dentre as mudan&#231;as sugeridas neste documento, temos que o ac&#250;mulo anormalmente alto de marcadores no cora&#231;&#227;o com tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons por<sup> 18</sup>F-fluorodesoxiglucose (FDG)/tomografia computadorizada (FDG-PET/CT), que foi categorizado nas &#8216;&#8217;Diretrizes para o diagn&#243;stico de envolvimento card&#237;aco em pacientes com sarcoidose&#8217;&#8217;, em 2006, foi promovido para os crit&#233;rios maiores, bem como o realce tardio por gadol&#237;nio do mioc&#225;rdio na RM com gadol&#237;nio. Nas atuais diretrizes da SJC, o paciente tamb&#233;m &#233; diagnosticado clinicamente com sarcoidose card&#237;aca quando demonstra achados cl&#237;nicos fortemente sugestivos de comprometimento card&#237;aco e de sarcoidose pulmonar ou oftalmol&#243;gica somados a, ao menos, dois dos cinco achados laboratoriais caracter&#237;sticos da sarcoidose. Por fim, a defini&#231;&#227;o da sarcoidose card&#237;aca isolada foi elaborada pela primeira vez.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t59">
            <label>Tabela 22</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es da SJC para o diagn&#243;stico da sarcoidose card&#237;aca247</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Crit&#233;rios para envolvimento card&#237;aco</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Os achados card&#237;acos devem ser avaliados com base nos crit&#233;rios maiores e nos menores. Achados cl&#237;nicos que satisfazem os seguintes 1) ou 2) sugerem fortemente a presen&#231;a de comprometimento card&#237;aco.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 1. Dois ou mais dos cinco principais (a) a (e) s&#227;o atendidos.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 2. Um dos cinco crit&#233;rios principais (a) a (e) somados a dois ou mais crit&#233;rios menores (f) a (h) s&#227;o atendidos.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Crit&#233;rios maiores</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> a. Bloqueio atrioventricular de alto grau (incluindo bloqueio atrioventricular completo) ou arritmia ventricular fatal (p. ex., taquicardia ventricular sustentada e fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> b. Afinamento basal do septo ventricular ou anatomia anormal da parede ventricular (aneurisma ventricular, afinamento do septo ventricular superior ou m&#233;dio, espessamento da parede ventricular regional)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> c. Disfun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo inferior a 50% ou assinergia da parede ventricular focal)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> d. Cintilografia com citrato <sup>67</sup>Ga ou PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG revela ac&#250;mulo anormalmente alto de marcadores no cora&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> e. A RM com gadol&#237;nio revela atraso no contraste do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Crit&#233;rios menores</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> f. Achados anormais de ECG: arritmias ventriculares (taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada, multifocais ou frequentes contra&#231;&#245;es ventriculares prematuras), desvio do eixo ou ondas Q anormais</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> g. Defeitos de perfus&#227;o na cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> h. Bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica: infiltra&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos e fibrose intersticial mioc&#225;rdica moderada ou grave. Diretrizes para o diagn&#243;stico de sarcoidose card&#237;aca</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Diretrizes para o diagn&#243;stico de sarcoidose card&#237;aca</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 1. Grupo de diagn&#243;stico histol&#243;gico (aqueles com achados positivos na bi&#243;psia do mioc&#225;rdio): a sarcoidose card&#237;aca &#233; diagnosticada histologicamente quando a bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica ou as amostras cir&#250;rgicas demonstram granulomas n&#227;o caseosos.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 2. Grupo de diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico (aquele com achados negativos da bi&#243;psia do mioc&#225;rdio ou aqueles que n&#227;o foram submetidos &#224; bi&#243;psia do mioc&#225;rdio): o paciente &#233; diagnosticado clinicamente como sarcoidose card&#237;aca (1) quando granulomas n&#227;o caseosos s&#227;o encontrados em outros &#243;rg&#227;os que n&#227;o o cora&#231;&#227;o, e achados cl&#237;nicos fortemente sugestivos de comprometimento card&#237;aco anteriormente mencionado est&#227;o presentes; ou (2) quando o paciente demonstra no quadro cl&#237;nico achados fortemente sugestivos de sarcoidose pulmonar ou oft&#225;lmica; pelo menos dois dos cinco achados caracter&#237;sticos laboratoriais de sarcoidose (linfadenopatia hilar bilateral, atividade s&#233;rica alta de ECA ou n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos elevados de lisozima, sIL-2R s&#233;rio alto, ac&#250;mulo significativo de marcadores na cintilografia com citrato <sup>67</sup>Ga ou PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG, alta porcentagem de linf&#243;citos CD4/CD8, raz&#227;o &gt;3,5 no l&#237;quido do LBA). Os achados de imagem sugerem fortemente o envolvimento card&#237;aco anteriormente mencionado.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Diretrizes de diagn&#243;stico para sarcoidose card&#237;aca isolada</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pr&#233;-requisitos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 1. N&#227;o serem observadas caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas da sarcoidose em outros &#243;rg&#227;os al&#233;m do cora&#231;&#227;o (o paciente deve ser examinado detalhadamente para avaliar envolvimentos respirat&#243;rios, oftalmol&#243;gicos e cut&#226;neos de sarcoidose. Quando o paciente &#233; sintom&#225;tico, outras etiologias que podem afetar os &#243;rg&#227;os correspondentes devem ser descartadas.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 2. A cintilografia com <sup>67</sup>Ga ou o PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG n&#227;o revela ac&#250;mulo anormal de marcadores em nenhum outro &#243;rg&#227;o que n&#227;o o cora&#231;&#227;o.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 3. A tomografia computadorizada do t&#243;rax n&#227;o demonstra nos pulm&#245;es ou linfadenopatia hilar e mediastinal (eixo menor &gt;10 mm).</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Grupo de diagn&#243;stico histol&#243;gico</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 1. A sarcoidose card&#237;aca isolada &#233; diagnosticada histologicamente quando a bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica ou as amostras cir&#250;rgicas demonstram granuloma n&#227;o caseoso.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Grupo de diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> 1. A sarcoidose card&#237;aca isolada &#233; diagnosticada clinicamente quando o crit&#233;rio (d) e pelo menos tr&#234;s outros crit&#233;rios maiores (a) a (e) s&#227;o satisfeitos. Quando o paciente atende a pelo menos quatro crit&#233;rios de envolvimento card&#237;aco que n&#227;o incluam o crit&#233;rio (d) ou quando o paciente atende os crit&#233;rios (b) e (d) mais um dos crit&#233;rios restantes, suspeita-se que o paciente tenha sarcoidose card&#237;aca isolada.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN12">
                <p>
                  <italic>ECA: enzima conversora de angiotensina; ECG: eletrocardiograma; LBA: lavado broncoalveolar; PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodesoxiglicose; RM: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica. Adaptada de Terasaki et al.<sup>247</sup></italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f08">
            <label>Figura 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma diagn&#243;stico de sarcoidose card&#237;aca, ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico de les&#245;es extracard&#237;acas de sarcoidose.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>ECG: eletrocardiograma; PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodesoxiglicose; SPECT: tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de fot&#243;n &#250;nico. Adaptada de Terasaki et al.<sup>247</sup></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf08.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f09">
            <label>Figura 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma de diagn&#243;stico para sarcoidose card&#237;aca em pacientes que apresentam manifesta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas e s&#227;o fortemente suspeitos de sarcoidose card&#237;aca. BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; ECA: enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina; FDG: fluorodesoxiglicose; PET 18F-FDG: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons 18F-fluorodesoxiglicose; SPECT: tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico; TC: tomografia computadorizada;VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Adaptada de Terasaki et al.247</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf09.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2.2. Tratamento e Progn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>O tratamento imunossupressor da sarcoidose card&#237;aca baseia-se na experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica e na opini&#227;o de especialistas em que faltam estudos randomizados. O objetivo do tratamento &#233; reduzir a atividade inflamat&#243;ria e a preven&#231;&#227;o de fibrose e deve ser guiado pela magnitude do processo inflamat&#243;rio e o grau de acometimento mioc&#225;rdico.<sup><xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">248</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recomenda-se o tratamento imunossupressor nas seguintes situa&#231;&#245;es: nos casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, arritmias ventriculares, atividade hipermetab&#243;lica no PET-FDG, dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o, realce tardio na RMC ou disfun&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo direito na aus&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar.<sup><xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">248</xref> - <xref rid="B250" ref-type="bibr">250</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Existem tr&#234;s linhas de tratamento na sarcoidose &#8211; primeira linha: corticosteroides; segunda linha: metotrexato e azatioprina nos casos intolerantes ou uso cr&#244;nico de corticosteroides; e terceira linha: anticorpos anti-TNF (infliximab e andalimumab) nos casos de falha de tratamentos anteriores.<sup><xref rid="B251" ref-type="bibr">251</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O f&#225;rmaco de escolha &#233; o corticosteroide. Em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica do uso de corticosteroide em pacientes com dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o ventricular, 27 de 57 pacientes (47,4%) melhoraram ap&#243;s tratamento.<sup><xref rid="B252" ref-type="bibr">252</xref></sup> No entanto, em vista da n&#227;o previsibilidade de resposta, esses pacientes com dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o e sarcoidose card&#237;aca devem receber um marca-passo ou cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel.<sup><xref rid="B119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref> , <xref rid="B253" ref-type="bibr">253</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Estudos mais antigos que avaliaram o efeito do corticosteroide na fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sugerem preserva&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular nos casos de fun&#231;&#227;o normal ao diagn&#243;stico, melhora da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular nos casos de pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o leve a moderada e n&#227;o melhora nos casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular importante.<sup><xref rid="B119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref></sup> No entanto, por outro lado, um estudo finland&#234;s sugere uma melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda com o tratamento imunossupressor nos casos de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular severamente comprometida (FEVE&lt;35%), mas sem altera&#231;&#245;es nos casos de fun&#231;&#227;o normal ou moderamente diminu&#237;da no in&#237;cio do tratamento. Talvez tais diferen&#231;as estejam no diagn&#243;stico e tratamentos precoces.<sup><xref rid="B254" ref-type="bibr">254</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nos casos de arritmia ventricular, os estudos s&#227;o mais limitados; no entanto, a causa da arritmia parece ser secund&#225;ria a cicatrizes e, talvez, o efeito do corticosteroide nesses pacientes seja pequeno benef&#237;cio.<sup><xref rid="B255" ref-type="bibr">255</xref></sup> A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter nos casos de taquicardia ventricular pode ser considerada ap&#243;s o implante de cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel ou fal&#234;ncia das medica&#231;&#245;es antiarr&#237;tmicas.<sup><xref rid="B256" ref-type="bibr">256</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O algoritmo de tratamento ( <xref rid="f10" ref-type="fig">Figura 10</xref> ) sugerido seria de doses iniciais de prednisona (30 mg/dia a 40 mg/dia) seguido da repeti&#231;&#227;o do PET entre 4 a 6 meses, com o objetivo de avaliar a atividade da doen&#231;a e guiar o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico subsequente.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f10">
            <label>Figura 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Algoritmo de tratamento da sarcoidose.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma; PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodesoxiglicose.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf10.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Yokoyama et al.<sup><xref rid="B257" ref-type="bibr">257</xref></sup> compararam o uso de PET<sup>18</sup>F-FDG/CT antes e ap&#243;s utiliza&#231;&#227;o de corticosteroide em 18 pacientes com sarcoidose card&#237;aca, e observaram que a SUV max diminuiu significativamente em compara&#231;&#227;o com valores basais. Estudo recente utilizou o PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG/CT para diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da sarcoidose card&#237;aca com doses baixas de corticosteroide e controle da doen&#231;a em 1 ano do diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B258" ref-type="bibr">258</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Medicamentos imunossupressores outros que corticosteroide s&#227;o necess&#225;rios devido ao longo tempo do tratamento, e s&#227;o indicados nos pacientes que necessitam de uma dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o de prednisona &gt;10 mg/dia e que n&#227;o toleram efeitos colaterais do corticosteroide.<sup><xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">248</xref> , <xref rid="B250" ref-type="bibr">250</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>S&#227;o sugeridos: metotrexato,<sup><xref rid="B257" ref-type="bibr">257</xref></sup> azatioprina,<sup><xref rid="B258" ref-type="bibr">258</xref></sup> ciclofosfamida<sup><xref rid="B259" ref-type="bibr">259</xref></sup> e inibidores do fator de necrose tumoral.<sup><xref rid="B260" ref-type="bibr">260</xref> , <xref rid="B261" ref-type="bibr">261</xref> </sup> O tipo de f&#225;rmaco utilizado pode ser determinado pelo tipo de acometimento extracard&#237;aco; COMO evitar metotrexato, NO envolvimento hep&#225;tico e estudos em pacientes com sarcoidose pulmonar, cut&#226;nea, ocular, neurol&#243;gica e multissist&#234;mica sugerem uma boa efic&#225;cia do infliximab ( <xref rid="t60" ref-type="table">Tabela 23</xref> <xref rid="t61" ref-type="table"/> ).<sup><xref rid="B262" ref-type="bibr">262</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t60">
            <label>Tabela 23</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es de terapia imunossupressora na sarcoidose</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Prednisona 30 a 40mg/d por 4 a 6 meses</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Outros imunossupressores em caso de uso corticosteroide:</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Azatioprina 50 a 200 mg/d</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Metotrexato 10 a 20mg/semana</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Infliximab em sarcoidose pulmonar, cut&#226;nea, ocular, neurol&#243;gica e multissist&#234;mica</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Leflunomida 10 a 20 mg/d</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t61">
            <label>Tabela 24</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Indica&#231;&#227;o de CDI na sarcoidose</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Taquicardia ventricular/morte card&#237;aca abortada</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>FEVE &lt;35 % a despeito de tratamento otimizado e per&#237;odo de imunossupress&#227;o e inflama&#231;&#227;o ativa</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>S&#237;ncope inexplicada de prov&#225;vel causa arr&#237;tmica</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o entre 35% e 49% e/ou FEVD &lt;40% a despeito de tratamento otimizado e imunossupressor e evid&#234;ncia pela resson&#226;ncia ou PET de extensa cicatriz mioc&#225;rdica</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o entre 35% e 49% e/ou FEVD &lt;40% a despeito de tratamento otimizado e imunossupressor</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN13">
                <p>
                  <italic>CDI: cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel; FEVD: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo direito; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; PET: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitron.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2.3. Progn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>A sarcoidose card&#237;aca tem um pior progn&#243;stico quando comparada &#224; miocardiopatia dilatada. Uma vez o cora&#231;&#227;o estando acometido, o progn&#243;stico torna desfavor&#225;vel. O comprometimento card&#237;aco &#233; respons&#225;vel por 85% dos &#243;bitos na doen&#231;a.<sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> , <xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Kandolin et al.<sup><xref rid="B256" ref-type="bibr">256</xref></sup> reportaram o efeito a longo prazo do tratamento imunossupressor na coorte finlandesa, e sobrevida livre de transplante em 1 ano, 5 anos e 10 anos foi 97%, 90% e 83%, respectivamente, durante o seguimento de 6,6 anos. Nesse estudo, a presen&#231;a de IC e a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca antes do tratamento com corticosteroide foram os fatores mais importantes para estimativa do progn&#243;stico, demonstrando que o tratamento precoce &#233; importante.</p>
        <p>A presen&#231;a de realce tardio mioc&#225;rdico avaliado pela RM aumentou em 30 vezes o risco de morte, morte s&#250;bita abortada ou implante de cardiodesfibrilador em um per&#237;odo de seguimento de 2,6 anos,<sup><xref rid="B262" ref-type="bibr">262</xref></sup> posteriormente confirmados em metan&#225;lises. Sugere que o limiar de 20% de massa de fibrose esteja associado com risco de eventos.<sup><xref rid="B263" ref-type="bibr">263</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em um estudo que utilizou PET, observou-se que 26% dos eventos adversos relatados, tais como taquicardia ventricular e morte, ocorreram nos casos de capta&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ao PET em um seguimento de 1,5 ano. Por outro lado, a capta&#231;&#227;o extracard&#237;aca n&#227;o se associou com eventos adversos no seguimento.<sup><xref rid="B264" ref-type="bibr">264</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro dado interessante &#233; que pacientes com sarcoidose card&#237;aca isolada t&#234;m pior progn&#243;stico quando comparados com pacientes com sarcoidose sist&#234;mica com comprometimento card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B265" ref-type="bibr">265</xref></sup> Outro estudo finland&#234;s observou elevada frequ&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e anormalidades septais ao ecocardiograma e alta preval&#234;ncia de realce tardio mioc&#225;rdico pela resson&#226;ncia e maior associa&#231;&#227;o com sexo feminino e maior disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref rid="B266" ref-type="bibr">266</xref></sup>Nesse estudo, a presen&#231;a de IC na apresenta&#231;&#227;o, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda severa (&lt;35%) e sarcoidose card&#237;aca isolada tamb&#233;m esteve relacionada com o progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B254" ref-type="bibr">254</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ecocardiograma com Strain (GLS &lt;17,3) foi preditor independente de mortalidade, IC, hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, novas arritmias e desenvolvimento de sarcoidose card&#237;aca.<sup><xref rid="B267" ref-type="bibr">267</xref></sup></p>
        <p>J&#225; biomarcadores s&#233;ricos como BNP estiveram relacionados com desenvolvimento de IC, e a troponina, com desenvolvimento de arritmias fatais,<sup><xref rid="B268" ref-type="bibr">268</xref></sup> menor fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e pior progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B269" ref-type="bibr">269</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.3. C&#233;lulas Igantes</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3.1. Tratamento</title>
        <p>De acordo com Registro Internacional, a MCG &#233; etiologia de 12% das miocardites fulminantes e 3,6% das miocardites n&#227;o fulminantes.<sup><xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref></sup> Os alvos do tratamento s&#227;o limitados porque n&#227;o s&#227;o conhecidos adequadamente os mecanismos da MCG, embora um mecanismo autoimune envolvendo inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica mediada por linf&#243;citos-T tenha sido proposto.<sup><xref rid="B270" ref-type="bibr">270</xref> , <xref rid="B271" ref-type="bibr">271</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>A MCG tem um progn&#243;stico pior que as miocardites eosinof&#237;licas e linfocit&#225;rias e est&#225; mais frequentemente associada &#224; IC, parada card&#237;aca, fibrila&#231;&#227;o e taquicardia ventricular, bloqueios ou simula&#231;&#227;o de IAM.<sup><xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref> , <xref rid="B272" ref-type="bibr">272</xref> </sup> Sem tratamento, a evolu&#231;&#227;o geralmente &#233; fatal, com morte at&#233; os 5,5 meses de evolu&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B271" ref-type="bibr">271</xref></sup>Mesmo com tratamento, a MCG tem alta mortalidade ou necessidade de indica&#231;&#227;o precoce de suporte mec&#226;nico circulat&#243;rio e/ou transplante card&#237;aco.</p>
        <p>Recentemente, foi descrita sobrevida livre de transplante aos 5 anos de 42%. Como importantes marcadores de progn&#243;stico de morte precoce ou necessidade de suporte mec&#226;nico ou transplante card&#237;aco, foram descritos os n&#237;veis de troponina e moderada/severa necrose ou fibrose na BEM. Tamb&#233;m s&#227;o marcadores de progn&#243;stico n&#237;veis elevados de BNP/nt-proBNP e redu&#231;&#227;o importante de FEVE.<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref></sup> O progn&#243;stico reservado pode ser devido &#224; les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou recorr&#234;ncia da MCG.<sup><xref rid="B273" ref-type="bibr">273</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s transplante card&#237;aco, tamb&#233;m tem sido descrita recorr&#234;ncia da MCG.</p>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico precoce &#233; cr&#237;tico e baseia-se nos resultados da BEM, ou an&#225;lise histol&#243;gica de cora&#231;&#227;o explantado durante transplante card&#237;aco, ou de fragmento de mioc&#225;rdio obtido durante implante de dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular.<sup><xref rid="B270" ref-type="bibr">270</xref> , <xref rid="B274" ref-type="bibr">274</xref> , <xref rid="B275" ref-type="bibr">275</xref> </sup> A sensibilidade da bi&#243;psia pode ser limitada pelo erro de amostragem. Fragmentos s&#227;o obtidos preferencialmente da por&#231;&#227;o apical do septo do ventr&#237;culo direito, porque diminui o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es. Uma bi&#243;psia negativa n&#227;o necessariamente exclui o diagn&#243;stico de MCG. A sensibilidade da BEM aumentou de 68% para 93% depois de repetir o procedimento ( <xref rid="t62" ref-type="table">Tabela 25</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t62">
            <label>Tabela 25</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es de bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica (BEM) na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica na miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>BEM ou an&#225;lise de cora&#231;&#227;o explantado durante transplante card&#237;aco, ou de fragmento mioc&#225;rdico obtido durante implante de dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia mec&#226;nica em pacientes com quadro agudo de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com grave comprometimento hemodin&#226;mico ou fulminante</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Suspeita de diagn&#243;stico de miocardite associada com parada card&#237;aca, ou fibrila&#231;&#227;o ou taquicardia ventricular, ou bloqueios, ou simula&#231;&#227;o de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O tratamento da MCG pode ser dividido em tratamento da IC com FEVEr provocada pela les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou recorr&#234;ncia da MCG, das arritmias, bloqueios e o tratamento do prov&#225;vel mecanismo com imunossupressores.</p>
        <p>O tratamento da IC, dos dist&#250;rbios hemodin&#226;micos, bloqueios e arritmias segue as mesmas orienta&#231;&#245;es do tratamento da IC segundo as Diretrizes da SBC, quer seja medicamentoso e/ou com inotr&#243;picos, marca-passo/desfibriladores e/ou suporte mec&#226;nico circulat&#243;rio e transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref></sup> O transplante card&#237;aco pode ter indica&#231;&#227;o mais precoce devido ao progn&#243;stico reservado da MCG, mesmo com imunossupressores. A indica&#231;&#227;o de implante de cardiodesfibrilador pode ser feita para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de morte s&#250;bita ou secund&#225;ria com base na alta incid&#234;ncia de arritmias complexas e graves.<sup><xref rid="B276" ref-type="bibr">276</xref></sup> Foi descrito que 59% dos pacientes com MCG apresentaram taquicardica ventricular sustentada ou choques para arritmia ventricular complexa, apesar de estarem livres de IC grave.</p>
        <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o de imunossupressores est&#225; baseada em resultados de s&#233;rie de casos ou de pequenos estudos randomizados, e foram utilizadas medica&#231;&#245;es imunossupressoras como prednisona, ciclosporina, azatioprina, micofenolato, everolimus, sirolimus ou globulina de coelho, globulina antitimocit&#225;ria ou soro muromonab-CD3 para cit&#243;lise de linf&#243;cito T. Ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico inicial, em geral, utilizam-se corticosteroides em altas doses e/ou globulina de coelho, globulina antitimocit&#225;ria ou soro muromonab-CD3, podendo j&#225; associar medica&#231;&#227;o para imunossupress&#227;o cr&#244;nica. O uso de hemoadsor&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m tem sido relatado ( <xref rid="t63" ref-type="table">Tabela 26</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B277" ref-type="bibr">277</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t63">
            <label>Tabela 26</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es da terap&#234;utica na miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Corticosteroide em doses altas em combina&#231;&#227;o com anticorpos antilinfocit&#225;rios e/ou inibidores de calcineurina (ciclosporina ou tacrolimus) e/ou antiproliferativos (azatioprina ou microfenolato)</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Imunossupress&#227;o de manuten&#231;&#227;o com corticosteroide e inibidor de calcineurina (ciclosporina ou tacrolimus) ou esquema tr&#237;plice acrescentando antiproliferativo (azatioprina ou micofenolato)</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Transplante card&#237;aco</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Indica&#231;&#227;o de cardiodesfibrilador para prevenc&#227;o prim&#225;ria ou secund&#225;ria de arritmias complexas ventriculares</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Em geral a imunosssupress&#227;o de manuten&#231;&#227;o &#233; baseada na ciclosporina em esquema duplo ou triplo.<sup><xref rid="B270" ref-type="bibr">270</xref> , <xref rid="B278" ref-type="bibr">278</xref> </sup> Entretanto, existem importantes limita&#231;&#245;es na avalia&#231;&#227;o do seu real benef&#237;cio. Combina&#231;&#245;es das medica&#231;&#245;es prednisona, ciclosporina, azatioprina, micofenolato ou uso isolado ou combinado com RATG ou soro muromonab-CD3 t&#234;m sido feitos. Foi descrito que imunossupress&#227;o tripla pode aumentar a chance de estar vivo livre de transplante card&#237;aco para 58% aos 5 anos.<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref></sup> Contudo, tem que ser mantida a imunossupress&#227;o pela possibilidade de haver recorr&#234;ncia. A imunossupress&#227;o combinada (prednisona, ciclosporina e azatioprina) parece ser mais aceita, embora outras combina&#231;&#245;es tenham sido utilizadas, tais como ciclosporina com RATG, ou RATG com corticosteroides em altas doses. N&#227;o existem estudos comparativos para confirmar a melhor imunossupress&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref> , <xref rid="B274" ref-type="bibr">274</xref> </sup> A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de ciclosporina associada a corticosteroides em altas dose ou muromonab-CD3 por 4 semanas diminui necrose, inflama&#231;&#227;o celular e c&#233;lulas gigantes.<sup><xref rid="B279" ref-type="bibr">279</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Transplante card&#237;aco est&#225; indicado com melhora da sobrevida a m&#233;dio prazo, mas pode haver recorr&#234;ncia de 20% a 25%.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> , <xref rid="B280" ref-type="bibr">280</xref> </sup> &#201; o tratamento de escolha, apesar de maior risco de rejei&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B281" ref-type="bibr">281</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3.2. Manifesta&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica e Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>A miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes &#233; reconhecida como uma doen&#231;a r&#225;pida e progressiva, na maioria das vezes fatal, se o paciente n&#227;o for submetido a transplante card&#237;aco. Em boa parte dos casos, &#233; associada a processo autoimune.</p>
        <p>Dados do Giant Cell Myocarditis Study Group mostraram uma incid&#234;ncia predominante em adultos jovens, brancos, sem predom&#237;nio de sexo e com manifesta&#231;&#227;o principal de IC aguda (75% dos casos), por&#233;m metade dos pacientes desenvolveu arritmia ventricular complexa na evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a. A sobrevida m&#233;dia livre de transplante card&#237;aco foi de 5,5 meses.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Registro mais recente sobre miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes mostrou incid&#234;ncia tamb&#233;m em adultos jovens, mulheres, e as principais manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas foram IC aguda, BAV e arritmias ventriculares.<sup><xref rid="B274" ref-type="bibr">274</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Exames de imagem n&#227;o apresentam nenhuma altera&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica na miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes. O diagn&#243;stico baseia-se nos achados caracter&#237;sticos da BEM com infiltrado inflamat&#243;rio difuso e misto, constitu&#237;do principalmente por macr&#243;fagos, seguido em quantidade por linf&#243;citos e c&#233;lulas gigantes multinucleadas derivadas de macr&#243;fagos, tipicamente dispersas, e, ainda, com menor representa&#231;&#227;o de eosin&#243;filos e c&#233;lulas plasm&#225;ticas.<sup><xref rid="B282" ref-type="bibr">282</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.4. Miocardite chag&#225;sica aguda e reagudiza&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4.1. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas e meios de Infec&#231;&#227;o, Reagudiza&#231;&#227;o nos Pacientes Imunossuprimidos</title>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, a doen&#231;a de Chagas aguda (DCA) vem apresentando aumento no n&#250;mero de casos tanto por transmiss&#227;o oral ou vetorial quanto por quadros de reativa&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a em pa&#237;ses da Am&#233;rica Latina. Os principais meios de infec&#231;&#227;o da DCA, atualmente, s&#227;o: transmiss&#227;o oral (68,4%), vetorial (5,9%), vertical (0,5%), transfusional (0,4%), acidental (0,1%) e desconhecida (24,7%), como descrito em s&#233;rie de casos diagnosticados na Amaz&#244;nia Brasileira.<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A transmiss&#227;o vetorial ocorre pelo h&#225;bito de os triatom&#237;neos defecarem durante ou logo ap&#243;s a hematofagia, com a deposi&#231;&#227;o de fezes contaminadas fazendo com que as formas infectantes do <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> atinjam a pele, mucosas e, posteriormente, a corrente sangu&#237;nea. O per&#237;odo de incuba&#231;&#227;o &#233; de 4 a 15 dias. A transmiss&#227;o oral ocorre quando h&#225; a ingest&#227;o de alimentos ou bebidas contaminadas com parasitos. Atualmente, &#233; a causa mais comum da doen&#231;a aguda, ocasionando surtos em regi&#245;es end&#234;micas e n&#227;o end&#234;micas. Seu per&#237;odo de incuba&#231;&#227;o varia de 3 a 22 dias.<sup><xref rid="B283" ref-type="bibr">283</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os casos de DCA podem cursar com sinais e sintomas inespec&#237;ficos de s&#237;ndrome infecciosa, tais como febre, mialgias, edema de face e artralgias; al&#233;m de sinais relacionados com a porta de entrada como o chagoma de inocula&#231;&#227;o e sinal de Roma&#241;a na forma vetorial e quadros digestivos, podendo ocorrer hemorragias digestivas na forma oral. <sup><xref rid="B284" ref-type="bibr">284</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os casos agudos podem ou n&#227;o cursar com miocardite e pericardite. Relatos de necr&#243;psia mostram intensa inflama&#231;&#227;o aguda do epic&#225;rdico e mioc&#225;rdio, observando-se atividade inflamat&#243;ria intensa e difusa e dissocia&#231;&#227;o extensa de fibras card&#237;acas, sendo observadas as formas amastigotas do parasita.<sup><xref rid="B285" ref-type="bibr">285</xref></sup> Sinais e sintomas compat&#237;veis com IC variaram de 26% a 58%. Podem ocorrer casos graves com tamponamento card&#237;aco e choque cardiog&#234;nico por disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica de VE. A letalidade na forma de transmiss&#227;o oral variou de 2% a 5% nas maiores s&#233;ries. A presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas em exames complementares variou de 33% a 70% de altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas (bloqueio de ramo direito, BAV de primeiro grau, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial aguda, bloqueio divisional anterossuperior) e de 13% a 52% de altera&#231;&#245;es ao ecocardiograma, com derrame peric&#225;rdico sendo a altera&#231;&#227;o mais frequente (10% a 82%), e altera&#231;&#245;es de contra&#231;&#227;o segmentar, comuns na fase cr&#244;nica, s&#227;o pouco encontradas na fase aguda. Apesar da ocorr&#234;ncia de casos graves de comprometimento card&#237;aco, a maioria dos pacientes cursa com fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica preservada com poucos casos de redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o, e a maioria dos &#243;bitos ocorre devido &#224; presen&#231;a de derrame peric&#225;rdico importante e tamponamento card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B286" ref-type="bibr">286</xref> , <xref rid="B287" ref-type="bibr">287</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4.2. Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>Os exames parasitol&#243;gicos diretos s&#227;o os mais indicados para o diagn&#243;stico da miocardite aguda.<sup><xref rid="B288" ref-type="bibr">288</xref></sup> M&#233;todos indiretos, como a hemocultura e o xenodiagn&#243;stico, t&#234;m baixa sensibilidade, n&#227;o sendo ideais para utiliza&#231;&#227;o na fase aguda. Os exames sorol&#243;gicos n&#227;o s&#227;o os melhores m&#233;todos para diagn&#243;stico na fase aguda, mas podem ser feitos quando os exames parasitol&#243;gicos diretos forem persistentemente negativos e a suspeita cl&#237;nica persistir.</p>
        <p>A pesquisa a fresco do parasita no sangue circulante &#233; r&#225;pida e simples, al&#233;m de ser mais sens&#237;vel que o esfrega&#231;o corado. A condi&#231;&#227;o ideal de coleta &#233; com o paciente ainda febril e dentro de 1 m&#234;s do in&#237;cio dos sintomas. M&#233;todos de concentra&#231;&#227;o (Strout, micro-hemat&#243;crito, creme leucocit&#225;rio) s&#227;o recomendados quando a pesquisa a fresco resultou negativa, por serem mais sens&#237;veis. S&#227;o empregados tamb&#233;m quando o quadro cl&#237;nico agudo come&#231;ou h&#225; mais de 1 m&#234;s. Resultados negativos na primeira an&#225;lise n&#227;o devem ser considerados definitivos, principalmente se os sintomas persistirem, a n&#227;o ser que outra etiologia seja comprovada.</p>
        <p>A PCR, sendo um m&#233;todo de diagn&#243;stico molecular, vem se tornando mais importante para detectar infec&#231;&#227;o recente, visto que mostra resultados positivos dias a semanas antes que sejam detectadas tripomastigotas circulantes.<sup><xref rid="B289" ref-type="bibr">289</xref> - <xref rid="B291" ref-type="bibr">291</xref> </sup> Pode ser feita em sangue perif&#233;rico e no tecido obtido por BEM para detectar reativa&#231;&#227;o precoce p&#243;s-transplante card&#237;aco, antes do aparecimento do quadro cl&#237;nico ou de disfun&#231;&#227;o do enxerto.<sup><xref rid="B292" ref-type="bibr">292</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A reativa&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a de Chagas no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-transplante card&#237;aco pode acontecer em 19,6% a 45% dos casos.<sup><xref rid="B293" ref-type="bibr">293</xref></sup> O quadro cl&#237;nico pode ser de miocardite aguda, com v&#225;rios graus de IC, frequentemente acompanhada de manifesta&#231;&#245;es sist&#234;micas. Na pele, podem surgir eritema e n&#243;dulos subcut&#226;neos, que devem ser biopsiados para pesquisa de ninhos de amastigotas. O monitoramento deve ser rotineiro, mesmo sem suspeita de reagudiza&#231;&#227;o. Quando n&#227;o h&#225; sinais cl&#237;nicos extracard&#237;acos, a bi&#243;psia deve ser realizada.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4.3. Tratamento</title>
        <p>O tratamento tripanosomicida est&#225; indicado nos pacientes com DCA com ou sem manifesta&#231;&#245;es de miocardite e na reativa&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica devido &#224; imunossupress&#227;o (transplantados) ( <xref rid="t64" ref-type="table">Tabela 27</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B294" ref-type="bibr">294</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t64">
            <label>Tabela 27</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o tratamento etiol&#243;gico na miocardite chag&#225;sica aguda</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Infec&#231;&#227;o aguda, independentemente do mecanismo de transmiss&#227;o</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Reativa&#231;&#227;o de infec&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica pelo <italic>T. cruzi</italic></td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O benzonidazol &#233; a droga dispon&#237;vel e recomendada para o tratamento da infe&#231;&#227;o pelo <italic>T. cruzi</italic> .<sup><xref rid="B295" ref-type="bibr">295</xref></sup> As informa&#231;&#245;es a respeito desse tema, no entanto, s&#227;o escassas, baseadas em estudos n&#227;o randomizados, com n&#250;mero de pacientes e tempo de observa&#231;&#227;o insuficientes. Embora a defini&#231;&#227;o sobre os crit&#233;rios de cura da doen&#231;a permane&#231;a controversa, existe um consenso atual de que o tratamento com benzonidazol deve ser realizado nas formas agudas e que existe um prov&#225;vel benef&#237;cio a longo prazo.<sup><xref rid="B296" ref-type="bibr">296</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A dose de benzonidazol em crian&#231;as &#233; de 5 a 10mg/kg por dia, dividindo em duas tomadas, por 60 dias. Em adultos, a dose &#233; de 5mg/kg. Rea&#231;&#245;es adversas ocorrem em aproximadamente 30% dos pacientes, sendo as mais frequentes uma dermatite al&#233;rgica (30%) e uma neuropatia perif&#233;rica sensitiva (10%).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.5. Miocardite por Doen&#231;as Tropicais</title>
      <p>As doen&#231;as tropicais s&#227;o entidades infecciosas geralmente transmitidas por vetores e ocorrem nas regi&#245;es tropicais. H&#225; pouca aten&#231;&#227;o dos governos, e os recursos destinados ao controle dessas doen&#231;as s&#227;o escassos, com acometimento das popula&#231;&#245;es vulner&#225;veis em &#225;reas com saneamento b&#225;sico inadequado e sistemas de sa&#250;de deficit&#225;rios. A Amaz&#244;nia brasileira &#233; regi&#227;o end&#234;mica dessas doen&#231;as, muito embora outras regi&#245;es do pa&#237;s tamb&#233;m sejam afetadas. Muitas das doen&#231;as tropicais causam miocardite e parecem contribuir para o aumento da carga das doen&#231;as card&#237;acas nos pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento.<sup><xref rid="B297" ref-type="bibr">297</xref></sup> As doen&#231;as tropicais que causam miocardite e s&#227;o prevalentes no Brasil s&#227;o mal&#225;ria, dengue, Chikungunya, Zika e febre amarela ( <xref rid="t65" ref-type="table">Tabela 28</xref> ). Essas doen&#231;as devem ser consideradas na investiga&#231;&#227;o das miocardites que ocorrem em &#225;reas end&#234;micas.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t65">
          <label>Tabela 28</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas das principais causas de miocardites tropicais</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th> </th>
                <th>Agente</th>
                <th>Vetor</th>
                <th>Quadro cl&#237;nico</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Mal&#225;ria</bold>
                </td>
                <td><italic>Plasmodium spp</italic> (protozo&#225;rio)</td>
                <td>Mosquito <italic>Anopheles</italic></td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma leve:</bold> febre, calafrios, cefaleia, mialgias e mal-estar</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma grave:</bold> choque, convuls&#245;es, confus&#227;o mental, insufici&#234;ncia renal, s&#237;ndrome da dificuldade respirat&#243;ria aguda, coma e morte</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Pode haver casos assintom&#225;ticos, especialmente em regi&#245;es end&#234;micas</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Dengue</bold>
                </td>
                <td>V&#237;rus da dengue</td>
                <td>Mosquito <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic></td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma leve:</bold> febre, cefaleia, mialgia, artralgia, dor retro-orbital e erup&#231;&#227;o maculopapular, n&#225;usea, v&#244;mito</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma grave (com sinais de alerta):</bold> intensa dor abdominal, v&#244;mito persistente (&#8805; 3 vezes/24h), epistaxe, sangramento gengival, fadiga, inquieta&#231;&#227;o ou irrita&#231;&#227;o, hemat&#234;mese ou melena, altera&#231;&#227;o mental</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Cerca de 50% dos casos apresentam sintomas</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Chikungunya</bold>
                </td>
                <td>V&#237;rus da Chikungunya</td>
                <td>Mosquito <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic></td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma leve:</bold> febre, erup&#231;&#227;o cut&#226;nea, artralgia, mialgia, edema e cefaleia</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma grave:</bold> doen&#231;a neurol&#243;gica grave, miocardite e fal&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma cr&#244;nica:</bold> persist&#234;ncia da artralgia e mialgia, associado a edema, principalmente nos pulsos, m&#227;os, tornozelos e p&#233;s. Pode durar meses ou at&#233; anos e resultar em incapacita&#231;&#227;o</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Cerca de 80% dos casos s&#227;o sintom&#225;ticos</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Zika</bold>
                </td>
                <td>V&#237;rus da Zika</td>
                <td>Mosquito <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic></td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma leve:</bold> febre (geralmente leve), erup&#231;&#227;o cut&#226;nea, artralgia, artrite, mialgia, dor de cabe&#231;a, conjuntivite e edema</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma grave:</bold> casos graves que requerem hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o incomuns e fatalidades s&#227;o raras</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Forma cong&#234;nita:</bold> anomalias oculares, card&#237;acas e neurol&#243;gicas, como a microcefalia (mais comum)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Apenas cerca de 20% dos casos apresentam sintomas</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Febre amarela</bold>
                </td>
                <td>V&#237;rus da febre amarela</td>
                <td><italic>Mosquitos Haemagogus</italic> (silvestre) e <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic> (urbano)</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Sintomas leves:</bold> febre de in&#237;cio s&#250;bito, calafrios, cefaleia, mialgia, fraqueza, fadiga, n&#225;useas, vermelhid&#227;o ocular</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>Quadro grave (fase t&#243;xica):</bold> febre alta, icter&#237;cia, epigastralgia, sangramento, di&#225;tese hemorr&#225;gica (hemat&#234;mese), choque e fal&#234;ncia de &#243;rg&#227;os</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Cerca de 50% dos casos s&#227;o sintom&#225;ticos</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>A mal&#225;ria &#233; causada pelo protozo&#225;rio do g&#234;nero <italic>Plasmodium </italic> (no Brasil, as esp&#233;cies <italic>P. vivax </italic> e <italic>P. falciparum</italic> ), transmitido pela picada do mosquito <italic>Anopheles</italic> . A mal&#225;ria &#233; end&#234;mica na regi&#227;o Amaz&#244;nica, onde mais de 155 mil casos foram diagnosticados no ano de 2019. O <italic>P. falciparum </italic> &#233; respons&#225;vel pelas formas mais graves da doen&#231;a e tem sido mais associado ao desenvolvimento de miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B298" ref-type="bibr">298</xref></sup> Estudos de necr&#243;psia de casos de mal&#225;ria grave mostram grande quantidade de parasitas no mioc&#225;rdio e inflama&#231;&#227;o compat&#237;vel com miocardite. A maioria dos estudos que reportam miocardite por mal&#225;ria consiste em s&#233;ries de casos de pacientes internados, com avalia&#231;&#245;es de ECG, marcadores de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e ecocardiograma.<sup><xref rid="B299" ref-type="bibr">299</xref></sup> Essas s&#233;ries de casos contemplam casos graves e mostram altera&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores de les&#227;o card&#237;aca em at&#233; 59% e altera&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas como redu&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica em at&#233; 19% dos pacientes avaliados. Muitos estudos que associam a mal&#225;ria ao IAM exibem falhas na defini&#231;&#227;o do desfecho avaliado, sendo provavelmente casos de miocardite descritos como infartos. Nos casos de mal&#225;ria aguda que evoluem com a forma grave da doen&#231;a, a disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica devido &#224; miocardite por mal&#225;ria deve ser considerada. A avalia&#231;&#227;o com biomarcadores de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular devem ser avaliadas para otimiza&#231;&#227;o do manejo cardiovascular.</p>
      <p>As arboviroses s&#227;o as doen&#231;as causadas pelos arbov&#237;rus, que incluem o v&#237;rus da dengue, Zika, febre Chikungunya e da febre amarela. S&#227;o transmitidas pela picada do mosquito <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic> . O envolvimento cardiovascular nas arboviroses vem sendo demonstrado especialmente na dengue, que &#233; a arbovirose mais prevalente no Brasil. A dengue &#233; tamb&#233;m aquela que tem maior percentual de manifesta&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares descritas, com estudos prospectivos relatando que 48% dos pacientes com a forma grave desenvolvem miocardite. Um estudo de necr&#243;psia de quatro casos fatais de dengue mostrou achados de miocardite com presen&#231;a de edema, hemorragia, infiltrado mononuclear e presen&#231;a de ant&#237;geno e replica&#231;&#227;o viral.<sup><xref rid="B300" ref-type="bibr">300</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A Chikungunya &#233;, dentre todas as arboviroses aqui mencionadas, a mais sintom&#225;tica (80% dos casos); no entanto, normalmente se apresenta com sintomas leves e mais relacionados ao sistema osteoarticular. Ainda assim, a infec&#231;&#227;o pode se apresentar de maneira sist&#234;mica e causar danos generalizados ou em &#243;rg&#227;os espec&#237;ficos, como o cora&#231;&#227;o. Um relato de caso em paciente com Chikungunya que desenvolveu dor tor&#225;cica mostra resson&#226;ncia com achados t&#237;picos de miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B301" ref-type="bibr">301</xref></sup> Diversas s&#233;ries de casos em situa&#231;&#245;es de epidemia pelo v&#237;rus relatavam percentual de at&#233; 37% de acometimento cardiovascular, geralmente quadros compat&#237;veis com micoardite.<sup><xref rid="B302" ref-type="bibr">302</xref></sup></p>
      <p>De todos as infec&#231;&#245;es tropicais aqui abordadas, a Zika &#233; a que foi descoberta mais recentemente e tamb&#233;m &#233; a que apresenta o maior percentual de casos assintom&#225;ticos; quando tem manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, esta ocorre predominantemente de forma cong&#234;nita e envolvendo o sistema neurol&#243;gico. Apesar disso, h&#225; alguns poucos estudos longitudinais envolvendo complica&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o neurol&#243;gicas dessa infec&#231;&#227;o em adultos, nos quais s&#227;o apresentados desfechos cardiovasculares como IC, arritmias e IAM, bem como relatos de miocardite associada &#224; Zika,<sup><xref rid="B303" ref-type="bibr">303</xref> , <xref rid="B304" ref-type="bibr">304</xref> </sup> al&#233;m de estudos prospectivos de Zika cong&#234;nita em que s&#227;o relatadas altera&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas sugestivas de dano cardiovascular, sendo que este quadro possivelmente n&#227;o representa o real impacto na doen&#231;a no cora&#231;&#227;o, uma vez que n&#227;o h&#225; muitos estudos longitudinais que avaliem isso.</p>
      <p>A febre amarela &#233; uma arbovirose tropical negligenciada, a qual por muito tempo esteve concentrada apenas no ciclo silvestre, com baixa incid&#234;ncia (pouco notificada) e pouca expans&#227;o geogr&#225;fica, o que contribuiu para que poucos estudos e casos fossem adequadamente relatados, em especial envolvendo o sistema cardiovascular. Ainda assim, com a crescente urbaniza&#231;&#227;o dessa doen&#231;a e a melhor compreens&#227;o de seus mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos, sua rela&#231;&#227;o com o cora&#231;&#227;o vem sendo demonstrada por alguns estudos, entre eles, o estudo PROVAR+, que relatou, respectivamente, percentuais de 48% e 52% de altera&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas e eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas,<sup><xref rid="B305" ref-type="bibr">305</xref></sup> al&#233;m de an&#225;lises <italic>post-mortem</italic> que isolaram o v&#237;rus no tecido card&#237;aco ou demonstraram dano mioc&#225;rdico.</p>
      <p>Portanto, muito embora a associa&#231;&#227;o entre doen&#231;as tropicais e miocardite seja baseada em s&#233;ries de casos e poucos estudos com diagn&#243;stico bem-definido de miocardite, justifica-se a investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica das doen&#231;as comuns na regi&#227;o nos casos de miocardites em &#225;reas end&#234;micas. Para tal, deve-se incluir a pesquisa de ant&#237;genos ou sorologias para arboviroses e gota espessa para pesquisa de mal&#225;ria. Nos casos de diagn&#243;stico dessas doen&#231;as, um infectologista deve ser consultado para orientar o tratamento espec&#237;fico da mal&#225;ria ou o suporte nos casos de arboviroses. Uma outra situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica inclui pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de arbovirose ou mal&#225;ria que evoluem com forma grave, especialmente choque; nesses casos, deve haver avalia&#231;&#227;o de les&#227;o card&#237;aca com marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica e de fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica com ecocardiograma para diagn&#243;stico de acometimento mioc&#225;rdico (miocardite), e o manejo deve incluir otimiza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.6. Miocardite por Covid-19</title>
      <p>Coronav&#237;rus humanos t&#234;m sido associados &#224; miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B306" ref-type="bibr">306</xref> - <xref rid="B308" ref-type="bibr">308</xref> </sup> Entre os seres humanos, durante o surto de SARS de Toronto, o RNA do v&#237;rus da SARS-CoV foi detectado em 35% dos cora&#231;&#245;es autopsiados.<sup><xref rid="B309" ref-type="bibr">309</xref></sup> Isso aumenta a possibilidade de danos diretos de cardiomi&#243;citos pelo v&#237;rus<sup><xref rid="B310" ref-type="bibr">310</xref> - <xref rid="B312" ref-type="bibr">312</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="t66" ref-type="table">Tabela 29</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B313" ref-type="bibr">313</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t66">
          <label>Tabela 29</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Estudos representativos abordando as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares agudas da infec&#231;&#227;o por coronav&#237;rus e suas implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas311-313</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>V&#237;rus</th>
                <th>Tamanho da amostra</th>
                <th>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares</th>
                <th>Resultados</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>SARS</td>
                <td>N=121</td>
                <td>Hipotens&#227;o, taquicardia, braquicardia, cardiomegalia e arritmia</td>
                <td>Principalmente transit&#243;ria</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N=15</td>
                <td>Parada card&#237;aca</td>
                <td>Morte</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N=46</td>
                <td>Compromisso diast&#243;lico subcl&#237;nico sem envolvimento sist&#243;lico na ecocardiografia</td>
                <td>Revers&#237;vel na recupera&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>MERS</td>
                <td>N=1</td>
                <td>Miocardite aguda e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda</td>
                <td>Recuperada</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Covid-19</td>
                <td>N=14</td>
                <td>Les&#227;o miocardial (manifestando-se com aumento da troponina I card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade) em cinco pacientes</td>
                <td>Quatro pacientes necessitaram de cuidados intensivos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>N=138</td>
                <td>Les&#227;o card&#237;aca aguda (7,2%), choque (8,7%) e arritmia (16,7%)</td>
                <td>A maioria dos pacientes necessitou de cuidados intensivos</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>
              <italic>Fonte: Tabela adaptada de Xiong et al.<sup>313</sup></italic>
            </attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6.1. Poss&#237;vel Fisiopatologia da Miocardite Relacionada ao SARS-CoV-2</title>
        <p>Os mecanismos da les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica n&#227;o est&#227;o bem estabelecidos, mas provavelmente envolvem: les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica secund&#225;ria ao desequil&#237;brio entre oferta e demanda de oxig&#234;nio; les&#227;o microvascular; resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica; cardiomiopatia por estresse; s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda n&#227;o obstrutiva; e les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica viral direta<sup><xref rid="B314" ref-type="bibr">314</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="f11" ref-type="fig">Figura 11</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B315" ref-type="bibr">315</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f11">
            <label>Figura 11</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Mecanismos potenciais de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica na Covid-19.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>CID: coagula&#231;&#227;o intravascular disseminada; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio. Fonte: Adaptada de Atri D et al.<sup>315</sup></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf11.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6.2. Les&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica Viral Direta</title>
        <p>Relatos de casos de miocardite na Covid-19 fornecem evid&#234;ncias de inflama&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, mas n&#227;o determinam o mecanismo. A infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS- CoV-2 &#233; causada pela liga&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na <italic>Spike </italic> da superf&#237;cie viral ao receptor da enzima conversora de angiotensina 2 (ECA-2) humana. No entanto, a prote&#237;na <italic>spike </italic> deve primeiro ser clivada nos locais S1/S2 e, subsequentemente, nos locais S2&#8217; para permitir a liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; ECA-2. A clivagem no local S1/S2 parece ser mediada pela protease serina 2 transmembrana (TMPRSS2)<sup><xref rid="B316" ref-type="bibr">316</xref> , <xref rid="B317" ref-type="bibr">317</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="f12" ref-type="fig">Figura 12</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B318" ref-type="bibr">318</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f12">
            <label>Figura 12</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fisiopatologia proposta para miocardite por SARS-CoV-2. O SARS-CoV-2 utiliza a prote&#237;na spike (iniciada por TMPRSS2) para ligar o ACE2 para permitir a entrada de c&#233;lulas. O SARS-CoV-2 intracelular pode prejudicar a forma&#231;&#227;o de gr&#226;nulos de estresse por meio de sua prote&#237;na acess&#243;ria. Sem os gr&#226;nulos de estresse, o v&#237;rus pode se replicar e danificar a c&#233;lula. Os linf&#243;citos T ing&#234;nuos podem ser preparados para ant&#237;genos virais via c&#233;lulas apresentadoras de ant&#237;genos e cardiotropismo pelo HGF produzido pelo cora&#231;&#227;o. O HGF liga o c-Met, um receptor de HGF nos linf&#243;citos T. Os linf&#243;citos T CD-8 iniciados migram para os cardiomi&#243;citos e causam inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio por citotoxicidade mediada por c&#233;lulas. Na s&#237;ndrome da tempestade de citocinas, na qual as citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias s&#227;o liberadas na circula&#231;&#227;o, a ativa&#231;&#227;o dos linf&#243;citos T &#233; aumentada e libera mais citocinas. Isso resulta em um ciclo de feedback positivo de ativa&#231;&#227;o imune e dano do mioc&#225;rdio.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>CAA: c&#233;lula apresentadora de ant&#237;geno; CHP: complexo principal de histocompatilbilidade; ECA2: enzima conversora de angiotensina 2; FCH: fator de crescimento de heapat&#243;citos; IL-6: interleucina-6; SARS-CoV-2: s&#237;ndrome respirat&#243;ria aguda grave coronav&#237;rus 2. Fonte: Adaptada de Siripanthong B et al.<sup>318</sup></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf12.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>At&#233; o momento, temos apenas um relato de miocardite viral por SARS-CoV- 2 comprovada por bi&#243;psia com inclus&#245;es virais ou DNA viral detectado no tecido do mioc&#225;rdio.<sup><xref rid="B319" ref-type="bibr">319</xref></sup> Contudo, n&#227;o havia a presen&#231;a de part&#237;culas virais no cardiomi&#243;cito, apenas no interior dos macr&#243;fagos no interst&#237;cio card&#237;aco. Outro mecanismo hipot&#233;tico de les&#227;o viral direta ao mioc&#225;rdio &#233; por meio de uma vasculite mediada por infec&#231;&#227;o. O receptor ECA2 &#233; altamente expresso em art&#233;rias e veias endoteliais.<sup><xref rid="B320" ref-type="bibr">320</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Embora a ECA2 seja apenas levemente expressa no cardiomi&#243;cito, ela &#233; altamente expressa nos pericitos. A Covid-19 pode atacar pericitos, essenciais para a estabilidade endotelial, causando disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, que leva a dist&#250;rbios microcirculat&#243;rios. Isso explica por que, embora a ECA2 seja apenas ligeiramente expressa nos cardiomi&#243;citos, Covid-19 pode causar les&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref rid="B320" ref-type="bibr">320</xref></sup> As aut&#243;psias mostram infiltrados inflamat&#243;rios compostos por macr&#243;fagos e, em menor grau, por c&#233;lulas T e CD4+.<sup><xref rid="B321" ref-type="bibr">321</xref> - <xref rid="B322" ref-type="bibr">322</xref> </sup> Esses infiltrados mononucleares est&#227;o associados a regi&#245;es de necrose de cardiomi&#243;citos que, pelo Crit&#233;rio de Dallas, definem miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B323" ref-type="bibr">323</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6.3. Diagn&#243;stico de Miocardite Relacionada &#224; Covid-19</title>
        <p>A apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da miocardite por SARS-CoV-2 pode variar desde aqueles com sintomas leves, como fadiga, dispneia e dor precordial; em casos mais graves, podemos ter choque cardiog&#234;nico. Os pacientes podem apresentar sinais de IC direita, com aumento da press&#227;o venosa jugular, edema perif&#233;rico e dor no quadrante superior direito. A apresenta&#231;&#227;o mais emergente &#233; miocardite fulminante, definida como disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e IC dentro de 2 a 3 semanas ap&#243;s a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo v&#237;rus. Os sinais precoces de miocardite fulminante geralmente se assemelham aos da sepse.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B324" ref-type="bibr">324</xref> - <xref rid="B329" ref-type="bibr">329</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6.4. Laborat&#243;rio</title>
        <p>Eleva&#231;&#245;es de troponina e NT-proBNP foram observadas nos casos de miocardite por Covid-19.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B312" ref-type="bibr">312</xref> , <xref rid="B324" ref-type="bibr">324</xref> - <xref rid="B326" ref-type="bibr">326</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Valores anormais de troponina s&#227;o comuns nos pacientes com Covid-19, em especial quando utilizamos troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade (hs-cTn). Estudos que avaliaram o curso cl&#237;nico de pacientes com Covid-19 observaram hs- cTnI detect&#225;vel na maioria dos pacientes, e hs-cTnI foi significativamente elevado em mais da metade dos pacientes que morreram.<sup><xref rid="B327" ref-type="bibr">327</xref> , <xref rid="B328" ref-type="bibr">328</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Pacientes com Covid-19 geralmente demonstram eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa do BNP ou NT-proBNP. O significado desse achado &#233; incerto e n&#227;o deve, necessariamente, desencadear uma avalia&#231;&#227;o ou tratamento para IC, a menos que haja clara evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica para o diagn&#243;stico. Em pacientes com Covid-19, o n&#237;vel de BNP (NT-pro) tamb&#233;m pode aumentar secund&#225;rio ao estresse do mioc&#225;rdio, como poss&#237;vel efeito de doen&#231;a respirat&#243;ria grave.</p>
        <p>Devido &#224; frequ&#234;ncia e &#224; natureza inespec&#237;fica dos resultados anormais de troponina ou pept&#237;dio natriur&#233;tico entre pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o por Covid-19, suas dosagens devem ser realizadas apenas se o diagn&#243;stico de IAM ou IC estiver sendo considerado por motivos cl&#237;nicos. Um resultado anormal de troponina ou pept&#237;dio natriur&#233;tico n&#227;o deve ser considerado evid&#234;ncia de IAM ou IC sem evid&#234;ncias corroboradoras.<sup><xref rid="B329" ref-type="bibr">329</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6.5. Eletrocardiograma</title>
        <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG comumente associadas &#224; pericardite, como eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST e depress&#227;o de PR, podem ser observadas na miocardite;<sup><xref rid="B310" ref-type="bibr">310</xref></sup> no entanto, esses achados n&#227;o s&#227;o sens&#237;veis para a detec&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a e sua aus&#234;ncia n&#227;o &#233; excludente.</p>
        <p>Por exemplo, uma miocardite relacionada com Covid-19 n&#227;o mostrou eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST nem depress&#227;o PR.<sup><xref rid="B330" ref-type="bibr">330</xref></sup> Outras anomalias no ECG, incluindo novo bloqueio de ramo, prolongamento do intervalo QT, padr&#227;o de pseudoinfarto, extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares e bradiarritmia com BAV avan&#231;ado, podem ser observadas na miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B331" ref-type="bibr">331</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recentemente, foi publicada uma s&#233;rie de casos de pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de Covid-19 que se apresentaram, em algum momento da infec&#231;&#227;o, com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST no ECG.<sup><xref rid="B332" ref-type="bibr">332</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6.6. Imagem</title>
        <p>A European Society of Cardiology (ESC), em recente documento, aponta as condi&#231;&#245;es que devem ser consideradas diante da necessidade do uso de qualquer m&#233;todo de imagem cardiovascular em pacientes com Covid-19: deve ser utilizada para casos em que venha a determinar uma mudan&#231;a substancial na conduta, ou quando uma decis&#227;o para salvar a vida do paciente esteja em jogo; deve-se usar a modalidade de imagem com a melhor capacidade para atender a essa solicita&#231;&#227;o, considerando-se sempre a seguran&#231;a da equipe m&#233;dica em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; exposi&#231;&#227;o; exames n&#227;o urgentes, eletivos ou de rotina devem ser adiados ou at&#233; mesmo cancelados.<sup><xref rid="B333" ref-type="bibr">333</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nesse sentido, a ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica, embora tenha papel central na proped&#234;utica cardiovascular desses pacientes, n&#227;o deve ser rotineiramente indicada diante da corrente pandemia de Covid-19, sendo criteriosamente utilizada em casos espec&#237;ficos.<sup><xref rid="B334" ref-type="bibr">334</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As recentes recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT) para uso da angio-TC coronariana no contexto da Covid-19 incluem insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda de causa desconhecida<sup><xref rid="B335" ref-type="bibr">335</xref> , <xref rid="B336" ref-type="bibr">336</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="t67" ref-type="table">Tabela 30</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B337" ref-type="bibr">337</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t67">
            <label>Tabela 30</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT) para uso da angiotomografia coronariana no contexto da Covid-19</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Urg&#234;ncia</th>
                  <th>Condi&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Tempo para realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Eletivos</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Coronariopatia assintom&#225;tica ou est&#225;vel</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Cardiomiopatia ou doen&#231;a estrutural est&#225;vel (valvar, planejamento de TAVI ou abla&#231;&#227;o de FA, cong&#234;nita)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Massas benignas</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Em &gt;8 semanas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Semiurgentes</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Cardiovers&#227;o de FA cr&#244;nica</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica ou subaguda de pr&#243;tese valvar</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Em 4 a 8 semanas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Urgentes</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Dor tor&#225;cica aguda ou est&#225;vel de alto risco</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Interven&#231;&#245;es estruturais de urg&#234;ncia (TAVI, oclus&#227;o de aur&#237;cula esquerda etc.) ou cardiovers&#227;o de FA aguda</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda de causa desconhecida Disfun&#231;&#227;o aguda valvar (ou pr&#243;tese)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Planejamento de bi&#243;psia de massa maligna</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Em horas ou &lt;2 a 4 semanas (a depender da gravidade)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN14">
                <p>
                  <italic>Descartar trombos quando RMC n&#227;o fact&#237;vel. FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; TAVI: implante transcateter da v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica. Fonte: adaptada de Araujo-Filho et al.<sup>337</sup></italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O documento da ESC sugere que troponinas positivas, associadas &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou arritmias graves n&#227;o explicadas por outros m&#233;todos, podem ser indica&#231;&#227;o para RMC, caso o diagn&#243;stico seja crucial para o tratamento e o paciente esteja est&#225;vel o suficiente para ser transferido com seguran&#231;a para realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame.<sup><xref rid="B334" ref-type="bibr">334</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nesse contexto, a atual orienta&#231;&#227;o da <italic>Society for Cardiovascular of Magnetic Resonance (SCMR)</italic> sugere que um exame de RMC deva ser considerado de forma criteriosa e individualizada diante da suspeita de miocardite aguda com implica&#231;&#245;es imediatas no manejo do paciente.<sup><xref rid="B337" ref-type="bibr">337</xref></sup> Caso a RMC seja realizada, os resultados devem ser interpretados de acordo com os crit&#233;rios de Lake Louise: (1) edema; (2) les&#227;o celular irrevers&#237;vel; e (3) hiperemia ou extravasamento capilar<sup><xref rid="B338" ref-type="bibr">338</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="t68" ref-type="table">Tabela 31</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B337" ref-type="bibr">337</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t68">
            <label>Tabela 31</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Society for Cardiovascular of Magnetic Resonance (SCMR) para uso da resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) no contexto da Covid-19</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Condi&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Tempo sugerido para o exame</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Pesquisa de isquemia e viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica para orientar revasculariza&#231;&#227;o urgente</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Dentro de 1 semana ou menos, a depender da gravidade</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Suspeita de massa intracard&#237;aca ou trombo com contraindica&#231;&#227;o para anticoagula&#231;&#227;o ou em pacientes com suspeita de eventos emb&#243;licos</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Planejamento de abla&#231;&#227;o urgente em pacientes inst&#225;veis com arritmias graves</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Constri&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica exigindo potencial cirurgia urgente</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Planejamento de implante percut&#226;neo de valva card&#237;aca prot&#233;tica, com necessidade de cirurgia urgente</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN15">
                <p>
                  <italic>Nota 1: Escolhas baseadas em consenso de especialistas. Nota 2: Condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas individuais e contraindica&#231;&#245;es ao exame devem ser mandatoriamente consideradas. Fonte: Araujo-Filho et al.<sup>337</sup></italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6.7. Bi&#243;psia Endomioc&#225;rdica</title>
        <p>Tanto a AHA como a ESC recomendam a BEM para o diagn&#243;stico definitivo de miocardite, mas ambas as sociedades reconhecem suas limita&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref rid="B339" ref-type="bibr">339</xref> , <xref rid="B340" ref-type="bibr">340</xref> </sup> Na era SARS-CoV-2, a utilidade cl&#237;nica e o papel da BEM, atualmente o padr&#227;o-ouro para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, permanecem incertos; al&#233;m disso, h&#225; grande dificuldade na realiza&#231;&#227;o de imagens n&#227;o invasivas, como ecocardiografia e RMC, com medidas adequadas de precau&#231;&#227;o e isolamento.<sup><xref rid="B341" ref-type="bibr">341</xref> , <xref rid="B342" ref-type="bibr">342</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Outro ponto a ser considerado &#233; que em, em alguns casos, a infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2 pode n&#227;o aparecer inicialmente com sinais e sintomas claros sugestivos de pneumonia intersticial, mas pode aparecer como miocardite sem sintomas respirat&#243;rios, &#224;s vezes complicada por choque cardiog&#234;nico com um curso fulminante.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B316" ref-type="bibr">316</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Adicionalmente, existem poucas evid&#234;ncias sobre o tratamento terap&#234;utico da miocardite associada ao SARSCoV-2. H&#225; um relato de caso em que foi utilizada terapia precoce com glicocorticoides e imunoglobulinas, com benef&#237;cio para o paciente.<sup><xref rid="B316" ref-type="bibr">316</xref></sup> Os corticosteroides t&#234;m sido utilizados em v&#225;rias infec&#231;&#245;es respirat&#243;rias virais (influenza, SARS-CoV e MERS-CoV), demonstrando um benef&#237;cio limitado e, em alguns casos, retardando a depura&#231;&#227;o viral e aumentando a mortalidade.<sup><xref rid="B333" ref-type="bibr">333</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No entanto, o Grupo de Trabalho da ESC sobre doen&#231;as mioc&#225;rdicas e peric&#225;rdicas indica o uso de esteroides em miocardites por doen&#231;as autoimunes comprovada, miocardite com v&#237;rus negativo somente ap&#243;s determinar a infec&#231;&#227;o ativa no BEM.<sup><xref rid="B340" ref-type="bibr">340</xref></sup> &#201; evidente que, na pr&#225;tica real, a BEM nem sempre est&#225; dispon&#237;vel ,e seu papel na miocardite relacionada &#224; SARS-CoV-2 ainda &#233; desconhecido. Al&#233;m disso, na aus&#234;ncia de estudos randomizados multic&#234;ntricos, o uso rotineiro de imunoglobulina tamb&#233;m n&#227;o &#233; recomendado.</p>
        <p>Em conclus&#227;o, acreditamos que existem lacunas significativas na avalia&#231;&#227;o do IAM em pacientes com SARS-CoV-2 que requerem uma an&#225;lise diagn&#243;stica completa, tratamentos priorizados e, ainda, estrat&#233;gias mais agressivas,<sup><xref rid="B318" ref-type="bibr">318</xref> , <xref rid="B319" ref-type="bibr">319</xref> </sup> se necess&#225;rio, especialmente naqueles que desenvolvem choque cardiog&#234;nico durante a miocardite fulminante<sup><xref rid="B332" ref-type="bibr">332</xref> - <xref rid="B342" ref-type="bibr">342</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="f13" ref-type="fig">Figura 13</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B318" ref-type="bibr">318</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f13">
            <label>Figura 13</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Protocolo de diagn&#243;stico e gerenciamento sugerido para miocardite relacionada a SARS-CoV-2.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>BBIA: bomba de bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtica; CCC: cardiovers&#227;o por corrente cont&#237;nua; DAV: dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular; DC: d&#233;bito card&#237;aco; ECG: eletrocardiograma; IGIV: imunoglobulina intravenosa; IV: intravenoso; OEC: oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea; PCR: prote&#237;na C reativa; QT: intervalo QT; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica cardiovascular; SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; TC-AC: tomografia computadorizada angiograma coron&#225;rio; TSE: taxa de sedimenta&#231;&#227;o de eritr&#243;citos. Fonte: Adaptada de Siripanthong et al.<sup>318</sup></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf13.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.7. Cardiotoxidade Aguda por Terap&#234;utica Antineopl&#225;sica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.7.1. Agentes Antineopl&#225;sicos Indutores de Cardiotoxidade Aguda</title>
        <p>A evolu&#231;&#227;o do tratamento do c&#226;ncer nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas resultou em melhora da sobrevida e da qualidade de vida dos pacientes.<sup><xref rid="B343" ref-type="bibr">343</xref></sup> Entretanto, simultaneamente, com o aumento da longevidade, os fatores de risco cardiovasculares incidem por mais tempo e, associados a esse fato, adiciona-se o potencial risco de les&#227;o ao sistema cardiovascular induzido pela quimioterapia, radioterapia e imunoterapia.<sup><xref rid="B344" ref-type="bibr">344</xref></sup> Estudos recentes demonstram que h&#225; dois per&#237;odos de maior ocorr&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular no paciente oncol&#243;gico: o primeiro ano ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico e os anos ap&#243;s a cura, nos quais denominamos os pacientes como sobreviventes, grupo este que demonstra aumento significativo de mortalidade cardiovascular.<sup><xref rid="B345" ref-type="bibr">345</xref> , <xref rid="B346" ref-type="bibr">346</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Dentre as toxicidades emergentes, destaca-se a miocardite. Mais recentemente, a miocardite relacionada ao tratamento do c&#226;ncer ganhou import&#226;ncia devido &#224; evolu&#231;&#227;o da imunoterapia, mais especificamente relacionada aos inibidores de <italic>checkpoint</italic> imunol&#243;gico (ICIs).<sup><xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref> , <xref rid="B348" ref-type="bibr">348</xref> </sup> Contudo, ela tem o potencial de estar associada a qualquer terapia que module o sistema imunol&#243;gico. Identificar a miocardite nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos em oncologia &#233; desafiador, dada sua relativa baixa incid&#234;ncia e alta taxa de mortalidade.</p>
        <p>Devemos ressaltar que as recomenda&#231;&#245;es a seguir s&#227;o advindas de consensos de especialistas, dada a escassez de dados cient&#237;ficos a respeito do tema.</p>
        <p>O modelo cl&#225;ssico de cardiotoxicidade &#233; a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular causada pelas antraciclinas.<sup><xref rid="B349" ref-type="bibr">349</xref></sup> As antraciclinas s&#227;o uma das classes mais utilizadas de quimioter&#225;picos ainda nos dias de hoje. IC ocorre em at&#233; 30% dos pacientes, habitualmente ap&#243;s meses de tratamento, relacionada &#224; dose cumulativa acima de 300 mg/m<sup>2</sup>. Na maioria dos casos, manifesta-se de forma subaguda ou cr&#244;nica, ap&#243;s meses e anos do tratamento, com a irreversibilidade sendo sua caracter&#237;stica predominante. A miocardite aguda relacionada &#224;s antraciclinas &#233; manifesta&#231;&#227;o rara, n&#227;o apresentando rela&#231;&#227;o com dose, sendo revers&#237;vel na maioria dos casos.<sup><xref rid="B350" ref-type="bibr">350</xref></sup> O mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o da toxicidade est&#225; diretamente ligado ao estresse oxidativo consequente a sua metaboliza&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m da inibi&#231;&#227;o da topoisomerase IIb, que, em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, resulta em dano ao DNA do cardiomi&#243;cito, por disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial e apoptose.<sup><xref rid="B351" ref-type="bibr">351</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A ciclofosfamida &#233; um agente alquilante tipo mostarda nitrogenada, que usualmente &#233; parte de regimes de quimioter&#225;picos que envolvem o uso concomitante de antraciclinas. Pode resultar em toxicidade aguda do tipo miocardite aguda hemorr&#225;gica e multifocal, caracterizada por endotelite, capilarite hemorr&#225;gica e trombog&#234;nese.<sup><xref rid="B352" ref-type="bibr">352</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os inibidores de <italic>checkpoint</italic> imunol&#243;gicos (ICI) s&#227;o o modelo atualmente mais estudado como indutor de miocardite, sendo os mais comumente utilizados o nivolumabe, o durvalimabe, o ipilimumabe, o pembrolizumabe e o atezolizumabe.<sup><xref rid="B353" ref-type="bibr">353</xref></sup> Essa terapia significou uma revolu&#231;&#227;o no tratamento do c&#226;ncer nos &#250;ltimos anos, melhorando a sobrevida dos pacientes com c&#226;ncer de pulm&#227;o, c&#226;ncer de cabe&#231;a e pesco&#231;o, carcinoma renal, melanoma, entre outros.<sup><xref rid="B354" ref-type="bibr">354</xref></sup> O mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o se d&#225; pelo bloqueio da apoptose dos linf&#243;citos T (anti-CTLA4, anti-PD1, anti-PDL1), culminando na ativa&#231;&#227;o dos linf&#243;citos por todo o organismo. Se isso, por um lado, reativa o linf&#243;cito e a imunidade antitumoral, por outro lado, os linf&#243;citos T ativados podem desencadear miocardite grave, fatal em at&#233; 50% dos casos. Clinicamente, manifesta-se em torno de 0,2% dos pacientes, em m&#233;dia 30 a 90 dias ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio do tratamento.<sup><xref rid="B355" ref-type="bibr">355</xref> , <xref rid="B356" ref-type="bibr">356</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.7.2. Diagn&#243;stico da Cardiotoxidade Aguda</title>
        <p>A miocardite no paciente com c&#226;ncer deve ser diagnosticada em situa&#231;&#245;es de condi&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas sem diagn&#243;stico prim&#225;rio alternativo (p. ex., s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, traumatismo etc.).<sup><xref rid="B357" ref-type="bibr">357</xref></sup> A hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica deve considerar o regime de droga, o tempo do tratamento, assim como a dose e outras comorbidades. O diagn&#243;stico laboratorial inclui a dosagem de biomarcadores como troponina ultrassens&#237;vel e NT-proBNP. No caso da miocardite por imunoter&#225;pico, a dosagem de CPK tamb&#233;m &#233; recomendada pela associa&#231;&#227;o com miosite em at&#233; 20% dos casos.<sup><xref rid="B358" ref-type="bibr">358</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ECG pode ser &#250;til para confirmar a suspeita de miocardite. Altera&#231;&#245;es comuns s&#227;o arritmias ventriculares, altera&#231;&#245;es de ST-T, altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento PR, bradicardias e bloqueios.<sup><xref rid="B357" ref-type="bibr">357</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ecocardiograma &#233; o exame de escolha para a abordagem diagn&#243;stica da miocardite. &#201; realizado no in&#237;cio e na evolu&#231;&#227;o, acessando fun&#231;&#227;o de maneira evolutiva. Os achados mais comuns incluem disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica difusa, anormalidades segmentares, altera&#231;&#245;es na esfericidade do ventr&#237;culo, espessamento de parede, derrame peric&#225;rdico e altera&#231;&#245;es no <italic>strain</italic> .<sup><xref rid="B357" ref-type="bibr">357</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A RM &#233; a modalidade de imagem de maior sensibilidade para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, tamb&#233;m tendo efeito de determinar o progn&#243;stico. A combina&#231;&#227;o de achados da RMtem sido denominada Crit&#233;rios de Lake Louise para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite aguda. Muitos avan&#231;os ocorreram no diagn&#243;stico de miocardite por resson&#226;ncia, e incluem avan&#231;os na caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual por meio do MAPT1 e MAPT2 e c&#225;lcio do volume extracelular.<sup><xref rid="B359" ref-type="bibr">359</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A BEM pode ser considerada para investiga&#231;&#227;o da miocardite relacionada a quimioter&#225;picos e imunoter&#225;picos. Especialistas recomendam, sempre que poss&#237;vel, a realiza&#231;&#227;o da bi&#243;psia, pois, em muitos casos, antes de manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica expressiva, os achados anatomopatol&#243;gicos j&#225; exprimem a gravidade das altera&#231;&#245;es patog&#234;nicas da miocardite do c&#226;ncer.<sup><xref rid="B360" ref-type="bibr">360</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A seguir, descrevemos os principais agentes antineopl&#225;sicos com potencial de induzir a miocardite com disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ( <xref rid="t69" ref-type="table">Tabela 32</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t69">
            <label>Tabela 32</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas da miocardite induzida pelo tratamento do c&#226;ncer</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th> </th>
                  <th>Antraciclinas</th>
                  <th>Ciclofosfamida</th>
                  <th>Inibidores de checkpoint imunol&#243;gico</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Incid&#234;ncia</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>10%</td>
                  <td>10%</td>
                  <td>0,2%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Mortalidade</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>20%</td>
                  <td>20%</td>
                  <td>50%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>IC aguda</td>
                  <td>IC aguda</td>
                  <td>IC aguda</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Diagn&#243;stico</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Cl&#237;nico, laboratorial, imagem e bi&#243;psia</td>
                  <td>Cl&#237;nico, laboratorial, imagem e bi&#243;psia</td>
                  <td>Cl&#237;nico, laboratorial, imagem e bi&#243;psia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Reversibilidade</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Geralmente revers&#237;vel</td>
                  <td>Geralmente revers&#237;vel</td>
                  <td>Geralmente irrevers&#237;vel</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Reexposi&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Poss&#237;vel</td>
                  <td>Poss&#237;vel</td>
                  <td>N&#227;o recomendado</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN16">
                <p>
                  <italic>IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.7.3. Tratamento da Cardiotoxidade Aguda</title>
        <p>Ap&#243;s a suspeita do diagn&#243;stico, o tratamento deve ser iniciado imediatamente, pois o tempo pode ser importante na determina&#231;&#227;o do curso da doen&#231;a. Embora n&#227;o haja grandes estudos prospectivos para orientar o tratamento na MICI, a imunossupress&#227;o &#233; a pedra angular do tratamento.</p>
        <p>Os esteroides intravenosos s&#227;o amplamente utilizados nos eventos adversos relacionados &#224; imunoterapia (EAri) e podem ser eficazes na MICI.<sup><xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref></sup> Altas doses de corticosteroides (p. ex., 1.000 mg por dia de metilprednisona por 3 dias, seguidas de 1 mg/kg de prednisona) s&#227;o amplamente utilizadas e podem estar associadas a melhores resultados.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> Mahmood et al.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> relataram que 31% dos 35 pacientes receberam corticosteroides, e que altas doses foram associadas a n&#237;veis mais baixos de pico de troponina e menores taxas de MACE em compara&#231;&#227;o com doses reduzidas do corticoide. A Sociedade Americana de Oncologia Cl&#237;nica (ASCO) recomenda 1 mg/kg de corticosteroides como dose inicial.<sup><xref rid="B361" ref-type="bibr">361</xref></sup> A dura&#231;&#227;o dos esteroides n&#227;o &#233; clara, mas a ASCO recomenda uma redu&#231;&#227;o durante 4 a 6 semanas em pacientes com EAri. Os biomarcadores card&#237;acos s&#233;ricos (p. ex., troponinas, BNP) podem ser &#250;teis para definir a necessidade de maior dura&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o desmame.</p>
        <p>Imunossupress&#227;o adicional tamb&#233;m pode ser usada. Evid&#234;ncias aned&#243;ticas sugerem que pode ser eficazes outros imunossupressores, tais como imunoglobulina intravenosa,<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref></sup> infliximab,<sup><xref rid="B363" ref-type="bibr">363</xref></sup> micofenolato,<sup><xref rid="B364" ref-type="bibr">364</xref></sup> tacrolimus,<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref></sup> globulina antitimoc&#237;tica,<sup><xref rid="B365" ref-type="bibr">365</xref> , <xref rid="B366" ref-type="bibr">366</xref> </sup> plasmaf&#233;rese,<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref></sup> abatacept<sup><xref rid="B367" ref-type="bibr">367</xref></sup> e alemtuzumab<sup><xref rid="B368" ref-type="bibr">368</xref></sup>. No estudo de Mahmood et al.,<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> um pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes recebeu outros imunossupressores n&#227;o esteroides Dada a falta de dados robustos sobre sua efic&#225;cia no MICI, tais agentes geralmente s&#227;o reservados para MICI refrat&#225;rio ou muito grave.</p>
        <p>Sugerimos considerar a adi&#231;&#227;o de imunossupress&#227;o n&#227;o esteroide em pacientes que n&#227;o demonstrem melhora sintom&#225;tica, funcional ou de biomarcadores dentro de 24 a 48 horas ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio do corticosteroide. A escolha do segundo agente n&#227;o &#233; identificada, mas pode ser motivada pela disponibilidade e contraindica&#231;&#245;es. V&#225;rios e sequenciados imunossupressores podem ser necess&#225;rios para alcan&#231;ar remiss&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recomendamos o in&#237;cio de altas doses de esteroides intravenosos no momento do diagn&#243;stico de MICI (metilprednisona 1 mg/kg /dia). Os biomarcadores card&#237;acos (troponina e BNP) devem ser verificados em s&#233;rie. Se os biomarcadores card&#237;acos continuarem a aumentar, apesar da alta dose de esteroides, a plasmaf&#233;rese deve ser iniciada. Um imunossupressor adicional deve ser adicionado se os biomarcadores card&#237;acos continuarem a aumentar ou se houver associa&#231;&#227;o ou piora de arritmias ou IC ( <xref rid="f14" ref-type="fig">Figura 14</xref> ). A escolha do imunossupressor depende da experi&#234;ncia local e das comorbidades coexistentes ( <xref rid="t70" ref-type="table">Tabela 33</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f14">
            <label>Figura 14</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Proposta do curso terap&#234;utico de imunossupress&#227;o, biomarcadores e avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>ECO: ecocardiograma; CRM: cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica; IV: intravenoso.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf14.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t70">
            <label>Tabela 33</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Imunossupressores usados no tratatmento da MICI</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Imunossupressor</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>Dose</th>
                  <th>In&#237;cio</th>
                  <th>Dura&#231;&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Metilprednisona</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Corticosteroides</td>
                  <td>1 mg/kg/dia</td>
                  <td>No diagn&#243;stico</td>
                  <td>2 a 3 dias</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Prednisona</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Corticosteroides</td>
                  <td>40 a 60 mg/dia</td>
                  <td>Dia 2-3</td>
                  <td>Desmame lento durante 4 a 8 semanas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Infliximab</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>TNF-alfabloqueador</td>
                  <td>5 mg/kg</td>
                  <td>Dia 4-5</td>
                  <td>Dose &#250;nica (pode ser repetido em alguns meses)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Globulina antimon&#243;cito</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>?</td>
                  <td>10 a 30 mg/kg</td>
                  <td>Dia 2-3</td>
                  <td>7 a 14 dias</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Tacrolimus</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Inibidor da calcineurina</td>
                  <td>0,10 a 0,15 mg/kg/dia</td>
                  <td>?</td>
                  <td>?</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Micofenolato</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Inibidor IMPDH</td>
                  <td>1g 2&#215;/dia</td>
                  <td>?</td>
                  <td>?</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Abatacept</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>CTLA-4 agonista</td>
                  <td>500 mg a cada 2 semanas</td>
                  <td>Dia 7-14</td>
                  <td>Total de 5 doses</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Alemtuzumab</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Anti CD52</td>
                  <td>30 mg</td>
                  <td>?</td>
                  <td>Dose &#250;nica</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN17">
                <p>
                  <italic>IMPDH: inosina 5-monofosfato desidrogenase.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Recomendamos a administra&#231;&#227;o de uma dose &#250;nica de infliximabe (5 mg/kg) se n&#227;o houver contraindica&#231;&#245;es (por exemplo, tuberculose, hepatite). Alternativamente, podem ser usadas globulina antitim&#243;cita (10 a 30 mg/kg), alemtuzumabe (30 mg uma vez) ou abatacept (500 mg). Entre 3 a 5 dias ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio do corticosteroide, a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular deve ser examinada (por ecocardiografia ou RMC). Pacientes que mostrem melhora significativa na fun&#231;&#227;o do VE (melhora da FEVE de pelo menos 5%) podem ser transferidos para corticosteroide oral (prednisona 40 a 60 mg por dia) por um longo tempo (4 a 8 semanas). Se os biomarcadores diminu&#237;rem e o paciente demonstrar resposta cl&#237;nica, MMF ou tacrolimus podem ser utilizados para encurtar a cronicidade de esteroides. Dada a alta mortalidade e morbidade com o MICI, o ICI deve ser descontinuado mesmo em pacientes com cardiotoxicidade leve ( <xref rid="t70" ref-type="table">Tabela 33</xref> ).</p>
        <p>Dada a potencial reversibilidade do MICI, as terapias de suporte podem ser institu&#237;das ap&#243;s cuidadosa considera&#231;&#227;o multidisciplinar do <italic>status</italic> da malignidade subjacente e do potencial de recupera&#231;&#227;o. Estrat&#233;gias de suporte podem incluir suporte inotr&#243;pico, marca-passo tempor&#225;rio ou permanente, suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico tempor&#225;rio (p. ex., bomba de bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico,<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular percut&#226;nea<sup><xref rid="B369" ref-type="bibr">369</xref></sup>ou oxigena&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea por membrana [ECMO]).<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref> , <xref rid="B364" ref-type="bibr">364</xref> </sup> Uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa do VD deve ser feita antes do in&#237;cio dos dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia do VE, pois MICI tem alta probabilidade de afetar o VD,<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref> , <xref rid="B364" ref-type="bibr">364</xref> , <xref rid="B369" ref-type="bibr">369</xref> </sup> o que pode exigir suporte biventricular.<sup><xref rid="B363" ref-type="bibr">363</xref> , <xref rid="B369" ref-type="bibr">369</xref> </sup> Ademais, devido ao ambiente protromb&#243;tico induzido pela neoplasia subjacente e EAri, &#233; essencial excluir trombos do VE com RMC ou ecocardiograma com contraste, antes da inser&#231;&#227;o de dispositivos percut&#226;neos de assist&#234;ncia do VE.<sup><xref rid="B363" ref-type="bibr">363</xref></sup> A terapia medicamentosa para IC deve ser iniciada conforme tolerado. Isso inclui bloqueadores da angiotensina (ACE, ARB, ARNi), betabloqueadores e antagonistas dos mineralocorticoides (p. ex. espironolactona).</p>
        <p>A seguran&#231;a de reiniciar o tratamento com ICI ap&#243;s a resolu&#231;&#227;o da miocardite n&#227;o &#233; conhecida. Em um estudo com 40 pacientes que desenvolveram EAri (1 MICI) nos quais ICI for reintroduzido (43% com o mesmo agente), 22 (55%) desenvolveram EAri recorrentes em um seguimento de 14 meses. Extrapolando esses dados para o MICI, e dada a alta probabilidade de recorr&#234;ncia de EAri com a reintrodu&#231;&#227;o, a ASCO recomenda a descontinua&#231;&#227;o permanente do ICI em todos os casos de MICI.<sup><xref rid="B370" ref-type="bibr">370</xref></sup> H&#225; relato de reintrodu&#231;&#227;o bem-sucedida em um caso de miocardite leve,<sup><xref rid="B371" ref-type="bibr">371</xref></sup>e a reintrodu&#231;&#227;o de ICI pode ser tentada em casos selecionados de MICI leve e assintom&#225;tica (grau I),<sup><xref rid="B361" ref-type="bibr">361</xref></sup> especialmente com ICI de baixo risco com pembrolizumab. No entanto, essa recomenda&#231;&#227;o permanece controversa.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.7.4 Progn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>O progn&#243;stico da MICI &#233; dif&#237;cil de definir devido &#224; sua rara ocorr&#234;ncia. Em um registro multic&#234;ntrico de 35 pacientes com MICI, quase metade (n = 16) desenvolveu eventos cardiovasculares adversos importantes ao longo de um per&#237;odo de 102 dias (6 mortes cardiovasculares, 3 choques cardiog&#234;nicos, 4 paradas card&#237;acas, 3 bloqueios card&#237;acos completos).<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref> </sup> Em um registro franc&#234;s de 30 pacientes com MICI em dois centros, oito pacientes morreram de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares. Um estudo recente que acompanhou 101 pacientes com MICI mostrou uma taxa de MACE de 51% durante um seguimento de 162 dias.<sup><xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref></sup> Entre 250 pacientes com MICI relatados ao Sistema de Notifica&#231;&#227;o de Eventos Adversos da Administra&#231;&#227;o Federal de Medicamentos dos EUA (FAERS), a taxa de mortalidade foi de 50%.<sup><xref rid="B361" ref-type="bibr">361</xref></sup> N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na taxa de fatalidade por idade, sexo, ano de notifica&#231;&#227;o ou tipo de ICI (prote&#237;na de morte celular antiprogramada-1/ligante de morte celular programada-1 <italic>vs.</italic> prote&#237;na de linf&#243;cito T anticitot&#243;xica-4).<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref></sup> Mahmood et al.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> descobriram que pacientes com MICI e troponina elevada na ocasi&#227;o de alta hospitalar apresentaram taxas significativamente mais altas de MACE (troponina T de alta de &#8805;1,5 ng/mL: HR 4,0; IC95%: 1,5-10,9; p=0,003). Escudier et al.<sup><xref rid="B348" ref-type="bibr">348</xref></sup> relataram que 80% dos pacientes com MICI e doen&#231;a de condu&#231;&#227;o tiveram morte cardiovascular. Um estudo recente de pacientes com MICI relatou que o <italic>strain longitudinal global</italic> (GLS) obtido ao diagn&#243;stico de MICI estava fortemente associado a MACE ao longo de um seguimento de 162 dias.<sup><xref rid="B363" ref-type="bibr">363</xref></sup> Dado o pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes nesses estudos, &#233; dif&#237;cil identificar fatores de risco para mau progn&#243;stico em pacientes que apresentam MICI.<sup><xref rid="B364" ref-type="bibr">364</xref> - <xref rid="B368" ref-type="bibr">368</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>No geral, as taxas de recupera&#231;&#227;o com a terapia apropriada foram substanciais. Um total de 67% dos pacientes que receberam esteroides teve recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o do VE no registro franc&#234;s do MICI.<sup><xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref></sup> Recupera&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m foi descrita mesmo em pacientes com MICI fulminante que necessitaram de suporte hemodin&#226;mico mec&#226;nico.<sup><xref rid="B369" ref-type="bibr">369</xref> - <xref rid="B374" ref-type="bibr">374</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.7.5. Preven&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A maioria dos estudos publicados na preven&#231;&#227;o da cardiotoxicidade induzida pela quimioterapia baseia-se nas antraciclinas e nos agentes anti-HER2.</p>
        <p>A preven&#231;&#227;o da cardiotoxicidade deve iniciar-se antes do tratamento do c&#226;ncer, com uma avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular do paciente e uma intera&#231;&#227;o entre o cardiologista e o oncologista, a fim de programar a melhor abordagem durante o tratamento oncol&#243;gico.</p>
        <p>Os pacientes sob maior risco de desenvolver a cardiotoxicidade s&#227;o aqueles que apresentam os fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos para doen&#231;a cardiovascular (hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes melito, dislipidemia, tabagismo, obesidade, sedentarismo, entre outros) ou aqueles sob maior exposi&#231;&#227;o a f&#225;rmacos cardiot&#243;xicos (doses cumulativas altas para antraciclinas, associa&#231;&#245;es de f&#225;rmacos cardiot&#243;xicas e antecedente de quimioterapia ou radioterapia).<sup><xref rid="B375" ref-type="bibr">375</xref> , <xref rid="B376" ref-type="bibr">376</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>As principais recomenda&#231;&#245;es para preven&#231;&#227;o da cardiotoxicidade est&#227;o descritas na <xref rid="t71" ref-type="table">Tabela 34</xref> .</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t71">
            <label>Tabela 34</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Medidas para preven&#231;&#227;o de cardiotoxicidade</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Droga quimioter&#225;pica</th>
                  <th>Medida cardioprotetora</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Identificar fatores de risco cardiovascular</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tratar comorbidades (hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes melito, dislipidemia, tabagismo, sedentarismo, obesidade)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Atividade f&#237;sica aer&#243;bica de intensidade moderada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cuidados com arritmias: evitar drogas que prolongem o intervalo QT, ajustar dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Minimizar radia&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Antraciclinas</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Limitar dose cumulativa (mg/m<sup>2</sup>):</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Daunorrubicina &lt; 800</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Doxorrubicina &lt; 360</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Epirrubicina &lt; 720</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mitoxantrona &lt; 160</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Idarrubicina &lt; 150</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Utilizar as formula&#231;&#245;es lipossomais</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Realizar infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Utilizar an&#225;logos menos cardiot&#243;xicos (epirrubicina, idarrubicina)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Avaliar uso de drogas cardioprotetoras (dexrazoxano, IECA, betabloqueadores, estatinas)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Trastuzumabe</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Avaliar uso de drogas cardioprotetoras (IECA, betabloqueadores)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN18">
                <p>
                  <italic>IECA: inibidor da enzima conversora de giotensina; QT: intervalo QT. Fonte: Adaptada de Zamorano et al.<sup>377</sup></italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Entre as medica&#231;&#245;es cardioprotetoras, o dexrazoxano, um quelante de ferro, &#233; a &#250;nica medica&#231;&#227;o aprovada para a preven&#231;&#227;o da cardiotoxicidade. Seu efeito contra a cardiotoxicidade por antraciclinas j&#225; foi comprovado em diversos estudos tanto na popula&#231;&#227;o adulta como na pedi&#225;trica.<sup><xref rid="B376" ref-type="bibr">376</xref> - <xref rid="B383" ref-type="bibr">383</xref> </sup> As limita&#231;&#245;es para o uso do dexrazoxano &#233; o custo elevado e alguns potenciais efeitos adversos, tais como interfer&#234;ncia na efic&#225;cia das antraciclinas, risco de desenvolvimento de tumores secund&#225;rios (evid&#234;ncia controversa)<sup><xref rid="B384" ref-type="bibr">384</xref> , <xref rid="B385" ref-type="bibr">385</xref> </sup> e toxicidade medular. Seu uso est&#225; indicado em adultos com c&#226;ncer de mama com est&#225;gio avan&#231;ado ou metast&#225;tico que receberam uma dose cumulativa pr&#233;via de 300 mg/m<sup>2</sup> de doxorrubicina, 540 mg/m<sup>2</sup> de epirrubicina, quando necess&#225;rio a continuidade do tratamento com antraciclinas.</p>
        <p>O uso de drogas cardiovasculares como betabloqueadores, IECA e bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina (BRA) na preven&#231;&#227;o da cardiotoxicidade secund&#225;ria &#224;s antraciclinas &#233; controverso e se baseia em poucos ensaios cl&#237;nicos.<sup><xref rid="B386" ref-type="bibr">386</xref> - <xref rid="B391" ref-type="bibr">391</xref> </sup> Algumas evid&#234;ncias demonstraram benef&#237;cios dos betabloqueadores e IECA em pacientes que utilizaram doses cumulativas de antraciclinas elevadas ou em pacientes de alto risco, com troponina positiva durante a quimioterapia.<sup><xref rid="B386" ref-type="bibr">386</xref> , <xref rid="B390" ref-type="bibr">390</xref> </sup> Em doses cumulativas de antraciclina mais baixas, esse benef&#237;cio n&#227;o foi evid&#234;nciado com betabloqueadores,<sup><xref rid="B389" ref-type="bibr">389</xref> , <xref rid="B392" ref-type="bibr">392</xref> </sup> mas houve uma discreta preven&#231;&#227;o com o uso de BRA.<sup><xref rid="B389" ref-type="bibr">389</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ensaio cl&#237;nico CECCY,<sup><xref rid="B392" ref-type="bibr">392</xref></sup> um estudo brasileiro, testou o uso de betabloqueadores para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria da cardiotoxicidade por antraciclinas, n&#227;o demonstrou benef&#237;cio do uso do carvedilol na preven&#231;&#227;o relacionada a antraciclinas. Entretanto, o carvedilol esteve associado a valores atenuados de troponina e menor porcentagem de pacientes com aparecimento de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica.</p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso do trastuzumabe, alguns estudos tamb&#233;m apontam benef&#237;cio para o uso de drogas cardiovasculares tanto na preven&#231;&#227;o da cardiotoxicidade<sup><xref rid="B393" ref-type="bibr">393</xref> , <xref rid="B394" ref-type="bibr">394</xref> </sup> quanto ap&#243;s o aparecimento da cardiotoxicidade, auxiliando na recupera&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.<sup><xref rid="B395" ref-type="bibr">395</xref></sup> A decis&#227;o da suspens&#227;o do tratamento quimioter&#225;pico, bem como seu retorno, deve ser feita em conjunto, pesando o risco e o benef&#237;cio da manuten&#231;&#227;o do tratamento oncol&#243;gico.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.8 Miocardite em Crian&#231;as e Adolescentes</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.8.1. Fatores Causais</title>
        <p>A miocardite em crian&#231;as e adolescentes apresenta particularidades em sua etiologia, e o seu diagn&#243;stico pode ser subestimado pela similaridade de sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o inicial com in&#250;meras viroses comuns na inf&#226;ncia. Estima- se que mais de 83% dos pacientes compareceram aos servi&#231;os de urg&#234;ncia por duas ou mais visitas antes do diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B396" ref-type="bibr">396</xref></sup> Nas an&#225;lises retrospectivas, a dor tor&#225;cica foi referida predominantemente em crian&#231;as maiores de 10 anos, e os sinais mais comuns observados nos mais jovens foram taquipneia, febre e desconforto respirat&#243;rio<sup><xref rid="B397" ref-type="bibr">397</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="t72" ref-type="table">Tabela 35</xref> ). A aplica&#231;&#227;o de algoritmos para o diagn&#243;stico em salas de emerg&#234;ncia tem se mostrado promissora, com a possibilidade de aumentar o n&#250;mero de pacientes suspeitos ( <xref rid="f15" ref-type="fig">Figura 15</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B239" ref-type="bibr">239</xref> , <xref rid="B398" ref-type="bibr">398</xref> </sup> Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; etiologia, estudos avaliando a coleta de painel viral no quadro agudo e a confirma&#231;&#227;o por bi&#243;psias, observamos o parvov&#237;rus B19 como predominante, seguido pelos enterov&#237;rus, Coxsackiev&#237;rus B e herpes-v&#237;rus humano.<sup><xref rid="B398" ref-type="bibr">398</xref></sup> Casos relacionados aos arbov&#237;rus &#8211; respons&#225;veis por dengue, Zika e Chikungunya &#8211; t =&#234;m sido descritos em regi&#245;es end&#234;micas ao redor do mundo.<sup><xref rid="B399" ref-type="bibr">399</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, com a pandemia de SARS-Cov2, t&#234;m sido relatadas apresenta&#231;&#245;es com agress&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica associada ou n&#227;o &#224; s&#237;ndrome inflamat&#243;ria multissist&#234;mica com fisiopatologia ainda pouco esclarecida.<sup><xref rid="B400" ref-type="bibr">400</xref></sup> Sobreviventes ao tratamento dos c&#226;nceres da inf&#226;ncia, principalmente os submetidos ao tratamento com antrac&#237;clicos e inibidores de <italic>checkpoint</italic> , constituem uma parcela de alto risco &#224; instala&#231;&#227;o do processo inflamat&#243;rio levando &#224; IC na idade adulta.<sup><xref rid="B401" ref-type="bibr">401</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t72">
            <label>Tabela 35</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Achados cl&#237;nicos mais comuns na apresenta&#231;&#227;o inicial das miocardites em crian&#231;as e adolescentes</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Sinais e sintomas</th>
                  <th>Menores de 2 anos</th>
                  <th>Pr&#233;-escolares</th>
                  <th>Escolares e adolescentes</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Espec&#237;ficos</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Sinais de IC</td>
                  <td>Sinais de IC</td>
                  <td>Sinais de IC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a viral nas &#250;ltimas 3 a 6 semanas</td>
                  <td>Hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a viral nas &#250;ltimas 3 a 6 semanas</td>
                  <td>Dor tor&#225;cica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dor tor&#225;cica (pouco comum)</td>
                  <td>Dor tor&#225;cica (pouco prov&#225;vel)</td>
                  <td>Hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a viral pode n&#227;o estar t&#227;o clara</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Inespec&#237;ficos</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Febre</td>
                  <td>Dispneia aos esfor&#231;os</td>
                  <td>Dispneia aos esfor&#231;os</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td>Letargia</td>
                  <td>Taquicardia em repouso</td>
                  <td>Taquicardia em repouso</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Irritabilidade</td>
                  <td>Fadiga muscular</td>
                  <td>Fadiga muscular</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Altera&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o</td>
                  <td>Arritmias</td>
                  <td>Arritmias</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hiporexia</td>
                  <td>Choque</td>
                  <td>Choque</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Taquicardia mantida em repouso</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Arritmias</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Choque</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN19">
                <p>
                  <italic>IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f15">
            <label>Figura 15</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma de suspeita e investiga&#231;&#227;o das miocardites em crian&#231;as e adolescentes.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>BEM: bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica; BNP: pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B; CV: cardiovascular; ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; GI: gastrointestinal; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; PCR: prote&#237;na C reativa; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; SNC: sistem nervoso central.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf15.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.8.2. Progn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>&#201; dif&#237;cil estimar a incid&#234;ncia e a preval&#234;ncia de miocardite na faixa et&#225;ria pedi&#225;trica &#233; devido ao amplo espectro de sintomas, que pode variar desde um quadro viral leve sem comprometimento hemodin&#226;mico at&#233; um quadro de IC congestiva, com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, arritmias e morte s&#250;bita.<sup><xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref> , <xref rid="B402" ref-type="bibr">402</xref> - <xref rid="B405" ref-type="bibr">405</xref> </sup> Como os sintomas, muitas vezes, s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos, um significativo n&#250;mero de casos n&#227;o &#233; diagnosticado, o que dificulta a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da real incid&#234;ncia e progn&#243;stico. Entretanto, &#233; a principal etiologia da miocardiopatia dilatada em crian&#231;as.</p>
        <p>Com a melhora das unidades de terapia intensiva, incluindo a possibilidade de suporte mec&#226;nico &#224; circula&#231;&#227;o, o progn&#243;stico de crian&#231;as de todas as faixas et&#225;rias tem melhorado, com possibilidade de recupera&#231;&#227;o completa mesmo de casos com doen&#231;a fulminante.<sup><xref rid="B402" ref-type="bibr">402</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os principais desfechos em paciente pedi&#225;tricos incluem recupera&#231;&#227;o completa, progress&#227;o para miocardiopatia dilatada e morte ou transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B405" ref-type="bibr">405</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Acredita-se que, em crian&#231;as com miocardite viral, o progn&#243;stico tende a ser melhor do que nas miocardiopatias dilatadas. A sobrevida de pacientes pedi&#225;tricos com miocardite pode ser de at&#233; 93%. Entretanto, um estudo multic&#234;ntrico englobando todas as faixas et&#225;rias demonstrou que existe uma significativa mortalidade em neonatos e lactentes. A sobrevida nessa faixa et&#225;ria foi de 33% a 45%, e a melhora cl&#237;nica, de 23% a 32%. Em crian&#231;as entre 1 e 18 anos, a sobrevida foi melhor, em torno de 78% e 80%, e a melhora cl&#237;nica, entre 46% e 67%.<sup><xref rid="B406" ref-type="bibr">406</xref></sup>Em um estudo recente do Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry (PCMR), crian&#231;as com miocardite confirmada por bi&#243;psia tiveram uma sobrevida de 75% em 3 anos, e 54% do grupo normalizaram as dimens&#245;es e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, e apenas 20% permaneceram com anormalidades ecocardiogr&#225;ficas.<sup><xref rid="B404" ref-type="bibr">404</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em outro estudo com 28 pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, foi observado que apenas 17 sobreviveram e tiveram alta hospitalar, com v&#225;rios graus de melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Os demais 11 pacientes evolu&#237;ram para IC refrat&#225;ria, sendo necess&#225;rio transplante card&#237;aco em sete casos, e ocorreu &#243;bito em quatro casos. Preditores de mau progn&#243;stico foram: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o abaixo de 30%, fra&#231;&#227;o de encurtamento abaixo de 15%, dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral moderada a severa.<sup><xref rid="B406" ref-type="bibr">406</xref></sup></p>
        <p>V&#225;rias s&#233;ries de casos envolvendo crian&#231;as que necessitaram de suporte mec&#226;nico &#224; circula&#231;&#227;o por miocardite reportam taxa de sobrevida entre 67% e 83%. Para 21 pacientes com suporte mec&#226;nico com Berlin Heart Excor por miocardite ou miocardiopatia dilatada, 90% sobreviveram com alta hospitalar.<sup><xref rid="B407" ref-type="bibr">407</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O progn&#243;stico em miocardite comprovada por BEM depende da gravidade dos sintomas, da classifica&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica e biomarcadores. Miocardite aguda fulminante &#233; associada com melhor sobrevida. Miocardite por c&#233;lulas gigantes, apesar de rara, &#233; associada com mau progn&#243;stico, com uma sobrevida m&#233;dia de 5,5 meses, com uma taxa de mortalidade ou transplante de 89%.<sup><xref rid="B406" ref-type="bibr">406</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Miocardite contribui para pelo menos 50% das miocar- diopatias dilatadas na inf&#226;ncia. O desfecho de pacientes com miocardite viral &#233; melhor que aqueles com miocardiopatia dilatada. Por esse motivo, deve-se sempre suspeitar de miocardite, instituir medidas de suporte precocemente, evitando que um paciente com miocardite seja encaminhado &#224; lista de transplante sem a chance de recupera&#231;&#227;o. A indica&#231;&#227;o de transplante na miocardite s&#243; deve ser considerada quando a recupera&#231;&#227;o for desfavor&#225;vel, apesar do manejo terap&#234;utico adequado ( <xref rid="t73" ref-type="table">Tabela 36</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t73">
            <label>Tabela 36</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Principais informa&#231;&#245;es sobre miocardites na crian&#231;a e no adolescente</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Miocardites na crian&#231;a e no adolescente</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Os principais desfechos incluem: recupera&#231;&#227;o completa, progress&#227;o para miocardiopatia dilatada e morte ou transplante card&#237;aco</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Imunoglobulina endovenosa tem se tornado uma pr&#225;tica no tratamento das miocardites, por&#233;m o seu efeito na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ainda n&#227;o est&#225; completamente esclarecido</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>O espectro de manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da miocardite &#233; muito amplo, desde um quadro viral leve at&#233; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva com choque cardiog&#234;nico com necessidade de suporte inotr&#243;pico ou mec&#226;nico &#224; circula&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Apesar de a bi&#243;psia mioc&#225;rdica ser considerada padr&#227;o-ouro para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, em crian&#231;as, o risco de eventos adversos varia de 1% a 5% (taquiarritmias, hipotens&#227;o pela anestesia, altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas, perfura&#231;&#227;o ventricular). Portanto, essa pr&#225;tica n&#227;o tem sido adotada de rotina<sup>5</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o &lt;42% e troponina elevada ao diagn&#243;stico t&#234;m maior associa&#231;&#227;o com mortalidade</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pacientes que sobrevivem &#224; fase aguda t&#234;m um desfecho tardio melhor que aqueles que t&#234;m um quadro mais insidioso</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Miocardite &#233; a principal etiologia da miocardiopatia dilatada na inf&#226;ncia</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de imunoglobulina (IVIG) tem se tornado parte do tratamento imunomodulat&#243;rio em crian&#231;as com miocardite aguda em muitos centros, na dose <italic>standard</italic> de 2g/kg em 24 horas. Essa pr&#225;tica tem sido institu&#237;da desde a cl&#225;ssica publica&#231;&#227;o de Drucker et al., em 1994.<sup><xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref></sup> Foi demonstrada uma tend&#234;ncia &#224; recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular naqueles que receberam imunoglobulina. Em uma coorte de 94 pacientes com miocardiopatia de in&#237;cio recente, IVIG foi administrada em 22% dos pacientes, e o seguimento de 5 anos demonstrou uma maior taxa de recupera&#231;&#227;o quando comparados com os demais pacientes que n&#227;o receberam imunoglobulina.<sup><xref rid="B408" ref-type="bibr">408</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em um estudo realizado em Taiwan com 94 pacientes, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da curva ROC identificou que a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o &lt;42% (sensibilidade 86,7% e especificidade de 82,8%) e a dosagem de troponina I &gt;45ng/mL (sensibilidade de 62,6% e especificidade de 91%) tiveram a maior associa&#231;&#227;o com mortalidade.<sup><xref rid="B403" ref-type="bibr">403</xref></sup></p>
        <p>V&#225;rios estudos demonstraram que os pacientes que sobrevivem &#224; fase aguda inicial t&#234;m um desfecho mais favor&#225;vel a longo prazo, ao contr&#225;rio daqueles com doen&#231;a mais insidiosa.</p>
        <p>Evid&#234;ncia histol&#243;gica de miocardite como causa de miocardiopatia dilatada tem sido considerada um indicador progn&#243;stico positivo para recupera&#231;&#227;o, com chances de cura entre 50% e 80% em 2 anos.<sup><xref rid="B402" ref-type="bibr">402</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, a evolu&#231;&#227;o para IC cr&#244;nica com necessidade de transplante card&#237;aco pode ocorrer tardiamente mesmo ap&#243;s a melhora cl&#237;nica inicial.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.9. Miocardites com Envolvimento Peric&#225;rdico</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.9.1. Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento</title>
        <p>Miocardites e pericardites s&#227;o doen&#231;as que, com frequ&#234;ncia, se apresentam associadas na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e representam diferentes espectros dentro do grupo das s&#237;ndromes inflamat&#243;rias mioperic&#225;rdicas ( <xref rid="t74" ref-type="table">Tabela 37</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B409" ref-type="bibr">409</xref> , <xref rid="B410" ref-type="bibr">410</xref> </sup>Isso se deve ao fato de ambas as doen&#231;as apresentarem agentes etiol&#243;gicos comuns (especialmente virais).<sup><xref rid="B411" ref-type="bibr">411</xref></sup> No entanto, raramente o acometimento mioc&#225;rdico e peric&#225;rdico ocorre na mesma intensidade. O mais comum &#233; haver predom&#237;nio da miocardite (perimiocardite) ou da pericardite (miopericardite).<sup><xref rid="B412" ref-type="bibr">412</xref></sup> A distin&#231;&#227;o entre as diferentes formas de apresenta&#231;&#227;o &#233; relevante por ter impacto no progn&#243;stico e tratamento. A miopericardite usualmente tem boa evolu&#231;&#227;o, sem IC ou pericardite constritiva.<sup><xref rid="B413" ref-type="bibr">413</xref> - <xref rid="B416" ref-type="bibr">416</xref> </sup> No cen&#225;rio da miocardite aguda, o acometimento peric&#225;rdico (perimiocardite) tem import&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica. No estudo de Di Bella et al.,<sup><xref rid="B417" ref-type="bibr">417</xref></sup> que avaliou uma coorte de 467 pacientes com miocardite aguda viral/idiop&#225;tica diagnosticada pela RMC, observou-se que aproximadamente 24% dos pacientes tinham acometimento peric&#225;rdico. Al&#233;m disso, a presen&#231;a de pericardite aumentou em 2,5 vezes o risco de eventos card&#237;acos (desfecho combinado de morte, transplante card&#237;aco, implante de CDI, hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC descompensada).<sup><xref rid="B416" ref-type="bibr">416</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t74">
            <label>Tabela 37</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o nos casos de miocardite com suspeita de acometimento peric&#225;rdico</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>No paciente com miocardite aguda com suspeita de acometimento peric&#225;rdico, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca &#233; indicada para elucida&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica nos casos duvidosos</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico de miocardite associada &#224; pericardite aguda deve ser suspeitado nos pacientes que apresentam diagn&#243;stico de miocardite e pelo menos dois dos seguintes crit&#233;rios: dor tor&#225;cica de car&#225;ter pleur&#237;tico, que pode ser dif&#237;cil de identificar pela presen&#231;a de dor pelo acometimento mioc&#225;rdico; atrito peric&#225;rdico; altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas sugestivas de pericardite com infra do segmento PR e supra de ST difuso com a concavidade para cima; derrame peric&#225;rdico novo ou piora do preexistente. O laborat&#243;rio geralmente revela leucocitose com predom&#237;nio de linf&#243;citos (nos quadros virais) e eleva&#231;&#227;o da PCR e velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o (VHS). A RMC &#233; o exame n&#227;o invasivo com melhor acur&#225;cia para avalia&#231;&#227;o de acometimento peric&#225;rdico no paciente com miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B409" ref-type="bibr">409</xref> , <xref rid="B417" ref-type="bibr">417</xref> </sup> O exame revela a presen&#231;a de inflama&#231;&#227;o, espessamento, derrame e massas no peric&#225;rdio, e est&#225; indicado em todo os casos com d&#250;vida diagn&#243;stica (grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o I, n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia C).<sup><xref rid="B409" ref-type="bibr">409</xref> , <xref rid="B418" ref-type="bibr">418</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>No paciente com miocardite e acometimento peric&#225;rdico, o tratamento deve seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para tratamento da miocardite e depende essencialmente da causa de base. Nos casos virais/idiop&#225;ticos sem disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, o uso de AINEs para controle da les&#227;o peric&#225;rdica deve ser considerado com cautela, em doses reduzidas, uma vez que, em estudos experimentais, os AINES revelaram aumento de mortalidade e piora da inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref rid="B411" ref-type="bibr">411</xref> , <xref rid="B419" ref-type="bibr">419</xref> , <xref rid="B420" ref-type="bibr">420</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.10. Miocardite Simulando Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio</title>
      <p>Estudos anteriores indicaram que 2,6% a 25% dos pacientes com suspeita de IAM revelaram-se como IAM sem doen&#231;a arterial coronariana obstrutiva (MINOCA; do ingl&#234;s, <italic>myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary artery</italic> ). Existem v&#225;rias etiologias que podem ser atribu&#237;das aos indiv&#237;duos com suspeita de IAM, mas com angiogramas sem les&#245;es culpadas, dentre as quais miocardite aguda tem sido reconhecida como um fator particularmente importante.<sup><xref rid="B421" ref-type="bibr">421</xref></sup></p>
      <p>&#201; comum que as apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas t&#237;picas do IAM, como dor no peito, eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST e marcadores s&#233;ricos incrementais, apare&#231;am em pacientes diagnosticados com miocardite.<sup><xref rid="B422" ref-type="bibr">422</xref> , <xref rid="B423" ref-type="bibr">423</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, no cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico de doen&#231;a aguda com eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina, pode ser clinicamente desafiador diferenciar um IAM tipo 2 de causas de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica sem isquemia, principalmente a miocardite. O IAM tipo 2 &#233; aquele secund&#225;rio &#224; isquemia devido ao aumento da demanda de oxig&#234;nio ou diminui&#231;&#227;o da oferta, causado, por exemplo, por espasmo da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria, embolia coron&#225;ria, anemia, arritmias, hipertens&#227;o ou hipotens&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B424" ref-type="bibr">424</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O termo <italic>isquemia mioc&#225;rdica </italic> &#233; utilizado quando h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de valores elevados de troponina com pelo menos um valor acima do limite superior de refer&#234;ncia (URL) do percentil 99. O termo <italic>inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica </italic> &#233; considerado se houver aumento e/ou queda dos valores de troponina. O diagn&#243;stico de IAM &#233; espec&#237;fico quando h&#225; les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica aguda associado &#224; evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica aguda, exigindo tanto detec&#231;&#227;o de um aumento e/ou queda dos valores de troponina e a presen&#231;a de pelo menos uma das seguintes condi&#231;&#245;es: sintomas de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas novas no ECG, desenvolvimento de ondas Q patol&#243;gicas, evid&#234;ncia de imagem de nova perda de mioc&#225;rdio vi&#225;vel ou de novas anormalidades do movimento da parede em um padr&#227;o consistente com um quadro isqu&#234;mico e/ou identifica&#231;&#227;o de trombo coron&#225;rio por angiografia ou aut&#243;psia.<sup><xref rid="B424" ref-type="bibr">424</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As principais entidades cl&#237;nicas que podem simular um IAM com supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST s&#227;o: miocardite/pericardite, cardiomiopatia de Takotsubo, s&#237;ndromes da onda J (usado para descrever tanto a s&#237;ndrome de Brugada quanto a s&#237;ndrome de repolariza&#231;&#227;o precoce), anormalidades secund&#225;rias da repolariza&#231;&#227;o (como bloqueio de ramo esquerdo, marca-passo ventricular e hipertrofia ventricular), dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos (hipercalemia e hipercalcemia) e outras causas n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas (como s&#237;ndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White, embolia pulmonar, hemorragia intracraniana, hipotermia e p&#243;s-parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria), por&#233;m as altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas evolutivas podem ajudar na diferencia&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m das diferen&#231;as nas hist&#243;rias cl&#237;nicas.<sup><xref rid="B425" ref-type="bibr">425</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual <italic>in vivo</italic> com RMC permite a identifica&#231;&#227;o de edema/inflama&#231;&#227;o nas s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas/miocardite e diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas e condi&#231;&#245;es fibr&#243;ticas (p. ex., em cardiomiopatias hipertr&#243;ficas e dilatadas, estenose a&#243;rtica e amiloidose).<sup><xref rid="B425" ref-type="bibr">425</xref></sup> Na doen&#231;a n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, o padr&#227;o e a distribui&#231;&#227;o do realce tardio (LGE; do ingl&#234;s, <italic>late gadolinium enhancement</italic> ) podem oferecer pistas sobre etiologia e significado progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref rid="B425" ref-type="bibr">425</xref></sup> A miocardite geralmente causa cicatrizes subepic&#225;rdicas/mesoc&#225;rdicas, geralmente (embora nem sempre) em uma distribui&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o coronariana, poupando o subendoc&#225;rdio<sup><xref rid="B426" ref-type="bibr">426</xref> , <xref rid="B427" ref-type="bibr">427</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>Na miocardite, a imagem ponderada em T2 tamb&#233;m pode identificar regi&#245;es de inflama&#231;&#227;o, caracteristicamente, em uma distribui&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o coronariana. Por outro lado, o mapeamento T1 param&#233;trico est&#225; tamb&#233;m dispon&#237;vel, fornecendo avalia&#231;&#227;o quantitativa e objetiva do edema/inflama&#231;&#227;o (p. ex., no IAM/miocardite). <sup><xref rid="B426" ref-type="bibr">426</xref> , <xref rid="B427" ref-type="bibr">427</xref> </sup>Existe uma intera&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica entre inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose em v&#225;rios precursores de IC, como IAM e miocardite. O diagn&#243;stico precoce de IC com biomarcadores e imagem &#233; fundamental; enquanto a RMC &#233; &#250;til para avaliar a extens&#227;o da les&#227;o, medi&#231;&#245;es seriadas de biomarcadores indicam se inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose s&#227;o progressivas.<sup><xref rid="B427" ref-type="bibr">427</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Clinicamente, caso de miocardite simulando IAM &#233; extremamente complexo para os m&#233;dicos fazerem um diagn&#243;stico preciso. A defini&#231;&#227;o da anatomia coronariana &#233; mandat&#243;ria, seja com a coronariografia ou com a angiotomografia de coron&#225;rias. Al&#233;m disso, um diagn&#243;stico correto de miocardite, por si s&#243;, &#233; um desafio devido a padr&#245;es n&#227;o espec&#237;ficos de sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e a falta de um m&#233;todo de diagn&#243;stico preciso e confi&#225;vel. Embora seja recomendada a realiza&#231;&#227;o de BEM nas diretrizes como m&#233;todo ideal, o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite na pr&#225;tica rotineira &#233; geralmente baseado em considera&#231;&#245;es abrangentes do hist&#243;rico m&#233;dico dos pacientes, manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e exames complementares, dentre os quais a RMC, que tem vantagem significativa na detec&#231;&#227;o de anormalidades do mioc&#225;rdio e na discrimina&#231;&#227;o precisa de pacientes com miocardite daqueles com IAM verdadeiro.<sup><xref rid="B421" ref-type="bibr">421</xref> - <xref rid="B423" ref-type="bibr">423</xref> , <xref rid="B425" ref-type="bibr">425</xref> - <xref rid="B427" ref-type="bibr">427</xref> </sup> Na <xref rid="f16" ref-type="fig">Figura 16</xref> , sugerimos um fluxograma de avalia&#231;&#227;o de paciente com IAM <italic>versus</italic> miocardite.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f16">
          <label>Figura 16</label>
          <caption>
            <title>- Diagn&#243;stico diferencial de dor tor&#225;cica: IAM versus miocardite.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>BEM: bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica; ECG: eletrocardiograma; ECO: ecocardiograma; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; RMC: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca; Tn: troponina.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf16.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7. Cardite Reum&#225;tica</title>
      <p>Em 2018, a Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) reconheceu a endemia de febre reum&#225;tica em pa&#237;ses de baixa renda e orientou a&#231;&#227;o global focada em preven&#231;&#227;o, diagn&#243;stico e profilaxia secund&#225;ria.<sup><xref rid="B428" ref-type="bibr">428</xref></sup> A febre reum&#225;tica &#233; uma doen&#231;a bif&#225;sica, cujo surto agudo manifesta-se com vari&#225;veis combina&#231;&#245;es de artrite, cardite, coreia, les&#245;es cut&#226;neas e subcut&#226;neas, e a miocardite ocorre em mais de 50% dos pacientes.<sup><xref rid="B429" ref-type="bibr">429</xref></sup> Cerca de 5% dos pacientes com miocardite reum&#225;tica aguda apresentam manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica significativa que motivam atendimento m&#233;dico e at&#233; 50% dos pacientes com cardite aguda evoluem para cardiopatia reum&#225;tica cr&#244;nica (fase tardia), caracteristicamente valvopatia mitral e/ou a&#243;rtica.<sup><xref rid="B430" ref-type="bibr">430</xref> , <xref rid="B431" ref-type="bibr">431</xref> </sup> A preval&#234;ncia de cardite reum&#225;tica em nosso meio n&#227;o &#233; conhecida, mas v&#225;rias informa&#231;&#245;es evidenciam que se trata de condi&#231;&#227;o frequente e subdiagnosticada. Em 2013, o Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (SUS) brasileiro informou que ocorreram 5.169 hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; febre reum&#225;tica aguda.<sup><xref rid="B432" ref-type="bibr">432</xref></sup> Estima-se que, atualmente, cerca de 40 milh&#245;es de pessoas ao redor do mundo tenham cardiopatia reum&#225;tica cr&#244;nica e que essa doen&#231;a leve a aproximadamente 300.000 mortes por ano.<sup><xref rid="B433" ref-type="bibr">433</xref></sup> Um estudo brasileiro realizado no estado de Minas Gerais, em 5.996 estudantes de 21 escolas, encontrou 0,42% de preval&#234;ncia de cardiopatia reum&#225;tica cr&#244;nica, n&#250;mero 2 a 10 vezes maior &#224; m&#233;dia documentada em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos.<sup><xref rid="B434" ref-type="bibr">434</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A suspeita de cardite reum&#225;tica deve ser feita concomitante &#224; suspeita de surto agudo de febre reum&#225;tica, inicialmente por meio da aplica&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios de Jones, que foram revisados em 2015.<sup><xref rid="B435" ref-type="bibr">435</xref></sup> Recomenda-se estratificar epidemiologicamente o risco de causa reum&#225;tica, sendo considerados de alto risco pacientes oriundos de regi&#245;es cuja incid&#234;ncia de febre reum&#225;tica &#233; maior que 2 por 100 mil escolares (5 a 14 anos) por ano, ou preval&#234;ncia de sequela valvar reum&#225;tica maior que 1 por 1.000 pessoas por ano. Estima-se que grande parte da popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira resida em regi&#245;es com essas caracter&#237;sticas. Tamb&#233;m houve inclus&#227;o de crit&#233;rios ecocardiogr&#225;ficos e expans&#227;o da utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios para diagn&#243;stico de recidiva<sup><xref rid="B436" ref-type="bibr">436</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="t75" ref-type="table">Tabela 38</xref> ). Portanto, a etiologia reum&#225;tica deve ser considerada em pacientes com cardite em nosso meio, principalmente jovens, em regi&#245;es de baixa renda e/ou com antecedente de valvopatia reum&#225;tica.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t75">
          <label>Tabela 38</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Crit&#233;rios de Jones modificados em 2015</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Primeiro surto de febre reum&#225;tica</th>
                <th>Recidiva de febre reum&#225;tica</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>2 crit&#233;rios maiores; ou 1 crit&#233;rio maior e pelo menos 2 menores</td>
                <td>2 crit&#233;rios maiores; ou 1 crit&#233;rio maior e pelo menos 2 menores; ou 3 crit&#233;rios menores</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> Popula&#231;&#227;o de baixo risco (&lt;2/100.000 casos de febre reum&#225;tica aguda por anos e &lt;1/1.000 casos de sequela valvar reum&#225;tica por ano)</td>
                <td>Popula&#231;&#227;o de risco moderado/alto risco (&gt;2/100.000 casos de febre reum&#225;tica aguda por anos e &gt;1/1.000 casos de sequela valvar reum&#225;tica por ano)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Crit&#233;rios maiores</bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <bold>Crit&#233;rios maiores</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Cardite (cl&#237;nica ou subcl&#237;nica)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Cardite (cl&#237;nica ou subcl&#237;nica)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Artrite (apenas poliartrite)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Artrite (apenas poliartrite, poliartralgia e/ou monoartrite)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Coreia</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Coreia</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Eritema marginado</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Eritema marginado</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; N&#243;dulo subcut&#226;neo</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; N&#243;dulo subcut&#226;neo</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Crit&#233;rios menores</bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <bold>Crit&#233;rios menores</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Poliartralgia</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Monoartralgia</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Febre (maior ou igual 38,5&#176;C)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Febre (maior ou igual 38&#176;C)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Eleva&#231;&#227;o de VHS (&gt;60 mm na primeira hora) e/ou PCR maior que o limite superior de refer&#234;ncia)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Eleva&#231;&#227;o de VHS (&gt;60 mm na primeira hora) e/ou PCR maior que o limite superior de refer&#234;ncia)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Intervalo PR prolongado corrigido para idade (quando n&#227;o houver cardite)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Intervalo PR prolongado corrigido para idade (quando n&#227;o houver cardite)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> Evid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via pelo <italic>Streptococcus</italic> B-hemol&#237;tico do grupo A (cultura positiva de orofaringe; teste r&#225;pido positivo; escarlatina; t&#237;tulos elevados de anticorpos antiestreptoc&#243;cicos)</td>
                <td>Evid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via pelo <italic>Streptococcus</italic> B-hemol&#237;tico do grupo A (cultura positiva de orofaringe; teste r&#225;pido positivo; escarlatina; t&#237;tulos elevados de anticorpos antiestreptoc&#243;cicos)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN20">
              <p>
                <italic>PCR: prote&#237;na C reativa; VHS: velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Quando h&#225; documenta&#231;&#227;o de surto agudo de febre reum&#225;tica ou manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de IC, &#233; fundamental a busca ativa por cardite reum&#225;tica. A cardite reum&#225;tica &#233; uma pancardite, acometendo em grau vari&#225;vel peric&#225;rdio, mioc&#225;rdio e endoc&#225;rdio, sendo esta a principal manifesta&#231;&#227;o: valvulite aguda &#8211; presente em 90% dos casos, caracteristicamente por valvopatia regurgitativa aguda mitral e/ou a&#243;rtica.<sup><xref rid="B437" ref-type="bibr">437</xref></sup> Quando h&#225; sintomas, o principal mecanismo &#233; a valvopatia aguda (preferencialmente mitral) e, menos frequente e com menos intensidade, miocardite e pericardite.<sup><xref rid="B438" ref-type="bibr">438</xref></sup> Portanto, o foco inicial da investiga&#231;&#227;o &#233; a detec&#231;&#227;o da valvopatia, podendo ser reconhecida por exame f&#237;sico, mas &#233; mandat&#243;ria a realiza&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica, inicialmente transtor&#225;cica, reservando-se a avalia&#231;&#227;o transesof&#225;gica para situa&#231;&#245;es infrequentes de janela inadequada.<sup><xref rid="B439" ref-type="bibr">439</xref></sup> O ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es, al&#233;m do alargamento do intervalo PR, pode demonstrar QT longo e altera&#231;&#245;es compat&#237;veis com pericardite e sobrecarga de c&#226;maras esquerdas.<sup><xref rid="B440" ref-type="bibr">440</xref></sup> Habitualmente, n&#227;o h&#225; eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina e CKMB, indicando que o dano mioc&#225;rdico &#233; pequeno.<sup><xref rid="B431" ref-type="bibr">431</xref> , <xref rid="B441" ref-type="bibr">441</xref> </sup> A radiografia de t&#243;rax pode ser &#250;til em documentar cardiomegalia e congest&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B442" ref-type="bibr">442</xref></sup>Ap&#243;s essa avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial, a hip&#243;tese diagn&#243;stica pode ser:<sup><xref rid="B443" ref-type="bibr">443</xref> , <xref rid="B444" ref-type="bibr">444</xref> </sup></p>
      <list list-type="alpha-lower">
        <list-item>
          <p>Cardite subcl&#237;nica: exame cl&#237;nico sem altera&#231;&#245;es de alerta, ECG apenas com intervalo PR prolongado e/ou ecodopplercardiograma evidenciando regurgita&#231;&#227;o leve mitral e/ou a&#243;rtica</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Cardite leve: taquicardia desproporcional &#224; febre, sopro regurgitativo identific&#225;vel, ECG apenas com intervalo PR prolongado, radiografia de t&#243;rax sem altera&#231;&#245;es de alerta e ecodopplercardiograma evidenciando regurgita&#231;&#227;o leve a moderada mitral e/ou a&#243;rtica</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Cardite moderada: crit&#233;rios da cardite leve associados a sintomas leves de IC e/ou QT longo e/ou cardiomegalia e congest&#227;o na radiografia e/ou dilata&#231;&#227;o leva a moderada de c&#226;maras esquerdas</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Cardite grave: sintomas limitantes de IC com regurgita&#231;&#227;o valvar importante e/ou cadiomegalia importante e/ou disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Dessa forma, a miocardite reum&#225;tica, em si, &#233; pouco exuberante, deve ser suspeitada quando h&#225; crit&#233;rios para cardite reum&#225;tica, IC manifesta, sem valvopatia aguda anatomicamente importante. Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, tamb&#233;m &#233; fundamental a avalia&#231;&#227;o minuciosa de poss&#237;vel diagn&#243;stico diferencial de miocardite.</p>
      <p>Pacientes com quadros leves, moderados e graves devem ter continua&#231;&#227;o da investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica com exames de imagem. A cintilografia com G&#225;lio-67 apresenta alta sensibilidade e especificidade, &#233; o exame mais estudado e deve ser o primeiro a ser realizado.<sup><xref rid="B445" ref-type="bibr">445</xref> , <xref rid="B446" ref-type="bibr">446</xref> </sup> Cintilografia antimiosina &#233; menos sens&#237;vel, assim como o PET <italic>scan</italic> , sendo ambos op&#231;&#245;es em indisponibilidade do G&#225;lio, ou quando h&#225; evid&#234;ncia de outros diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais.<sup><xref rid="B447" ref-type="bibr">447</xref> , <xref rid="B448" ref-type="bibr">448</xref> </sup>A RM carece de trabalhos espec&#237;ficos para febre reum&#225;tica, ainda mais que o acometimento &#233; prioritariamente valvar, sendo mais um exame &#250;til em diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais.<sup><xref rid="B449" ref-type="bibr">449</xref></sup> A BEM apresenta baixa sensibilidade, por&#233;m alt&#237;ssima especificidade, sendo o achado de n&#243;dulos de Aschoff patognom&#244;nico de miocardite reum&#225;tica. Sua indica&#231;&#227;o &#233; em casos graves e refrat&#225;rios<sup><xref rid="B450" ref-type="bibr">450</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="t76" ref-type="table">Tabela 39</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t76">
          <label>Tabela 39</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Exames diagn&#243;sticos para cardite reum&#225;tica</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                <th>Classe</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Eletrocardiograma 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>B<sup>440</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Radiografia de t&#243;rax</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C<sup>442</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ecodopplercardiograma transtor&#225;cico</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>B<sup>436,439</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ecodopplercardiograma transesof&#225;gico em situa&#231;&#245;es de dificuldade de visualiza&#231;&#227;o transtor&#225;cica</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C<sup>436,439</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>VHS e PCR (ver crit&#233;rios de Jones)</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>B<sup>436</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Antiestreptolisina O (ver crit&#233;rios de Jones)</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C<sup>436</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Antidexirribonuclease B com alternativa &#224; antiestreptolisina O</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C<sup>435</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Alfa-1 glicoprote&#237;na &#225;cida para monitoramento da atividade inflamat&#243;ria</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C<sup>444</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Eletroforese de prote&#237;na (alfa-2 globulina) para monitoramento da atividade inflamat&#243;ria</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C<sup>444</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Troponina como crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico</td>
                <td>IIb</td>
                <td>B<sup>431,441</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cintilografia com G&#225;lio-67</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>B<sup>445,446</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG CT</td>
                <td>IIb</td>
                <td>B<sup>448</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Resson&#226;ncia card&#237;aca</td>
                <td>IIb</td>
                <td>C<sup>449</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica</td>
                <td>IIb</td>
                <td>C<sup>444,450</sup></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN21">
              <p>
                <italic>PCR: prote&#237;na C reativa; PET <sup>18</sup>F-FDG: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons <sup>18</sup>F-fluorodesoxiglicose; VHS: velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Para todos os pacientes com cardite reum&#225;tica, apesar de se tratar de resposta imune tardia, recomenda-se erradica&#231;&#227;o estreptoc&#243;cica.<sup><xref rid="B451" ref-type="bibr">451</xref></sup> O tratamento da forma subcl&#237;nica e leve implica controle dos sintomas associados ao surto agudo e monitoramento da evolu&#231;&#227;o. A forma moderada e grave implica uso de corticosteroides, inicialmente via oral, e pulsoterapia se refratariedade.<sup><xref rid="B452" ref-type="bibr">452</xref> - <xref rid="B455" ref-type="bibr">455</xref> </sup> Medica&#231;&#245;es como iECA, furosemida, espironolactona e digoxina devem ser usadas se IC manifesta.<sup><xref rid="B450" ref-type="bibr">450</xref></sup> A refratariedade implica ponderar tratamento cir&#250;rgico valvar na fase aguda ( <xref rid="t77" ref-type="table">Tabela 40</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B456" ref-type="bibr">456</xref> - <xref rid="B457" ref-type="bibr">457</xref> </sup></p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t77">
          <label>Tabela 40</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Tratamento da cardite reum&#225;tica</title>
          </caption>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                <th>Classe</th>
                <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Erradica&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Streptococcus</italic> B-hemol&#237;tico do grupo A:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Penicilina G benzatina 1.200.000 UI IM profunda dose &#250;nica para maiores que 20kg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Penicilina G benzatina 600.000 UI IM profunda dose &#250;nica para menores que 20kg</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Amoxicilina 50mg/kg/dia (m&#225;ximo 1.500mg) divida em 3 doses, por 10 dias</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Para al&#233;rgicos &#224; penicilina &#8211; eritromicina 40mg/kg/dia (m&#225;ximo 1.000mg) dividida em 4 doses, por 10 dias</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C<sup>444, 451</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Repouso, se caso moderado ou grave</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C<sup>444</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o para controle de sintomas em cardite moderada a grave</td>
                <td>IIa</td>
                <td>C<sup>444</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Prednisona 0,5 a 1 mg/kg/dia (m&#225;ximo 50mg) via oral, pode ser dividida em 2 a 3 doses di&#225;rias, mantendo por 15 dias, com redu&#231;&#227;o posterior semanal de 20% da dose em casos subcl&#237;nicos a leves. Tempo total de 4 a 8 semanas.</td>
                <td>IIb</td>
                <td>B<sup>444,452,453</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico 100mg/kg (m&#225;ximo 3 a 4g) dividido em 4 doses ou Naproxeno 20mg/kg (m&#225;ximo 1.000mg) dividido em 2 doses para casos subcl&#237;nicos com artrite e/ou pericardite associada. Tempo total de 2 semanas.</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>B<sup>444,453</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Prednisona 1 a 2 mg/kg/dia (m&#225;ximo 60mg) via oral, pode ser dividida em 2 a 3 doses di&#225;rias, mantendo por 15 dias, com redu&#231;&#227;o posterior semanal de 20% da dose em casos moderados a graves. Tempo total em torno de 12 semanas.</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>B<sup>444,452,453</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Metilprednisolona 30mg/kg/dia em ciclos semanais em casos graves e refrat&#225;rios ao tratamento inicial.</td>
                <td>IIb</td>
                <td>B<sup>454,455</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Na presen&#231;a de sinais/sintomas de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, tratamento medicamentoso da IC com diur&#233;tico e drogas com atua&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>C<sup>450</sup></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cirurgia card&#237;aca valvar em casos graves e refrat&#225;rios:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Pl&#225;stica valvar mitral com t&#233;cnica que permita crescimento anel</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8211; Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica a&#243;rtica preferencial</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>B<sup>456,457</sup></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN22">
              <p>
                <italic>IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8. Miocardites por Doen&#231;as Autoimunes</title>
      <p>O envolvimento card&#237;aco nas doen&#231;as autoimunes pode incluir peric&#225;rdio, mioc&#225;rdio, endoc&#225;rdio, valvas e coron&#225;rias. Dentre as entidades, merecem destaque em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; miocardite, a sarcoidose, a miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes, a doen&#231;a de Beh&#231;et, a granulomatose eosinof&#237;lica com poliange&#237;te, o LES, a esclerodermia e a artrite reumatoide. Existe uma evidente limita&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o ao diagn&#243;stico de miocardite e sua preval&#234;ncia nas doen&#231;as autoimunes, por&#233;m devemos considerar essa possibilidade quando da presen&#231;a de sinais e sintomas sugestivos de acometimento card&#237;aco, quer seja com arritmias, s&#237;ncope, IC, dor tor&#225;cica e eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, especialmente em pacientes com antecedente de doen&#231;a autoimune ou quando existe acometimento card&#237;aco associado a sintomas de inflama&#231;&#227;o atingindo outros sistemas.</p>
      <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios inespec&#237;ficos, incluindo PCR/VHS e de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, como troponina e BNP, habitualmente est&#225; presente, por&#233;m sem especificidade. ECG e ECO devem ser realizados para todos os pacientes com doen&#231;as autoimunes na suspeita de acometimento card&#237;aco.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B188" ref-type="bibr">188</xref> </sup> A RM pode ser utilizada como m&#233;todo sens&#237;vel e espec&#237;fico para avalia&#231;&#227;o de miocardite, al&#233;m de ampliar o racioc&#237;nio em rela&#231;&#227;o a diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais.<sup><xref rid="B458" ref-type="bibr">458</xref> , <xref rid="B459" ref-type="bibr">459</xref> </sup> Outro m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo tem sido o PET, especialmente em situa&#231;&#245;es de suspeita de sarcoidose.<sup><xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref></sup> A solicita&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de autoimunidade, como FAN, fator reumatoide e ANCA, deve ser considerada e orientada pela suspeita cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref rid="B460" ref-type="bibr">460</xref></sup> A BEM &#233; o padr&#227;o-ouro para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, quer seja por doen&#231;as autoimunes ou outras etiologias; mediante utiliza&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas al&#233;m da histologia, consegue diferenciar o acometimento infeccioso em rela&#231;&#227;o ao n&#227;o infeccioso; al&#233;m disso, pode identificar a presen&#231;a de vasculite ou outras doen&#231;as mioc&#225;rdicas n&#227;o inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref rid="B151" ref-type="bibr">151</xref></sup> O tratamento da miocardite pelas doen&#231;as autoimunes foi discutido em outra sess&#227;o deste documento.</p>
      <p> A eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios inespec&#237;ficos, incluindo PCR/VHS e de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, como troponina e BNP, habitualmente est&#225; presente, por&#233;m sem especificidade. ECG e ECO devem ser realizados para todos os pacientes com doen&#231;as autoimunes na suspeita de acometimento card&#237;aco. <sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B188" ref-type="bibr">188</xref> </sup> A RM pode ser utilizada como m&#233;todo sens&#237;vel e espec&#237;fico para avalia&#231;&#227;o de miocardite, al&#233;m de ampliar o racioc&#237;nio em rela&#231;&#227;o a diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais. <sup><xref rid="B458" ref-type="bibr">458</xref> , <xref rid="B459" ref-type="bibr">459</xref> </sup> Outro m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo tem sido o PET, especialmente em situa&#231;&#245;es de suspeita de sarcoidose. <sup><xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref></sup> A solicita&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de autoimunidade, como FAN, fator reumatoide e ANCA, deve ser considerada e orientada pela suspeita cl&#237;nica. <sup><xref rid="B460" ref-type="bibr">460</xref></sup> A BEM &#233; o padr&#227;o-ouro para o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite, quer seja por doen&#231;as autoimunes ou outras etiologias; mediante utiliza&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas al&#233;m da histologia, consegue diferenciar o acometimento infeccioso em rela&#231;&#227;o ao n&#227;o infeccioso; al&#233;m disso, pode identificar a presen&#231;a de vasculite ou outras doen&#231;as mioc&#225;rdicas n&#227;o inflamat&#243;rias. <sup><xref rid="B151" ref-type="bibr">151</xref></sup> O tratamento da miocardite pelas doen&#231;as autoimunes foi discutido em outra sess&#227;o deste documento. </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>9. Manejo das Arritmias Card&#237;acas na Miocardite</title>
      <sec>
        <title>9.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o N&#227;o Invasiva e Invasiva das Arritmias na Fase Aguda e Cr&#244;nica das Diversas Causa das Miocardites</title>
        <p>As arritmias card&#237;acas s&#227;o manifesta&#231;&#245;es relativamente frequentes no paciente com miocardite, podendo ocorrer em qualquer fase da doen&#231;a. Os mecanismos arritmog&#234;nicos est&#227;o direta ou indiretamente relacionados ao grau de agress&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na fase aguda pela agress&#227;o viral e da resposta inflamat&#243;ria, temos miocit&#243;lise associada &#224; fibrose, que promovem a hiperatividade do sistema simp&#225;tico e disfun&#231;&#227;o dos canais i&#244;nicos, especialmente na regula&#231;&#227;o do c&#225;lcio, criando o substrato eletrofisiol&#243;gico para gera&#231;&#227;o de arritmias.<sup><xref rid="B461" ref-type="bibr">461</xref></sup> Quanto maior o dano celular e o grau de comprometimento inflamat&#243;rio, maior a probabilidade de ocorr&#234;ncia de arritmias ventriculares, sendo a reentrada o principal mecanismo arritmog&#234;nico.</p>
        <p>Um amplo espectro de bradiarritmias e taquiarritmias ocorre no contexto da miocardite. BAV, altera&#231;&#245;es da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular e o prolongamento do intervalo QT s&#227;o achados comuns na fase aguda da doen&#231;a. Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e taquicardias atriais tamb&#233;m podem estar presentes no curso da miocardite aguda ou na fase cr&#244;nica.</p>
        <p>As arritmias ventriculares podem se manifestar atrav&#233;s de extrass&#237;stoles e/ou taquicardias ventriculares. Estas podem ter um car&#225;ter monom&#243;rfico ou polim&#243;rfico e apresentarem-se de forma n&#227;o sustentada ou sustentada (dura&#231;&#227;o &#8805;30 segundos).</p>
        <p>Os sintomas variam de acordo com a forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o da arritmia, o estado hemodin&#226;mico e o grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, podendo se manifestar por meio de palpita&#231;&#245;es, taquicardias, s&#237;ncope ou morte s&#250;bita.</p>
        <p>Os m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos diretos utilizados para avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva das arritmias s&#227;o o ECG basal de 12 deriva&#231;&#227;o, a eletrocardiografia ambulatorial cont&#237;nua por 24 ou 48 horas (sistema <italic>Holter</italic> ) e o monitoramento de eventos (sistema Looper).</p>
        <p>O ECG &#233; geralmente alterado nos pacientes com miocardite, por&#233;m tais achados apresentam baixa sensibilidade e especificidade.<sup><xref rid="B462" ref-type="bibr">462</xref></sup> Ukena et al.<sup><xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref></sup> relataram que a dura&#231;&#227;o prolongada do complexo QRS &#233; um preditor independente para morte card&#237;aca ou transplante card&#237;aco em pacientes com suspeita de miocardite. O prolongamento do intervalo QTc acima de 440 ms, o desvio do eixo QRS e a presen&#231;a de ectopias ventriculares, presentes no curso da miocardite, n&#227;o parecem ser preditores independentes de pior progn&#243;stico. O ECG &#233; uma ferramenta de grande utilidade na detec&#231;&#227;o de bradiarritmias e taquiarritmias que se apresentam de forma sustentada.</p>
        <p>Para documenta&#231;&#227;o das arritmias que apresentam um car&#225;ter parox&#237;stico, o monitoramento de eletrocardiografia ambulatorial pode ser utilizado. A dura&#231;&#227;o do monitoramento depende da frequ&#234;ncia dos sintomas e quanto mais espor&#225;dico mais dif&#237;cil a sua documenta&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Atrav&#233;s da eletrocardiografia ambulatorial por 24 horas ( <italic>Holter</italic> ), &#233; poss&#237;vel a documenta&#231;&#227;o de arritmias e anormalidades da condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular. O <italic>Holter</italic> tamb&#233;m nos auxilia na an&#225;lise da distribui&#231;&#227;o nictemeral das arritmias, do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo e do prov&#225;vel mecanismo eletrofisiol&#243;gico.<sup><xref rid="B463" ref-type="bibr">463</xref></sup> Recomendamos a realiza&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Holter</italic> 24 horas na fase hospitalar para avalia&#231;&#227;o de poss&#237;veis arritmias assintom&#225;ticas e anormalidades intermitentes da condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular ( <xref rid="t78" ref-type="table">Tabela 41</xref> ). O <italic>Holter</italic> tamb&#233;m pode ser recomendado na fase cr&#244;nica da miocardite como m&#233;todo auxiliar para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de morte s&#250;bita.<sup><xref rid="B463" ref-type="bibr">463</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t78">
            <label>Tabela 41</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de arritmias na miocardite aguda</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td><italic>Holter</italic> para pacientes de risco progn&#243;stico intermedi&#225;rio e alto</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>O real papel da avalia&#231;&#227;o invasiva por meio do estudo eletrofisiol&#243;gico para estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de morte s&#250;bita &#233; ainda ponto de investiga&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com miocardites. Um dos pontos a se considerar &#233; que a reprodutibilidade de eventos arr&#237;tmicos significativos deve variar de acordo com a etiologia e o tipo de acometimento mioc&#225;rdico.<sup><xref rid="B464" ref-type="bibr">464</xref></sup> Na sarcoidose card&#237;aca, por exemplo, encontramos alto grau de reprodutibilidade de eventos cl&#237;nicos significativos com a estimula&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica programada, sendo esta &#250;til na tomada de decis&#227;o. Nos pacientes que apresentaram taquicardia ventricular monom&#243;rfica n&#227;o sustentada ou sustentada em algum momento da doen&#231;a, importante realce tardio ou zonas de baixa voltagem ao estudo eletrofisiol&#243;gico com mapeamento eletroanat&#244;mico parecem ter pior progn&#243;stico, e estes achados podem auxiliar na estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de morte s&#250;bita.<sup><xref rid="B465" ref-type="bibr">465</xref></sup> Na aus&#234;ncia de dados espec&#237;ficos, recomenda-se a utiliza&#231;&#227;o cautelosa desse m&#233;todo de estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de morte s&#250;bita nesses pacientes, especialmente nos assintom&#225;ticos.<sup><xref rid="B259" ref-type="bibr">259</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.2. Tratamento de Arritmias e Preven&#231;&#227;o da Morte S&#250;bita na Fase Aguda e Subaguda</title>
        <p>As arritmias podem estar associadas &#224; miocardite principalmente na fase aguda, mas tamb&#233;m na fase cr&#244;nica, dependendo do grau de les&#227;o tecidual, nos quais se destacam a inflama&#231;&#227;o e a fibrose residual, mas com uma base fisiol&#243;gica ampla<sup><xref rid="B466" ref-type="bibr">466</xref> , <xref rid="B467" ref-type="bibr">467</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="t79" ref-type="table">Tabela 42</xref> ). Podem estar presentes em 33,7% dos casos internados por miocardite, se apresentando tanto por taqui, quanto bradiarritmias e est&#227;o associados a morbidades como hipertireioidismo, idade, obesidade, IC, desequil&#237;brio eletrol&#237;tico e doen&#231;a valvar.<sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref></sup> A preexist&#234;ncia de cardiomiopatias como displasia arritmog&#234;nica do VD e canalopatias preexistentes est&#225; tamb&#233;m associada &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de arritmias durante inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref rid="B468" ref-type="bibr">468</xref> , <xref rid="B469" ref-type="bibr">469</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t79">
            <label>Tabela 42</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Mecanismos potencialmente geradores de arritmia em pacientes com miocardites</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Les&#227;o viral direta, gerando lise celular mioc&#225;rdica e resposta imune inata</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Persist&#234;ncia viral</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Apoptose celular</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Fibrose favorecendo mecanismos de reentrada</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Efeito pr&#243;-arr&#237;tmico das citocinas</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Altera&#231;&#227;o das <italic>gap junctions</italic> celulares</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Infarto por les&#227;o microvascular</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>As bradiarritmias s&#227;o geralmente associadas aos BAV, que podem ser de v&#225;rios graus e ocorrem predominantemente na fase aguda; mesmo assim, s&#227;o raras. Obongayo et al.<sup><xref rid="B92" ref-type="bibr">92</xref></sup> observaram uma preval&#234;ncia de 1,7% de BAV, sendo somente 1,1% de bloqueios avan&#231;ados na fase intra-hospitalar de 31.760 pacientes internados com o diagn&#243;stico de miocardite a partir do banco de dados do Nationawide Inpatient Survey dos EUA. Nos casos de BAV avan&#231;ado de 3&#186; grau, houve associa&#231;&#227;o com maior morbidade e mortalidade.</p>
        <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial pode ocorrer em at&#233; 9% dos pacientes com miocardite aguda na fase hospitalar e se associa a maior mortalidade hospitalar (RC:1,7 com IC 95% 1,1-2,7, p = 0.02); choque cardiog&#234;nico (RC: 1,9, com IC 95% 1,3-2,8, p &lt; 0.001) e tamponamento card&#237;aco (RC: 5,6 com IC 95% 1.2-25.3, p = 0.002).<sup><xref rid="B470" ref-type="bibr">470</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As arritmias ventriculares, as mais associadas &#224; probabilidade de morte s&#250;bita, podem corresponder at&#233; aproximadamente um quarto de todas as arritmias registradas em pacientes internados por miocardite, sendo a taquicardia ventricular a mais frequente.<sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O manejo das arritmias na fase aguda deve seguir o princ&#237;pio de transitoriedade do processo, e as ectopias frequentes ou taquicardias n&#227;o sustentadas n&#227;o devem ser tratadas por antiarr&#237;tmicos espec&#237;ficos, exceto o betabloqueador, quando indicado. O uso do marca-passo tempor&#225;rio pode ser utilizado em BAV avan&#231;ados nesta fase, e a indica&#231;&#227;o de marca-passo definitivo ou cardiodesfibrilador implantado deve seguir as indica&#231;&#245;es convencionais ( <xref rid="t80" ref-type="table">Tabela 43</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t80">
            <label>Tabela 43</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Tratamento das arritmias e preven&#231;&#227;o da morte s&#250;bita relacionadas &#224; miocardite</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tratamento com betabloqueador, espironolactona e sacubitril-valsartana para pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica de VE</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Marca-passo provis&#243;rio para bradiarritmias sintom&#225;ticas e/ou BAV avan&#231;ado durante a fase aguda da miocardite</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Terapia antiarr&#237;tmica com amiodarona na TVNS sintom&#225;tica ou TV sustentada durante a fase aguda de miocardite</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Implante de CDI na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de MS em pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada na fase cr&#244;nica (&gt;6 meses), da miocardite com tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado CF II e III, FEVE &#8804;35% e expectativa de vida de pelo menos 1 ano</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Indica&#231;&#227;o de CDI nas fases aguda e subaguda de miocardite (&lt;6 meses)</td>
                  <td>III</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Indica&#231;&#227;o de agentes antiarr&#237;tmicos para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de arritmias card&#237;acas em pacientes com miocardite</td>
                  <td>III</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN23">
                <p>
                  <italic>BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; CDI: cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel; CF: classe funcional; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; MS: morte s&#250;bita; TV: taquicardia ventricular; TVNS: taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo..</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Progn&#243;stica e Seguimento</title>
      <sec>
        <title>10.1. Marcadores de Progn&#243;stico e Evolu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A miocardite se apresenta com ampla diversidade fenot&#237;pica. Grande parte de indiv&#237;duos com miocardite aguda, que se apresentam com cardiomiopatia dilatada aguda, evoluem com melhora do quadro em poucos dias.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> Relatos de s&#233;ries apresentam valores entre 10% e 20% de eventos cardiovasculares s&#233;rios a longo prazo e risco de reca&#237;da de 10%.<sup><xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In&#250;meros fatores t&#234;m sido envolvidos no progn&#243;stico, quer sejam cl&#237;nicos, quer sejam laboratoriais. A manuten&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular preservada durante o quadro agudo tem sido repetidamente relacionada com melhora espont&#226;nea sem sequelas.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Outras an&#225;lises registram que n&#237;veis reduzidos da press&#227;o arterial e da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, s&#237;ncope, disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo direito, press&#227;o arterial pulmonar elevada assim como classe funcional avan&#231;ada da New York</p>
        <p>Heart Association devem ter papel importante.<sup><xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref></sup> A etiologia tamb&#233;m tem se mostrado valorosa no espectro progn&#243;stico. Portadores de miocardite linfoc&#237;tica aguda, que mantiveram fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular preservada, evolu&#237;ram com melhora espont&#226;nea e sem sequelas. Em contraposi&#231;&#227;o, o Myocarditis Treatment Trial registrou que pacientes com IC e FEVE inferior a 45% apresentaram mortalidade de 56% em 4 anos. A miocardite de c&#233;lulas gigantes e a eosinof&#237;lica evoluem de forma mais sombria.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> Portadores de miocardite fulminante apresentam dram&#225;tico progn&#243;stico a curto prazo; no entanto, quando sobreviventes, apresentaram melhor progn&#243;stico que v&#225;rias outras etiologias.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref> , <xref rid="B98" ref-type="bibr">98</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>O ECG mostrou valor progn&#243;stico em avalia&#231;&#227;o recente.<sup><xref rid="B471" ref-type="bibr">471</xref></sup> A RM, exame de destacado valor no cen&#225;rio do diagn&#243;stico da miocardite, j&#225; apresentou utilidade com o uso da t&#233;cnica do realce tardio;<sup><xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref></sup> contudo, em mais recente publica&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o confirmou valor preditivo, seja na melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou na remodela&#231;&#227;o em avalia&#231;&#227;o a longo prazo.<sup><xref rid="B472" ref-type="bibr">472</xref></sup> Apesar do avan&#231;o no diagn&#243;stico, o progn&#243;stico continua sendo um desafio, provavelmente por in&#250;meros fatores conhecidos ou n&#227;o. &#201; poss&#237;vel considerar as causas que variam enormemente com suas peculiaridades, apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, envolvimento imunol&#243;gico e gen&#233;tico, entre outras.<sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.2 Seguimento Ambulatorial nas Avalia&#231;&#245;es dos M&#233;todos Complementares</title>
        <p>O seguimento cl&#237;nico acompanhado do ECG deve acontecer continuamente nos pacientes que j&#225; apresentaram o diagn&#243;stico. Diante do valor ineg&#225;vel da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, exames de imagem devem ser inclu&#237;dos. O ecocardiograma surge como alternativa &#250;til e de mais f&#225;cil acesso, trazendo a informa&#231;&#227;o mais relevante nesse cen&#225;rio ( <xref rid="t81" ref-type="table">Tabela 44</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t81">
            <label>Tabela 44</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais de acompanhamento na miocardite473,474</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                  <th>Classe</th>
                  <th>N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acompanhamento cl&#237;nico com eletrocardiograma dos pacientes de baixo risco com 1, 3, 6 e 12 meses, e anualmente a seguir</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acompanhamento por ecocardiograma dos pacientes de baixo risco com 1, 6 e 12 meses, e anualmente a seguir</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica laboratorial em pacientes com risco intermedi&#225;rio e com <italic>Holter</italic> e exames de imagem aos 1, 3 e 6 meses (ecocardiograma e/ou resson&#226;ncia de acordo com disponibilidade), e anualmente a seguir</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Entre pacientes portadores de miocardite de alto risco, realizar acompanhamento cl&#237;nico e laboratorial com <italic>Holter</italic> e exames de imagem com 15 dias, 1, 3 e 6 meses (ecocardiograma ou resson&#226;ncia de acordo com a disponibilidade), e anualmente a seguir</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
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        <p><bold>Nota:</bold> Estas diretrizes se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</p>
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    <fn-group>
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        <p>Na &#8220;Diretriz de Miocardites da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; 2022&#8221;, com n&#250;mero de DOI: https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20220412, publicado no peri&#243;dico Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, 119(1):143-21, nas p&#225;ginas 143 e 147, corrigir o nome do autor Marcelo Imbroise Bittencourt para: Marcelo Imbroinise Bittencourt.</p>
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          <bold>Edi&#231;&#227;o de Outubro de 2022, vol. 119 (4), p&#225;gs. 638-680</bold>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Guidelines</subject>
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      <title-group>
        <article-title>Brazilian Society of Cardiology Guideline on Myocarditis &#8211; 2022</article-title>
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            <given-names>Amarino Carvalho de</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Aurea Lucia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1588-5492</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ianni</surname>
            <given-names>B&#225;rbara Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9493-0687</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Clerio F. de</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Freitas</surname>
            <given-names>Dhayn Cassi de Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10001">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>Dirceu Thiago Pessoa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9204-485X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bocchi</surname>
            <given-names>Edimar Alcides</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Horowitz</surname>
            <given-names>Estela Suzana Kleiman</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12001">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13001">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Guilherme H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14001">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1654-4531</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Villacorta</surname>
            <given-names>Humberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5959-9359</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rossi</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Manoel</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15001">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Marcos Bemfica</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16001">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2555-1402</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Albuquerque de</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17001">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Luiz</surname>
            <given-names>Louise Freire</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5645-2055</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
            <given-names>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5702-210X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Beck-da-Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Luis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19001">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20001">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9103-8906</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Antonio de Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5774-2780</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Danzmann</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Cl&#225;udio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21001">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1206-9489</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bittencourt</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Imbroinise</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22001">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23001">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garcia</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Iorio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24001">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3712-1175</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Avila</surname>
            <given-names>Monica Samuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4207-3809</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Clausell</surname>
            <given-names>Nadine Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19001">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Nilson Araujo de</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25001">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silvestre</surname>
            <given-names>Odilson Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8722-7504</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Olga Ferreira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25001">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2501-302X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mourilhe-Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22001">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1033-3672</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26001">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1122-7695</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Al-Kindi</surname>
            <given-names>Sadeer G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27001">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7210-6486</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rassi</surname>
            <given-names>Salvador</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28001">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3093-9743</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Silvia Marinho Martins</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29001">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30001">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9271-8233</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Silvia Moreira Ayub</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6306-2522</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rizk</surname>
            <given-names>St&#233;phanie Itala</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26001">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>Tiago Azevedo Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5116-5655</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barzilai</surname>
            <given-names>Vitor</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31001">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff32001">
            <sup>32</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2185-3710</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Schultheiss</surname>
            <given-names>Heinz-Peter</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff33001">
            <sup>33</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica de Curitiba, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense,Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (HCOR), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Vit&#243;ria, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Duke University, Durham &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10001">
        <label>10</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Acre, Rio Branco, AC &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11001">
        <label>11</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12001">
        <label>12</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul/Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia,Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13001">
        <label>13</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Ensino e Treinamento Edson de Godoy Bueno / UHG, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14001">
        <label>14</label>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15001">
        <label>15</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16001">
        <label>16</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Amazonas, Boca do Acre, AM &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17001">
        <label>17</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Maranh&#227;o, S&#227;o Lu&#237;s, MA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18001">
        <label>18</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do C&#226;ncer do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19001">
        <label>19</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20001">
        <label>20</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21001">
        <label>21</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Luterana do Brasil, Canoas, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22001">
        <label>22</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff23001">
        <label>23</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff24001">
        <label>24</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho (HUCFF) da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff25001">
        <label>25</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede Dor S&#227;o Luiz de Hospitais, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff26001">
        <label>26</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#237;rio Liban&#234;s, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff27001">
        <label>27</label>
        <country country="US">EUA</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Harrington Heart and Vascular Institute, University Hospitals and Case Western Reserve University,Cleveland, Ohio &#8211; EUA</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff28001">
        <label>28</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s, Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff29001">
        <label>29</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco (PROCAPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff30001">
        <label>30</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff31001">
        <label>31</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff32001">
        <label>32</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff33001">
        <label>33</label>
        <country country="DE">Alemanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Institute of Cardiac Diagnostics and Therapy (IKDT), Berlim &#8211; Alemanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Correspondence: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; Postal Code 20020-907. E-mail: diretrizes@cardiol.br</corresp>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <table-wrap>
          <table>
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>Brazilian Society of Cardiology Guideline on Myocarditis &#8211; 2022</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>The report below lists declarations of interest as reported to the SBC by the experts during the period of the development of these statement, 2021.</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>Expert</th>
                <th>Type of relationship with industry</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Amarino Carvalho de Oliveira J&#250;nior</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Aurea Lucia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de Souza</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Any economically relevant equity interest in companies in the healthcare or education industry or in any companies competing with or supplying to SBC:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Cardiology: Course - PROKIDS Assist&#234;ncia Multidisciplinar LTDA</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>B&#225;rbara Maria Ianni</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carlos Eduardo Rochitte</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Claudio Tinoco Mesquita</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Bayer: Xarelto. - Servier: Vastarel.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Alnylan: Onpatro.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Clerio F. Azevedo</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dhayn Cassi de Almeida Freitas</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dirceu Thiago Pessoa de Melo</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Daiichi Sankyo. Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Pfizer.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Edimar Alcides Bocchi</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- AstraZeneca: ISGLT2; Bayer: ISGLT2, Vericiguat; Boehringer: ISGLT2.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Estela Suzana Kleiman Horowitz</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Jansen: Rivaroxabana.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>C - Personal research funding paid by the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Jansen: Rivaroxabana.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Employment relationship with the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry, as well as any employment relationship with health insurance companies or medical audit companies (including part-time jobs) in the year to which your declaration refers:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- UnitedHealth Group.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fabiana G. Marcondes-Braga</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Lectures; AstraZeneca: Lectures and Advisory Council; Boehringer: Advisory Council.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fabio Fernandes</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Pfizer: Tafamidis; Alnylan: Patisiran.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Guilherme H. Oliveira</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Heinz-Peter Schultheiss</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Humberto Villacorta</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Heart failure; Roche: Biomarkers; Servier: Heart failure.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>C - Personal research funding paid by the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Roche: GDF-15.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Jo&#227;o Manoel Rossi Neto</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Lectures; AstraZeneca: Lectures.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Jo&#227;o Marcos Bemfica Barbosa</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Entresto.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Jos&#233; Albuquerque de Figueiredo Neto</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Heart failure.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>L&#237;dia Ana Zytynski Moura</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Forxiga.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- AstraZeneca: Forxiga.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Louise Freire Luiz</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o Hajjar</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luis Beck-da-Silva</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Heart failure; AstraZeneca: Heart failure.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amgen: Heart failure.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luiz Antonio de Almeida Campos</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Luiz Cl&#225;udio Danzmann</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Forxiga; Servier: Procoralan.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcelo Imbroise Bittencourt</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- GENEONE - DASA: Genetic tests; Sanofi: Enzyme replacement therapy; AstraZeneca: Forxiga.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcelo Iorio Garcia</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcelo Westerlund Montera</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Sim&#245;es</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Entresto; AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Amgen: Omecamtiv/Mecarbil; Beringher Ingelheim: Empagliflozina.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Monica Samuel Avila</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Nadine Oliveira Clausell</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Nilson Araujo de Oliveira Jr.</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Johnson and Johnson: Catheters for invasive electrophysiology.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Biotronik: Dispositivos de estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, a commodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Johnson and Johnson: Catheters for electrophysiology.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Odilson Marcos Silvestre</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Olga Ferreira de Souza</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ricardo Mourilhe-Rocha</td>
                <td>Financial declaration A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - AstraZeneca: Dapagliflozina; Boehringer: Empagliflozina; Novartis: Sacubitril/Valsartana. B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - PROADI/SUS: Telemedicina; Boehringer: Empagliflozina.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Roberto Kalil Filho</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sadeer G. Al-Kindi</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salvador Rassi</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Entresto; Servier: Procoralan</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novartis: Entresto; Servier: Procoralan; Boehringer Ingelheim: Jardiance.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Entresto; Servier: Procoralan.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sandrigo Mangine</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Novartis: Sacubitril/Valsartan; Pfizer: Rare deseases.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Pfizer: Rare deseases.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Silvia Marinho Martins Alves</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Silvia Moreira Ayub Ferreira</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Abbott: Mitraclip; Novartis: Entresto.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Abbott: Heartmate II e HeartMate 3.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>St&#233;phanie Itala Rizk</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tiago Azevedo Costa Mattos</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Vitor Barzilai</td>
                <td>Nothing to be declared</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Wolney de Andrade Martins</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Bayer: Cardio-oncology.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <sec>
        <title>Content</title>
        <p>1. Epidemiology 149</p>
        <p>2. Definition and etiology 150</p>
        <p>2.1. Genetic factors in the etiopathogenesis of myocarditis 151</p>
        <p>3. Pathophysiology 151</p>
        <p>4. Diagnostic evaluation 152</p>
        <p>4.1. Diagnostic criteria for suspected myocarditis 152</p>
        <p><bold>4.1.1. Diagnostic evaluation flowchart</bold> 152</p>
        <p>4.2. Clinical evaluation: suspected clinical situations 152</p>
        <p>4.3. Biomarkers 154</p>
        <p><bold>4.3.1. Laboratory markers of inflammatory injury</bold> 154</p>
        <p><bold>4.3.2. Laboratory markers for etiopathogenic investigation</bold> 155</p>
        <p>4.4. Electrocardiogram 155</p>
        <p><bold>4.4.1. Diagnostic criteria for electrocardiogram/Holter/stress testing</bold> 156</p>
        <p><bold>4.4.2. Prognosis</bold> 157</p>
        <p>4.5. Echocardiogram 157</p>
        <p>4.6. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging 157</p>
        <p>4.7. Nuclear medicine 159</p>
        <p><bold>4.7.1. Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) radiotracers</bold> 159</p>
        <p><bold>4.7.2. Positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracers</bold> 160</p>
        <p><bold>4.7.3. Additional perspectives</bold> 160</p>
        <p>4.8. Coronary computed tomography angiography and coronary angiography 161</p>
        <p>4.9. Endomyocardial biopsy: indications, technique, and complications 162</p>
        <p><bold>4.9.1. Considerations for indication</bold> 162</p>
        <p><bold>4.9.2. Prognosis</bold> 162</p>
        <p><bold>4.9.3. Technique</bold> 162</p>
        <p><bold>4.9.4. Complications</bold> 163</p>
        <p>4.10. Histological analysis and viral screening &#8211; Molecular biology and genome 164</p>
        <p><bold>4.10.1. Histological analysis</bold> 164</p>
        <p><bold>4.10.2. Immunohistochemical analysis</bold> 164</p>
        <p><bold>4.10.3. Gene expression profile analysis</bold> 164</p>
        <p><bold>4.10.4. Viral analysis</bold> 164</p>
        <p>5. Treatment 164</p>
        <p>5.1. Therapeutic flowcharts 164</p>
        <p>5.2. Immunosuppression: indications and types 166</p>
        <p>5.3. Antiviral therapy: indications and types 167</p>
        <p>5.4. Immunomodulation (immunoglobulin and immunoadsorption): indications and types of immunoglobulins 168</p>
        <p><bold>5.4.1. Immunoadsorption</bold> 169</p>
        <p>5.5. Conventional cardioprotective therapy 169</p>
        <p><bold>5.5.1. No ventricular dysfunction</bold> 169</p>
        <p><bold>5.5.2. Ventricular dysfunction and hemodynamic stability</bold> 169</p>
        <p><bold>5.5.3. Hemodynamically unstable patients with ventricular dysfunction: therapeutic approach</bold> 169</p>
        <p>5.6. General recommendations: physical activity and vaccination 169</p>
        <p>6. Special situations 171</p>
        <p>6.1. Fulminant myocarditis 171</p>
        <p><bold>6.1.1. Diagnostic evaluation</bold> 172</p>
        <p><bold>6.1.2. Therapeutic approach</bold> 172</p>
        <p>6.2. Sarcoidosis 172</p>
        <p><bold>6.2.1. Diagnosis</bold> 172</p>
        <p><bold>6.2.2. Treatment and prognosis</bold> 173</p>
        <p><bold>6.2.3. Prognosis</bold> 175</p>
        <p>6.3. Giant cell myocarditis 176</p>
        <p><bold>6.3.1. Treatment</bold> 176</p>
        <p><bold>6.3.2. Clinical manifestation and diagnosis</bold> 177</p>
        <p>6.4. Acute Chagasic myocarditis and reactivation 176</p>
        <p><bold>6.4.1. Clinical manifestations and modes of transmission, reactivation in immunosuppressed patients</bold> 176</p>
        <p><bold>6.4.2. Diagnosis</bold> 176</p>
        <p><bold>6.4.3. Treatment</bold> 179</p>
        <p>6.5. Myocarditis due to tropical diseases 179</p>
        <p>6.6. Covid-19-related myocarditis 180</p>
        <p><bold>6.6.1. Possible pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2-related myocarditis</bold> 180</p>
        <p><bold>6.6.2. Direct viral myocardial injury</bold> 180</p>
        <p><bold>6.6.3. Diagnosis of Covid-19-related myocarditis</bold> 182</p>
        <p><bold>6.6.4. Laboratory</bold> 182</p>
        <p><bold>6.6.5. Electrocardiogram</bold> 182</p>
        <p><bold>6.6.6. Imaging</bold> 183</p>
        <p><bold>6.6.7. Endomyocardial biopsy</bold> 183</p>
        <p>6.7. Acute cardiotoxicity of antineoplastic therapy 184</p>
        <p><bold>6.7.1. Antineoplastic agents inducing acute cardiotoxicity</bold> 184</p>
        <p><bold>6.7.2. Diagnosis of acute cardiotoxicity</bold> 185</p>
        <p><bold>6.7.3. Treatment of acute cardiotoxicity</bold> 186</p>
        <p><bold>6.7.4. Prognosis</bold> 187</p>
        <p><bold>6.7.5. Prevention</bold> 187</p>
        <p>6.8. Myocarditis in children and adolescents 188</p>
        <p><bold>6.8.1. Causal factors</bold> 188</p>
        <p><bold>6.8.2. Prognosis</bold> 188</p>
        <p>6.9. Myocarditis with pericardial involvement 191</p>
        <p><bold>6.9.1. Diagnosis and treatment</bold> 191</p>
        <p>6.10. Acute myocarditis mimicking MI 191</p>
        <p>7. Rheumatic carditis 192</p>
        <p>8. Myocarditis due to autoimmune diseases 195</p>
        <p>9. Management of cardiac arrhythmias in myocarditis 195</p>
        <p>9.1. Noninvasive and invasive assessments of arrhythmias in the acute and chronic phases of the several causes of myocarditis 195</p>
        <p>9.2. Arrhythmia treatment and sudden death prevention in the acute and subacute phases 196</p>
        <p>10. Prognostic evaluation and follow-up 197</p>
        <p>10.1. Prognosis and evolution markers 197</p>
        <p>10.2. Outpatient follow-up with additional evaluations 197</p>
        <p>References 197</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1. Epidemiology</title>
        <p>The actual incidence of myocarditis is difficult to determine because the clinical presentations are highly heterogeneous and a large number of cases develop subclinically. Another contributing factor is the very low frequency of use of endomyocardial biopsy (EMB), the gold standard for diagnosis.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A review of several postmortem studies addressing young victims of unexplained sudden death has showed that the incidence of myocarditis varies widely, accounting for up to 42% of cases.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup>The Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 has used the International Classification of Diseases coding in regional and global statistical analyses regarding 187 countries and estimated the annual incidence of myocarditis to be approximately 22 cases per 100,000 patients treated.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup>In cohorts of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy of undefined etiology, EMB-proven myocarditis has been detected in up to 16% of adult patients<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup>and up to 46% of pediatric patients.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Many studies have reported a higher prevalence of acute myocarditis in men compared to women.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref> , <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> </sup>Some studies have suggested that the most common clinical manifestation in adults is lymphocytic myocarditis; their median age is 42 years, while patients with giant cell myocarditis have a median age of 43 years.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup>However, newborns and children more typically exhibit fulminant myocarditis and are more susceptible to virus-induced pathogenicity compared to adults.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Myocarditis has a wide prognostic spectrum depending on the severity of initial clinical symptoms and etiology. Patients with mild symptoms and no ventricular dysfunction often show spontaneous resolution and excellent prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup>However, approximately 30% of severe cases of EMB-proven myocarditis with associated ventricular dysfunction are expected to progress to dilated cardiomyopathy and heart failure (HF) with a poor prognosis. In pediatric patients, prognosis appears to be worse: 10-year heart transplant-free survival can be as low as 60%.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. Definition and etiology</title>
        <p>Myocarditis is defined as an inflammatory disease of the myocardium that should be diagnosed by histological, immunological, and immunohistochemical criteria. Histological criteria include evidence of inflammatory infiltrates within the myocardium together with cardiomyocyte degeneration and necrosis of nonischemic origin. Quantitative immunohistochemical criteria to identify an abnormal inflammatory infiltrate, indicative of active myocarditis, are leukocyte count &#8805;14 cells/mm<sup>2</sup>, including up to 4 monocytes/mm<sup>2</sup>, with presence of CD3-positive T lymphocytes &#8805;7 cells/mm<sup>2</sup>.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Additionally, depending on cell type, the type of inflammatory infiltrate observed on histological diagnosis is used to classify myocarditis as lymphocytic, eosinophilic, polymorphic, giant cell myocarditis, or cardiac sarcoidosis.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Myocarditis is caused by a wide variety of infectious agents, including viruses, protozoans, bacteria, chlamydiae, rickettsiae, fungi, and spirochetes ( <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref> ). It may also be triggered by noninfectious mechanisms in toxic myocarditis (drugs, heavy metals, radiation) and by autoimmune and hypersensitivity mechanisms (eosinophilic myocarditis, collagenosis, virus-induced disease, heart transplant rejection).<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Etiology of acute myocarditis*</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>1 &#8211; Infectious myocarditis</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Viral</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td> RNA viruses</td>
                  <td>Coxsackieviruses A and B, echovirus, poliovirus, influenza A and B viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, mumps virus, measles virus, rubella virus, hepatitis C virus, dengue virus, yellow fever virus, Chikungunya virus, Junin virus, Lassa fever virus, rabies virus, human immunodeficiency virus-1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> DNA viruses</td>
                  <td>Adenoviruses, parvovirus B19, cytomegalovirus, human herpesvirus 6, Epstein-Barr virus, varicella-zoster virus, herpes simplex virus, variola virus, vaccinia virus</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Bacterial</td>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pneumococcus, Meningococcus, Gonococcus, Salmonella, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Haemophilus influenzae, Mycobacterium (tuberculosis), Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Brucella</italic>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Spirochetal</td>
                  <td><italic>Borrelia</italic> (Lyme disease), <italic>Leptospira</italic> (Weil disease)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fungal</td>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Aspergillus, Actinomyces, Blastomyces, Candida, Coccidioides, Cryptococcus, Histoplasma, Mucormycoses, Nocardia, Sporothrix</italic>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Protozoal</td>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi, Toxoplasma gondii, Entamoeba, Leishmania</italic>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Parasitic</td>
                  <td>
                    <italic>Trichinella spiralis, Echinococcus granulosus, Taenia solium</italic>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Rickettsial</td>
                  <td><italic>Coxiella burnetii</italic> (Q Fever), <italic>R. Rickettsii</italic> (Rocky Mountain spotted fever), <italic>R. tsutsugamushi</italic></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>2 &#8211; Immune-mediated myocarditis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Allergens</td>
                  <td>Tetanus toxoid, vaccines, serum sickness Drugs: penicillin, cefaclor, colchicine, furosemide, isoniazid, lidocaine, tetracycline, sulfonamides, phenytoin, phenylbutazone, methyldopa, thiazide diuretics, amitriptyline</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Alloantigens</td>
                  <td>Heart transplant rejection</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Autoantigens</td>
                  <td>Infection-negative lymphocytic myocarditis, infection-negative giant cell miocarditis associated with autoimmune disorders: systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Churg-Strauss syndrome, Kawasaki disease, inflammatory bowel disease, scleroderma, polymyositis, myasthenia gravis, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, sarcoidosis, Wegener granulomatosis, rheumatic fever, immuno-oncology (immune checkpoint inhibitors)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>3 &#8211; Toxic myocarditis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Drugs</td>
                  <td>Amphetamines, anthracyclines, cocaine, cyclophosphamide, ethanol, fluorouracil, lithium, catecholamines, hemetine, trastuzumab, clozapine, interleukin-2, immune checkpoint inhibitors</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Heavy metals</td>
                  <td>Copper, iron, lead</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Miscellaneous</td>
                  <td>Scorpion sting, snake and spider bites, bee and wasp stings, carbon monoxide, inhalants, phosphorus, arsenic, sodium azide</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hormones</td>
                  <td>Pheochromocytoma</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Physical agents</td>
                  <td>Radiation, electric shock</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>
                <italic>Source: *Adapted from Caforio et al.<sup>5</sup></italic>
              </attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Viral infection is the most prevalent trigger of myocarditis, particularly in children. The most common cardiotropic viruses are enterovirus, parvovirus B19 (B19V), adenovirus, influenza A virus, human herpesvirus (HHV), Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, hepatitis C virus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Some evidence suggests that there may be regional differences in the prevalence of viral agents, with a predominance of adenoviruses, parvoviruses, and herpesviruses in the European population<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup>and enteroviruses in the American population.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup>However, these epidemiological differences may be partially explained by outbreaks of specific viral infections occurring over the years across different regions of the world as well as variations in viral detection techniques. Thus, the actual influence of geographic factors on cardiotropic viral infections remains controversial.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In South America, especially some regions of Brazil, Chagasic myocarditis caused by <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> is one of the most prevalent causes of acute myocarditis, with particular importance after a recent report of outbreak of cases associated with oral transmission in the Brazilian Amazon.<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup>Systemic autoimmune diseases such as Churg-Strauss syndrome and hypereosinophilic syndrome are associated with eosinophilic myocarditis. Giant cell myocarditis and sarcoidosis are rare but clinically significant because, if diagnosis is made early, there is specific treatment that may ensure an improved prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Autoimmune myocarditis may develop with exclusive cardiac involvement or with systemic manifestations in the setting of autoimmune diseases. The most frequent diseases are sarcoidosis, hypereosinophilic syndrome, scleroderma, and systemic lupus erythematosus.</p>
        <p>New immunotherapies for cancer treatment may be associated with risk of myocarditis. Cases linked to immune checkpoint inhibitors, such as nivolumab and ipilimumab, have been recently reported.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> - <xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref> </sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Genetic factors in the etiopathogenesis of myocarditis</title>
          <p>In classic descriptions of the etiopathogenesis of myocarditis, evidence of mechanisms involving viral action and autoimmune reaction is well documented. Little is said about genetic predisposition. Many authors believe that genetic phenomena are likely to contribute to the development of viral and/or autoimmune myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Laboratory data consistent with this hypothesis have been documented in a study of 342 family members of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. The presence of cardiac antibodies was found to be higher in that group compared to the control group.<sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The likelihood of a complex interaction between genetic (linked to individual predisposition) and nongenetic (linked to the offending agent) causes in the ultimate progression to dilated cardiomyopathy is also widely recognized. The problem is that the scientific evidence supporting such hypothesis is limited.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>There is evidence that, in susceptible mouse strains, infection and inflammation trigger autoimmune reactions in the heart, generally as a result of myocyte necrosis and subsequent release of autoantigens previously hidden in the immune system. The same strains of genetically predisposed animals develop lymphocytic or autoimmune giant cell myocarditis and then dilated cardiomyopathy after immunization with cardiac autoantigens (eg, cardiac myosin).<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Evidence also suggests that myocarditis may be present in specific cardiomyopathies (eg, arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy) leading to changes in the phenotype and abrupt progression of the disease. In this context, some mutations may increase the susceptibility to myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Nonetheless, in general, myocarditis is still classified as a nonfamilial acquired disorder, with evidence from experimental studies indicating that genetic changes may provide greater susceptibility to this disease.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Pathophysiology</title>
        <p>In simple terms, the pathophysiology of myocarditis can be divided into infectious and noninfectious. Infectious myocarditis is the most common form and includes a wide range of viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, and other rare pathogens (see <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref> ). Viruses are the most commonly involved and experimentally studied agents. In noninfectious myocarditis, autoimmunity is present through specific diseases, drugs, and autoantibodies; genetic predisposition plays an important role in both (see <xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref> ).</p>
        <p>Murine models suggest that the development of viral myocarditis has three phases: acute (a few days), subacute (a few weeks to months), and chronic (development of dilated cardiomyopathy);<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup>also, two pathogenic mechanisms are described: direct cytopathic effect of the virus and virus-induced anticardiac immune response.</p>
        <p>Phase 1 corresponds to initial infection, which may heal without sequelae, or lead to HF or death, or progress to phases 2/3.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup>In most patients with viral myocarditis, the pathogen is eliminated and the immune system reduces activity with no further complications. However, in a minority of patients, the virus is not eliminated and causes persistent myocardial injury and inflammation secondary to antibody production.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup>Thus, viral myocarditis could be considered a precursor of dilated cardiomyopathy, with progression having been observed in 21% of patients within 3 years.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Enteroviruses, especially coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), initiate myocarditis by attaching to the coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR) and decay accelerating factor (DAF), culminating in cell death by apoptosis<sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref></sup>or necroptosis.<sup><xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref></sup>Infected cardiomyocytes are then lysed, which results in cytosolic release of proteins and viral products. After the acute phase, the course of the disease depends on genetic basis and includes two possibilities: progression to dilated cardiomyopathy or resolution.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> - <xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref> </sup>Coxsackievirus infection activates innate and adaptive immune responses, initially including the production of interferon and activation of toll-like receptors.<sup><xref rid="B40" ref-type="bibr">40</xref></sup>In the adaptive response, T- and B-cell deficiency leads to viral persistence and clinical deterioration.<sup><xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref> , <xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Another important aspect is the production of specific autoantibodies to cardiomyocytes, which is based on the release of cardiac peptides with molecular mimicry between cardiac proteins and viral agents. In the presence of costimulatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin (IL)-1, these antibodies promote an effector T-cell response.<sup><xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Other viruses such as B19V and HHV-6 have been increasingly described in cardiac biopsies, while enteroviruses and adenoviruses have shown a downward trend.<sup><xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref></sup>However, these viruses have also been detected in hearts without myocarditis or cardiomyopathies of other etiologies, making the interpretation of the association between presence of infectious agents in cardiac tissue and development of myocarditis more complex. Another finding has been the persistent influence of these agents on clinical outcomes.<sup><xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Regarding noninfectious myocarditis, animal models of autoimmune myocarditis with genetically susceptible strains have demonstrated the presence of CD4+ T cells reactive to autoantigens, such as myosin heavy chain, in the absence of infectious agents.<sup><xref rid="B46" ref-type="bibr">46</xref></sup>In addition to lymphocyte autoimmune responses, macrophage responses have been observed in cases of granulomatous myocarditis and eosinophilic myocarditis in situations of hypersensitivity.</p>
        <p>Giant cell myocarditis is an autoimmune form of myocardial damage characterized histologically by an infiltrate of multinucleated giant cells as well as an infiltrate of T cells, eosinophils, and histiocytes. The marked presence of (cytotoxic) CD8 cells together with the release of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress mediators leads to intense myocyte damage and replacement by fibrosis, culminating in rapid loss of ventricular function and unfavorable clinical outcomes. Twenty percent of patients exhibit an association with autoimmune diseases such as Hashimoto thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, myasthenia gravis, Takayasu arteritis, and others.<sup><xref rid="B47" ref-type="bibr">47</xref></sup>Sarcoidosis affects multiple systems, including the lungs in 90% of cases, and is associated with the accumulation of T lymphocytes, mononuclear phagocytes, and noncaseating granulomas in involved tissues.<sup><xref rid="B48" ref-type="bibr">48</xref> , <xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>In drug-induced myocarditis, the time to hypersensitivity response varies from hours to months. Hypersensitivity is partly explained by a response to chemically reactive components that bind to proteins promoting structural changes. These particles are phagocytosed by defense cells, sometimes macrophages, which present them on the surface of these cells to T cells. Cytokines such as IL-5, which stimulates eosinophils, are then released as a delayed hypersensitivity response. This accumulation of IL-5 promotes major eosinophilic infiltration with increased hypersensitivity response and severe myocardial injury. Genetic predisposition appears to favor this response pattern.<sup><xref rid="B50" ref-type="bibr">50</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Hypereosinophilic syndrome may be associated with several systemic diseases, such as Churg-Strauss syndrome, cancer, and parasitic and helminthic infections, or with vaccinations. These can produce an intense inflammatory response in the myocardium, leading to cell damage with dysfunction and HF.<sup><xref rid="B51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref> , <xref rid="B52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref> </sup>Pathophysiologically, similar to what happens in other organs, there is intense eosinophilic infiltration in the myocardium promoting the release of potent mediators of myocyte damage, leading to necrosis and loss of myocardial structure. These mediators include eosinophil-derived neurotoxin, eosinophil cationic protein, and eosinophilic protease. Also, the production of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8, IL-3, IL-5, and macrophage inflammatory proteins promotes myocyte injury and loss with progression to myocardial dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B53" ref-type="bibr">53</xref></sup></p>
        <p>More recently, nivolumab, an antitumor drug that acts as a checkpoint inhibitor, has been considered a cause of lymphocytic myocarditis. A possible pathophysiological mechanism suggests that myocardial cells could share antigens with tumor cells, thus being targets for activated T cells, resulting in inflammatory infiltration and development of HF and conduction disorders.<sup><xref rid="B54" ref-type="bibr">54</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Diagnostic evaluation</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1. Diagnostic criteria for suspected myocarditis</title>
          <p>Clinical suspicion of myocarditis as proposed by the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases is based on the association of clinical presentation with abnormal test results suggestive of myocardial inflammatory injury.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>By analyzing the most frequent clinical presentations of myocarditis and the diagnostic accuracy of additional evaluations for prognosticating myocardial inflammation, we propose that clinically suspected myocarditis be stratified into three levels: low, intermediate, and high diagnostic suspicion ( <xref rid="f01001" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref> , <xref rid="B56" ref-type="bibr">56</xref> - <xref rid="B63" ref-type="bibr">63</xref> </sup>These suspicion criteria have been established by expert consensus and require further validation by clinical registries or multicenter studies.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Algorithm for diagnostic stratification of clinically suspected myocarditis.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>AVB: atrioventricular block; BNP: brain natriuretic peptide; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; CRP: C-reactive protein; ECG: electrocardiogram; ECHO: echocardiogram; LGE: late gadolinium enhancement; NSVT: nonsustained ventricular tachycardia; PR: PR segment; ST: ST segment; VT: ventricular tachycardia.</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.1.1. Diagnostic evaluation flowchart</title>
            <p>Our flowchart for diagnostic evaluation of myocarditis is based on the degree of clinical and prognostic suspicion (see <xref rid="f01001" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref> ). Patients with low clinical suspicion have a favorable prognosis and, during clinical follow-up, are evaluated regarding the need for noninvasive coronary artery disease (CAD) stratification. Patients with intermediate clinical suspicion and favorable course undergo the same line of clinical follow-up and diagnostic investigation as low-risk patients. Patients with maintained or deteriorated clinical status, ventricular dysfunction , arrhythmias, or atrioventricular (AV) block should undergo coronary angiography and EMB. Patients with high diagnostic suspicion generally have a poor prognosis and should undergo coronary angiography and EMB for establishing etiology and then defining a specific treatment to improve the prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref> , <xref rid="B56" ref-type="bibr">56</xref> , <xref rid="B64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref> , <xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.2. Clinical evaluation: suspected clinical situations</title>
        <p>Myocarditis manifests through different forms, ranging from mild and oligosymptomatic to severe cases associated with ventricular arrhythmias, hemodynamic instability, and cardiogenic shock. Sudden death is rare (8.6% to 12%) and affects mostly children and young adults.<sup><xref rid="B66" ref-type="bibr">66</xref> , <xref rid="B67" ref-type="bibr">67</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>The most common situation consists of young patients with chest pain suggestive of acute myocardial infarction (MI) with normal coronary arteries after respiratory or intestinal viral infection, although viral symptoms do not always precede myocarditis (10% to 80%).<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> - <xref rid="B70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref> </sup>Despite being predominant in young patients, the syndrome may appear at any age. Subclinical myocarditis, transient troponin elevation, or electrocardiographic changes may also occur after an acute viral infection consisting of nonspecific manifestations such as fever, myalgia, and respiratory or gastrointestinal symptoms.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Myocarditis has different presentations, which are described below:<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> </sup></p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Clinical condition similar to acute coronary syndrome (chest pain, electrocardiographic changes suggestive of ischemia; elevated myocardial necrosis markers with normal coronary arteries).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Acute new symptoms of HF (3 days to 3 months) in the absence of coronary heart disease or known cause of symptoms.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>New-onset HF symptoms within the past months (&gt;3 months) in the absence of coronary heart disease or known cause of symptoms.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Life-threatening conditions: unexplained ventricular arrhythmias, and/or syncope, and/or aborted sudden death; cardiogenic shock without associated coronary heart disease.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A) Manifesting as chest pain</title>
        <p>Patients with chest pain may present with different electrocardiographic changes, such as ST-segment elevation or depression, T-wave inversion, or pathological Q waves. Segmental changes on Doppler echocardiography and elevated myocardial necrosis markers, especially troponin, in patients with normal coronary arteries are suggestive of myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref> </sup>In most studies, these patients have a good short-term prognosis, and the degree of ventricular impairment is predictive of risk of death.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref> </sup>A minority develops persistent and recurrent myopericarditis with normal left ventricular function that may respond to colchicine.<sup><xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">75</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>B) Manifesting as acute heart failure</title>
        <p>Presentation may be acute, associated with the onset of HF symptoms within days, but also subacute/chronic, associated with new-onset cardiomyopathy in a patient with no apparent cause for abnormal myocardial function.</p>
        <p>Myocarditis presenting as HF symptoms (dyspnea, fatigue, exercise intolerance) may be associated with mild impairment of ventricular function (left ventricular ejection fraction [LVEF]: 40% to 50%) that improves within weeks to months. However, a small number of patients may have significant ventricular dysfunction (LVEF &lt;35%) and, of those, 50% develop chronic LV dysfunction; approximately 25% will need a heart transplant or ventricular assist device, while the remaining 25% will have improved ventricular function over the course of follow-up; a minority of cases may progress to cardiogenic shock and require mechanical circulatory support.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">76</xref> - <xref rid="B79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref> </sup>The risk of death or need for transplantation is strongly associated with the degree of hemodynamic compromise and left and right ventricular dysfunction, which may respond to standard drug treatment for HF.<sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Fulminant presentation of the disease is characterized by sudden onset (days) of symptoms of advanced HF. These patients generally have severe ventricular dysfunction with minor changes in ventricular diameters. This is a dramatic presentation that requires early intervention.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref> </sup>When fulminant condition is associated with persistent ventricular tachycardia or no response to standard therapy, the prognosis is poor, and more severe forms of myocarditis, such as giant cell myocarditis, should be considered and investigated.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>C) Manifesting as chronic or progressive heart failure</title>
        <p>Myocarditis confirmed by immunohistopathological criteria is found in up to 40% of patients with chronic cardiomyopathy who remain symptomatic despite drug treatment. The presence of inflammation shown by histology is associated with a poor prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>D) Manifesting as a life-threatening condition</title>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Arrhythmias or conduction disorders</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Patients with myocarditis may also present with conduction disorders, such as second- or third-degree or complete AV block, especially those with echocardiographic signs of hypertrophy due to interstitial edema.<sup><xref rid="B82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref></sup>The presence of heart block or symptomatic or sustained ventricular arrhythmias in patients with cardiomyopathy should raise suspicion for myocarditis with a definite cause (Lyme disease; sarcoidosis; arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia, or Chagas disease in endemic areas).<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup></p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Cardiogenic shock</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>A small subgroup of patients presenting with sudden onset of HF within 2 weeks of viral infection may need inotropic and/or mechanical circulatory support. Ventricular function recovery generally occurs when they survive the initial condition, but adequate therapy should be initiated as early as possible.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref> </sup></p>
        <p><xref rid="t2001" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref> summarizes the main clinical syndromes of suspected myocarditis and suggests possible agents responsible for each presentation of the disease.<sup><xref rid="B83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Description of clinical presentations and possible causes of the different clinical syndromes of myocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Clinical syndrome</th>
                  <th>Clinical manifestations</th>
                  <th>Possible causes</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acute chest pain</td>
                  <td>Angina symptoms; CAD ruled out; ST/T-segment change; arrhythmias; intermittent troponin I/T and NT-proBNP elevations</td>
                  <td>Parvovirus B19 or other cardiotropic viruses associated or not with pericarditis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acute HF</td>
                  <td>Dyspnea; edema; LV systolic and/or diastolic dysfunction; ECG change; intermittent troponin I/T and NT-proBNP elevations</td>
                  <td>Viral or nonviral myocarditis or inflammatory cardiomyopathy</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chronic HF</td>
                  <td>All HF symptoms for some time; CAD ruled out; ECG changes such as LBBB, RBBB, AVB; intermittent troponin I/T and NT-proBNP elevations</td>
                  <td>Viral or nonviral focal myocarditis or inflammatory cardiomyopathy</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Life-threatening HF/arrhythmia</td>
                  <td>Cardiogenic shock; NYHA class III/IV HF; elevated troponin and NT-proBNP; severe arrhythmia; CAD ruled out</td>
                  <td>Giant cell myocarditis, eosinophilic myocarditis, toxic myocarditis</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>AVB: atrioventricular block; CAD: coronary artery disease; ECG: electrocardiogram HF: heart failure. LBBB: left bundle branch block; LV: left ventricular; RBBB: right bundle branch block; ST/T: ST segment and T wave.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3. Biomarkers</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.1. Laboratory markers of inflammatory injury</title>
          <p>No single biomarker is sufficient to diagnose myocarditis; however, some may be useful as prognostic markers. The most commonly used biomarkers are described below.</p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Inflammatory markers.</bold> Leukocyte count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and C-reactive protein (CRP) may be high in patients with myocarditis. However, they are nonspecific and thus have no diagnostic value.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Troponins.</bold> Troponins are more specific than creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and creatine kinase MB (CKMB) for myocardial damage and are often high in patients with myocarditis. <xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr"><sup>84</sup></xref> However, normal troponins do not exclude the diagnosis. Although they are not sufficient to establish the diagnosis, troponins may be suggestive of myocarditis, as long as obvious causes such as acute MI and acute HF have been excluded. In a small study investigating several biomarkers, troponins were predictive of the diagnosis of biopsy-proven myocarditis with an area under the curve of 0.87, a sensitivity of 83%, and a specificity of 80%. <xref rid="B85" ref-type="bibr"><sup>85</sup></xref> Troponin is useful for diagnosing myocarditis in patients with acute-onset cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> </sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Natriuretic peptides.</bold> Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and NT-proBNP might be high in myocarditis. <xref rid="B86" ref-type="bibr"><sup>86</sup></xref> However, they are not useful for diagnostic confirmation, as different causes of HF may be responsible for their elevation. Nonetheless, they may be prognostic markers. In a study of biopsy-proven myocarditis, only NT-proBNP above the fourth quartile (&gt;4,245 pg/mL) among several biomarkers was predictive of death or heart transplantation. <xref rid="B85" ref-type="bibr"><sup>85</sup></xref> </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.2. Laboratory markers for etiopathogenic investigation</title>
          <p><bold>Viral serologies.</bold> Viral serologies are of limited value in diagnosing myocarditis, as IgG antibodies to cardiotropic viruses are highly prevalent in the general population in the absence of viral heart disease. A study has found no correlation between viral serology and biopsy findings.<sup><xref rid="B87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref></sup>In specific situations, serological screening for hepatitis C, HIV in high-risk individuals, and Lyme disease in endemic areas might be useful. Screening with serological markers should be dictated by high clinical suspicion for that disease ( <xref rid="t3001" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for initial laboratory evaluation of myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Use of inflammatory markers for the diagnosis of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Myocardial injury biomarkers to aid in the diagnosis of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>BNP or NT-proBNP to aid in the diagnosis and prognostic stratification of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Serological screening and/or antigen detection and/or PCR for the diagnosis of Covid-19 in suspected cases</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Serological screening and/or antigen detection and/or RT-PCR for the initial evaluation of special cases of suspected myocarditis due to specific etiologies</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Viral serologies in the routine evaluation of all cases of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>III</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>BNP: brain natriuretic peptide; RT-PCR: polymerase chain reaction.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p><bold>Immunohistochemical markers and viral genome analysis.</bold> These markers are superior to the Dallas criteria and, therefore, can be useful for an etiological diagnosis. The complication rate of EMB is low ( <xref rid="t3001" ref-type="table">Table 3</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B88" ref-type="bibr">88</xref> - <xref rid="B90" ref-type="bibr">90</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.4. Electrocardiogram</title>
        <p>An electrocardiogram (ECG) is commonly ordered to screen for myocarditis despite of its limited specificity, although patients frequently present with some ECG change.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup>Sinus tachycardia is possibly the most common form of presentation on ECG.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup>Some ECG changes are more suggestive of myocarditis than others. For example, ST-T segment elevation is typically concave in myocarditis (rather than convex in myocardial ischemia), diffuse without reciprocal changes, transient, and reversible during the course of the disease ( <xref rid="f02001" ref-type="fig">Figure 2</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Course of early repolarization pattern in acute myocarditis.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Adapted from Oka et al.<sup>91</sup></attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>An early repolarization electrocardiographic (ER-ECG) pattern in some patients with acute myocarditis may be the evidence of inflammation/edema in the LV epicardium. Oka et al.<sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref></sup>showed that the ER-ECG pattern in acute myocarditis was transient and reversible, and was not associated with a poor prognosis.</p>
        <p>AV block in the presence of mild LV dilatation may be due to a number of causes (including laminopathy) but may also be suggestive of Lyme disease, cardiac sarcoidosis, or giant cell myocarditis. Ogunbayo et al. reported that, among 31,760 patients with primary diagnosis of myocarditis, heart block was found in 540 (1.7%) &#8722; 21.6% were first-degree, 11.2% were second-degree, and 67.2% were high-degree. High-degree AV block was independently associated with increased morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref rid="B92" ref-type="bibr">92</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A recent meta-analysis showed that prolonged QRS duration was an early characteristic of fulminant myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B93" ref-type="bibr">93</xref></sup>In a study of patients acutely admitted with myocarditis without previous HF who underwent EMB, prolonged QRS duration was an independent predictor of cardiac death or heart transplantation.<sup><xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A significant proportion of patients with acute myocarditis experience sudden cardiac death presumably due to cardiac arrhythmia. A recent study conducted by Adegbala et al. reported a total of 32,107 admissions for acute myocarditis between 2007 and 2014 in the United States. Of those, 10,844 (33.71%) patients had arrhythmias, with ventricular tachycardia (22.3%) and atrial fibrillation (26 .9%) being the most common types, and their presence had an impact on mortality.<sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In sum, an ECG is a convenient tool for risk stratification and initial screening, but its diagnostic value is poor.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4.1. Diagnostic criteria for electrocardiogram/Holter/stress testing <xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr"><sup>12</sup></xref> </title>
          <p>The Twelve-lead ECG is a common practice in diagnostic investigation and prognostic evaluation of myocarditis ( <xref rid="t4001" ref-type="table">Table 4</xref> ). The changes most often associated with myocarditis on Twelve-lead ECG and/or Holter and/or stress testing with any of the following: first- to third-degree AV block or bundle branch block, ST/T-wave change (ST elevation or non-ST elevation, T-wave inversion), sinus arrest, ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation and asystole, atrial fibrillation, reduced R-wave height, intraventricular conduction delay (widened QRS complex), abnormal Q waves, low voltage, frequent premature beats, and supraventricular tachycardia.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t4001">
              <label>Table 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for performing an electrocardiogram in the evaluation of myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Electrocardiogram in suspected myocarditis</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Electrocardiogram for prognostic evaluation in myocarditis</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4.2. Prognosis</title>
          <p>Prolonged QRS duration, high-degree AV block, ventricular tachycardia, and atrial fibrillation increase mortality.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.5. Echocardiogram</title>
        <p>An echocardiogram has a limited role in the diagnosis of myocarditis. It is a highly important tool for excluding other diseases and should always be performed in clinically suspected cases ( <xref rid="t5001" ref-type="table">Table 5</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B96" ref-type="bibr">96</xref> , <xref rid="B97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref> </sup>There is no specific echocardiographic finding, and the changes will only reflect myocardial inflammation. Therefore, findings may range from segmental changes (differential diagnosis with ischemic heart diseases) to diffuse changes (global hypokinesia of one or both ventricles).<sup><xref rid="B98" ref-type="bibr">98</xref> , <xref rid="B99" ref-type="bibr">99</xref> </sup>When involvement is acute and severe, the ventricular chambers are small (not dilated), and myocardial edema (increased wall thickness) and pericardial effusion, which are common findings in fulminant myocarditis, are present. Right ventricular (RV) involvement usually reflects a poor prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">100</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t5001">
            <label>Table 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recommendations for performing an echocardiogram in the initial evaluation of myocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indications</th>
                  <th>Class</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Echocardiogram for evaluation of cardiac structure and function</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Echocardiogram for prognostic evaluation and stratification</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Echocardiogram to guide endomyocardial biopsy</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Interestingly, echocardiography can be a useful adjunct to EMB not only for locating the ideal site for removing the specimens but also for guiding the interventionist and avoiding complications ( <xref rid="t5001" ref-type="table">Table 5</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B101" ref-type="bibr">101</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.6. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
        <p>In the evaluation of patients with myocarditis, similar to the evaluation of other nonischemic cardiomyopathies, cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging is very useful for determining ventricular morphological and functional parameters. In fact, it has been extensively validated to quantify both LV and RV volume, mass, and function, and is currently considered the diagnostic gold standard for this evaluation. Because of its high spatial and temporal resolution as well as its three-dimensional nature making it independent of geometric assumptions, CMR has excellent accuracy and reproducibility, characteristics that are especially useful for longitudinal patient follow-up.<sup><xref rid="B102" ref-type="bibr">102</xref></sup></p>
        <p>However, the greatest value of CMR in the evaluation of patients with suspected or confirmed myocarditis lies in the ability to provide detailed tissue characterization. It thus allows the identification of inflammatory myocardial injury in the acute and subacute phases as well as scarring that is frequently present in the chronic phase of the disease. The CMR techniques classically used in the characterization of myocardial injury in patients with myocarditis are T2-weighted imaging and late gadolinium enhancement.<sup><xref rid="B103" ref-type="bibr">103</xref> - <xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>On T2-weighted images, the greater the water content in a given tissue, the higher the signal intensity. Therefore, this technique assesses myocardial edema secondary to the inflammatory process in patients with acute myocarditis (known as edema imaging).<sup><xref rid="B102" ref-type="bibr">102</xref> - <xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">105</xref> </sup>Late gadolinium enhancement, in turn, identifies regional necrosis in acute or subacute myocarditis as well as regional fibrosis in chronic myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B106" ref-type="bibr">106</xref> , <xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref> - <xref rid="B110" ref-type="bibr">110</xref> </sup>It is worth noting that the late enhancement pattern of myocarditis is very different from that of acute MI. The main difference is that late gadolinium enhancement in infarction always enhances the subendocardium. Transmural enhancement may also be present, but the subendocardial layer is always enhanced. In myocarditis, mesoepicardial enhancement is most often present, while the endocardium is usually spared. Furthermore, while enhanced regions in infarction tend to be unique, homogeneous, and distributed across the coronary territories, enhanced regions in myocarditis tend to be multifocal, heterogeneous, and sparse, not restricted to the coronary territories.</p>
        <p>The original 2009 Lake Louise criteria (LLC)<sup><xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">105</xref></sup>were based on three CMR techniques. In addition to T2-weighted imaging (edema imaging) and late gadolinium enhancement, both mentioned above, it also included a technique called early gadolinium enhancement. The latter was eventually excluded from the updated diagnostic criteria after a study demonstrated that it did not add incremental diagnostic value to the other techniques. In fact, early gadolinium enhancement had not been clinically used in most CMR centers in the world.</p>
        <p>Recently, new CMR techniques capable of measuring myocardial longitudinal (T1) and transverse (T2) relaxation times have been introduced as potentially sensitive and specific methods for the detection of myocardial inflammation.<sup><xref rid="B111" ref-type="bibr">111</xref></sup>T1 and T2 values are generally measured on a pixel-by-pixel basis and presented as parametric maps, the so-called myocardial T1 and T2 mapping. A T1 map can be acquired before contrast injection (native T1) and 15 to 20 minutes after contrast injection (when gadolinium concentration is relatively steady), thus allowing the calculation of myocardial extracellular volume (ECV). A T2 map is usually acquired only before contrast administration.</p>
        <p>The introduction of T1 and T2 mapping was the key reason for a recent LLC update regarding the use of CMR in the diagnosis of myocarditis. According to the new consensus recommendations,<sup><xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">104</xref></sup>this diagnosis is based on the presence of two main criteria that may or may not be associated with supportive criteria ( <xref rid="t6001" ref-type="table">Table 6</xref> ). The first main diagnostic criterion aims to identify the presence of myocardial edema using T2-based techniques: (1) T2-weighted imaging (edema imaging) and/or (2) T2 mapping. The second main diagnostic criterion also allows the detection of myocardial edema, but its primary objective is to identify the presence of necrosis, fibrosis, and capillary leakage. This second main diagnostic criterion uses T1-based techniques: (1) late gadolinium enhancement and/or (2) T1 mapping (native T1 or ECV).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t6001">
            <label>Table 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Diagnostic criteria for myocarditis, myopericarditis, or perimyocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Updated Lake Louise criterion 1 POSITIVE T2 CRITERION + 1 POSITIVE T1 CRITERION</th>
                  <th>Diagnostic target</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>MAIN CRITERIA</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Imagem baseada no T2</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Increased regional signal intensity in the LV (visual analysis)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>or</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>AND</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Increased global signal intensity &#8211; ratio &#8805;2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>or</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Regional or global increase in T2 times (T2 mapping)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>EDEMA</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>T1-based imaging</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Regional or global increase in T1 times (T1 mapping) or ECV</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>or</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Increased T1 = edema (intra- or extracellular), hyperemia, capillary leakage, necrosis, fibrosis Increased ECV = edema (extracellular), hyperemia, capillary leakage, necrosis, fibrosis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Areas with increased signal intensity in a nonischemic distribution pattern on late enhancement imaging</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Late gadolinium enhancement = necrosis, fibrosis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>SUPPORTIVE CRITERIA</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pericardial effusion on cine MRI or increased signal intensity of the pericardium on late enhancement imaging, T1 mapping, or T2 mapping</td>
                  <td>Pericardial inflammation</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LV wall motion abnormality on cine MRI</td>
                  <td>LV dysfunction</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>
                  <italic>LV: left ventricular; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; ECV: extracellular volume.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>The new 2018 diagnostic criteria for myocarditis, myopericarditis, or perimyocarditis are listed in <xref rid="t6001" ref-type="table">Table 6</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">104</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The accuracy of CMR in patients with suspected myocarditis in the original LLC has been estimated at 78% (sensitivity, 67% and specificity, 91%).<sup><xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">105</xref></sup>These estimates have been subsequently confirmed in a meta-analysis that has demonstrated an accuracy of 83%, a sensitivity of 80%, and a specificity of 87%.<sup><xref rid="B112" ref-type="bibr">112</xref></sup>Similarly, a more recent meta-analysis has shown a sensitivity of 78% and a specificity of 88%, with an area under the curve (AUC) of 83%.<sup><xref rid="B113" ref-type="bibr">113</xref></sup>There are no consistent data on the accuracy of CMR using the new diagnostic LLC yet. However, a recent study including only 40 patients with acute myocarditis has demonstrated a sensitivity of 88% and a specificity of 96% for CMR using the new revised criteria (see <xref rid="t6001" ref-type="table">Table 6</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B114" ref-type="bibr">114</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recommendations for the use of CMR in the diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of patients with suspected acute myocarditis are summarized in <xref rid="t7001" ref-type="table">Table 7</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B57" ref-type="bibr">57</xref> , <xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">104</xref> , <xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref> , <xref rid="B114" ref-type="bibr">114</xref> - <xref rid="B116" ref-type="bibr">116</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t7001">
            <label>Table 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Recommendations for the use of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnostic evaluation of patients with suspected acute myocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indications</th>
                  <th>Class</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Evaluation of patients with elevated markers of myocardial necrosis and normal coronary arteries on angiography</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Evaluation of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and suspected myocarditis with a course &gt;6 months, aiming to aid in the etiological investigation, exclude possible differential diagnoses, and provide prognostic information</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Reassessment in 4 weeks for patients with intermediate or high prognostic risk after the acute episode, aiming to distinguish uncomplicated from complicated courses</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Based on the body of scientific evidence accumulated since the first version of this SBC guideline, we can now introduce CMR more accurately in the decision-making framework for patients with suspected myocarditis according to the risk stratification approach proposed in <xref rid="t8001" ref-type="table">Table 8</xref> .<sup><xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref> , <xref rid="B115" ref-type="bibr">115</xref> , <xref rid="B117" ref-type="bibr">117</xref> </sup>This approach should be integrated into broad risk stratification criteria that include clinical presentation and additional testing.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t8001">
            <label>Table 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Risk stratification and likelihood of indication for endomyocardial biopsy based on cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) parameters.</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Prognostic risk</th>
                  <th>CMR parameter</th>
                  <th>Suggested approach</th>
                  <th>Indication for biopsy</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Low</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>No changes in T1 and T2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>No ventricular dysfunction</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Clinical follow-up</td>
                  <td>No indication</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Intermediate</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Positive T1 or T2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Nonextensive late enhancement (&lt;17 g and 13% of LV mass)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Normal function or mild</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>LV dysfunction</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Clinical follow-up, repeat CMR at 1, 3, and 6 months</td>
                  <td>Stable: no indication Progressive dysfunction: possible indication</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>High</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Positive T1 or T2</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Extensive late gadolinium enhancement (&gt;17 g or 13% of</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>LV mass), or interventricular septal involvement, and/or moderate or severe</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>LV dysfunction</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>Clinical follow-up, repeat CMR at 1, 3, and 6 months</td>
                  <td>Possible indication</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4001">
                <p>
                  <italic>LV: left ventricular.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.7. Nuclear medicine</title>
        <p>Nuclear medicine has played an increasing role in the evaluation of patients with myocarditis. New radiotracers and other technologies have allowed a whole new spectrum of contributions to the management of patients with suspected inflammatory myocardial diseases.</p>
        <p>The pathophysiological changes of the different types of myocarditis will form the basis for the use of nuclear medicine techniques: the inflammatory process leading to myocardial injury is characterized by infiltration of lymphocytes and macrophages in the myocardium, by increased vascular permeability and increased glucose consumption at the inflammation site, and by cell necrosis with reduced tissue perfusion compared to intact myocardium. These characteristics will translate into increased uptake of gallium-67 citrate in the myocardium (especially useful in cases of sarcoidosis), increased accumulation of<sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose (<sup>18</sup>F-FDG), and reduced myocardial perfusion seen with the tracers technetium (<sup>99m</sup>Tc) sestamibi or thallium-201. <xref rid="t9001" ref-type="table">Table 9</xref> lists the most commonly used radiotracers for evaluating myocarditis.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t9001">
            <label>Table 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Nuclear medicine tests frequently used in patients with suspected or confirmed myocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Nuclear medicine test</th>
                  <th>Main indications</th>
                  <th>Advantages</th>
                  <th>Disadvantages</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gallium-67 scintigraphy</td>
                  <td>Myocarditis and sarcoidosis</td>
                  <td>Widely available</td>
                  <td>Less sensitive</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td><sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET</td>
                  <td>Sarcoidosis, lupus myocarditis, unexplained cardiac arrhythmias</td>
                  <td>Highly sensitive, used for monitoring response to treatment</td>
                  <td>Less available, higher costs</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td><sup>123</sup>I-mIBG scintigraphy</td>
                  <td>Assesses risk of ventricular arrhythmias</td>
                  <td>Identifies patients at risk of sudden death</td>
                  <td>Less available</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN5001">
                <p>
                  <italic><sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET:<sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.7.1. Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) radiotracers</title>
          <p>Gallium-67 citrate is an established tracer for nuclear medicine imaging of infections that binds to inflammatory cells at sites of increased vascular permeability thanks to its characteristic binding to iron transport proteins such as lactoferin and leukocyte lysosomes. Gallium-67 has low sensitivity (36%) for detecting myocarditis in patients with new-onset dilated cardiomyopathy and thus should not be routinely indicated ( <xref rid="t45001" ref-type="table">Table 10</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B118" ref-type="bibr">118</xref></sup>The only type of myocarditis with a high positive yield for gallium-67 scintigraphy is sarcoidosis, in which giant cell granulomas are particularly avid for radiotracer retention. A positive gallium-67 scan is considered a major criterion for the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis by the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS) expert consensus statement.<sup><xref rid="B119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref></sup>Another significant finding in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis is a perfusion defect caused by myocardial microvascular constriction in the vessels surrounding the granulomas. A perfusion defect seen at rest may disappear on stress imaging, a pattern called reverse distribution that may be associated with sarcoidosis.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t45001">
              <label>Table 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for the use of nuclear medicine imaging in the diagnostic evaluation of patients with suspected acute myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td><sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET to aid in the diagnosis of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Gallium-67 scintigraphy to aid in the diagnosis of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>IIb</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN6001">
                  <p>
                    <italic><sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET:<sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Gallium-67 scintigraphy can be used as an alternative for patients without access to or with a contraindication to gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (claustrophobia, contrast allergy, renal failure) and may contribute to cases of suspected myocarditis based on clinical criteria (fever, recent history of respiratory or intestinal infection, elevated necrosis markers). It is also useful for the differential diagnosis between acute MI with normal coronary arteries and myocarditis, according to a study conducted by Hung et al.,<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup>in which scans were positive when performed early after symptom onset.<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup>Some patients with myocarditis may present with regional damage in the myocardium, which can be the etiology of arrhythmias. Consequently, gallium-67 scans may demonstrate focal accumulation in ventricular areas and even in the atria alone.<sup><xref rid="B121" ref-type="bibr">121</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.7.2. Positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracers</title>
          <p><sup>18</sup>F-FDG is taken up by inflammatory cells and actively transported independently of insulin action. Thus, when adequate suppression of myocardial glucose uptake is achieved,<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET becomes a sensitive tool for the diagnosis of myocardial inflammation and monitoring of treatment response ( <xref rid="t45001" ref-type="table">Table 10</xref> ).</p>
          <p>Most studies on the use of<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET in myocarditis have focused on cardiac sarcoidosis, and a recent meta-analysis has demonstrated a sensitivity of 84% and a specificity of 83%.<sup><xref rid="B122" ref-type="bibr">122</xref></sup>For<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET to be helpful in sarcoidosis or other inflammatory cardiac conditions such as myocarditis, infective endocarditis, or transplant rejection, adequate patient preparation is crucial to prevent circulating insulin from leading to noninflammatory<sup>18</sup>F-FDG accumulation in the myocardium. The most commonly indicated preparation protocols include prolonged fasting (12 to 18 hours) before radiotracer injection and a high-fat, protein-permitted diet, while the utility of heparin remains unclear.<sup><xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref> , <xref rid="B124" ref-type="bibr">124</xref> </sup>Diagnostic evidence of inflammatory activity is focal<sup>18</sup>F-FDG uptake in the myocardium, while the presence of<sup>18</sup>F-FDG uptake in the RV and the presence of inflammatory uptake in hypoperfused areas, the so-called mismatches, have prognostic significance, as they reveal increased metabolism with reduced perfusion.<sup><xref rid="B124" ref-type="bibr">124</xref><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup>F-FDG PET is also used to monitor treatment response in cardiac sarcoidosis and to assess the activity of extracardiac disease. A monitoring algorithm is proposed in <xref rid="f03001" ref-type="fig">Figure 3</xref> , adapted from Young et al.<sup><xref rid="B125" ref-type="bibr">125</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Proposed algorithm for diagnosis and monitoring of treatment response in cardiac sarcoidosis. 18F-FDG PET: 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Adapted from Young et al.<sup>125</sup></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>CMR is the standard diagnostic technique for myocarditis not associated with sarcoidosis. Increased signal intensity of T2-weighted images (edema), increased early gadolinium enhancement (hyperemia), and late myocardial gadolinium uptake (late enhancement for necrosis) have a combined sensitivity of 67% and specificity of 91% for the diagnosis of myocarditis. However, there are frequent limitations to proper use of the technique, such as poor signal quality on T2-weighted images, artifacts, and inability to use gadolinium contrast media. In such cases,<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET is quite useful as a complement to the diagnostic investigation and is available in PET-CT systems or, more recently, in PET-MRI systems.<sup><xref rid="B126" ref-type="bibr">126</xref></sup>PET-MRI studies have shown that PET is superior to MRI in identifying areas of active cardiac inflammation.<sup><xref rid="B127" ref-type="bibr">127</xref></sup></p>
          <p><sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET-CT has been successfully used to identify active inflammation in conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus,<sup><xref rid="B128" ref-type="bibr">128</xref></sup>giant cell myocarditis,<sup><xref rid="B129" ref-type="bibr">129</xref></sup>scleroderma,<sup><xref rid="B130" ref-type="bibr">130</xref></sup>and even rheumatic carditis.<sup><xref rid="B131" ref-type="bibr">131</xref></sup>Recently,<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET has been increasingly used in the investigation of cardiac sarcoidosis and chronic myocarditis, including Chagas disease, as a cause of ventricular arrhythmias.<sup><xref rid="B132" ref-type="bibr">132</xref></sup>It is also useful for investigating conduction disorders, especially in individuals below 50 years of age with AV block; in these patients, PET has identified several cases of sarcoidosis and even cardiac tuberculosis as a cause of conduction disorder.<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup>In a study conducted by Tung et al., 50% of patients with unexplained myocardiopathy and ventricular arrhythmias had a positive<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET scan indicating the presence of myocarditis not suspected by other techniques.<sup><xref rid="B134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.7.3. Additional perspectives</title>
          <p>New radiotracers have been evaluated in patients with myocardial inflammation, such as gallium-68 DOTATATE, which has an affinity for somatostatin receptors that are expressed by inflammatory cells. Another radiotracer under analysis is<sup><xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref></sup>I-mIBG, which assesses cardiac presynaptic adrenergic innervation. Although this radiotracer does not directly identify an inflammatory state, it bears an important relationship to increased risk of ventricular arrhythmias, particularly in patients with chronic Chagasic myocarditis, demonstrating viable myocardial areas that are denervated and thus more vulnerable to sustained ventricular tachycardia.<sup><xref rid="B135" ref-type="bibr">135</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.8. Coronary computed tomography angiography and coronary angiography</title>
        <p>Acute myocarditis may mimic acute MI with typical chest pain, ECG abnormalities similar to ST- or non-ST-segment elevation MI, high cardiac enzymes, and hemodynamic instability.<sup><xref rid="B136" ref-type="bibr">136</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In suspected myocarditis with infarct-like presentation, CAD must be excluded by percutaneous or tomographic coronary angiography. Routine coronary angiography should also be performed during the investigation of a new dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref></sup></p>
        <p>An analysis of 46 publications evaluating the underlying pathophysiology of myocardial infarction with nonobstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA) has revealed a typical infarct on CMR in only 24% of patients, myocarditis in 33%, and no significant abnormality in 26%.<sup><xref rid="B138" ref-type="bibr">138</xref></sup>Young age and high C-reactive protein (CRP) were associated with myocarditis, while male sex, treated hyperlipidemia, high troponin ratio, and low PCR were associated with true MI.<sup><xref rid="B139" ref-type="bibr">139</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Because patients with acute myocarditis mimicking ST-segment elevation MI have a favorable prognosis, correct diagnosis must be established to prevent unnecessary and potentially hazardous treatments.<sup><xref rid="B139" ref-type="bibr">139</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Cardiac computed tomography (CT) is a simple and rapid examination that provides a comprehensive assessment of the characteristics of coronary arteries and myocardial tissue. In practice, first-pass CT acquisition allows the evaluation of coronary anatomy and LV enhancement. Delayed CT acquisition is performed 3 to 5 minutes later without any reinjection of contrast medium, allowing iodine uptake to be seen on late contrast-enhanced images in a similar fashion as CMR.<sup><xref rid="B140" ref-type="bibr">140</xref> , <xref rid="B141" ref-type="bibr">141</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Computed tomography angiography and CMR have their own and unique ways to avoid invasive coronary angiography, exclude (significant) CAD, and detect other diseases such as acute aortic dissection, pulmonary embolism, myocarditis, and stress cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">142</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The wide availability of CT combined with the possibility of ruling out acute coronary syndrome (ACS) with coronary CT angiography during the same examination makes it promising for refining acute myocarditis imaging ( <xref rid="t46001" ref-type="table">Table 11</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B141" ref-type="bibr">141</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t46001">
            <label>Table 11</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Indication for coronary computed tomography angiography in the diagnostic evaluation of patients with suspected acute myocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indication</th>
                  <th>Class</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Coronary computed tomography angiography for exclusion of severe obstructive coronary heart disease in myocarditis investigation as an alternative to coronary angiography in patients with low or intermediate pretest probability of CAD</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN7001">
                <p>
                  <italic>CAD: coronary artery disease.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>In children with suspected myocarditis and Kawasaki disease, CT angiography can be used in the assessment of coronary artery abnormalities.<sup><xref rid="B143" ref-type="bibr">143</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The latest ESC guideline suggests that, in the absence of angiographically significant CAD (stenosis &#8805;50%) or preexisting conditions that could explain the clinical setting, patients who have at least one of the five clinical presentations (acute chest pain; acute or worsening HF with &#8804;3 months of dyspnea, fatigue, and/or signs of HF; chronic HF with &gt;3 months of dyspnea, fatigue, and/or signs of HF; palpitations, symptoms of unexplained arrhythmias and/or syncope and/or aborted death; unexplained cardiogenic shock) and/or certain supportive diagnostic tests (ECG, Holter, troponin, ventricular function abnormalities and edema and/or late gadolinium enhancement with a classic myocardial pattern) should be considered as having &#8220;clinically suspected myocarditis&#8221; and should undergo an additional evaluation.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.9. Endomyocardial biopsy: indications, technique, and complications</title>
        <p>Histopathological analysis of myocardial tissue is an important diagnostic and prognostic tool in patients with myocarditis. EMB with standard histopathological (Dallas criteria)<sup><xref rid="B144" ref-type="bibr">144</xref></sup>and immunohistochemical criteria is the current gold standard for diagnosis of myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The Dallas criteria alone have limitations by virtue of a high degree of interobserver variability in pathological interpretation and an inability to detect noncellular inflammatory processes, and yields a diagnosis in approximately 10% to 20% of patients.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup>Therefore, according to the WHO definition, immunohistochemistry with a panel of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies is mandatory to identify the different inflammatory components.<sup><xref rid="B145" ref-type="bibr">145</xref> , <xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">146</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Viral genome analysis of diseased myocardium, when coupled with immunohistochemical analysis, has improved the diagnostic accuracy and prognostic utility of EMB.<sup><xref rid="B147" ref-type="bibr">147</xref></sup>Viral screening for enteroviruses, influenza viruses, adenoviruses, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, B19V, and HHV is recommended.</p>
        <p>However, as some viral genomes (eg, B19V) can be detected in normal hearts and ischemic and valvular heart diseases,<sup><xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">148</xref></sup>complementary use of virus-specific mRNAs may be required to define active infection.<sup><xref rid="B149" ref-type="bibr">149</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.9.1. Considerations for indication</title>
          <p>Early EMB in severe clinical presentations provides important information to the differential diagnosis of specific types of myocarditis (giant cell, allergic, eosinophilic, sarcoidosis) leading to different treatments (eg, immunosuppressants) and prognoses ( <xref rid="t47001" ref-type="table">Table 12</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B150" ref-type="bibr">150</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t47001">
              <label>Table 12</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for the use of endomyocardial biopsy</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>New-onset HF (&lt;2 weeks), undefined cause, unresponsive to standard treatment, with hemodynamic deterioration</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>New-onset HF (2 weeks to 3 months), undefined cause, associated with ventricular arrhythmia or second- or third-degree atrioventricular block</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>In the presence of clinically suspected severe lymphocytic myocarditis, giant cell myocarditis, necrotizing eosinophilic myocarditis</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HF with onset &gt;3 months and &lt;12 months, undefined cause, unresponsive to optimized standard therapy</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HF due to dilated cardiomyopathy of any duration with suspected allergic reaction and/or eosinophilia</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Frequent ventricular arrhythmias with or without symptoms, undefined cause</td>
                    <td>IIb</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Clinical suspicion supported by noninvasive diagnostic methods of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>IIb</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN8001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>HF: heart failure.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>It is also used in the differential diagnosis of diseases that may mimic myocarditis (arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, peripartum cardiomyopathy, inflammatory/storage disorders).<sup><xref rid="B150" ref-type="bibr">150</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Currently, the main indication for EMB consists of patients with new-onset HF (less than 2 weeks) accompanied by a severe clinical presentation (hemodynamic instability, use of inotropic or mechanical circulatory support, being refractory to medical treatment) or high-risk arrhythmias (sustained or symptomatic ventricular arrhythmias or high-degree heart blocks) ( <xref rid="t47001" ref-type="table">Table 12</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B151" ref-type="bibr">151</xref> , <xref rid="B152" ref-type="bibr">152</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>However, it is known that the previous recommendations were notably based on the Dallas criteria, whose diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic value is limited. With the use of immunohistochemical and viral genome analyses, there is a growing trend towards a more liberal application of EMB in clinically suspected myocarditis regardless of pattern and severity of presentation.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, the value of EMB is questionable in patients who have low-risk syndromes and respond to standard treatment with no prospect of therapeutic or prognostic implications. Finally, in intermediate-risk syndromes, EMB should be considered in case of maintenance or worsening of symptoms, ventricular dysfunction, arrhythmias, conduction disorders ( <xref rid="f04001" ref-type="fig">Figure 4</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B153" ref-type="bibr">153</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Therapeutic flowchart for myocarditis based on clinical suspicion and prognosis.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>ACEI: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB: angiotensin receptor blocker; AVB: atrioventricular block; CAD: coronary artery disease; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; CT: computed tomography; ECG: electrocardiogram; ECHO: echocardiogram; EMB: endomyocardial biopsy.</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.9.2. Prognosis</title>
          <p>While the Dallas criteria are not an accurate predictor of clinical outcomes, immunohistological evidence of myocardial inflammation is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular death and need for heart transplantation.<sup><xref rid="B153" ref-type="bibr">153</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In giant cell myocarditis, the severity of necrosis and fibrosis is associated with an increased risk of death and transplantation.<sup><xref rid="B154" ref-type="bibr">154</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The absence or presence of residual enteroviral genomes in repeated samples has correlated with progression to end-stage cardiomyopathy, while spontaneous viral clearance has been associated with improved systolic function.<sup><xref rid="B155" ref-type="bibr">155</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.9.3. Technique</title>
          <p>The procedure should be performed in a catheterization laboratory by an experienced interventional cardiologist. Local anesthesia is used with conscious sedation if required, always under the supervision of an anesthesiologist.</p>
          <p>EMB is safely performed under direct fluoroscopy guidance and should be supported by echocardiography, which will serve as a guide for correct positioning of the bioptome to avoid puncturing the RV free wall.</p>
          <p>CMR is particularly useful for facilitating a guided approach, given its ability to distinguish normal from diseased myocardium, and has been assessed to increase predictive values.<sup><xref rid="B155" ref-type="bibr">155</xref></sup></p>
          <p>There are no comparative studies to recommend RV or LV biopsy; however, LV EMB should be carefully analyzed in cases of restricted or predominant LV disease.</p>
          <p>Samples should be obtained from the RV, especially the distal portion of the interventricular septum and the apical trabecular component, avoiding the RV free wall. The number of samples will depend on the studies to be performed. In the investigation of viral myocarditis, 10 samples should be used (6 for viral screening, 2 for hematoxylin-eosin staining, and 2 for immunohistochemistry). In the investigation of infiltrative or deposition diseases, 6 specimens are required (2 for hematoxylin-eosin staining, 2 for immunohistochemistry, and 2 for electron microscopy). Hematoxylin-eosin staining and immunohistochemistry samples should be placed in a 10% buffered formalin vial and should not be refrigerated. Viral screening samples should be placed in Eppendorf&#174; microtubes (without embedding medium), and these should be placed in containers with dry ice to be quickly transferred to -70-degree refrigerators for storage. Electron microscopy samples should be placed in Eppendorf&#174; tubes with optimal cutting temperature compound.</p>
          <p>EMB may be repeated if required to monitor response to etiology-directed therapy or if sampling error is suspected in patients with unexplained HF progression.<sup><xref rid="B156" ref-type="bibr">156</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.9.4. Complications</title>
          <p>Although conventional EMB is considered a safe procedure, different complications have been reported.</p>
          <p>In experienced centers, the major complication rate for EMB is &lt;1%, which is similar to that of coronary angiography.<sup><xref rid="B97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref></sup>The use of echocardiography combined with fluoroscopy significantly reduces the risk of inadvertent puncture that could cause myocardial perforation or coronary artery injury.<sup><xref rid="B155" ref-type="bibr">155</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Complications of vascular access and sheath insertion can be distinguished from complications of the biopsy procedure. Complications of vascular access are accidental arterial puncture, prolonged bleeding, hematoma, and vascular dissection.</p>
          <p>Commonly described complications of the biopsy procedure include vasovagal reaction, AV block of varying degrees, RV free wall perforation, pneumothorax, interventricular septal perforation, access site hematoma, intracardiac fistulas, retroperitoneal hematoma (femoral access), pericardial effusion, thrombus displacement, cardiac tamponade, tricuspid valve chordal rupture, and ventricular arrhythmias.<sup><xref rid="B157" ref-type="bibr">157</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In sum, the risk of EMB depends on the patient&#8217;s clinical status, the operator&#8217;s experience, and all the technologies available to prevent, diagnose, and manage complications.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.10. Histological analysis and viral screening &#8211; Molecular biology and genome</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.10.1. Histological analysis</title>
          <p>Myocarditis is defined as an inflammatory disease of the myocardium that should be diagnosed by histological and immunohistological criteria. According to the Dallas criteria, active myocarditis is histologically defined as an inflammatory infiltrate of the myocardium with necrosis of adjacent myocytes, whereas borderline myocarditis is diagnosed when an inflammatory infiltrate is present but no injury/necrosis is demonstrated in the cardiac cells.<sup><xref rid="B158" ref-type="bibr">158</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, the Dallas criteria are considered diagnostically inadequate in patients with clinically suspected myocarditis because of variability in interpretation, lack of prognostic value, and low sensitivity due to sampling error. These limitations can be overcome by immunohistological staining of infiltrating cells (leukocytes/T lymphocytes/macrophages) and surface antigens (intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 [ICAM-1]/human leukocyte antigen [HLA-DR]).</p>
          <p>In addition to the diagnosis of myocarditis, histopathological evaluation using histological criteria is key to classifying myocarditis as lymphocytic, eosinophilic, giant cell, granulomatous, and/or polymorphic, which generally reflect different etiopathogeneses of the inflammatory process.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Furthermore, histological examination of paraffin sections by different staining protocols (hematoxylin-eosin, elastica-van Gieson [EvG], periodic acid-Schiff [PAS], Azan) is used to detect myocardial cell death, scarring, fibrosis, dysfunction, cardiomyocyte abnormalities, and pathological vascular conditions. Amyloidosis, iron and glycogen deposition, and other storage diseases can be excluded or specified by additional staining.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.10.2. Immunohistochemical analysis</title>
          <p>Immunohistochemistry has significantly increased the sensitivity of EMB and provides prognostic information. The diagnostic accuracy of immunohistology for detecting inflammation is greater than that of histological criteria. Immunohistochemical evaluation is based on specific antigen-antibody reaction analysis. A count &#8805;14 leukocytes/mm<sup>2</sup>with the presence of T lymphocytes &#8805;7 cells/mm<sup>2</sup>was considered a realistic cutoff point to achieve the diagnosis of myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Quantification of additional infiltrating cells, including macrophages (Mac-1/CD69), CD4+, CD8+ cells, and cytotoxic cells (perforin), and quantification of HLA-DR and ICAM-1 are mandatory to further characterize inflammatory cell populations. Thus, accurate characterization and quantification of myocardial inflammation is relevant for establishing a prognosis and identifying different markers of virus-negative, infectious, chronic/acute autoimmune myocarditis (see <xref rid="f04001" ref-type="fig">Figure 4</xref> ).</p>
          <p>Additional immunofluorescence staining methods should be used to define humoral rejection on heart transplant EMB, such as C3d and C4d staining, or to obtain amyloid subtyping.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.10.3. Gene expression profile analysis</title>
          <p>Idiopathic giant cell myocarditis and cardiac sarcoidosis are rare disorders causing acute HF with cardiogenic shock and/or life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias in the absence of other etiologies. Prognosis is extremely poor, with 4-year survival rates of less than 20%.<sup><xref rid="B159" ref-type="bibr">159</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A major barrier to correct diagnosis is sampling error by histological examination of EMB. Distinct differential gene expression profiles have been identified and allowed a clear discrimination between tissues harboring giant cells and those with active myocarditis or inflammation-free controls. Also, disease-specific gene expression profiles change during effective treatment and are suitable for therapy monitoring.<sup><xref rid="B160" ref-type="bibr">160</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.10.4. Viral analysis</title>
          <p>Microbial genomes are determined, quantified, and sequenced by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods, including nested RT-PCR and quantitative PCR assays, providing viral load analysis. Sequencing of the amplified viral gene product is mandatory.</p>
          <p>Importantly, all viruses that may cause the disease should be analyzed. The most commonly reported cardiotropic viral genomes in the myocardium are B19V, enterovirus, adenovirus, influenza virus, HHV-6, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, hepatitis C virus, and HIV ( <xref rid="t48001" ref-type="table">Table 13</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t48001">
              <label>Table 13</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Common viruses on endomyocardial biopsy</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>V&#237;rus type</th>
                    <th> </th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Adenovirus</td>
                    <td>Parvovirus B19</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Arbovirus</td>
                    <td>Poliomyelitis virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Arenavirus</td>
                    <td>Rabies virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Coronavirus</td>
                    <td>Respiratory syncytial virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Coxsackievirus (A, B)</td>
                    <td>Rubella virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cytomegalovirus</td>
                    <td>Vaccinia virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dengue virus</td>
                    <td>Varicella-zoster virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Echovirus</td>
                    <td>Variola virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Encephalomyocarditis virus</td>
                    <td>Zika virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Epstein-Barr virus</td>
                    <td>Human immunodeficiency virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hepatitis B virus</td>
                    <td>Influenza virus (A, B)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hepatitis C virus</td>
                    <td>Metapneumovirus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Herpes simplex virus</td>
                    <td>Mumps virus</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Human herpesvirus 6</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>B19V is the predominant cardiotropic virus in myocarditis. The clinical impact on the heart is still a matter of debate. Transcriptionally active cardiotropic B19V with positive replicative intermediates on EMB appears to be clinically relevant because patients with myocarditis characterized by such virus have abnormal gene expression compared to control patients with latent B19V. However, despite the causative agent being of viral origin, PCR results may be negative because of viral clearance.</p>
          <p>Although viruses are thought to be the most common cause of myocarditis, viral titers are not useful for diagnosis and treatment.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. Treatment</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1. Therapeutic flowcharts</title>
          <p>Most cases of myocarditis have a favorable prognosis with spontaneous regression of clinical symptoms and preserved ventricular function not requiring therapeutic intervention. The therapeutic flowchart for myocarditis in most patients is guided by diagnostic suspicion, since only a minority of patients will undergo EMB ( <xref rid="f04001" ref-type="fig">Figure 4</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Patients with low diagnostic suspicion of myocarditis presenting with no signs of severity, preserved ventricular function, and no ventricular arrhythmias have a favorable prognosis and should be clinically monitored with no need for drug therapy. In patients with intermediate diagnostic suspicion of myocarditis presenting with preserved ventricular function or ventricular dysfunction with progressive improvement, cardioprotective therapy with beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs), or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) is used to preserve or improve ventricular function.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Patients with high diagnostic suspicion presenting with any of the indicators of poor prognosis, such as clinical deterioration, hemodynamic instability, maintained or progressive ventricular dysfunction, frequent ventricular arrhythmias, and significant conduction disorders, should undergo EMB for investigation of inflammation and etiologic agent. This will allow establishing a specific therapy with immunosuppression,<sup><xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">161</xref> , <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref> </sup>immunomodulation,<sup><xref rid="B163" ref-type="bibr">163</xref> - <xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref> </sup>and antiviral drugs,<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref> - <xref rid="B170" ref-type="bibr">170</xref> </sup>which may be beneficial in terms of clinical improvement, functional class, ventricular function, and survival ( <xref rid="f05001" ref-type="fig">Figure 5</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> , <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref> , <xref rid="B171" ref-type="bibr">171</xref> - <xref rid="B175" ref-type="bibr">175</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Therapeutic flowchart for myocarditis based on endomyocardial biopsy results.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>PCR: polymerase chain reaction; DCM: dilated cardiomyopathy</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. Immunosuppression: indications and types</title>
          <p>Immunosuppressive therapy in myocarditis is used to suppress the inflammatory response and autoimmune activity with the purpose of improving clinical status and ventricular function and thus reducing mortality.</p>
          <p>In lymphocytic myocarditis, despite the pathophysiological rationale for using immunosuppression based on the presence of myocardial inflammation on EMB combined with absence of viral genome, the evidence supporting this hypothesis is limited. Factors such as spontaneous regression of inflammation, lack of uniform diagnostic criteria in the studies, reduced number of patients in most trials, heterogeneity of the clinical characteristics of study populations, and paucity of studies evaluating mortality reduction alone hamper an analysis of the clinical benefits of immunosuppressive therapy in lymphocytic myocarditis ( <xref rid="t49001" ref-type="table">Table 14</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> , <xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">161</xref> , <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref> , <xref rid="B172" ref-type="bibr">172</xref> , <xref rid="B176" ref-type="bibr">176</xref> - <xref rid="B179" ref-type="bibr">179</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t49001">
              <label>Table 14</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Analysis of the clinical benefits of immunosuppressive therapy in lymphocytic myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Author</th>
                    <th>Design</th>
                    <th>Intervention</th>
                    <th>Placebo</th>
                    <th>N</th>
                    <th>Disease</th>
                    <th>Duration of symptoms</th>
                    <th>Inclusion</th>
                    <th>Virus-positive EMB</th>
                    <th>LVEF</th>
                    <th>Outcomes</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Parrillo et al., 1989</td>
                    <td>Randomized, controlled</td>
                    <td>Prednisone</td>
                    <td>No</td>
                    <td>102</td>
                    <td>DCM</td>
                    <td>Mean: 8 months</td>
                    <td>Idiopathic</td>
                    <td>Yes No</td>
                    <td>&gt;35%</td>
                    <td>Neutral</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Latham et al., 1989</td>
                    <td>Randomized, controlled</td>
                    <td>Prednisone</td>
                    <td>No</td>
                    <td>52</td>
                    <td>DCM</td>
                    <td>&lt;2 years, mean: 1.6 to 1.8 months</td>
                    <td>Idiopathic</td>
                    <td>Yes No</td>
                    <td>&lt;40%</td>
                    <td>Neutral</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Wojnicz et al., 2001</td>
                    <td>Randomized, controlled, open-label</td>
                    <td>Prednisone + azathioprine</td>
                    <td>Yes</td>
                    <td>84</td>
                    <td>DCM</td>
                    <td>&gt;6 months</td>
                    <td>HLA</td>
                    <td>Yes No</td>
                    <td>&lt;40%</td>
                    <td>Improved EF</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Wojnicz et al., 2006</td>
                    <td>Randomized, controlled, open-label, 2-center</td>
                    <td>Atorvastatin</td>
                    <td>No</td>
                    <td>74</td>
                    <td>DCM</td>
                    <td>&gt;6 months</td>
                    <td>HLA</td>
                    <td>Yes No</td>
                    <td>&lt;40%</td>
                    <td>Improved EF/NYHA functional class</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Frustaci et al., 2009</td>
                    <td>Randomized, controlled, double-blind, multicenter</td>
                    <td>Prednisone + azathioprine</td>
                    <td>Yes</td>
                    <td>85</td>
                    <td>DCM</td>
                    <td>&gt;6 months</td>
                    <td>CD3 &gt;7, CD45 &gt;14 virus-negative</td>
                    <td>Yes Yes</td>
                    <td>&lt;45%</td>
                    <td>Improved EF</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Merken et al., 2018</td>
                    <td>Case series</td>
                    <td>Prednisone + azathioprine</td>
                    <td>No</td>
                    <td>180</td>
                    <td>DCM</td>
                    <td>Mean: 8 to 11 months</td>
                    <td>CD3 &gt;7, CD45 &gt;14 Virus-negative</td>
                    <td>Yes Yes</td>
                    <td>&lt;45%</td>
                    <td>Improved transplant-free survival/EF</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN9001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>DCM: dilated cardiomyopathy; EMB: endomyocardial biopsy; HLA: histocompatibility antigen; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; NYHA: New York Heart Association.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>In the Myocarditis Treatment Trial (MTT),<sup><xref rid="B178" ref-type="bibr">178</xref></sup>which included patients with myocarditis meeting the Dallas criteria combined with the presence of ventricular dysfunction, immunosuppression for 6 months was not superior to conventional treatment in improving ventricular function and survival, although infectious agents were not investigated. The Tailored Immunosuppression in Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy (TIMIC) study, an Italian double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial,<sup><xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref></sup>demonstrated improved ventricular function with immunosuppression in patients with myocarditis on biopsy (more than 7 lymphocytes per mm<sup>2</sup>), HF for more than 6 months, and absence of viral genome on EMB. Thus, although the evaluated phase was different from the acute phase of myocarditis, the study demonstrated the benefit of immunosuppression in the absence of viral genome in the myocardium. However, the nonidentification of specific viruses only means that the investigated viruses are not present and does not rule out the possible presence of other microbes.<sup><xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref></sup>Also, qualitative findings of microbes on EMB do not establish an undoubted causal relationship with the development of myocarditis/myocardiopathy, since viral genomes can be found in cardiomyopathies of other specific etiologies and even in normal hearts.<sup><xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref> , <xref rid="B180" ref-type="bibr">180</xref> , <xref rid="B181" ref-type="bibr">181</xref> </sup>Taking B19V as an example, as its presence in myocardial tissue on qualitative PCR assay is common, other techniques documenting a low amount of copies<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref></sup>or absence of RNA transcription<sup><xref rid="B182" ref-type="bibr">182</xref></sup>could infer a noncorrelation with the development of myocarditis/myocardiopathy, allowing immunosuppression to be considered, even when the genome of this virus is present.</p>
          <p>Immunosuppression is well established in myocarditis due to autoimmune disorders, and different strategies should be considered for each entity. Most strategies consist of corticosteroids usually combined with additional immunosuppressive drugs ( <xref rid="t50001" ref-type="table">Table 15</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> - <xref rid="B188" ref-type="bibr">188</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t50001">
              <label>Table 15</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Indications for immunosuppression in autoimmune myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Giant cell myocarditis</th>
                    <th>Rare but fulminant, improved prognosis with combined immunosuppression</th>
                    <th>Combined corticosteroid (cyclosporine + azathioprine)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Sarcoidosis</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Systemic disease primarily affecting the lungs. Myocarditis in 10%, blocks, tachyarrhythmias, and ventricular dysfunction</td>
                    <td>Combined corticosteroids (cyclophosphamide, methotrexate), biologics in refractory cases</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Systemic lupus erythematosus</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Myocarditis in 50%, might be subclinical; rare with current immunosuppression; might accelerate atherosclerosis</td>
                    <td>Corticosteroid pulse therapy (followed by oral therapy for weaning), combined therapy (cyclophosphamide), plasmapheresis, IVIg</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Systemic sclerosis</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Myocarditis or secondary to pulmonary hypertension. Arrhythmias, conduction disorders, and ventricular dysfunction</td>
                    <td>Combined corticosteroids (cyclophosphamide, azathioprine)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Beh&#231;et disease</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Myocarditis is rare (0.5%), poor prognosis</td>
                    <td>Combined corticosteroids (colchicine, anticoagulation)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>EGPA (Churg-Strauss syndrome)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Myocarditis in up to 50%; history of asthma, presence of eosinophilia; chest pain, palpitations, and cardiogenic shock</td>
                    <td>Combined corticosteroids (cyclophosphamide)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Rheumatoid arthritis</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Myocarditis in 30%, might be subclinical; rare with current immunosuppression; might accelerate atherosclerosis</td>
                    <td>Combined corticosteroids (methotrexate, biologics)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Despite the low incidence, the diagnosis of giant cell myocarditis cannot be delayed because of the severity of clinical manifestations, and the treatment consists of intensive combined immunosuppression. A classic study conducted by Cooper et al.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup>showed that survival increased from 3 to 12 months with combined immunosuppression (corticosteroid and/or azathioprine and/or cyclosporine and/or antilymphocyte antibody) compared to no immunosuppression or only corticosteroids.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup>A more recent study demonstrated a 5-year survival of 58% with the combined use of corticosteroids, cyclosporine, and azathioprine.<sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref></sup>In refractory cases, antilymphocyte antibodies,<sup><xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref></sup>mycophenolate mofetil,<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref></sup>and sirolimus<sup><xref rid="B192" ref-type="bibr">192</xref></sup>have been described.</p>
          <p>Eosinophilic myocarditis may be idiopathic or secondary to drug hypersensitivity reactions, autoimmune diseases (eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis or Churg-Strauss syndrome), hypereosinophilic syndrome, infections, and cancer. Immunosuppression is also considered in this setting, usually with corticosteroids. A recent literature review demonstrated peripheral eosinophilia in 75% of patients, immunosuppression in 80%, and combined therapy in 20% (especially Churg-Strauss and hypereosinophilic syndromes), with high 30-day mortality (13% hypereosinophilic syndrome, 17% idiopathic, 23% Churg-Strauss syndrome, and 40% hypersensitivity).<sup><xref rid="B193" ref-type="bibr">193</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The most commonly used immunosuppressive therapy in patients with confirmed myocarditis consists of corticosteroids alone or in combination with azathioprine ( <xref rid="t51001" ref-type="table">Table 16</xref> ), with the diagnosis by EMB of inflammation with no viral infection as determinants for immunosuppression ( <xref rid="t52001" ref-type="table">Table 17</xref> ). Patients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy should be continuously monitored for the development of side effects, as these may significantly increase both morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t51001">
              <label>Table 16</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Immunosuppressive therapy with corticosteroids</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>
                            <bold>Giant cell myocarditis</bold>
                          </p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Corticosteroid pulse therapy &#8211; methylprednisolone 500 to 1,000 mg for 3 to 5 days; prednisone &#8211; 1 mg/kg and then slow and gradual withdrawal</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Antilymphocyte antibody &#8211; Thymoglobulin &#8211; 1.5 mg/kg/day, according to the evolution of CD3 T lymphocytes &#8211; cyclosporine &#8211; 3 to 8 mg/kg</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Azathioprine &#8211; 2 mg/kg</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>
                            <bold>Lymphocytic and eosinophilic myocarditis</bold>
                          </p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Up to week 4 &#8211; 1 mg/kg</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Weeks 5 to 12 &#8211; reduce dosage by 0.08 mg/kg/week</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Weeks 13 to 20 &#8211; maintain dosage at 0.3 mcg/kg/day</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Weeks 21 to 24 &#8211; reduce dosage by 0.08 mg/kg/week</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>TIMIC study: prednisone &#8211; 1 mg/kg for 4 weeks and 0.33 mg/kg for 5 months; azathioprine &#8211; 2 g/kg for 6 months</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>
                            <bold>Sarcoidosis</bold>
                          </p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Prednisone &#8211; 30 mg/day &#8211; remove 5 mg per month for 12 to 24 months</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Combination when corticosteroid withdrawal is difficult: methotrexate &#8211; 10 to 20 mg/week</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Azathioprine &#8211; 2 mg/kg; hydroxychloroquine &#8211; 200 to 400 mg/day</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Leflunomide &#8211; 10 to 20 mg/day</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t52001">
              <label>Table 17</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Indications for immunosuppressive therapy in myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>In the presence of positive myocarditis &#8211; giant cell, autoimmune disorders, sarcoidosis, and eosinophilia &#8211; associated with ventricular dysfunction</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>In the presence of endomyocardial biopsy-proven positive myocarditis and negative viral screening in patients with chronic heart failure, with the purpose of improving clinical status and ventricular function</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>In acute heart failure unresponsive to standard therapy</td>
                    <td>III</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.3. Antiviral therapy: indications and types</title>
          <p>The prognosis of inflammatory cardiomyopathy/myocarditis is negatively affected by viral persistence. In viral cardiomyopathy, certain viruses are closely associated with a spontaneous course of viral infection, since spontaneous viral elimination is accompanied by clinical improvement, but this does not apply to patients who develop viral persistence.<sup><xref rid="B194" ref-type="bibr">194</xref> - <xref rid="B197" ref-type="bibr">197</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Patients with enteroviral and adenoviral genomes on EMB should be treated with interferon-beta (IFN-&#223;) (4 million units subcutaneously every 48 hours in the first week, 8 million units subcutaneously every 48 hours from the second week on, for 6 months). A nonrandomized study demonstrated that administration of IFN-&#223; to patients positive for enteroviral and adenoviral infection induced viral elimination, reduced myocardial injury, and significantly improved long-term survival.<sup><xref rid="B198" ref-type="bibr">198</xref> , <xref rid="B199" ref-type="bibr">199</xref> </sup>In a subsequent phase 2 study &#8211; Betaferon in Chronic Viral Cardiomyopathy (BICC) trial &#8211;, 143 patients with symptoms of HF and biopsy-proven enterovirus, adenovirus, and/or B19V genomes were randomly assigned to double-blind treatment and received either placebo or IFN-&#223; for 24 weeks, in addition to standard HF treatment. Compared to placebo, viral elimination and/or viral load reduction were higher in the IFN-&#223; groups. IFN-&#223; treatment was associated with favorable effects on NYHA functional class, quality of life, and patient global assessment. In retrospective analyses, IFN-&#223; treatment was found to be significantly less effective in eliminating B19V infection.<sup><xref rid="B171" ref-type="bibr">171</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A high prevalence of HHV-6 has been detected in the myocardial tissue of patients presenting with symptoms of HF in a clinically suspected setting of myocarditis. Interestingly, HHV-6 is able to integrate its genome into telomeres of human chromosomes, which allows transmission of HHV-6 via the germline. Chromosomally integrated HHV-6 (ciHHV-6) appears to be associated with an increased risk of myocarditis and may lead to severe HF. HHV-6 is also not eliminated by IFN-&#223;, but symptoms of HHV-6 reactivation and HF have decreased after a 6-month treatment period with ganciclovir followed by valganciclovir (ganciclovir 1,000 mg/24h intravenously for 5 days, then valganciclovir 900 mg/24h or 1,800 mg/24h for 6 months) in symptomatic patients with reactivated ciHHV6 (positive messenger RNA).<sup><xref rid="B200" ref-type="bibr">200</xref></sup></p>
          <p>B19V infection of the heart muscle is still a matter of debate. Initial data have provided evidence that antiviral nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors such as telbivudine can improve the clinical outcomes of patients with positive B19V DNA and replicative intermediates.<sup><xref rid="B201" ref-type="bibr">201</xref></sup>However, a large randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial is now required to evaluate the results.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.4. Immunomodulation (immunoglobulin and immunoadsorption): indications and types of immunoglobulins</title>
          <p>The rationale for the use of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) in the treatment of myocarditis is based on their ability to interact widely with the immune system. They are able to stimulate the complement system and immune cells to release anti-inflammatory cytokines and inhibit the release of proinflammatory cytokines.<sup><xref rid="B83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Immunoglobulins have been assessed in different settings such as chronic HF,<sup><xref rid="B202" ref-type="bibr">202</xref> , <xref rid="B203" ref-type="bibr">203</xref> </sup>dilated cardiomyopathy,<sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref> , <xref rid="B204" ref-type="bibr">204</xref> </sup>peripartum cardiomyopathy,<sup><xref rid="B205" ref-type="bibr">205</xref></sup>acute myocarditis,<sup><xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref> , <xref rid="B165" ref-type="bibr">165</xref> , <xref rid="B206" ref-type="bibr">206</xref> , <xref rid="B207" ref-type="bibr">207</xref> </sup>fulminant myocarditis,<sup><xref rid="B208" ref-type="bibr">208</xref></sup>and viral myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref> , <xref rid="B169" ref-type="bibr">169</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Although some of these studies suggest a potential benefit of immunoglobulin, a randomized controlled trial evaluating adult patients with new-onset dilated cardiomyopathy (&lt;6 months) or myocarditis did not demonstrate evidence of beneficial effect of immunoglobulin on ventricular function in the treatment group versus the control group. There was improvement in ventricular function and even normalization in 36% of cases during follow-up, regardless of the study group. It is worth noting that the biopsy did not include any viral screening, and only 16% of patients had myocarditis confirmed by the presence of inflammation on biopsy.<sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In patients with acute myocarditis, early studies have suggested an improvement in ventricular function and a tendency to higher 1-year survival with high-dose IVIg.<sup><xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref></sup>However, a 2005 systematic review found 17 studies including only one randomized controlled trial (62 patients), and did not demonstrate any benefit of IVIg in patients with acute myocarditis. The authors concluded that there is insufficient evidence to recommend routine use of IVIg in this setting.<sup><xref rid="B207" ref-type="bibr">207</xref></sup>More recently, a small randomized, multicenter study (41 patients) evaluated the short-term prognosis of patients with acute myocarditis or new-onset cardiomyopathy undergoing IVIg therapy compared to patients who did not receive IVIg. The study revealed improved short-term survival among patients who received IVIg and no significant difference in ventricular function between groups. However, there was a significant reduction in inflammatory cytokines in the treated group. The study hypothesizes a potential benefit of immunoglobulins and suggests their mechanism of action; however, because of the small number of patients, the evidence is insufficient to recommend unrestricted use of IVIg in patients with acute myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In viral myocarditis, nonetheless, there are data demonstrating the benefits of immunoglobulin. In a pilot study evaluating patients with B19V myocarditis, IVIg significantly reduced viral load and improved cardiac function.<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref></sup>In an analysis of 152 patients with adenovirus- or B19V-positive myocarditis, immunoglobulin improved exercise capacity, LV ejection fraction, and NYHA functional class. There was a significant reduction in inflammation in both groups of patients and a significant reduction in viral load only among patients with adenovirus-positive myocarditis; approximately 40% of patients with B19V infection had viral persistence.<sup><xref rid="B169" ref-type="bibr">169</xref></sup>These findings suggest a potential benefit of immunoglobulin in patients with EMB-proven viral myocarditis.</p>
          <p>Current data, although insufficient for routine recommendation of IVIg, are indicative of a potential benefit of immunoglobulin in patients with biopsy-proven myocardial inflammation, especially viral myocarditis caused by adenoviruses and B19V.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>5.4.1. Immunoadsorption</title>
            <p>The pathogenesis of progression to ventricular dysfunction in dilated cardiomyopathy involves inflammatory processes that can be identified and quantified by immunohistochemical methods, which suggests a causal relationship between myocarditis and cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref rid="B210" ref-type="bibr">210</xref></sup>The presence of lymphocytes, mononuclear cells, and increased gene expression of HLA antigens is frequent, as well as that of antibodies against mitochondrial and contractile proteins; B1 receptors and muscarinic receptors have also been described in dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref rid="B211" ref-type="bibr">211</xref> - <xref rid="B214" ref-type="bibr">214</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>These cardiac antibodies are extractable by immunoadsorption, and some studies have tested the efficacy of this method in the treatment of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy/myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref> , <xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">216</xref> </sup>In a small controlled study, 25 patients were randomized to either undergo immunoadsorption followed by IgG substitution or continue conventional therapy, and a significant reduction in myocardial inflammation (decreases in CD3 cells, CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes, and HLA class II antigen expression) was found in the treated group.<sup><xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref></sup>In other small randomized studies, improvement in hemodynamics and ventricular function was observed.<sup><xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">216</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Current data suggest that immunoadsorption may be a new and promising therapeutic approach for patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and the presence of cardiac antibodies. However, to date, evidence is based on small uncontrolled studies or open-label controlled studies compared to conventional therapy, and their results require confirmation by large randomized, prospective, multicenter studies.<sup><xref rid="B218" ref-type="bibr">218</xref></sup>An ongoing double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study will evaluate the effects of immunoadsorption followed by IgG substitution in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref rid="B219" ref-type="bibr">219</xref></sup>Only with the results of this large study will we be able to establish a grade of recommendation for this therapy in the setting of dilated cardiomyopathy/myocarditis.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.5. Conventional cardioprotective therapy</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.5.1. No ventricular dysfunction</title>
          <p>The therapeutic approach for patients with myocarditis with preserved ventricular function aims to prevent the development of ventricular dysfunction or malignant arrhythmias. In patients with suspected diagnosis and intermediate risk, beta-blockers and ACEIs or ARBs can be used for at least 12 months to reduce mortality and morbidity. The decision to extend therapy will be based on the assessment of ventricular function and arrhythmogenic potential. As no clinical trials have addressed patients with this myocarditis profile, management should follow the SBC chronic and acute heart failure guidelines.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.5.2. Ventricular dysfunction and hemodynamic stability</title>
          <p>Therapeutic management of ventricular dysfunction in myocarditis should be in line with current HF guidelines.<sup><xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> , <xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">220</xref> , <xref rid="B221" ref-type="bibr">221</xref> </sup>Medications recommended for all hemodynamically stable patients with symptomatic ventricular dysfunction, such as cardioprotective therapy, unless contraindicated, are known as triple therapy &#8211; ACEIs or ARBs, beta-blockers, and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. ACEIs/ARBs and beta-blockers can be initiated in all individuals with HF with reduced ejection fraction, even if they are asymptomatic, unless contraindicated, and should be maintained when ventricular function normalizes. Spironolactone, a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist marketed in Brazil, should be initiated when the patient is already taking other medications and maintaining symptoms (NYHA II-IV functional class), and should be avoided in patients with creatinine &gt;2.5 mg/dL or persistent hyperkalemia ( <xref rid="t53001" ref-type="table">Table 18</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t53001">
              <label>Table 18</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for general pharmacological measures in myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Treatment with prognostic-modifying drugs for symptomatic or asymptomatic patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction, according to current heart failure guidelines</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Maintenance of neurohormonal blockade therapy after normalization of ventricular function</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Consider neurohormonal blockade drugs in patients with evidence of myocardial fibrosis without dysfunction</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.5.3. Hemodynamically unstable patients with ventricular dysfunction: therapeutic approach</title>
          <p>Patients with acute myocarditis and systolic ventricular dysfunction may fit into different clinical models. Likewise, clinical response to therapy is quite variable, and there may or may not be a clear manifestation of low cardiac output or evidence of systemic hypervolemia. The use of inotropes is warranted in at least three situations: a clear low-output state, cardiorenal syndrome refractory to optimization of diuretic therapy, and mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO<sub>2</sub>) below 60% with invasive hemodynamic criteria for low output. According to the line of care, invasive monitoring for patients with no clear response to this therapy should be considered ( <xref rid="t54001" ref-type="table">Table 19</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">222</xref> - <xref rid="B225" ref-type="bibr">225</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t54001">
              <label>Table 19</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Inotropes used in hemodynamically unstable patients with myocarditis and ventricular dysfunction222-225</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th> </th>
                    <th>Dobutamine</th>
                    <th>Milrinone</th>
                    <th>Levosimendan</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Clinical practice in myocarditis</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>B1 selective agonist, which promotes inotropism by direct stimulation of beta-receptors.</td>
                    <td>Experimental murine models suggest protective effects of milrinone and levosimendan over dobutamine on vasodilation in myocarditis. It acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor at any dose, thus increasing calcium concentration in cardiomyocytes. Systemic vasodilation contributes to increased cardiac output.</td>
                    <td>There are experimental murine models demonstrating a reduction in cell apoptosis and inflammatory cytokines with levosimendan in acute myocarditis. However, there is no robust evidence to recommend it as a cardioprotective agent in patients with myocarditis or to prove its clinical benefit over other inotropes. It acts as a calcium sensitizer up to 0.2 mcg/kg/min; at higher doses, it works as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, with no clinical use tested. There is no clinical evidence of continuous use for more than 48 hours.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Inotropism</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Moderate</td>
                    <td>Important</td>
                    <td>Important</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Vasodilation</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Mild</td>
                    <td>Moderate to important</td>
                    <td>Moderate to important</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Increased cardiac output</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Low to moderate</td>
                    <td>Important, associated with vasodilation</td>
                    <td>Important</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Risk of hypotension</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Low</td>
                    <td>Important and dose-dependent, higher in patients with established renal dysfunction</td>
                    <td>Important, especially if bolus is used. Increases with increasing dose.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Risk of arrhythmias</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Increases exponentially when higher than 10 mcg/kg/min</td>
                    <td>Increases in case of bolus dose (not recommended)</td>
                    <td>Increases in case of initial bolus, also dose-dependent, more commonly at 0.2 mcg/kg/min</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.6. General recommendations: physical activity and vaccination</title>
        <p>Myocarditis is an important cause of sudden death in athletes, which may occur in both the acute and chronic phases. This is related not only to the degree of myocardial inflammation but also to the triggering of complex arrhythmias and the development of left ventricular dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B226" ref-type="bibr">226</xref> - <xref rid="B228" ref-type="bibr">228</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Competitive or recreational athletes with active myocarditis should not participate in competitive sports or high-intensity exercise until the end of convalescence. There is no consensus on how long this period is. Until recently, the recommendation was to wait at least 6 months after the onset of clinical manifestations. Currently, some experts recommend shorter periods, such as 3 months, for resuming exercise training and competitive sports depending on the presence of symptoms, arrhythmias, ventricular dysfunction, inflammatory markers, and ECG changes<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B229" ref-type="bibr">229</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="t55001" ref-type="table">Table 20</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t55001">
            <label>Table 20</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Exercise recommendations for athletes and nonathletes with myocarditis12,229</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indications</th>
                  <th>Class</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Athletes may return to training and competitive sports, and nonathletes, to their usual physical activities, 3 to 6 months after myocarditis only if all of the following criteria are met:</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; LV systolic function within the normal range</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Normal myocardial injury biomarkers</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Absence of arrhythmias on 24-hour Holter and stress testing</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>With previous myocarditis, individuals should be reassessed periodically, especially during the first 2 years, owing to an increased risk of recurrence and silent progression of the disease</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Return to competitive sports and physical activities in asymptomatic athletes and nonathletes with persistent late gadolinium enhancement on CMR is considered in the period of 3 to 6 months after myocarditis if normal LV function and absence of arrhythmias on 24-hour Holter and stress testing, and they should be followed-up periodically for the potential risk of tachyarrhythmias. In the presence of positive late gadolinium enhancement on CMR, they should be assessed annually</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN10001">
                <p>
                  <italic>CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; LV: left ventricular.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>The European Consensus Document for Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation recommends that, in patients with HF, including those with myocarditis, exercise training should be of moderate intensity (up to 50% of VO<sub>2</sub>peak or 60% of predicted maximal heart rate), provided there is no laboratory evidence of inflammation or arrhythmias.<sup><xref rid="B230" ref-type="bibr">230</xref></sup></p>
        <p>During the Covid-19 pandemic, professional athletes have needed to interrupt or postpone their activities because of the risk of contamination. With the relaxation of social distancing measures, the question now is how athletes can safely return to their activities. Athletes who have had Covid-19 may present with respiratory symptoms, muscle fatigue, and risk of thrombotic events. Because of such risks, a flowchart with recommendations for clinical assessment and return-to-play decisions has been developed to provide guidance for resuming physical activities ( <xref rid="f06001" ref-type="fig">Figure 6</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f06001">
            <label>Figure 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Flowchart for returning to exercise following Covid-19.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>*History and physical examination in the investigation of post-Covid-19 complications (neurological, gastrointestinal, and dermatological).</attrib>
            <attrib>CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; CPET: cardiopulmonary exercise test; CRP: C-reactive protein; CT: computed tomography; ECG: electrocardiogram; ECHO: echocardiogram; hs-cTn: high-sensitivity cardiac troponin; PFP: pulmonary function test.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Vaccination follows the same recommendations as those for annual influenza and pneumococcal immunization of patients with HF in addition to other available vaccines (mumps, measles, rubella, poliomyelitis). There is no robust evidence that these predispose patients to exacerbation or development of acute myocarditis to outweigh the benefits of immunization.<sup><xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref> - <xref rid="B235" ref-type="bibr">235</xref> </sup>The same rationale applies to Covid-19 vaccination. To be vaccinated, patients should not be in the acute phase of myocarditis, and the recommendation is to wait 3 months of the diagnosis ( <xref rid="t56001" ref-type="table">Table 21</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t56001">
            <label>Table 21</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Vaccination recommendations in myocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th> </th>
                  <th>Class</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Vaccines for influenza, pneumococcus, mumps, measles, rubella, poliomyelitis, and Covid-19. Patients should not be in the acute phase of the disease, and the recommendation is to wait 3 months of first diagnostic suspicion.</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. Special situations</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1. Fulminant myocarditis</title>
          <p>Fulminant myocarditis is currently defined by a pragmatic approach with predominantly clinical features, irrespective of histological findings, as follows: 1) clinical presentation of severe HF symptoms for less than 30 days; 2) hemodynamic instability with cardiogenic shock and life-threatening arrhythmias (including recovered or aborted cardiac arrest); and 3) need for hemodynamic support (inotropes or mechanical circulatory assist device).<sup><xref rid="B236" ref-type="bibr">236</xref></sup>In addition to the previously mentioned tests for evaluating patients with myocarditis, EMB is recommended in fulminant myocarditis. Results are usually positive and show multiple inflammatory foci, allowing histological characterization of the type of myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">237</xref></sup>The clinical course of fulminant myocarditis tends to be more dismal than those of nonfulminant types of myocarditis, with a lower likelihood of ventricular function recovery, higher mortality, and a higher chance of heart transplantation.<sup><xref rid="B236" ref-type="bibr">236</xref> , <xref rid="B238" ref-type="bibr">238</xref> </sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>6.1.1. Diagnostic evaluation</title>
            <p>The diagnosis of fulminant myocarditis involves the diagnostic criteria of myocarditis per se, including clinical features of acute HF, elevated troponins and inflammatory markers, nonspecific ECG changes such as T-wave inversions and/or ST-segment abnormalities, and acute ventricular function changes. In the setting of cardiogenic shock, right heart catheterization and coronary angiography are essential for guiding management. Echocardiography is a key diagnostic tool, since patients with fulminant myocarditis are frequently unable to undergo MRI. Echocardiographic findings are highly dependent on the form and timing of presentation. Patients with fulminant myocarditis typically have normal diastolic dimensions but increased septal thickness at presentation, whereas patients with acute (nonfulminant) viral myocarditis may present with either normal or increased diastolic dimensions but normal septal thickness consistent with other forms of dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> , <xref rid="B64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B98" ref-type="bibr">98</xref> , <xref rid="B239" ref-type="bibr">239</xref> , <xref rid="B240" ref-type="bibr">240</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>The decision to perform EMB at the time of cardiac catheterization is in line with those of the ESC 2013<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup>task force. EMB can be considered the initial diagnostic procedure when MRI is not possible (eg, shock, presence of metal devices), if experienced operators and cardiac pathologists are available. According to the guidelines, therefore, the indications for EMB would be present for most patients with fulminant myocarditis ( <xref rid="f04001" ref-type="fig">Figure 4</xref> ) . Higher accuracy can be achieved by adding viral genome analysis, immunohistology, or transcriptomic biomarkers if there is diagnostic uncertainty despite histology.</p>
            <p>In addition to confirming diagnosis, EMB in fulminant myocarditis can be decisive for defining therapy. Immunohistochemical analysis has been considered mandatory because of known diagnostic limitations of the Dallas criteria, especially interobserver variability, which possibly limits diagnostic confirmation to no more than 20% of cases.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref> , <xref rid="B64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B239" ref-type="bibr">239</xref> , <xref rid="B240" ref-type="bibr">240</xref> </sup>According to the WHO definition for diagnosis of active myocarditis, immunohistochemical detection of mononuclear infiltrates (T lymphocytes or macrophages) using a cutoff point of 14 cells/mm<sup>2</sup>or over is required in addition to increased expression of HLA class II molecules.<sup><xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">146</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Viral genome detection in biopsy specimens is feasible (limited availability in Brazil) and, when coupled with immunohistochemical analysis, increases diagnostic accuracy and provides etiologic and prognostic information.</p>
            <p>For fulminant myocarditis, a class I, level C indication has been considered even when only histological analysis is present (Dallas criteria). Conventional histological analysis is widely available and enables etiologic diagnosis that may lead to changes in therapeutic approach and specific treatment for presentations such as necrotizing eosinophilic myocarditis, giant cell myocarditis, sarcoidosis, amyloidosis, and myocarditis associated with known autoimmune diseases.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>6.1.2. Therapeutic approach</title>
            <p>The recognition of the causal factor through histological investigation by EMB allows the establishment of specific therapeutic strategies, such as immunoglobulin in viral myocarditis, immunosuppression in nonviral, autoimmune myocarditis, or corticosteroids in sarcoidosis, necrotizing eosinophilic myocarditis, or giant cell myocarditis. A randomized clinical trial of immunosuppression in 85 patients with myocarditis with proven absence of viral persistence (TIMIC study) demonstrated a clear beneficial effect on ejection fraction. However, these patients had more than 6 months of diagnosis and proven absence of virus.<sup><xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref></sup>Clinical trials of immunosuppression in patients with fulminant myocarditis do not exist. One option that has been tested is the use of high-dose of immunoglobulin, which has been shown to be beneficial over ventricular function and functional class, and has shown survival benefit;<sup><xref rid="B208" ref-type="bibr">208</xref> , <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> , <xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref> </sup>although it has been demonstrated in a clinical trial with 62 patients, in which only 16% had biopsy-proven myocarditis the absence of benefit.<sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Supportive treatment should include vasoactive drugs and possibly vasopressors, and should be used in situations allowing the introduction of vasodilators. Immediate failure of drug treatment and volume replacement should lead clinicians to consider indication for hemodynamic support with mechanical circulatory assist devices. The most common devices are intra-aortic balloon pump, percutaneous devices such as TandemHeart and Impella, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), and paracorporeal ventricular assist devices, which are all used as a bridge to recovery or to heart transplantation ( <xref rid="f07001" ref-type="fig">Figure 7</xref> ). Short-term support devices are indicated for 7 to 10 days.<sup><xref rid="B241" ref-type="bibr">241</xref></sup>After that and while stabilization is not achieved, ECMO or artificial ventricles are indicated to provide support for a longer period, allowing patients a greater chance of recovery from ventricular dysfunction<sup><xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref></sup>(see section on <italic>Cardiogenic shock</italic> ).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f07001">
                <label>Figure 7</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>- Approach for initial stabilization of patients with cardiogenic shock.</title>
                </caption>
                <attrib>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; CABG: coronary artery bypass grafting; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; IABP: intra-aortic balloon pump; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention; VAD: ventricular assist device. Adapted from Kociol et al.<sup>63</sup></attrib>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf07-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2. Sarcoidosis</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.2.1. Diagnosis</title>
          <p>Sarcoidosis is a granulomatous inflammatory disease of unknown etiology characterized by noncaseating granulomas. It may involve multiple organs, especially lungs (90%), skin, lymph nodes, central nervous system, eyes, liver, heart, and others.<sup><xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref></sup>Although clinically manifest cardiac sarcoidosis only affects 5% to 10% of patients with sarcoidosis, autopsy studies have revealed that cardiac involvement is present in 20% to 30% of patients on advanced cardiac imaging. With CMR or PET imaging, cardiac involvement has increased to 40%.<sup><xref rid="B244" ref-type="bibr">244</xref> - <xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">246</xref> </sup>In addition to different definitions for the same entity, another factor that seems to have an impact on the increased prevalence of sarcoidosis is the refinement of imaging methods.</p>
          <p>Currently, it is recommended the use of the guidelines of the Japanese Circulation Society (SJC) launched in 2019 ( <xref rid="t57001" ref-type="table">Table 22</xref> , <xref rid="f08001" ref-type="fig">Figures 8</xref> and <xref rid="f09001" ref-type="fig">9</xref> ). Among the changes suggested in this document, we have that the abnormally high tracer accumulation in the heart with positron emission tomography by<sup>18</sup>F-FDG-PET/computed tomography, which was categorized in the &#8220;Guidelines for the diagnosis of cardiac involvement in patients with sarcoidosis&#8221;, in 2006, was promoted to the higher criteria, as well as the late enhancement by gadolinium of the myocardium on CMR with gadolinium. In the current JCS guidelines, a clinical diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis is also made when the patient shows clinical findings strongly suggestive of cardiac involvement and pulmonary or ophthalmic sarcoidosis as well as at least two of the five characteristic laboratory findings of sarcoidosis. Finally, the definition of isolated cardiac sarcoidosis was proposed for the first time.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t57001">
              <label>Table 22</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Japanese Circulation Society recommendations for the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis247</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Crit&#233;rios para envolvimento card&#237;aco</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cardiac findings should be assessed on the basis of major and minor criteria. Clinical findings satisfying the following 1) or 2) strongly suggest the presence of cardiac involvement.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 1. Two or more of the five major criteria (a) to (e) are met.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 2. One of the five major criteria (a) to (e) plus two or more of the three minor criteria (f) to (h) are met.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Major criteria</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> a. High-grade atrioventricular block (including complete atrioventricular block) or fatal ventricular arrhythmia (eg, sustained ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> b. Basal thinning of the ventricular septum or abnormal ventricular wall anatomy (ventricular aneurysm, thinning of the middle or upper ventricular septum, regional ventricular wall thickening)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> c. Left ventricular contractile dysfunction (left ventricular ejection fraction less than 50%) or focal ventricular wall asynergy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> d.<sup>67</sup>Ga citrate scintigraphy or<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET reveals abnormally high tracer accumulation in the heart</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> e. Gadolinium-enhanced MRI reveals delayed contrast enhancement of the myocardium</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Minor criteria</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> f. Abnormal ECG findings: ventricular arrhythmias (nonsustained ventricular tachycardia, multifocal or frequent premature ventricular contractions), axis deviation, or abnormal Q waves</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> g. Perfusion defects on myocardial perfusion scintigraphy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> h. Endomyocardial biopsy: monocyte infiltration and moderate or severe myocardial interstitial fibrosis Diagnostic guidelines for cardiac sarcoidosis</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Diagnostic guidelines for cardiac sarcoidosis</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 1. Histological diagnosis group (those with positive myocardial biopsy findings): cardiac sarcoidosis is diagnosed histologically when endomyocardial biopsy or surgical specimens demonstrate noncaseating epithelioid granulomas.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 2. Clinical diagnosis group (those with negative myocardial biopsy findings or those not undergoing myocardial biopsy): the patient is clinically diagnosed as having cardiac sarcoidosis (1) when epithelioid granulomas are found in organs other than the heart, and clinical findings strongly suggestive of the previously mentioned cardiac involvement are present; or (2) when the patient shows clinical findings strongly suggestive of pulmonary or ophthalmic sarcoidosis; at least two of the five characteristic laboratory findings of sarcoidosis (bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy, high serum angiotensin-converting enzyme activity or elevated serum lysozyme levels, high serum soluble interleukin-2 receptor levels, significant tracer accumulation on 67Ga citrate scintigraphy or<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET, a high percentage of lymphocytes with a CD4/CD8 ratio of &gt;3.5 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid). Clinical findings strongly suggest the previously mentioned cardiac involvement.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Diagnostic guidelines for isolated cardiac sarcoidosis</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Prerequisites</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 1. No clinical characteristics of sarcoidosis are observed in any organs other than the heart (the patient should be examined in detail for respiratory, ophthalmic, and skin involvements of sarcoidosis. When the patient is symptomatic, other etiologies that can affect the corresponding organs must be ruled out.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 2.<sup>67</sup>Ga scintigraphy or<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET reveals no abnormal tracer accumulation in any organs other than the heart.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 3. Chest CT reveals no shadow along the lymphatic tracts in the lungs or no hilar and mediastinal lymphadenopathy (minor axis &gt;10 mm).</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Histological diagnosis group</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 1. Isolated cardiac sarcoidosis is diagnosed histologically when endomyocardial biopsy or surgical specimens demonstrate noncaseating epithelioid granulomas.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Grupo de diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> 1. Isolated cardiac sarcoidosis is diagnosed clinically when the criterion (d) and at least three other criteria of the major criteria (a) to (e) are satisfied. When the patient meets at least four criteria for cardiac involvement other than the criterion (d), or when the patient meets the criteria (b) and (d) plus one of the remaining criteria, the patient should be suspected to have isolated cardiac sarcoidosis.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN11001">
                  <p>
                    <italic><sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET:<sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography; CT: computed tomography; ECG: electrocardiogram. Adapted from Terasaki et al.<sup>47</sup></italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f08001">
              <label>Figure 8</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Diagnostic flowchart for cardiac sarcoidosis after the diagnosis of extracardiac lesions.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>ECG: electrocardiogram; PET: positron emission tomography; SPECT: single-photon emission computed tomography. Adapted from Terasaki et al.<sup>247</sup></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf08-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f09001">
              <label>Figure 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Diagnostic flowchart for cardiac sarcoidosis in patients who present with cardiac manifestations and are strongly suspected to have cardiac sarcoidosis.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>AVB: atrioventricular block; CT: computed tomography; LV: left ventricular; PET: positron emission tomography; SPECT: single-photon emission computed tomography;<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET:<sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Adapted from Terasaki et al.<sup>247</sup></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf09-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.2.2. Treatment and prognosis</title>
          <p>Immunosuppressive treatment of cardiac sarcoidosis is based on clinical experience and expert opinion given the lack of randomized trials. The goal of treatment is to reduce inflammatory activity and prevent fibrosis, and the approach should be guided by the magnitude of the inflammatory process and the degree of myocardial involvement.<sup><xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">248</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Immunosuppressive treatment is recommended in the following situations: left ventricular dysfunction, ventricular arrhythmias, hypermetabolic activity on<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET, conduction disorders, late gadolinium enhancement on CMR, or right ventricular dysfunction in the absence of pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">248</xref> - <xref rid="B250" ref-type="bibr">250</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>There are three lines of treatment for sarcoidosis &#8211; first line: corticosteroids; second line: methotrexate and azathioprine in cases of intolerance or chronic use of corticosteroids; and third line: anti-TNF antibodies (infliximab and andalimumab) in cases of failure of previous treatments.<sup><xref rid="B251" ref-type="bibr">251</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Corticosteroid is the drug of choice. In a systematic review of corticosteroid therapy for ventricular conduction disorders, 27 of 57 patients (47.4%) improved with treatment.<sup><xref rid="B252" ref-type="bibr">252</xref></sup>However, because responses are unpredictable, patients with conduction disorders and cardiac sarcoidosis should receive a pacemaker or implantable cardioverter-defibrillator.<sup><xref rid="B119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref> , <xref rid="B253" ref-type="bibr">253</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Older studies evaluating the effect of corticosteroids on ventricular function have suggested preservation of ventricular function in patients with normal function at diagnosis, improvement in ventricular ejection fraction in patients with mild-to-moderate dysfunction, and no improvement in patients with significant ventricular dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref></sup>However, a Finnish study suggested an improvement in left ventricular function with immunosuppressive treatment in patients with severely compromised ventricular function (LVEF &lt;35%), but no changes were observed in those with normal or moderately decreased function at the start of treatment. Perhaps such differences are associated with early diagnosis and treatment.<sup><xref rid="B254" ref-type="bibr">254</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Studies on ventricular arrhythmia are more limited; however, the cause of arrhythmia appears to be secondary to scarring, and perhaps the corticosteroid effect on these patients is of little benefit.<sup><xref rid="B255" ref-type="bibr">255</xref></sup>Catheter ablation in ventricular tachycardia may be considered after implantable cardioverter-defibrillator insertion or antiarrhythmic drug failure.<sup><xref rid="B256" ref-type="bibr">256</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The suggested treatment algorithm ( <xref rid="f10001" ref-type="fig">Figure 10</xref> ) consists of an initial prednisone regimen (30 mg/day to 40 mg/day) followed by a repeat PET scan within 4 to 6 months to assess disease activity and guide subsequent pharmacological treatment.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f10001">
              <label>Figura 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Sarcoidosis treatment algorithm</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>ECG: electrocardiogram; ECHO: echocardiogram;<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET:<sup>18</sup>F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. PET: positron emission tomography.</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf10-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Yokoyama et al.<sup><xref rid="B257" ref-type="bibr">257</xref></sup>compared<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET/CT scans before and after corticosteroid therapy in 18 patients with cardiac sarcoidosis and observed that maximum standardized uptake value decreased significantly from baseline. A recent study used<sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET/CT for the diagnosis and treatment of cardiac sarcoidosis with low corticosteroid doses and good disease control within 1 year of diagnosis.<sup><xref rid="B258" ref-type="bibr">258</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Immunosuppressive drugs other than corticosteroids are needed because of the long duration of treatment. They are indicated for patients who require a maintenance prednisone dose &gt;10 mg/day and who cannot tolerate corticosteroid side effects.<sup><xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">248</xref> , <xref rid="B250" ref-type="bibr">250</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>The following drugs are suggested: methotrexate,<sup><xref rid="B257" ref-type="bibr">257</xref></sup>azathioprine,<sup><xref rid="B258" ref-type="bibr">258</xref></sup>cyclophosphamide,<sup><xref rid="B259" ref-type="bibr">259</xref></sup>and tumor necrosis factor inhibitors.<sup><xref rid="B260" ref-type="bibr">260</xref> , <xref rid="B261" ref-type="bibr">261</xref> </sup>The choice of drug will be determined by the type of extracardiac involvement; methotrexate, for example, should be avoided in patients with liver involvement, and studies of pulmonary, cutaneous, ocular, neurological, and multisystem sarcoidosis have suggested good efficacy for infliximab ( <xref rid="t58001" ref-type="table">Table 23</xref> <xref rid="t59001" ref-type="table"/> ).<sup><xref rid="B262" ref-type="bibr">262</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t58001">
              <label>Table 23</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for immunosuppressive therapy in sarcoidosis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indication</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Prednisone 30 to 40 mg/day for 4 to 6 months</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Additional immunosuppressants in case of corticosteroid therapy:</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Azathioprine 50 to 200 mg/day</td>
                    <td>IIb</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Methotrexate 10 to 20 mg/week</td>
                    <td>IIb</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Infliximab in pulmonary, cutaneous, ocular, neurological, and multisystem sarcoidosis</td>
                    <td>IIb</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> Leflunomide 10 to 20 mg/day</td>
                    <td>IIb</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t59001">
              <label>Table 24</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Indication for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator in sarcoidosis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ventricular tachycardia/aborted cardiac death</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>LVEF &lt;35% despite optimal treatment and period of immunosuppression and active inflammation</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Unexplained syncope probably due to arrhythmia</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ejection fraction 35% to 49% and/or RVEF &lt;40% despite optimal immunosuppressive treatment and MRI or PET evidence of extensive myocardial scarring</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ejection fraction 35% to 49% and/or RVEF &lt;40% despite optimal immunosuppressive treatment</td>
                    <td>IIb</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN12001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; PET: positron emission tomography; RVEF: right ventricular ejection fraction.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.2.3. Prognosis</title>
          <p>Cardiac sarcoidosis has a worse prognosis compared to dilated cardiomyopathy. Once the heart is affected, the prognosis is unfavorable. Cardiac involvement accounts for 85% of deaths from the disease.<sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> , <xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Kandolin et al.<sup><xref rid="B256" ref-type="bibr">256</xref></sup>reported the long-term effects of immunosuppressive treatment in a Finnish cohort, and 1-year, 5-year, and 10-year transplant-free survival rates were 97%, 90%, and 83%, respectively, during the 6.6-year follow-up period. In that study, presence of HF and cardiac function before corticosteroid therapy were the most important factors for estimated prognosis, which shows that early treatment is key.</p>
          <p>The presence of late gadolinium enhancement on CMR increased the risk of death, aborted sudden death, or cardioverter-defibrillator implantation by 30 times during a 2.6-year follow-up period,<sup><xref rid="B262" ref-type="bibr">262</xref></sup>and this finding was subsequently confirmed by meta-analyses. It has been suggested that the 20% fibrotic mass threshold is associated with risk of events.<sup><xref rid="B263" ref-type="bibr">263</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A study using PET imaging observed that 26% of reported adverse events, such as ventricular tachycardia and death, were cases of cardiac uptake on PET during a 1.5-year follow-up period. Conversely, extracardiac uptake was not associated with adverse events at follow-up.<sup><xref rid="B264" ref-type="bibr">264</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Another interesting finding is that patients with isolated cardiac sarcoidosis have a worse prognosis compared to patients with systemic sarcoidosis with cardiac involvement.<sup><xref rid="B265" ref-type="bibr">265</xref></sup>A Finnish study observed a high frequency of ventricular dysfunction and septal abnormalities on echocardiography and a high prevalence of late gadolinium enhancement on CMR, in addition to more significant associations with female sex and more severe left ventricular dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B266" ref-type="bibr">266</xref></sup>In that study, HF at presentation, severe left ventricular dysfunction (&lt;35%), and isolated cardiac sarcoidosis were also related to prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B254" ref-type="bibr">254</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Echocardiography with strain imaging (global longitudinal strain &lt;17.3) was an independent predictor of mortality, HF, hospitalization, new arrhythmias, and development of cardiac sarcoidosis.<sup><xref rid="B267" ref-type="bibr">267</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Serum biomarkers such as BNP were related to the development of HF, whereas troponin was associated with the development of fatal arrhythmias,<sup><xref rid="B268" ref-type="bibr">268</xref></sup>lower ejection fraction, and poor prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B269" ref-type="bibr">269</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3. Giant cell myocarditis</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3.1. Treatment</title>
          <p>According to an international registry, giant cell myocarditis is the etiology of 12% cases of fulminant myocarditis and 3.6% of cases of nonfulminant myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref></sup>Treatment goals are limited because the mechanisms of giant cell myocarditis are not properly known, although an autoimmune mechanism involving myocardial inflammation mediated by T lymphocytes has been proposed.<sup><xref rid="B270" ref-type="bibr">270</xref> , <xref rid="B271" ref-type="bibr">271</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Giant cell myocarditis has a worse prognosis than eosinophilic and lymphocytic myocarditis, and is more frequently associated with HF, cardiac arrest, fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia, heart blocks, or simulated acute MI.<sup><xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref> , <xref rid="B272" ref-type="bibr">272</xref> </sup>Without treatment, the course is usually fatal, with death within 5.5 months.<sup><xref rid="B271" ref-type="bibr">271</xref></sup>Even with treatment, giant cell myocarditis has a high mortality or requires early indication for mechanical circulatory support and/or heart transplantation.</p>
          <p>Recently, a 5-year transplant-free survival of 42% has been reported. As important prognostic markers of early death or need for mechanical support or heart transplantation, troponin levels and moderate-to-severe necrosis or fibrosis on EMB have been described. Elevated BNP/NT-proBNP levels and significant LVEF reduction are additional prognostic markers.<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref></sup>Poor prognosis may be associated with myocardial injury or recurrent giant cell myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B273" ref-type="bibr">273</xref></sup>After heart transplantation, recurrence has also been described.</p>
          <p>Early diagnosis is critical and dependent on EMB results, or histological analysis of a heart explanted during heart transplantation, or myocardial specimens collected during ventricular assist device implantation.<sup><xref rid="B270" ref-type="bibr">270</xref> , <xref rid="B274" ref-type="bibr">274</xref> , <xref rid="B275" ref-type="bibr">275</xref> </sup>Biopsy sensitivity might be limited by sampling error. Specimens are preferably collected from the apical portion of the RV septum because the risk of complications is lower. A negative biopsy does not necessarily exclude the diagnosis of giant cell myocarditis. EMB sensitivity has increased from 68% to 93% after repeating the procedure ( <xref rid="t60001" ref-type="table">Table 25</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t60001">
              <label>Table 25</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) recommendations in the diagnostic evaluation of giant cell myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>EMB or analysis of a heart explanted during heart transplantation, or myocardial specimens collected during mechanical assist device implantation in patients with acute heart failure with severe or fulminant hemodynamic compromise</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Suspected diagnosis of myocarditis associated with cardiac arrest, or ventricular fibrillation or tachycardia, or blocks, or simulated acute myocardial infarction</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>The treatment of giant cell myocarditis is divided into the treatment of HF with reduced LVEF caused by myocardial injury or recurrent giant cell myocarditis, arrhythmias, and blocks, and the treatment of the probable mechanism with immunosuppressants.</p>
          <p>The treatment of HF, hemodynamic disorders, blocks, and arrhythmias is consistent with the treatment of HF according to the SBC guidelines, including drugs and/or inotropes, pacemakers/defibrillators and/or mechanical circulatory support, and heart transplantation.<sup><xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref></sup>Heart transplantation might be indicated earlier because of the poor prognosis of giant cell myocarditis, even with immunosuppressants. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator might be indicated for primary prevention of sudden or secondary death based on the high incidence of complex and severe arrhythmias.<sup><xref rid="B276" ref-type="bibr">276</xref></sup>It has been described that 59% of patients with giant cell myocarditis had sustained ventricular tachycardia or shocks for complex ventricular arrhythmias despite of being free from severe HF.</p>
          <p>The indication for immunosuppressants is based on the results of case series or small randomized studies. Immunosuppressive drugs such as prednisone, cyclosporine, azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil, everolimus, sirolimus or rabbit antithymocyte globulin, antithymocyte globulin or muromonab-CD3 have been used for cytolysis of T lymphocytes. After initial diagnosis, high-dose corticosteroids and/or rabbit antithymocyte globulin, antithymocyte globulin or muromonab-CD3 are generally used, and combination with long-term immunosuppressants is possible. Hemadsorption has also been reported ( <xref rid="t61001" ref-type="table">Table 26</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B277" ref-type="bibr">277</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t61001">
              <label>Table 26</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Therapeutic recommendations in giant cell myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>High-dose corticosteroid in combination with antilymphocyte antibodies and/or calcineurin inhibitors (cyclosporine or tacrolimus) and/or antiproliferative drugs (azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil)</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Maintenance immunosuppression with a corticosteroid and a calcineurin inhibitor (cyclosporine or tacrolimus) or a triple-drug regimen with addition of an antiproliferative drug (azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil)</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Heart transplantation</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Indication for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for primary or secondary prevention of complex ventricular arrhythmias</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Maintenance immunosuppression consists of a cyclosporine-based double or triple regimen.<sup><xref rid="B270" ref-type="bibr">270</xref> , <xref rid="B278" ref-type="bibr">278</xref> </sup>However, there are important limitations to assessing the actual benefit. Combinations of prednisone, cyclosporine, azathioprine, and mycophenolate mofetil have been used, as well as use either alone or in combination with rabbit antithymocyte globulin or muromonab-CD3. Triple-drug immunosuppression has been shown to increase the chance of surviving and being transplant-free to 58% at 5 years.<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref></sup>However, immunosuppression must be maintained because of the possibility of recurrence. Combined immunosuppression (prednisone, cyclosporine, and azathioprine) appears to be more accepted, although other combinations have also been used, such as cyclosporine with rabbit antithymocyte globulin or rabbit antithymocyte globulin with high-dose corticosteroids. There are no comparative studies to confirm the best immunosuppression.<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref> , <xref rid="B274" ref-type="bibr">274</xref> </sup>Cyclosporine combined with high-dose corticosteroids or muromonab-CD3 for 4 weeks decreases the degree of necrosis, cellular inflammation, and giant cells.<sup><xref rid="B279" ref-type="bibr">279</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Heart transplantation is indicated and has resulted in improved medium-term survival, but recurrence is 20% to 25%.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> , <xref rid="B280" ref-type="bibr">280</xref> </sup>This is the treatment of choice despite a higher risk of rejection.<sup><xref rid="B281" ref-type="bibr">281</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3.2. Clinical manifestation and diagnosis</title>
          <p>Giant cell myocarditis is recognized as a rapid and progressive disease, most often fatal unless heart transplantation is performed. Most cases are associated with an autoimmune process.</p>
          <p>Giant Cell Myocarditis Study Group data showed that young, white adults were predominantly affected, with no sex difference. The most common manifestation was acute HF (75% of cases), but half of the patients developed complex ventricular arrhythmia in the course of the disease. Median heart transplant-free survival was 5.5 months.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A more recent report on giant cell myocarditis showed a higher incidence in young adult women, and the main clinical manifestations were acute HF, AV block, and ventricular arrhythmias.<sup><xref rid="B274" ref-type="bibr">274</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Imaging studies do not show any specific changes in giant cell myocarditis. The diagnosis is based on characteristic findings on EMB, ie, a diffuse and mixed inflammatory infiltrate consisting predominantly of macrophages, followed in number by lymphocytes and typically dispersed multinucleated giant cells derived from macrophages, and, finally, by a lower proportion of eosinophils and plasma cells.<sup><xref rid="B282" ref-type="bibr">282</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4. Acute Chagasic myocarditis and reactivation</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4.1. Clinical manifestations and modes of transmission, reactivation in immunosuppressed patients</title>
          <p>In recent years, there has been an increasing number of cases of acute Chagas disease associated with both oral or vector-borne transmission and disease reactivation in Latin American countries. The main routes of acute Chagas disease transmission currently are oral (68.4%), vector-borne (5.9%), vertical (0.5%), transfusion (0.4%), accidental (0.1%), and unknown (24.7%), as described in a study of confirmed cases in the Brazilian Amazon.<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Vector-borne transmission occurs during or shortly after hematophagy, when triatomine bugs defecate and deposit their contaminated feces causing the infective forms of <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> to reach the skin, mucous membranes, and then the bloodstream. The incubation period ranges from 4 to 15 days. Oral transmission is associated with consumption of food or beverages contaminated with parasites. Currently, it is the most common cause of acute disease, causing outbreaks in endemic and nonendemic regions. The incubation period ranges from 3 to 22 days.<sup><xref rid="B283" ref-type="bibr">283</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Patients with acute Chagas disease may present with nonspecific signs and symptoms of infectious syndrome, such as fever, myalgias, facial edema, and arthralgias, in addition to signs related to the portal of entry such as a chagoma and Roma&#241;a sign in the vector-borne form and digestive bleeding in the oral form.<sup><xref rid="B284" ref-type="bibr">284</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Acute cases may or may not present with myocarditis and pericarditis. Autopsy reports have shown acute inflammation of the epicardium and myocardium with intense and diffuse inflammatory activity and extensive dissociation of cardiac fibers, with the amastigote forms of the parasite being observed.<sup><xref rid="B285" ref-type="bibr">285</xref></sup>Signs and symptoms compatible with HF have ranged from 26% to 58%. Severe cases with cardiac tamponade and cardiogenic shock from LV systolic dysfunction may occur. The lethality of oral transmission has ranged from 2% to 5% in the largest series. Abnormal findings on additional testing have ranged from 33% to 70% for ECG changes (right bundle branch block, first-degree AV block, acute atrial fibrillation, anterosuperior divisional block) and from 13% to 52% for echocardiographic changes. Pericardial effusion is the most frequent abnormality (10% to 82%), and segmental contraction changes, common in the chronic phase, are rarely found in the acute phase. Despite the occurrence of severe cardiac involvement, most patients show preserved systolic function with few cases of reduced EF. Most deaths are caused by significant pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade.<sup><xref rid="B286" ref-type="bibr">286</xref> , <xref rid="B287" ref-type="bibr">287</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4.2. Diagnosis</title>
          <p>Direct parasitology testing is the most indicated method for diagnosing acute myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B288" ref-type="bibr">288</xref></sup>Indirect methods, such as blood culture and xenodiagnosis, have low sensitivity and thus are not suitable for the acute phase. Serology testing is not the best diagnostic method in the acute phase but may be performed when direct parasitology testing is persistently negative and clinical suspicion persists.</p>
          <p>Wet mount examination to detect the parasite in the circulating blood is quick and simple, in addition to being more sensitive than stained smear examination. Ideal conditions for collection are the patient still being febrile and symptom onset having occurred within 1 month. Concentration methods (Strout, microhematocrit, buffy coat) are recommended when wet mount examination is negative, as they are more sensitive. They are also used when the acute course initiated over 1 month ago. Negative results in the first analysis should not be considered definitive, especially if symptoms persist, unless another etiology is proven.</p>
          <p>PCR testing, being a molecular diagnostic technology, has become an important method to show recent infection, as it yields positive results days to weeks before circulating trypomastigotes are detected.<sup><xref rid="B289" ref-type="bibr">289</xref> - <xref rid="B291" ref-type="bibr">291</xref> </sup>Peripheral blood and tissue collected on EMB can be used to detect early reactivation after heart transplantation, before the onset of clinical symptoms or graft dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B292" ref-type="bibr">292</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Chagas disease reactivation in the post-heart transplant period ranges from 19.6% to 45%.<sup><xref rid="B293" ref-type="bibr">293</xref></sup>The condition may present as acute myocarditis with various degrees of HF, often accompanied by systemic manifestations. Erythema and subcutaneous nodules may appear on the skin and should be biopsied to identify amastigote nests. Monitoring should be routine, even if reactivation is not suspected. When there are no extracardiac clinical signs, biopsy should be performed.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4.3. Treatment</title>
          <p>Trypanosomicidal drug treatment is indicated for patients with acute Chagas disease with or without manifestations of myocarditis and for those with chronic disease reactivation due to immunosuppression (transplanted patients) ( <xref rid="t62001" ref-type="table">Table 27</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B294" ref-type="bibr">294</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t62001">
              <label>Table 27</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for the etiological treatment of acute Chagasic myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Acute infection, irrespective of mechanism of transmission</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Reactivation of chronic <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Benznidazole is the currently available drug for the treatment of <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection.<sup><xref rid="B295" ref-type="bibr">295</xref></sup>Information, however, is based on nonrandomized studies with insufficient number of patients and follow-up duration. Although the definition of cure criteria remains controversial, there is a current consensus that benznidazole treatment should be performed in the acute phase and provides a likely long-term benefit.<sup><xref rid="B296" ref-type="bibr">296</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Benznidazole dose range in children is 5 to 10 mg/kg per day in two divided doses for 60 days. The adult dose is 5 mg/kg. Adverse reactions manifest in approximately 30% of patients, most frequently allergic dermatitis (30%) and peripheral sensory neuropathy (10%).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.5. Myocarditis due to tropical diseases</title>
        <p>Tropical diseases are infectious entities generally transmitted by vectors in tropical regions. Governments tend to ignore this issue and provide limited resources to control these diseases, which affects vulnerable populations in areas with inadequate sanitation and deficient health systems. The Brazilian Amazon is an endemic region for tropical diseases, although other regions of the country are also affected. Many tropical diseases may cause myocarditis and appear to contribute to the increased burden of heart disease in developing countries.<sup><xref rid="B297" ref-type="bibr">297</xref></sup>The tropical diseases that cause myocarditis and are prevalent in Brazil are malaria, dengue, chikungunya, Zika, and yellow fever ( <xref rid="t63001" ref-type="table">Table 28</xref> ). These diseases should be considered in the investigation of myocarditis occurring in endemic areas.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t63001">
            <label>Table 28</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Characteristics of the main causes of tropical myocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th> </th>
                  <th>Agent</th>
                  <th>Vector</th>
                  <th>Clinical manifestations</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Malaria</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td><italic>Plasmodium spp</italic> (protozoan)</td>
                  <td><italic>Anopheles</italic> mosquito</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>Mild form:</bold> fever, chills, headache, myalgias, and malaise <bold>Severe form:</bold> shock, seizures, mental confusion, renal failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome, coma, and death</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; There may be asymptomatic patients, especially in endemic regions</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Dengue</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Dengue virus</td>
                  <td><italic>Aedes aegypti</italic> mosquito</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>Mild form:</bold> fever, headache, myalgia, arthralgia, retro-orbital pain and maculopapular rash, nausea, vomiting <bold>Severe form (with warning signs):</bold> severe abdominal pain, persistent vomiting (&#8805;3 times/24 h), epistaxis, gingival bleeding, fatigue, restlessness or irritation, hematemesis or melena, altered mental status</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Approximately 50% of patients have symptoms</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Chikungunya</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Chikungunya virus</td>
                  <td><italic>Aedes aegypti</italic> mosquito</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>Mild form:</bold> fever, rash, arthralgia, myalgia, edema, and headache <bold>Severe form:</bold> severe neurological disease, myocarditis,and multiple organ failure</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>Chronic form:</bold> persistent arthralgia and myalgia with associated edema, mostly in the wrists, hands, ankles, and feet. It might last for months or even years and result in disability</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Approximately 80% of patients are symptomatic</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Zika</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Zika virus</td>
                  <td><italic>Aedes aegypti</italic> mosquito</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>Mild form:</bold> fever (usually mild), rash, arthralgia, arthritis, myalgia, headache, conjunctivitis, and edema <bold>Severe form:</bold> need for hospitalization is uncommon and deaths are rare</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>Congenital form:</bold> anomalies of the eye, heart, and brain such as microcephaly (most common)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Only about 20% of patients have symptoms</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Yellow fever</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Yellow fever virus</td>
                  <td><italic>Haemagogus</italic> (wild) and <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic> (urban) mosquitoes</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>Mild form:</bold> sudden-onset fever, chills, headache, myalgia, weakness, fatigue, nausea, and eye redness</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>Severe form (toxic phase):</bold> high fever, jaundice, epigastralgia, bleeding, hemorrhagic diathesis (hematemesis), shock, and organ failure</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Approximately 50% of patients are symptomatic</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Malaria is caused by the protozoans of the genus <italic>Plasmodium</italic> (in Brazil, the species <italic>P. vivax</italic> and <italic>P. falciparum</italic> ), transmitted through the bites of <italic>Anopheles</italic> mosquitoes. Malaria is endemic in the Amazon region, where over 155,000 cases were diagnosed in 2019. <italic>P. falciparum</italic> causes the most severe forms of the disease and has been more significantly associated with the development of myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B298" ref-type="bibr">298</xref></sup>Autopsy studies of severe cases of malaria show a large number of parasites in the myocardium and inflammation compatible with myocarditis. Most studies reporting on malarial myocarditis consist of inpatient case series assessed with ECG, myocardial injury markers, and echocardiogram.<sup><xref rid="B299" ref-type="bibr">299</xref></sup>These case series include severe cases and show changes in cardiac injury markers in up to 59% and echocardiographic changes such as reduced systolic function in up to 19% of patients. Many studies associating malaria with acute MI fail to properly define the evaluated outcome, with probable cases of myocarditis being described as infarctions. In acute malaria progressing to the severe form of the disease, myocardial dysfunction due to malarial myocarditis should be considered. Assessment with biomarkers of myocardial injury and ventricular function should be considered to optimize cardiovascular management.</p>
        <p>Arboviruses cause infectious diseases such as dengue, Zika, chikungunya, and yellow fever. They are transmitted through the bites of <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic> mosquitoes. Cardiovascular involvement has been demonstrated especially in dengue, which is the most prevalent arboviral infection in Brazil. Dengue is also the disease with the highest rate of reported cardiovascular manifestations -- prospective studies have shown that 48% of patients with the severe form develop myocarditis. An autopsy study of four fatal cases of dengue revealed findings of myocarditis with edema, hemorrhage, mononuclear infiltrates, and presence of antigens and viral replication.<sup><xref rid="B300" ref-type="bibr">300</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Of all the previously mentioned arboviral diseases, chikungunya is the most symptomatic (80% of cases); however, it normally presents with mild symptoms and mostly affects joints and muscles. Still, the infection may manifest systemically and cause widespread damage or affect specific organs such as the heart. A case report of a patient with chikungunya who developed chest pain showed typical findings of myocarditis on MRI.<sup><xref rid="B301" ref-type="bibr">301</xref></sup>Several case series in epidemic settings have reported up to 37% of cardiovascular involvement, generally compatible with myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B302" ref-type="bibr">302</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Of all the tropical infections discussed herein, Zika is the most recently discovered and has the highest percentage of asymptomatic cases; when there are clinical manifestations, these are predominantly congenital and involve the neurological system. Nonetheless, a few longitudinal studies have addressed nonneurological complications of this infection in adults and reported cardiovascular outcomes such as HF, arrhythmias, and acute MI, as well as Zika-associated myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B303" ref-type="bibr">303</xref> , <xref rid="B304" ref-type="bibr">304</xref> </sup>Also, prospective studies of congenital Zika have reported echocardiographic changes suggestive of cardiovascular damage. These findings, however, possibly do not represent the actual impact of Zika on heart disease, as there is a lack of longitudinal studies.</p>
        <p>Yellow fever is a neglected tropical arboviral disease that was restricted to the sylvatic cycle for a long time, with low incidence (underreporting) and limited geographic expansion, which contributed to few cases being studied and adequately reported, especially those involving the cardiovascular system. Still, with the increasing urbanization of this disease and the better understanding of its pathophysiological mechanisms, some studies have demonstrated a relationship with the heart. The PROVAR+ study, for example, reported, respectively, 48% and 52% of echocardiographic and electrocardiographic changes.<sup><xref rid="B305" ref-type="bibr">305</xref></sup>Also, postmortem studies have isolated the virus in cardiac tissue or demonstrated myocardial damage.</p>
        <p>Therefore, although the association between tropical diseases and myocarditis is based on case series and few studies with a well-defined diagnosis of myocarditis, the diagnostic investigation of common regional diseases is warranted in cases of myocarditis in endemic areas. To this end, antigen screening or serology testing for arboviral infections and thick blood smear examination for malaria should be included. Once these diseases are diagnosed, an infectious disease specialist should be consulted to guide the specific treatment of malaria or supportive treatment of arboviral diseases. Another clinical situation consists of patients with confirmed arboviral infection or malaria which progresses to a severe form, especially shock; in these cases, cardiac injury should be evaluated with markers of myocardial necrosis and myocardial function, and echocardiography should be used for the diagnosis of myocardial involvement (myocarditis). Management should include optimization of myocardial function.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6. Covid-19-related myocarditis</title>
        <p>Human coronaviruses have been linked to myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B306" ref-type="bibr">306</xref> - <xref rid="B308" ref-type="bibr">308</xref> </sup>During the Toronto severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak, SARS-CoV RNA was detected in 35% of autopsied hearts.<sup><xref rid="B309" ref-type="bibr">309</xref></sup>This increases the possibility of direct viral damage to cardiomyocytes<sup><xref rid="B310" ref-type="bibr">310</xref> - <xref rid="B312" ref-type="bibr">312</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="t64001" ref-type="table">Table 29</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B313" ref-type="bibr">313</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t64001">
            <label>Table 29</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Representative studies addressing the acute cardiovascular manifestations of coronavirus infection and their clinical implications311-313</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Virus</th>
                  <th>Sample size</th>
                  <th>Cardiovascular manifestations</th>
                  <th>Outcomes</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>SARS</td>
                  <td>N=121</td>
                  <td>Hypotension, tachycardia, bradycardia, cardiomegaly, and arrhythmia</td>
                  <td>Mostly transient</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>N=15</td>
                  <td>Cardiac arrest</td>
                  <td>Death</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>N=46</td>
                  <td>Subclinical diastolic impairment without systolic involvement on echocardiography</td>
                  <td>Reversible on clinical recovery</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MERS</td>
                  <td>N=1</td>
                  <td>Acute myocarditis and acute-onset heart failure</td>
                  <td>Recovered</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Covid-19</td>
                  <td>N=14</td>
                  <td>Myocardial injury (manifesting with increased high-sensitivity cardiac troponin I) in five patients</td>
                  <td>Four patients required intensive care</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>N=138</td>
                  <td>Acute cardiac injury (7.2%), shock (8.7%), and arrhythmia (16.7%)</td>
                  <td>Most patients required intensive care</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>
                <italic>Source: Adapted from Xiong et al.<sup>313</sup></italic>
              </attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>6.6.1. Possible pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2-related myocarditis</title>
          <p>The mechanisms of myocardial injury are not well established but probably involve the following: myocardial injury secondary to oxygen supply-demand mismatch; microvascular injury; systemic inflammatory response; stress cardiomyopathy; acute nonobstructive coronary syndrome; and direct viral myocardial injury<sup><xref rid="B314" ref-type="bibr">314</xref></sup>( <xref rid="f11001" ref-type="fig">Figure 11</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B315" ref-type="bibr">315</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f11001">
              <label>Figure 11</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Potential mechanisms of myocardial injury in Covid-19.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>MI: myocardial infarction; DIC: disseminated intravascular coagulation. Source: Adapted from Atri D et al.<sup>315</sup></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf11-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.6.2. Direct viral myocardial injury</title>
          <p>Case reports of myocarditis in patients with Covid-19 provide evidence of cardiac inflammation but do not determine the mechanism. SARS-CoV-2 infection is caused by the binding of viral surface spike protein to the human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. However, the spike protein must first be cleaved at the S1/S2 sites and subsequently at the S2&#8217; sites to enable binding to ACE2. Cleavage at the S1/S2 site appears to be mediated by transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2)<sup><xref rid="B316" ref-type="bibr">316</xref> , <xref rid="B317" ref-type="bibr">317</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="f12001" ref-type="fig">Figure 12</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B318" ref-type="bibr">318</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f12001">
              <label>Figure 12</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Proposed pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2 myocarditis. SARS-CoV-2 uses the spike protein (primed by TMPRSS2) to bind ACE2 to allow cell entry. Intracellular SARS-CoV-2 might impair stress granule formation via its accessory protein. Without the stress granules, the virus is allowed to replicate and damage the cell. Na&#239;ve T lymphocytes can be primed for viral antigens via antigen-presenting cells and cardiotropism by the heart-produced HGF. The HGF binds c-Met, an HGF receptor on T lymphocytes. The primed CD8+ T lymphocytes migrate to the cardiomyocytes and cause myocardial inflammation through cell-mediated cytotoxicity. In the cytokine storm syndrome, in which proinflammatory cytokines are released into the circulation, T-lymphocyte activation is increased and releases more cytokines. This results in a positive feedback loop of immune activation and myocardial damage.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>ACE2: angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; APC: antigen-presenting cell; HGF: hepatocyte growth factor; IL-6: interleukin 6; MHC: major histocompatibility complex; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.</attrib>
              <attrib>Source: Adapted from Siripanthong B et al.<sup>318</sup></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf12-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>To date, there is only one report of biopsy-proven SARS-CoV-2 myocarditis with viral inclusions or viral DNA detected in myocardial tissue.<sup><xref rid="B319" ref-type="bibr">319</xref></sup>However, viral particles were not present in cardiomyocytes, only within macrophages in the cardiac interstitium. Another hypothetical mechanism of direct viral myocardial injury is through infection-mediated vasculitis. The ACE2 receptor is highly expressed in endothelial arteries and veins.<sup><xref rid="B320" ref-type="bibr">320</xref></sup></p>
          <p>ACE2 expression is limited in cardiomyocytes but high in pericytes. Covid-19 might attack pericytes, essential for endothelial stability, causing endothelial dysfunction, which leads to microcirculatory disturbances. This explains why, although ACE2 expression is limited in cardiomyocytes, Covid-19 might cause cardiac injury.<sup><xref rid="B320" ref-type="bibr">320</xref></sup>Autopsies have shown inflammatory infiltrates consisting of macrophages and, to a lesser extent, CD4+ T cells.<sup><xref rid="B321" ref-type="bibr">321</xref> - <xref rid="B322" ref-type="bibr">322</xref> </sup>These mononuclear infiltrates are associated with regional necrosis of cardiomyocytes which, according to the Dallas criteria, defines myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B323" ref-type="bibr">323</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.6.3. Diagnosis of Covid-19-related myocarditis</title>
          <p>The clinical presentation of SARS-CoV-2 myocarditis ranges from mild symptoms such as fatigue, dyspnea, and chest pain to severe cases of cardiogenic shock. Patients may present with signs of right HF, with increased jugular venous pressure, peripheral edema, and right upper quadrant pain. The most emerging presentation is fulminant myocarditis, defined as ventricular dysfunction and HF within 2 to 3 weeks of viral infection. Early signs of fulminant myocarditis frequently resemble those of sepsis.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B324" ref-type="bibr">324</xref> - <xref rid="B329" ref-type="bibr">329</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.6.4. Laboratory</title>
          <p>Troponin and NT-proBNP elevations have been observed in cases of Covid-19 myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B312" ref-type="bibr">312</xref> , <xref rid="B324" ref-type="bibr">324</xref> - <xref rid="B326" ref-type="bibr">326</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Abnormal troponin levels are common in patients with Covid-19, especially when high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) is used. Studies evaluating the clinical course of Covid-19 have reported detectable hs-cTnI in most patients, and hs-cTnI was significantly high in more than half of patients who died.<sup><xref rid="B327" ref-type="bibr">327</xref> , <xref rid="B328" ref-type="bibr">328</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Patients with Covid-19 generally demonstrate significantly elevated BNP or NT-proBNP. The significance of this finding is uncertain and should not necessarily trigger an evaluation or treatment for HF unless there is clear clinical evidence for diagnosis. In patients with Covid-19, increased BNP or NT-proBNP levels may also be secondary to myocardial stress as a possible effect of severe respiratory disease.</p>
          <p>Because of the low frequency and nonspecific nature of abnormal troponin or natriuretic peptide levels in patients with Covid-19, measurements should only be performed if the clinical diagnosis of acute MI or HF is under consideration. Abnormal troponin or natriuretic peptide results should not be considered evidence of acute MI or HF without additional diagnostic evidence.<sup><xref rid="B329" ref-type="bibr">329</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.6.5. Electrocardiogram</title>
          <p>ECG changes commonly associated with pericarditis, such as ST-segment elevation and PR-segment depression, are seen in myocarditis;<sup><xref rid="B310" ref-type="bibr">310</xref></sup>however, these findings are not sensitive enough to detect the disease, and their absence does not exclude the diagnosis.</p>
          <p>For example, a patient with Covid-19-related myocarditis has shown neither ST-segment elevation nor PR-segment depression.<sup><xref rid="B330" ref-type="bibr">330</xref></sup>Other ECG abnormalities, including new bundle branch block, prolonged QT interval, pseudoinfarction pattern, ventricular extrasystoles, and bradyarrhythmia with advanced AV block, might be seen in myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B331" ref-type="bibr">331</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Recently, a case series of patients with confirmed Covid-19 who presented with, at some point in the infection, ST-segment elevation on ECG was published.<sup><xref rid="B332" ref-type="bibr">332</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.6.6. Imaging</title>
          <p>A recent ESC document lists the conditions that must be considered in a situation requiring the use of any cardiovascular imaging method in patients with Covid-19: imaging studies should only be performed if the management is likely to be changed by the results or if saving a patient&#8217;s life is at stake; the best imaging modality to meet the demand should be used considering the safety of the medical team regarding exposure; nonurgent, elective, or routine examinations should be postponed or even canceled.<sup><xref rid="B333" ref-type="bibr">333</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Thus, transthoracic echocardiography, despite playing a key role in the cardiovascular work-up of these patients, should not be routinely indicated in view of the current Covid-19 pandemic, and specific cases require careful consideration.<sup><xref rid="B334" ref-type="bibr">334</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Recent Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT) recommendations for the use of coronary CT angiography in patients with Covid-19 include acute HF of unknown cause<sup><xref rid="B335" ref-type="bibr">335</xref> , <xref rid="B336" ref-type="bibr">336</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="t65001" ref-type="table">Table 30</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B337" ref-type="bibr">337</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t65001">
              <label>Table 30</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT) recommendations for the use of coronary computed tomography angiography in the context of Covid-19</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Urgency category</th>
                    <th>Clinical conditions</th>
                    <th>Timing for examination</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Elective</td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Asymptomatic or stable coronary artery disease</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Cardiomyopathy or stable structural heart disease (valvular, TAVI or AF ablation planning, congenital)</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Benign masses</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td>&gt; 8 weeks</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Semiurgent</td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Chronic AF cardioversion</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Chronic or subacute prosthetic valve dysfunction</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td>Within 4 to 8 weeks</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Urgent</td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>High-risk acute or stable chest pain</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Urgent structural interventions (TAVI, left atrial appendage occlusion, etc.) or acute AF cardioversion</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Acute heart failure of unknown cause</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Acute valve (or prosthetic valve) dysfunction</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Malignant mass biopsy planning</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td>Within hours to &lt;2 to 4 weeks (depending on severity)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN13001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Rule out thrombi when CMR is not feasible. AF: atrial fibrillation; TAVI: transcatheter aortic valve replacement. Source: Adapted from Araujo-Filho et al.<sup>337</sup></italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>The ESC document suggests that positive troponins and myocardial dysfunction or severe arrhythmia not explained by other methods may be an indication for CMR if the diagnosis is crucial for the treatment and the patient is stable enough to be safely transferred and undergo the procedure.<sup><xref rid="B334" ref-type="bibr">334</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In this context, current Society for Cardiovascular of Magnetic Resonance (SCMR) guidance suggests that CMR examinations should be considered judiciously and individually in cases of suspected acute myocarditis with immediate implications for patient management.<sup><xref rid="B337" ref-type="bibr">337</xref></sup>If CMR is performed, the results should be interpreted according to the LLC: (1) edema; (2) irreversible cell injury; and (3) hyperemia or capillary leakage<sup><xref rid="B338" ref-type="bibr">338</xref></sup>( <xref rid="t66001" ref-type="table">Table 31</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B337" ref-type="bibr">337</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t66001">
              <label>Table 31</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Society for Cardiovascular of Magnetic Resonance (SCMR) recommendations for the use of cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging in the context of Covid-19</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Clinical conditions</th>
                    <th>Suggested timing for examination</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Investigation of ischemia and myocardial viability to guide urgent revascularization</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td>Within 1 week depending on severity</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Suspected intracardiac mass or thrombus with contraindication to anticoagulation or in patients with suspected embolic events</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Urgent ablation planning in unstable patients with severe arrhythmias</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Pericardial constriction requiring potentially urgent surgery</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Planning for percutaneous implantation of a prosthetic heart valve requiring urgent surgery</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN14001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Note 1: Choices based on expert consensus. Note 2: Individual clinical status and contraindications to examination must be considered. Source: Araujo-Filho et al.<sup>337</sup></italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.6.7. Endomyocardial biopsy</title>
          <p>The AHA and the ESC recommend EMB for the definitive diagnosis of myocarditis, but both societies recognize its limitations.<sup><xref rid="B339" ref-type="bibr">339</xref> , <xref rid="B340" ref-type="bibr">340</xref> </sup>In the SARS-CoV-2 era, the clinical utility and the role of EMB, currently the gold standard for the diagnosis of myocarditis, remain uncertain; also, performing noninvasive imaging, such as echocardiography and CMR, with adequate safety and isolation measures has been challenging.<sup><xref rid="B341" ref-type="bibr">341</xref> , <xref rid="B342" ref-type="bibr">342</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Another point to consider is that, in some cases, SARS-CoV-2 infection may not initially manifest through clear signs and symptoms of interstitial pneumonia but instead as myocarditis without respiratory symptoms, sometimes complicated by cardiogenic shock with a fulminating course.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> , <xref rid="B316" ref-type="bibr">316</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Additionally, there is limited evidence regarding the therapeutic treatment of SARSCoV-2-associated myocarditis. A case report showed that early therapy with glucocorticoids and immunoglobulins was beneficial to the patient.<sup><xref rid="B316" ref-type="bibr">316</xref></sup>Corticosteroids have been used in several viral respiratory infections (influenza, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV) with reports of limited benefit and, in some cases, delayed viral clearance and increased mortality.<sup><xref rid="B333" ref-type="bibr">333</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, the ESC Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases recommends the use of steroids in myocarditis due to proven autoimmune diseases and virus-negative myocarditis only after active infection is assessed on EMB.<sup><xref rid="B340" ref-type="bibr">340</xref></sup>Clearly, EMB is not always available in real-world practice, and its role in SARS-CoV-2-related myocarditis remains unknown. Furthermore, in the absence of randomized multicenter trials, routine use of immunoglobulin is also not recommended.</p>
          <p>In conclusion, there are significant gaps in the assessment of MI in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection that require a thorough diagnostic evaluation, prioritized treatments, and more aggressive strategies,<sup><xref rid="B318" ref-type="bibr">318</xref> , <xref rid="B319" ref-type="bibr">319</xref> </sup>if necessary, especially in those who develop cardiogenic shock during fulminating myocarditis<sup><xref rid="B332" ref-type="bibr">332</xref> - <xref rid="B342" ref-type="bibr">342</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="f13001" ref-type="fig">Figure 13</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B318" ref-type="bibr">318</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f13001">
              <label>Figure 13</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Suggested diagnostic and management protocol for SARS-CoV-2-related myocarditis.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; CMR: cardiovascular magnetic resonance; CRP: C-reactive protein; CT-CA: computed tomography-coronary angiogram; DCCV: direct current cardioversion; ECG: electrocardiogram; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; ESR: erythrocyte sedimentation rate; IABP: intra-aortic balloon pump; IVIg: intravenous immunoglobulin; QT: QT interval; VAD: ventricular assist device. Source: Adapted from Siripanthong et al.<sup>318</sup></attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf13-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.7. Acute cardiotoxicity of antineoplastic therapy</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.7.1. Antineoplastic agents inducing acute cardiotoxicity</title>
          <p>The evolution of cancer treatment in recent decades has resulted in improved survival and quality of life for patients.<sup><xref rid="B343" ref-type="bibr">343</xref></sup>Simultaneously, however, increased longevity has led to longer exposure to cardiovascular risk factors, in addition to the potential risk of cardiovascular injury induced by chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy.<sup><xref rid="B344" ref-type="bibr">344</xref></sup>Recent studies have demonstrated that there are two periods of increased occurrence of cardiovascular disease in patients with cancer: the first year after diagnosis and the years after cure, when patients are called survivors, a group that has shown significantly increased cardiovascular mortality.<sup><xref rid="B345" ref-type="bibr">345</xref> , <xref rid="B346" ref-type="bibr">346</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Myocarditis is an emerging toxicity of relevance. Recently, cancer treatment-related myocarditis has been noted as a result of the evolution of immunotherapy, more specifically immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs).<sup><xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref> , <xref rid="B348" ref-type="bibr">348</xref> </sup>However, it is potentially associated with any therapy that modulates the immune system. Identifying myocarditis in oncology clinical trials is challenging given its relatively low incidence and high mortality rate.</p>
          <p>Importantly, the following recommendations are based on expert consensus given the paucity of scientific data on this topic.</p>
          <p>The classic model of cardiotoxicity consists of ventricular dysfunction caused by anthracyclines.<sup><xref rid="B349" ref-type="bibr">349</xref></sup>Anthracyclines are a class of chemotherapeutic drugs still widely used today. HF affects up to 30% of patients and usually appears months after treatment, being related to a cumulative dose above 300 mg/m<sup>2</sup>. Most cases are subacute or chronic and manifest months and even years after treatment, with irreversibility being the predominant characteristic. Anthracycline-induced acute myocarditis is a rare manifestation that has no relationship with dose and is reversible in most cases.<sup><xref rid="B350" ref-type="bibr">350</xref></sup>The mechanism of toxic action is directly linked to the oxidative stress resulting from anthracycline metabolism, in addition to the inhibition of topoisomerase IIb, which ultimately leads to cardiomyocyte DNA damage through mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis.<sup><xref rid="B351" ref-type="bibr">351</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Cyclophosphamide is a nitrogen mustard that acts as an alkylating agent and is usually included in chemotherapy regimens involving the concomitant use of anthracyclines. It may result in acute toxic myocarditis with multifocal hemorrhage, characterized by endothelitis, hemorrhagic capillaritis, and thrombogenesis.<sup><xref rid="B352" ref-type="bibr">352</xref></sup></p>
          <p>ICIs currently are the most commonly studied model for inducing myocarditis, especially nivolumab, durvalimab, ipilimumab, pembrolizumab, and atezolizumab.<sup><xref rid="B353" ref-type="bibr">353</xref></sup>This therapy has revolutionized cancer treatment in recent years by improving the survival of patients with lung cancer, head and neck cancer, renal carcinoma, and melanoma, among others.<sup><xref rid="B354" ref-type="bibr">354</xref></sup>The mechanism of action consists of blocking the apoptosis of T lymphocytes (anti-CTLA4, anti-PD1, anti-PDL1), culminating in the activation of lymphocytes throughout the body. If this, on the one hand, reactivates the lymphocytes and antitumor immunity, on the other hand, activated T lymphocytes might trigger severe myocarditis, which is fatal in up to 50% of cases. Clinically, it affects 0.2% of patients and manifests, on average, 30 to 90 days after starting treatment.<sup><xref rid="B355" ref-type="bibr">355</xref> , <xref rid="B356" ref-type="bibr">356</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.7.2. Diagnosis of acute cardiotoxicity</title>
          <p>Myocarditis in patients with cancer should be diagnosed in situations of cardiac conditions without an alternative primary diagnosis (eg, acute coronary syndrome, trauma, etc.).<sup><xref rid="B357" ref-type="bibr">357</xref></sup>Clinical history should consider drug regimen, treatment duration, and other comorbidities. Laboratory diagnosis includes the measurement of biomarkers such as hs-cTn and NT-proBNP. In immunotherapy-related myocarditis, CPK measurement is also recommended because of an association with myositis in up to 20% of cases.<sup><xref rid="B358" ref-type="bibr">358</xref></sup></p>
          <p>An ECG may be useful for confirming suspected myocarditis. Possible findings are ventricular arrhythmias, ST-T wave abnormalities, PR-segment changes, bradycardias, and blocks.<sup><xref rid="B357" ref-type="bibr">357</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Echocardiography is the imaging test of choice for a diagnostic approach to myocarditis. It is performed at baseline and during follow-up to assess function over time. The most common findings include diffuse systolic dysfunction, segmental abnormalities, changes in ventricular sphericity, increased wall thickness, pericardial effusion, and strain changes.<sup><xref rid="B357" ref-type="bibr">357</xref></sup></p>
          <p>MRI is the most sensitive imaging modality for the diagnosis of myocarditis and can determine the prognosis. A combination of MRI findings has been termed the Lake Louise criteria (LLC) for the diagnosis of acute myocarditis. Many advances have occurred in the diagnosis of myocarditis via MRI, including improved tissue characterization using T1 and T2 mapping and extracellular calcium.<sup><xref rid="B359" ref-type="bibr">359</xref></sup></p>
          <p>EMB may be considered for investigation of chemotherapy- and immunotherapy-related myocarditis. Experts recommend performing a biopsy whenever possible because in many cases, before significant clinical manifestations, pathologic findings already show the severity of the pathogenic changes of cancer myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B360" ref-type="bibr">360</xref></sup></p>
          <p>We describe below the main antineoplastic agents that potentially induce myocarditis and their manifestations ( <xref rid="t67001" ref-type="table">Table 32</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t67001">
              <label>Table 32</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Characteristics of cancer treatment-induced myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th> </th>
                    <th>Anthracyclines</th>
                    <th>Cyclophosphamide</th>
                    <th>Immune checkpoint inhibitors</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Incidence</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>10%</td>
                    <td>10%</td>
                    <td>0.2%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Mortality</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>20%</td>
                    <td>20%</td>
                    <td>50%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Clinical manifestation</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Acute HF</td>
                    <td>Acute HF</td>
                    <td>Acute HF</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Diagnosis</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Clinical, laboratory, imaging, and biopsy</td>
                    <td>Clinical, laboratory, imaging, and biopsy</td>
                    <td>Clinical, laboratory, imaging, and biopsy</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Reversibility</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Usually reversible</td>
                    <td>Usually reversible</td>
                    <td>Usually irreversible</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Reexposure</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Possible</td>
                    <td>Possible</td>
                    <td>Not recommended</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN15001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>HF: heart failure.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.7.3. Treatment of acute cardiotoxicity</title>
          <p>When a diagnosis is suspected, treatment should be started immediately, as timing is an important factor to determine the course of the disease. Although there are no large prospective studies to guide treatment in ICI-associated myocarditis, immunosuppression is the cornerstone of treatment.</p>
          <p>Intravenous steroids are widely used in immune-related adverse events (irAEs) and may be effective in ICI-associated myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref></sup>High-dose corticosteroids (eg, methylprednisone 1000 mg daily for 3 days followed by prednisone 1 mg/kg) are commonly used and may be associated with better outcomes.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup>Mahmood et al.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup>reported that 31% of 35 patients received corticosteroids, and that high-dose steroids were associated with lower peak troponin levels and lower rates of major adverse cardiac events (MACEs) compared to lower doses of corticosteroid. The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) recommends an initial corticosteroid dose of 1 mg/kg.<sup><xref rid="B361" ref-type="bibr">361</xref></sup>Therapy duration is unclear, but ASCO recommends tapering over 4 to 6 weeks in patients with irAEs. Serum cardiac biomarkers (eg, troponins, BNP) may be useful for defining the need for longer therapy duration after weaning.</p>
          <p>Additional immunosuppression may also be used. Anecdotal evidence suggests that other immunosuppressants such as IVIg,<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref></sup>infliximab,<sup><xref rid="B363" ref-type="bibr">363</xref></sup>mycophenolate mofetil,<sup><xref rid="B364" ref-type="bibr">364</xref></sup>tacrolimus,<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref></sup>antithymocyte globulin,<sup><xref rid="B365" ref-type="bibr">365</xref> , <xref rid="B366" ref-type="bibr">366</xref> </sup>plasmapheresis,<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref></sup>abatacept,<sup><xref rid="B367" ref-type="bibr">367</xref></sup>and alemtuzumab<sup><xref rid="B368" ref-type="bibr">368</xref></sup>may be effective. In a study conducted by Mahmood et al.,<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup>a small number of patients received other nonsteroidal immunosuppressants; given the lack of robust data on their efficacy in ICI-associated myocarditis, such agents are generally reserved for refractory or very severe cases.</p>
          <p>We suggest considering the addition of nonsteroidal immunosuppression in patients who do not show symptomatic, functional, or biomarker improvement within 24 to 48 hours of corticosteroid initiation. The choice of the second agent is not defined but may be motivated by availability and contraindications. Several sequential immunosuppressants may be required to achieve remission.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup></p>
          <p>We recommend initiating high-dose intravenous steroids at the time of diagnosis of ICI-associated myocarditis (methylprednisone 1 mg/kg/day). Cardiac biomarkers (troponin and BNP) should be measured sequentially. If cardiac biomarkers continue to increase despite the use of high-dose steroids, plasmapheresis should be initiated. An additional immunosuppressant may be required if cardiac biomarkers continue to increase or if the patient presents with new or more severe arrhythmias or HF ( <xref rid="f14001" ref-type="fig">Figure 14</xref> ). The choice of immunosuppressant depends on local experience and coexisting comorbidities ( <xref rid="t68001" ref-type="table">Table 33</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f14001">
              <label>Figure 14</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Proposed therapeutic course with immunosuppression, biomarkers, and ventricular function assessment.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; ECHO: echocardiogram; IV: intravenous.</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf14-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t68001">
              <label>Table 33</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Immunosuppressants used in the treatment of immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Immunosuppressant</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Dose</th>
                    <th>Start</th>
                    <th>Duration</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Methylprednisolone</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Corticosteroids</td>
                    <td>1 mg/kg/day</td>
                    <td>At diagnosis</td>
                    <td>2 to 3 days</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Prednisone</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Corticosteroids</td>
                    <td>40 to 60 mg/day</td>
                    <td>Day 2-3</td>
                    <td>Slowly wean over 4 to 8 weeks</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Infliximab</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>TNF-alpha inhibitor</td>
                    <td>5 mg/kg</td>
                    <td>Day 4-5</td>
                    <td>Single dose (may be repeated within a few months)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Antimonocyte globulin</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>?</td>
                    <td>10 to 30 mg/kg</td>
                    <td>Day 2-3</td>
                    <td>7 to 14 days</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Tacrolimus</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Calcineurin inhibitor</td>
                    <td>0.10 to 0.15 mg/kg/day</td>
                    <td>?</td>
                    <td>?</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Mycophenolate mofetil</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>IMPDH inhibitor</td>
                    <td>1g 2&#215;/day</td>
                    <td>?</td>
                    <td>?</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Abatacept</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>CTLA-4 agonist</td>
                    <td>500 mg every 2 weeks</td>
                    <td>Day 7-14</td>
                    <td>Total of 5 doses</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Alemtuzumab</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Anti-CD52</td>
                    <td>30 mg</td>
                    <td>?</td>
                    <td>Single dose</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN16001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>IMPDH: inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>We recommend administering a single dose of infliximab (5 mg/kg) in the absence of contraindications (eg, tuberculosis, hepatitis). Alternatively, antithymocyte globulin (10 to 30 mg/kg), alemtuzumab (30 mg once), or abatacept (500 mg) may be used. Within 3 to 5 days of corticosteroid initiation, ventricular function should be examined by echocardiography or CMR. Patients showing significantly improved LV function (improvement in LVEF of at least 5%) can be converted to oral corticosteroids (prednisone 40 to 60 mg daily) for a long period (4 to 8 weeks). If biomarkers decline and the patient shows a clinical response, mycophenolate mofetil or tacrolimus can be used to shorten steroid chronicity. Given the high mortality and morbidity of immune-related myocarditis, ICIs should be discontinued even in patients with mild cardiotoxicity ( <xref rid="t68001" ref-type="table">Table 33</xref> ).</p>
          <p>Because of the potential reversibility of ICI-associated myocarditis, supportive therapies may be instituted after careful multidisciplinary consideration of the underlying malignancy status and recovery potential. Supportive strategies may include inotropic support, temporary or permanent pacemaker, and temporary mechanical circulatory support (eg, intra-aortic balloon pump,<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup>percutaneous ventricular assist devices,<sup><xref rid="B369" ref-type="bibr">369</xref></sup>or ECMO).<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref> , <xref rid="B364" ref-type="bibr">364</xref> </sup>A careful RV assessment should be performed prior to insertion of LV assist devices, as ICI-associated myocarditis is highly likely to affect the RV,<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref> , <xref rid="B364" ref-type="bibr">364</xref> , <xref rid="B369" ref-type="bibr">369</xref> </sup>which may require biventricular support.<sup><xref rid="B363" ref-type="bibr">363</xref> , <xref rid="B369" ref-type="bibr">369</xref> </sup>Furthermore, owing to the prothrombotic environment induced by the underlying neoplasm and irAEs, excluding LV thrombi with CMR or contrast-enhanced echocardiography before insertion of percutaneous LV assist devices is essential.<sup><xref rid="B363" ref-type="bibr">363</xref></sup>Drug therapy for HF should be initiated as tolerated. This includes angiotensin blockers (ACEI, ARB, angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor [ARNi]), beta-blockers, and mineralocorticoid antagonists (eg, spironolactone).</p>
          <p>The safety of restarting ICI therapy after myocarditis has resolved is unknown. In a study of 40 patients who developed irAEs (1 ICI-associated myocarditis) and had ICIs reintroduced (43% used the same agent), 22 (55%) developed recurrent irAEs during a 14-month follow-up period. Extrapolating these data to ICI-associated myocarditis and considering the high probability of recurrent irAEs with reintroduction, ASCO recommends permanent discontinuation of ICIs in all cases of immune-related myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B370" ref-type="bibr">370</xref></sup>There is a report of successful reintroduction in one case of mild myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B371" ref-type="bibr">371</xref></sup>Also, reintroduction of ICI might be attempted in select cases of mild, asymptomatic (grade I) ICI-associated myocarditis,<sup><xref rid="B361" ref-type="bibr">361</xref></sup>especially with low-risk ICIs such as pembrolizumab. However, this recommendation remains controversial.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.7.4 Prognosis</title>
          <p>The prognosis of ICI-associated myocarditis is challenging because of the rare nature of this condition. In a multicenter registry of 35 patients with ICI-associated myocarditis, nearly half (n = 16) developed MACEs over 102 days (6 cardiovascular deaths, 3 cardiogenic shocks, 4 cardiac arrests, and 3 complete heart blocks).<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref> </sup>In a French registry of 30 patients with ICI-associated myocarditis at two centers, eight patients died from cardiovascular complications. A recent study that followed-up 101 patients with ICI-associated myocarditis showed a MACE rate of 51% during a 162-day follow-up period.<sup><xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref></sup>The mortality rate among 250 patients with ICI-associated myocarditis reported to the US Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) was 50%.<sup><xref rid="B361" ref-type="bibr">361</xref></sup>There was no difference in mortality rate by age, sex, year of reporting, or ICI type (antiprogrammed cell death protein-1/ligand-1 vs. anticytotoxic T-lymphocyte protein-4).<sup><xref rid="B362" ref-type="bibr">362</xref></sup>Mahmood et al.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup>found that patients with ICI-associated myocarditis and elevated troponin level at the time of discharge had significantly higher rates of MACEs (discharge troponin T &#8805;1.5 ng/mL: HR: 4.0; 95% CI: 1.5-10.9; p = 0.003). Escudier et al.<sup><xref rid="B348" ref-type="bibr">348</xref></sup>reported that 80% of patients with ICI-associated myocarditis and conduction disorder had cardiovascular death. A recent study of patients with ICI-associated myocarditis reported that global longitudinal strain obtained at diagnosis was strongly associated with MACEs over a 162-day follow-up period.<sup><xref rid="B363" ref-type="bibr">363</xref></sup>Given the small number of patients in those studies, it is difficult to identify risk factors contributing to a poor prognosis in patients with ICI-associated myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B364" ref-type="bibr">364</xref> - <xref rid="B368" ref-type="bibr">368</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Overall, recovery rates with appropriate therapy have been substantial. A total of 67% of patients receiving steroids showed recovered LV function in a French registry on ICI-associated myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B347" ref-type="bibr">347</xref></sup>Recovery has also been described in patients with fulminant ICI-associated myocarditis requiring mechanical circulatory support.<sup><xref rid="B369" ref-type="bibr">369</xref> - <xref rid="B374" ref-type="bibr">374</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.7.5. Prevention</title>
          <p>Most published studies on the prevention of chemotherapy-induced cardiotoxicity have focused on anthracyclines and anti-HER2 agents.</p>
          <p>Prevention of cardiotoxicity should start before cancer treatment with an evaluation of cardiovascular risk and a conversation between the cardiologist and the oncologist in order to plan the best approach during cancer treatment.</p>
          <p>Patients at higher risk of developing cardiotoxicity are those with classic risk factors for cardiovascular disease (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, smoking, obesity, and sedentary behavior, among others) or those with higher exposure to cardiotoxic drugs (high cumulative doses of anthracyclines, cardiotoxic drug combinations, and a history of chemotherapy or radiotherapy).<sup><xref rid="B375" ref-type="bibr">375</xref> , <xref rid="B376" ref-type="bibr">376</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>The main recommendations for preventing cardiotoxicity are described in <xref rid="t69001" ref-type="table">Table 34</xref> .</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t69001">
              <label>Table 34</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Measures to prevent cardiotoxicity</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Chemotherapeutic drug</th>
                    <th>Cardioprotective measure</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td>Identify cardiovascular risk factors</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Treat comorbidities (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, smoking, sedentary behavior, obesity)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Moderate-intensity aerobic exercise</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Arrhythmias: avoid QT prolonging drugs, manage electrolyte abnormalities</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Minimize cardiac radiation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Anthracyclines</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Limit cumulative dose (mg/m2):</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td>Daunorubicin &lt;800</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Doxorubicin &lt;360</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Epirubicin &lt;720</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Mitoxantrone &lt;160</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Idarubicin &lt;150</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td>Use liposomal formulations</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td>Perform continuous infusions</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td>Use less cardiotoxic analogues (epirubicin, idarubicin)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td>Assess use of cardioprotective drugs (dexrazoxane, ACEIs, beta-blockers, statins)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Trastuzumab</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Assess use of cardioprotective drugs (ACEIs, beta-blockers)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN17001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>ACEIs: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; QT: QT interval. Source: Adapted from Zamorano et al.<sup>377</sup></italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Dexrazoxane, an iron chelator, is the only cardioprotective drug that has been approved for prevention of cardiotoxicity. Its protective effect against anthracycline cardiotoxicity has been proven in several studies addressing both the adult and pediatric populations.<sup><xref rid="B376" ref-type="bibr">376</xref> - <xref rid="B383" ref-type="bibr">383</xref> </sup>The limitations of dexrazoxane are the high cost and some potential adverse effects, such as interference in the efficacy of anthracyclines, risk of secondary tumor development (controversial evidence),<sup><xref rid="B384" ref-type="bibr">384</xref> , <xref rid="B385" ref-type="bibr">385</xref> </sup>and bone marrow toxicity. Dexrazoxane is indicated for adults with advanced or metastatic breast cancer who have previously received a cumulative dose of 300 mg/m<sup>2</sup>of doxorubicin, 540 mg/m<sup>2</sup>of epirubicin, when continuing treatment with anthracyclines is required.</p>
          <p>The use of cardiovascular drugs such as beta-blockers, ACEIs, and ARBs in the prevention of cardiotoxicity secondary to anthracyclines is controversial and has been based on few clinical trials.<sup><xref rid="B386" ref-type="bibr">386</xref> - <xref rid="B391" ref-type="bibr">391</xref> </sup>Some evidence has shown benefits of beta-blockers and ACEIs in patients who have used high cumulative doses of anthracyclines or in high-risk patients with positive troponin during chemotherapy.<sup><xref rid="B386" ref-type="bibr">386</xref> , <xref rid="B390" ref-type="bibr">390</xref> </sup>At lower cumulative doses of anthracycline, this benefit has not been shown with beta-blockers,<sup><xref rid="B389" ref-type="bibr">389</xref> , <xref rid="B392" ref-type="bibr">392</xref> </sup>but there has been a slight preventive effect with ARBs.<sup><xref rid="B389" ref-type="bibr">389</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The CECCY trial,<sup><xref rid="B392" ref-type="bibr">392</xref></sup>a Brazilian study which tested the use of beta-blockers for primary prevention of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity, did not demonstrate a preventive benefit of carvedilol. However, carvedilol was associated with reduced troponin levels and a lower percentage of patients with onset of diastolic dysfunction.</p>
          <p>Regarding the use of trastuzumab, some studies suggest a benefit in the prevention of cardiotoxicity<sup><xref rid="B393" ref-type="bibr">393</xref> , <xref rid="B394" ref-type="bibr">394</xref> </sup>as well as after the onset of cardiotoxicity by helping in the recovery of ventricular dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B395" ref-type="bibr">395</xref></sup>The decision to discontinue or restart chemotherapy must be made jointly by weighing the risks and benefits of maintaining cancer treatment.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6,8. Myocarditis in children and adolescents</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.8.1. Causal factors</title>
          <p>Myocarditis in children and adolescents has a particular etiology, and underdiagnosis may occur because its initial presentation is similar to those of a number of common viruses in childhood. Over 83% of patients are estimated to attend the emergency department at least twice before diagnosis.<sup><xref rid="B396" ref-type="bibr">396</xref></sup>In retrospective analyses, chest pain has been predominantly reported in children over 10 years of age, and the most commonly observed signs in younger patients have been tachypnea, fever, and respiratory distress<sup><xref rid="B397" ref-type="bibr">397</xref></sup>( <xref rid="t70001" ref-type="table">Table 35</xref> ). The application of diagnostic algorithms in emergency rooms has shown promising results, including the possibility of increasing the number of suspected patients ( <xref rid="f15001" ref-type="fig">Figure 15</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B239" ref-type="bibr">239</xref> , <xref rid="B398" ref-type="bibr">398</xref> </sup>Regarding etiology, studies evaluating the collection of a viral panel in the acute phase and biopsy confirmation have found a predominance of B19V, followed by enteroviruses, coxsackievirus B, and HHV.<sup><xref rid="B398" ref-type="bibr">398</xref></sup>Cases of arboviral diseases &#8211; dengue, Zika, and chikungunya &#8211; have been described in endemic regions across the world.<sup><xref rid="B399" ref-type="bibr">399</xref></sup>More recently, new presentations have emerged with the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, including myocardial injury associated or not with multisystem inflammatory syndrome whose pathophysiology remains unclear.<sup><xref rid="B400" ref-type="bibr">400</xref></sup>Survivors of childhood cancer treatment, especially those undergoing treatment with anthracyclines and ICIs, are at high risk for the onset of an inflammatory process leading to HF in adulthood.<sup><xref rid="B401" ref-type="bibr">401</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t70001">
              <label>Table 35</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Most common clinical findings at initial presentation of myocarditis in children and adolescents</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Signs and symptoms</th>
                    <th>Below 2 years of age</th>
                    <th>Preschoolers</th>
                    <th>School-age children and adolescents</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Specific</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Signs of HF</td>
                    <td>Signs of HF</td>
                    <td>Signs of HF</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td>History of viral disease in the past 3 to 6 weeks</td>
                    <td>History of viral disease in the past 3 to 6 weeks</td>
                    <td>Chest pain</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Chest pain (uncommon)</td>
                    <td>Chest pain (unlikely)</td>
                    <td>History of viral disease may not be so clear</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Nonspecific</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Fever</td>
                    <td>Dyspnea on exertion</td>
                    <td>Dyspnea on exertion</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td>Lethargy</td>
                    <td>Tachycardia at rest</td>
                    <td>Tachycardia at rest</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Irritability</td>
                    <td>Muscle fatigue</td>
                    <td>Muscle fatigue</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Perfusion change</td>
                    <td>Arrhythmia</td>
                    <td>Arrhythmia</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Decreased intake</td>
                    <td>Shock</td>
                    <td>Shock</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Tachycardia at rest</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Arrhythmia</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Shock</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN18001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>HF: heart failure.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f15001">
              <label>Figure 15</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Flowchart for investigation of suspected myocarditis in children and adolescents.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>BNP: brain natriuretic peptide; CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; CNS: central nervous system; CRP: C-reactive protein; CV: cardiovascular; EMB: endomyocardial biopsy; GI: gastrointestinal; HF: heart failure; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.</attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf15-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.8.2. Prognosis</title>
          <p>Estimating the incidence and prevalence of pediatric myocarditis is challenging because of the wide spectrum of symptoms, which may range from a mild viral infection without hemodynamic compromise to congestive HF with ventricular dysfunction, arrhythmias, and sudden death.<sup><xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref> , <xref rid="B402" ref-type="bibr">402</xref> - <xref rid="B405" ref-type="bibr">405</xref> </sup>As the symptoms are often nonspecific, a significant number of cases are not diagnosed, which makes the actual incidence and prognosis difficult to characterize. However, this is the most common etiology of dilated cardiomyopathy in children.</p>
          <p>With improvements in intensive care services, including mechanical circulatory support, the prognosis of children of all age groups has improved, and complete recovery has been possible even in cases of fulminant disease.<sup><xref rid="B402" ref-type="bibr">402</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Key outcomes in pediatric patients include complete recovery, progression to dilated cardiomyopathy, and death or heart transplantation.<sup><xref rid="B405" ref-type="bibr">405</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Children with viral myocarditis are believed to have a better prognosis than those with dilated cardiomyopathy. Survival in pediatric patients with myocarditis is up to 93%. However, a multicenter study addressing all age groups demonstrated a significant mortality in neonates and infants. Survival in this group ranged from 33% to 45%, and clinical improvement ranged from 23% to 32%. In children aged 1 to 18 years, survival was higher, approximately 78% to 80%, and clinical improvement ranged from 46% to 67%.<sup><xref rid="B406" ref-type="bibr">406</xref></sup>In a recent Pediatric Cardiomyopathy Registry (PCMR) study, children with biopsy-proven myocarditis had a 3-year survival of 75%; also, 54% had normalized ventricular dimensions and function, and only 20% showed persistent echocardiographic abnormalities.<sup><xref rid="B404" ref-type="bibr">404</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A study of 28 patients with confirmed myocarditis reported that only 17 survived and were discharged showing varying degrees of improved cardiac function. The remaining 11 patients progressed to refractory HF; seven required heart transplantation, and four died. Predictors of poor prognosis were ejection fraction below 30%, fractional shortening below 15%, left ventricular dilatation, and moderate-to-severe mitral regurgitation.<sup><xref rid="B406" ref-type="bibr">406</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Several case series of children requiring mechanical circulatory support for myocarditis have reported a survival rate between 67% and 83%. Of 21 patients mechanically supported with the Berlin Heart EXCOR device for myocarditis or dilated cardiomyopathy, 90% survived and were discharged.<sup><xref rid="B407" ref-type="bibr">407</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Prognosis in EMB-proven myocarditis depends on the severity of symptoms, histological classification, and biomarkers. Acute fulminant myocarditis is associated with higher survival. Giant cell myocarditis, although rare, is associated with a poor prognosis; median survival is 5.5 months, and mortality or transplantation rate is 89%.<sup><xref rid="B406" ref-type="bibr">406</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Myocarditis accounts for at least 50% of all dilated cardiomyopathies in childhood. The outcome of patients with viral myocarditis is better than that of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. For this reason, myocarditis should always be suspected, and supportive measures should be initiated as early as possible to prevent a patient with myocarditis from being placed on a transplant waiting list without having a chance of recovery. The indication for transplantation in myocarditis should only be considered when recovery is unfavorable despite adequate therapeutic management ( <xref rid="t71001" ref-type="table">Table 36</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t71001">
              <label>Table 36</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Key information about myocarditis in children and adolescents</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Myocarditis in children and adolescents</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Key outcomes include complete recovery, progression to dilated cardiomyopathy, and death or heart transplantation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Intravenous immunoglobulin has become a standard practice in the treatment of myocarditis, but its effect on cardiac function is still not fully understood</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>The spectrum of clinical manifestations of myocarditis is very wide, ranging from a mild viral infection to congestive heart failure with cardiogenic shock requiring inotropic or mechanical circulatory support</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Although endomyocardial biopsy is considered the gold standard for diagnosis of myocarditis, the risk of adverse events in children ranges from 1% to 5% (tachyarrhythmias, hypotension after anesthesia, ischemic changes, ventricular perforation). Therefore, this technique has not been routinely adopted<sup>5</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ejection fraction &lt;42% and elevated troponin at diagnosis are most significantly associated with mortality</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Patients who survive the acute phase have better long-term outcomes than those who have a more insidious condition</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Myocarditis is the most common etiology of dilated cardiomyopathy in childhood</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>IVIg therapy has been included in immunomodulatory treatment of children with acute myocarditis at many centers, being used at a standard dose of 2 g/kg over 24 hours. This practice has been established since the classic 1994 study conducted by Drucker et al.<sup><xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref></sup>A tendency towards ventricular function recovery has been demonstrated in those who received immunoglobulin. In a cohort of 94 patients with new-onset cardiomyopathy, IVIg was administered to 22% of patients, and 5-year follow-up data have demonstrated a higher rate of recovery compared to patients who did not receive immunoglobulin.<sup><xref rid="B408" ref-type="bibr">408</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A Taiwanese study of 94 patients evaluated receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curves and found that ejection fraction &lt;42% (sensitivity, 86.7% and specificity, 82.8%) and troponin I &gt;45 ng/mL (sensitivity, 62.6% and specificity, 91%) were most significantly associated with mortality.<sup><xref rid="B403" ref-type="bibr">403</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Several studies have shown that patients who survive the initial acute phase have a more favorable long-term outcome, unlike those with more insidious disease.</p>
          <p>Histological evidence of myocarditis as a cause of dilated cardiomyopathy has been considered a positive prognostic indicator for recovery, with chances of cure ranging from 50% to 80% within 2 years.<sup><xref rid="B402" ref-type="bibr">402</xref></sup>Likewise, a delayed progression to chronic HF requiring heart transplantation may occur even after an initial clinical improvement.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.9. Myocarditis with pericardial involvement</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.9.1. Diagnosis and treatment</title>
          <p>Myocarditis and pericarditis are often associated in clinical practice, representing different spectra within the group of inflammatory myopericardial syndromes ( <xref rid="t72001" ref-type="table">Table 37</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B409" ref-type="bibr">409</xref> , <xref rid="B410" ref-type="bibr">410</xref> </sup>This is explained by both conditions sharing common etiological agents, mainly viruses.<sup><xref rid="B411" ref-type="bibr">411</xref></sup>However, myocardial and pericardial involvement are rarely of equivalent intensity (there is either predominance of myocarditis [perimyocarditis] or pericarditis [myopericarditis]<sup><xref rid="B412" ref-type="bibr">412</xref></sup>), and differentiating between the two conditions is important for prognosis and treatment. Myopericarditis usually has a good prognosis, without progression to HF or constrictive pericarditis.<sup><xref rid="B413" ref-type="bibr">413</xref> - <xref rid="B416" ref-type="bibr">416</xref> </sup>In the setting of acute myocarditis, pericardial involvement (perimyocarditis) has prognostic significance. Di Bella et al.<sup><xref rid="B417" ref-type="bibr">417</xref></sup>evaluated a cohort of 467 patients with idiopathic/viral acute myocarditis diagnosed by CMR and identified that approximately 24% of patients showed pericardial involvement. In addition, pericarditis caused a 2.5-fold increase in the risk of cardiac events (composite endpoint of death, cardiac transplantation, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, and hospitalization due to decompensated HF).<sup><xref rid="B416" ref-type="bibr">416</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t72001">
              <label>Table 37</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for the evaluation of myocarditis with suspected pericardial involvement</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indication</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>In patients with acute myocarditis and suspected pericardial involvement, cardiac magnetic resonance is recommended to support the diagnosis in doubtful cases.</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Myocarditis associated with acute pericarditis should be suspected in patients with a diagnosis of myocarditis and at least two of the following criteria: pleuritic chest pain (may be difficult to identify because of pain due to myocardium involvement), pericardial friction rub; ECG changes suggestive of pericarditis (widespread ST-segment elevation, PR-segment depression); and new or worsening pericardial effusion. Laboratory tests usually reveal leukocytosis with a predominance of lymphocytes (in viral cases) and elevated CRP and ESR. CMR is the most accurate noninvasive test for evaluating pericardial involvement in patients with myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B409" ref-type="bibr">409</xref> , <xref rid="B417" ref-type="bibr">417</xref> </sup>It detects inflammation, thickening, effusion, and masses in the pericardium and is indicated for cases whose diagnosis is unclear (grade of recommendation: I, level of evidence: C).<sup><xref rid="B409" ref-type="bibr">409</xref> , <xref rid="B418" ref-type="bibr">418</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>In patients with myocarditis and pericardial involvement, treatment essentially depends on the underlying cause and should follow the recommendations for the treatment of myocarditis. In viral/idiopathic cases without ventricular dysfunction, the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to control pericardial injury should be considered with caution using reduced doses, given that experimental studies have shown increased mortality and enhanced myocardial inflammation with NSAIDs.<sup><xref rid="B411" ref-type="bibr">411</xref> , <xref rid="B419" ref-type="bibr">419</xref> , <xref rid="B420" ref-type="bibr">420</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.10. Acute myocarditis mimicking MI</title>
        <p>Previous studies have indicated that 2.6% to 25% of patients with suspected MI actually have MINOCA. Several etiologies may be attributed to patients with suspected acute MI with culprit-free angiograms, among which acute myocarditis has been recognized as a particularly important factor.<sup><xref rid="B421" ref-type="bibr">421</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Typical clinical presentations of acute MI, such as chest pain, ST-segment elevation, and incremental serum markers, are commonly observed in patients diagnosed with myocarditis.<sup><xref rid="B422" ref-type="bibr">422</xref> , <xref rid="B423" ref-type="bibr">423</xref> </sup>In addition, in the clinical setting of acute disease with elevated troponins, it may be clinically challenging to differentiate type 2 MI from nonischemic causes of myocardial injury, especially myocarditis. Type 2 MI is secondary to ischemia due to increased oxygen demand or decreased supply; it may be caused by coronary artery spasm, coronary embolism, anemia, arrhythmias, hypertension, or hypotension.<sup><xref rid="B424" ref-type="bibr">424</xref></sup></p>
        <p>&#8220;Myocardial ischemia&#8221; is used when there is evidence of elevated troponin values with at least one value above the 99th percentile upper reference limit. &#8220;Myocardial lesion&#8221;, in turn, is used when there is an increase or decrease in troponin values. The diagnosis of acute MI is specified when there is acute myocardial injury with clinical evidence of acute myocardial ischemia, requiring both the detection of an increase and/or decrease in troponin values and the presence of at least one of the following conditions: symptoms of myocardial ischemia, new ischemic ECG changes, development of pathological Q waves, imaging evidence of new loss of viable myocardium, new wall motion abnormalities in a pattern consistent with an ischemic event, and/or identification of a coronary thrombus on angiography or autopsy.<sup><xref rid="B424" ref-type="bibr">424</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The clinical entities that may mimic ST-segment elevation MI include myocarditis/pericarditis, Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, J-wave syndromes (used to describe both Brugada syndrome and early repolarization syndrome), secondary repolarization abnormalities (eg, left bundle branch block, ventricular pacing, and ventricular hypertrophy), electrolyte disorders (hyperkalemia and hypercalcemia), and other nonischemic causes (eg, Wolff Parkinson-White syndrome, pulmonary embolism, intracranial bleeding, hypothermia, and postcardioversion). However, the course of ECG changes and differences in clinical history may help distinguish these conditions from acute MI.<sup><xref rid="B425" ref-type="bibr">425</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In vivo tissue characterization with CMR enables the identification of edema/inflammation in ACS/myocarditis and the diagnosis of chronic diseases and fibrotic conditions (eg, in hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathies, aortic stenosis, and amyloidosis).<sup><xref rid="B425" ref-type="bibr">425</xref></sup>In nonischemic diseases, the pattern and distribution of late gadolinium enhancement may offer clues regarding etiology and prognostic significance.<sup><xref rid="B425" ref-type="bibr">425</xref></sup>Myocarditis usually causes subepicardial/midmyocardial scarring, typically (though not always) showing a noncoronary distribution with subendocardial sparing.<sup><xref rid="B426" ref-type="bibr">426</xref> , <xref rid="B427" ref-type="bibr">427</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>In myocarditis, T2-weighted imaging may also identify regional inflammation, characteristically showing a noncoronary distribution. Conversely, parametric T1-mapping is also available and provides a quantitative and objective assessment of edema/inflammation (eg, in acute MI/myocarditis).<sup><xref rid="B426" ref-type="bibr">426</xref> , <xref rid="B427" ref-type="bibr">427</xref> </sup>There is a dynamic interaction between inflammation and fibrosis in different precursors of HF, such as acute MI and myocarditis. Early diagnosis of HF with biomarkers and imaging tests is imperative; whereas CMR is useful for evaluating the extent of the injury, serial biomarker measurements indicate if inflammation and fibrosis are progressive.<sup><xref rid="B427" ref-type="bibr">427</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Clinically, myocarditis mimicking acute MI is an extremely complex case for physicians to accurately diagnose. The coronary anatomy must be investigated either with coronary angiography or coronary CT angiography. Furthermore, a correct diagnosis of myocarditis per se is a challenge due to nonspecific patterns of clinical presentation and the lack of a reliable and accurate diagnostic method. Although EMB is recommended in guidelines as the ideal diagnostic method, the diagnosis of myocarditis in routine practice is usually based on comprehensive consideration of medical history, clinical manifestations, and additional tests, among which CMR has significant advantage for detecting myocardial abnormalities and accurately discriminating patients with myocarditis from those with true MI.<sup><xref rid="B421" ref-type="bibr">421</xref> - <xref rid="B423" ref-type="bibr">423</xref> , <xref rid="B425" ref-type="bibr">425</xref> - <xref rid="B427" ref-type="bibr">427</xref> </sup> <xref rid="f16001" ref-type="fig">Figure 16</xref> shows a flowchart for evaluating patients with acute MI versus myocarditis.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f16001">
            <label>Figure 16</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Differential diagnosis of chest pain: acute MI versus myocarditis.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>CMR: cardiac magnetic resonance; ECG: electrocardiogram; ECHO: echocardiogram; EMB: endomyocardial biopsy; MI: myocardial infarction; Tn: troponin.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-119-01-0143-20412-gf16-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7. Rheumatic carditis</title>
        <p>In 2018, the World Health Organization (WHO) acknowledged that rheumatic fever is endemic in low-income countries and developed a global action plan focused on prevention, diagnosis, and secondary prophylaxis.<sup><xref rid="B428" ref-type="bibr">428</xref></sup>Rheumatic fever is a biphasic disease whose acute outbreak manifests as variable combinations of arthritis, chorea, subcutaneous and cutaneous injuries, and myocarditis, which affects more than 50% of patients.<sup><xref rid="B429" ref-type="bibr">429</xref></sup>Approximately 5% of patients with acute rheumatic myocarditis have significant clinical manifestations that require medical attention, and up to 50% of patients with acute carditis progress to chronic rheumatic heart disease (late stage), specifically mitral and/or aortic valve disease.<sup><xref rid="B430" ref-type="bibr">430</xref> , <xref rid="B431" ref-type="bibr">431</xref> </sup>The prevalence of rheumatic carditis is unknown, but data suggest that this is a common and underdiagnosed condition. In 2013, the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS) reported 5,169 hospitalizations due to acute rheumatic fever.<sup><xref rid="B432" ref-type="bibr">432</xref></sup>Approximately 40 million people worldwide are estimated to currently live with chronic rheumatic heart disease, and this condition is believed to account for approximately 300,000 deaths annually.<sup><xref rid="B433" ref-type="bibr">433</xref></sup>A Brazilian study included 5,996 students from 21 schools in the state of Minas Gerais and identified a prevalence of chronic rheumatic heart disease of 0,42%, which is 2- to 10-fold higher than the mean rate documented in developed countries.<sup><xref rid="B434" ref-type="bibr">434</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Rheumatic carditis should be suspected upon an acute outbreak of rheumatic fever, initially by applying the Jones criteria, which were updated in 2015.<sup><xref rid="B435" ref-type="bibr">435</xref></sup>Patients should be stratified according to epidemiological considerations regarding the risk of rheumatic disease. Patients from regions where the incidence of rheumatic fever is higher than 2/100,000 school-aged children (5 to 14 years) per year or the prevalence of rheumatic valve disease is higher than 1/1,000 person-years are considered at high risk. A large portion of the Brazilian population is believed to live in regions with such characteristics. The 2015 update of the Jones criteria also included echocardiographic criteria and the possibility of using the criteria to diagnose recurrent rheumatic fever<sup><xref rid="B436" ref-type="bibr">436</xref></sup>( <xref rid="t73001" ref-type="table">Table 38</xref> ). Therefore, a rheumatic etiology should be considered for patients with carditis, especially young people in low-income regions and/or with a history of rheumatic valve disease.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t73001">
            <label>Table 38</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; 2015 update of the Jones criteria</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>First outbreak of rheumatic fever</th>
                  <th>Rheumatic fever recurrence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>2 major criteria; or 1 major criterion and at least 2 minor criteria</td>
                  <td>2 major criteria; or 1 major criterion and at least 2 minor criteria; or 3 minor criteria</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Low-risk population (&lt;2/100,000 cases of acute rheumatic fever per year and &lt;1/1,000 cases of rheumatic valve disease per year)</td>
                  <td>Moderate- or high-risk population (&lt;2/100,000 cases of acute rheumatic fever per year and &lt;1/1,000 cases of rheumatic valve disease per year)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Major criteria</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Major criteria</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Carditis (clinical or subclinical)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Carditis (clinical or subclinical)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Arthritis (polyarthritis only)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Arthritis (polyarthritis only, polyarthralgia, and/or monoarthritis)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Chorea</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Chorea</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; <italic>Erythema marginatum</italic> </p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; <italic>Erythema marginatum</italic> </p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Subcutaneous nodule</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Subcutaneous nodule</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Minor criteria</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <bold>Minor criteria</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Polyarthralgia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Monoarthralgia</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Fever (&#8805;38.5&#176;C)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Fever (&#8805;38&#176;C)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Elevated ESR (&gt;60 mm in the first hour) and/or CRP &gt; upper reference limit)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Elevated ESR (&gt;60 mm in the first hour) and/or CRP &gt; upper reference limit)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Prolonged PR interval corrected for age (in the absence of carditis)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Prolonged PR interval corrected for age (in the absence of carditis)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Evidence of a preceding group A &#946;-hemolytic streptococcal infection (positive throat culture; positive rapid test; scarlet fever; increased titers of anti-streptococcal antibodies)</td>
                  <td>Evidence of preceding group A &#946;-hemolytic streptococcal infection (positive throat culture; positive rapid test; scarlet fever; increased titers of anti-streptococcal antibodies)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN19001">
                <p>
                  <italic>CRP: C-reactive protein; ESR: Erythrocyte sedimentation rate.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>In case of a documented acute outbreak of rheumatic fever or clinical manifestations of HF, an active investigation for rheumatic carditis is warranted. Rheumatic carditis is a pancarditis that affects the pericardium, myocardium, and endocardium in varying degrees. It mainly manifests through acute valvulitis, which affects 90% of cases as mitral and/or aortic acute regurgitant valvular disease.<sup><xref rid="B437" ref-type="bibr">437</xref></sup>In the presence of symptoms, the main mechanism is acute valvular disease (preferably mitral) and, less frequently and less intensely, myocarditis and pericarditis.<sup><xref rid="B438" ref-type="bibr">438</xref></sup>Therefore, the initial focus of investigation is the detection of valvular heart disease, which can be achieved by physical examination; however, transthoracic echocardiography is required, and transesophageal evaluation is recommended for uncommon situations with an inadequate window.<sup><xref rid="B439" ref-type="bibr">439</xref></sup>A 12-lead ECG, besides detecting a prolonged PR interval, may also detect a long QT and changes consistent with pericarditis and left chamber overload.<sup><xref rid="B440" ref-type="bibr">440</xref></sup>Troponin and CKMB levels are usually low, which indicates minimal myocardial damage.<sup><xref rid="B431" ref-type="bibr">431</xref> , <xref rid="B441" ref-type="bibr">441</xref> </sup>Chest radiography may be helpful in identifying cardiomegaly and congestion.<sup><xref rid="B442" ref-type="bibr">442</xref></sup>After the initial evaluation, there are four possible diagnostic hypotheses:<sup><xref rid="B443" ref-type="bibr">443</xref> , <xref rid="B444" ref-type="bibr">444</xref> </sup></p>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p>Subclinical carditis: clinical examination without alarming changes, prolonged PR interval on ECG, and/or mild mitral and/or aortic regurgitation on Doppler echocardiography.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Mild carditis: tachycardia disproportionate to fever, detectable regurgitant murmur, prolonged PR interval on ECG, chest radiograph without alarming changes, and mild to moderate mitral and/or aortic regurgitation on Doppler echocardiography.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Moderate carditis: mild carditis criteria associated with mild symptoms of HF and/or prolonged QT and/ or cardiomegaly and congestion on radiograph and/or mild-to-moderate left-chamber dilatation.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Severe carditis: limiting HF symptoms with significant valve regurgitation and/or significant cardiomegaly and/or systolic ventricular dysfunction.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Thus, rheumatic myocarditis per se is not very exuberant and should be suspected in the presence of criteria for rheumatic carditis, manifest HF, and no anatomically significant acute valvular disease. In this situation, a thorough evaluation of possible differential diagnoses of myocarditis is also essential.</p>
        <p>Mild, moderate, and severe cases should be investigated with additional imaging testing. Gallium-67 scintigraphy is the most widely studied test, is highly specific and sensitive, and should be the first to be conducted.<sup><xref rid="B445" ref-type="bibr">445</xref> , <xref rid="B446" ref-type="bibr">446</xref> </sup>Antimyosin scintigraphy and PET scanning are less sensitive but may be conducted if gallium-67 is unavailable or if there is evidence of other differential diagnoses.<sup><xref rid="B447" ref-type="bibr">447</xref> , <xref rid="B448" ref-type="bibr">448</xref> </sup>Studies focusing on the use of MRI for rheumatic fever are lacking, especially because valvular involvement is predominant; thus, MRI is more useful for differential diagnoses.<sup><xref rid="B449" ref-type="bibr">449</xref></sup>EMB has low sensitivity but extremely high specificity, and the presence of Aschoff nodules is pathognomonic of rheumatic myocarditis. It is indicated for refractory or severe cases<sup><xref rid="B450" ref-type="bibr">450</xref></sup>( <xref rid="t74001" ref-type="table">Table 39</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t74001">
            <label>Table 39</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Diagnostic tests for rheumatic carditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indications</th>
                  <th>Class</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>12-lead ECG</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B<sup>440</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chest radiograph</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C<sup>442</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Transthoracic Doppler echocardiography</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B<sup>436,439</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Transesophageal Doppler echocardiography if difficult transthoracic visualization</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C<sup>436,439</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ESR and CRP (see the Jones criteria)</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B<sup>436</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Antistreptolysin O (see the Jones criteria)</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C<sup>436</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Antidesoxyribonuclease B as an alternative to anti-streptolysin O</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C<sup>435</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Alpha-1 acid glycoprotein for inflammatory activity monitoring</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C<sup>444</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Protein electrophoresis (alpha-2 globulin) for inflammatory activity monitoring</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C<sup>444</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Troponin as a diagnostic criterion</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>B<sup>431,441</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gallium-67 scintigraphy</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>B<sup>445,446</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td><sup>18</sup>F-FDG PET/CT</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>B<sup>448</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cardiac magnetic resonance</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C<sup>449</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Endomyocardial biopsy</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>C<sup>444,450</sup></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN20001">
                <p>
                  <italic>CRP: C-reactive protein; ECG: electrocardiogram; ESR: Erythrocyte sedimentation rate.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>For all patients with rheumatic carditis, despite being a late immune response, streptococcal eradication is recommended.<sup><xref rid="B451" ref-type="bibr">451</xref></sup>The treatment of subclinical and mild presentations includes controlling the symptoms associated with acute outbreaks and monitoring disease progression. Moderate and severe cases should be treated with corticosteroids (initially via oral route) and pulse therapy if refractory disease.<sup><xref rid="B452" ref-type="bibr">452</xref> - <xref rid="B455" ref-type="bibr">455</xref> </sup>Medications such as ACEIs, furosemide, spironolactone, and digoxin should be used if manifest HF.<sup><xref rid="B450" ref-type="bibr">450</xref></sup>Refractory disease means that valve surgery should be considered in the acute phase ( <xref rid="t75001" ref-type="table">Table 40</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B456" ref-type="bibr">456</xref> - <xref rid="B457" ref-type="bibr">457</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t75001">
            <label>Table 40</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Treatments for rheumatic carditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table>
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Indications</th>
                  <th>Class</th>
                  <th>Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="bullet">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>Eradication of group A &#946;-hemolytic <italic>Streptococcus</italic>: </p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Penicillin G benzathine 1,200,000 IU, deep IM, single dose for those &gt;20kg</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Penicillin G benzathine 600,000 IU, deep IM, single dose for those &lt;20kg</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; Amoxicillin 50 mg/kg/day (maximum 1,500 mg) in 3 divided doses for 10 days</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>&#8211; For those with penicillin allergy &#8211; erythromycin 40 mg/kg/days (maximum 1,000 mg) in 4 divided doses for 10 days</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C<sup>444, 451</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Rest if moderate or severe case</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C<sup>444</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hospitalization for symptom control in moderate-to-severe carditis</td>
                  <td>IIa</td>
                  <td>C<sup>444</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Prednisone 0.5 to 1 mg/kg/day (maximum 50 mg) orally; may be divided into 2 to 3 daily doses for 15 days, with subsequent 20% weekly dose reductions in subclinical or mild cases. Total duration: 4 to 8 weeks.</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>B<sup>444,452,453</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acetylsalicylic acid 100 mg/kg (maximum 3 to 4 g) in 4 divided doses or naproxen 20 mg/kg (maximum 1,000 mg) in 2 divided doses for subclinical cases with associated arthritis and/or pericarditis. Total duration: 2 weeks.</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B<sup>444,453</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Prednisone 1 to 2 mg/kg/day (maximum 60 mg) orally; may be divided into 2 to 3 daily doses for 15 days, with subsequent 20% weekly dose reductions in moderate-to-severe cases. Total duration: 12 weeks.</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B<sup>444,452,453</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Methylprednisolone 30 mg/kg/day in weekly cycles in severe cases or refractory to initial treatment.</td>
                  <td>IIb</td>
                  <td>B<sup>454,455</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>In the presence of signs/symptoms of ventricular dysfunction, treat HF with diuretics and neurohormonal blockers.</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>C<sup>450</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cardiac valve surgery in mild and refractory cases: &#8211; Mitral repair with a technique that allows annular growth &#8211; Preferred mechanical prosthesis for aortic replacement</td>
                  <td>I</td>
                  <td>B<sup>456,457</sup></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN21001">
                <p>
                  <italic>HF: heart failure.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8. Myocarditis due to autoimmune diseases</title>
        <p>Cardiac involvement in autoimmune diseases may include the pericardium, myocardium, endocardium, valves, and coronary arteries. Regarding myocarditis, a few entities warrant special attention: sarcoidosis, giant cell myocarditis, Behcet disease, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, and rheumatoid arthritis. There are obvious limitations regarding the diagnosis of myocarditis and its prevalence in autoimmune diseases, but it should be considered when there are signs and symptoms suggestive of cardiac involvement, including arrhythmias, syncope, HF, chest pain, or elevated markers of myocardial necrosis, especially in patients with a history of autoimmune disease or when there is cardiac involvement associated with symptoms of inflammation affecting other systems.</p>
        <p>Nonspecific inflammatory markers, including CRP/ESR and myocardial injury markers such as troponin and BNP, are usually elevated. ECG and echocardiography should be performed in all patients with autoimmune diseases when cardiac involvement is suspected.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B188" ref-type="bibr">188</xref> </sup>MRI is a sensitive and specific method for the evaluation of myocarditis, in addition to providing further information for differential diagnosis.<sup><xref rid="B458" ref-type="bibr">458</xref> , <xref rid="B459" ref-type="bibr">459</xref> </sup>PET is another noninvasive method of choice, especially for suspected sarcoidosis.<sup><xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref></sup>Autoimmunity markers such as antinuclear antibodies, rheumatoid factors, and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies should be considered, and testing should be guided by clinical suspicion.<sup><xref rid="B460" ref-type="bibr">460</xref></sup>EMB is the gold standard for the diagnosis of myocarditis due to autoimmune diseases or other causes. EMB uses other techniques in addition to histology to differentiate infectious from noninfectious myocarditis as well as to identify vasculitis and other noninflammatory myocardial diseases.<sup><xref rid="B151" ref-type="bibr">151</xref></sup>The treatment of myocarditis due to autoimmune diseases was discussed elsewhere in this Guideline.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9. Management of cardiac arrhythmias in myocarditis</title>
        <sec>
          <title>9.1. Noninvasive and invasive assessments of arrhythmias in the acute and chronic phases of the several causes of myocarditis</title>
          <p>Cardiac arrhythmias are relatively common manifestations in patients with myocarditis and may appear at any phase of the disease. Arrhythmogenic mechanisms are directly and indirectly associated with the degree of myocardial inflammation.<sup><xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the acute phase by viral aggression and inflammatory response, we have myocytolysis associated with fibrosis, which promote hyperactivity of the sympathetic system and ion channel dysfunction, especially in calcium regulation, creating the electrophysiological substrate for genesis of arrhythmias.<sup><xref rid="B461" ref-type="bibr">461</xref></sup>The higher the cell damage and the degree of inflammatory involvement, the higher the likelihood of ventricular arrhythmia, with reentry being the main arrhythmogenic mechanism.</p>
          <p>A broad spectrum of bradyarrhythmias and tachyarrhythmias occur in the setting of myocarditis. AV block, changes in ventricular repolarization, and prolonged QT interval are common findings in the acute phase of the disease. Atrial fibrillation and atrial tachycardias may also occur in acute or chronic myocarditis.</p>
          <p>Ventricular arrhythmias may manifest as extrasystoles and/or ventricular tachycardias. These conditions may be monomorphic or polymorphic and manifest as nonsustained or sustained (duration &#8805;30 seconds).</p>
          <p>Symptoms vary according to the presentation of arrhythmia, hemodynamic status, and degree of left ventricular dysfunction, and may include palpitations, tachycardia, syncope, or sudden death.</p>
          <p>Direct diagnostic methods for noninvasive assessment of arrhythmias include 12-lead baseline ECG, continuous 24- or 48-hour ambulatory ECG (Holter system), and event monitoring (Looper system).</p>
          <p>ECG findings are usually abnormal in patients with myocarditis, although they lack specificity and sensitivity.<sup><xref rid="B462" ref-type="bibr">462</xref></sup>Ukena et al.<sup><xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref></sup>reported that prolonged QRS duration is an independent predictor of cardiac death or heart transplantation in patients with suspected myocarditis. QTc prolongation &#8805;440 ms, deviation of the QRS axis, and premature ventricular ectopic beats, which are part of the course of myocarditis, do not seem to be independent predictors of poor prognosis. An ECG is a very useful tool in the detection of sustained bradyarrhythmias and tachyarrhythmias.</p>
          <p>Ambulatory ECG monitoring may be useful for recording paroxysmal arrhythmias. Symptom frequency dictates the duration of the recording: the more infrequent the symptoms, the more difficult monitoring is.</p>
          <p>Twenty-four-hour ambulatory ECG (Holter) allows documentation of arrhythmias and AV conduction abnormalities. It also contributes to the assessment of the nychthemeral distribution of arrhythmias, the autonomic nervous system, and the probable electrophysiological mechanism.<sup><xref rid="B463" ref-type="bibr">463</xref></sup>We recommend performing 24-hour Holter during hospitalization to evaluate possible asymptomatic arrhythmias and intermittent AV conduction abnormalities ( <xref rid="t76001" ref-type="table">Table 41</xref> ). Holter may also be indicated as a supportive method for risk stratification of sudden death in the acute phase of myocarditis.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t76001">
              <label>Table 41</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Recommendations for arrhythmia evaluation in acute myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indication</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Holter in patients with intermediate-to-high prognostic risk</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>In patients with myocarditis, the actual role of invasive electrophysiology in risk stratification of sudden death is still under investigation. Importantly, the reproducibility of significant arrhythmic events should vary according to the cause and type of myocardial involvement.<sup><xref rid="B464" ref-type="bibr">464</xref></sup>Cardiac sarcoidosis, for example, has a high degree of reproducibility of significant clinical events with programmed electrical stimulation, which is useful in decision-making. In patients who had nonsustained or sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia at some point during the course of the disease, the presence of significant late gadolinium enhancement or low-voltage areas on electrophysiology studies with electroanatomic mapping seems to indicate poor prognosis, and these findings may help to stratify the risk of sudden death.<sup><xref rid="B465" ref-type="bibr">465</xref></sup>In the absence of specific data, this method of risk stratification for sudden death should be used with caution, especially in asymptomatic patients.<sup><xref rid="B259" ref-type="bibr">259</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.2. Arrhythmia treatment and sudden death prevention in the acute and subacute phases</title>
          <p>Arrhythmias are mostly associated with myocarditis during the acute phase but may also appear during the chronic phase, depending on the degree of tissue damage (especially inflammation and residual fibrosis), showing a wide physiological basis ( <xref rid="t77001" ref-type="table">Table 42</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B466" ref-type="bibr">466</xref> , <xref rid="B467" ref-type="bibr">467</xref> </sup>Arrhythmias may occur in 33.7% of hospitalizations due to myocarditis, manifesting as both tachycardia and bradyarrhythmia, and are associated with morbidities such as hyperthyroidism, age, obesity, HF, electrolyte imbalance, and valvular disease.<sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref></sup>Preexisting cardiomyopathies such as arrhythmogenic RV dysplasia and preexisting channelopathies are also associated with the occurrence of arrhythmias in myocardial inflammation.<sup><xref rid="B468" ref-type="bibr">468</xref> , <xref rid="B469" ref-type="bibr">469</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t77001">
              <label>Table 42</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Potentially triggering mechanisms of arrhythmia in patients with myocarditis</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Direct viral injury generating myocardial cell lysis and innate immune response</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Viral persistence</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cell apoptosis</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Fibrosis favoring reentry mechanisms</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Proarrhythmic effect of cytokines</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Changes in cell gap junctions</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Infarction due to microvascular injury</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Although rare, bradyarrhythmias are usually associated with AV blocks of varying degrees and mostly occur in the acute phase. Obongayo et al.<sup><xref rid="B92" ref-type="bibr">92</xref></sup>identified a 1.7% prevalence of AV block among hospitalized patients with myocarditis taken from the Nationwide Inpatient Survey, of which only 1.1% were high-degree AV blocks. Third-degree advanced AV block was associated with increased morbidity and mortality.</p>
          <p>Atrial fibrillation may occur in up to 9% of hospitalized patients with acute myocarditis and is associated with increased hospital mortality (OR: 1.7; 95% CI: 1.1 to 2.7; p = 0.02), cardiogenic shock (OR: 1.9; 95% CI 1.3 to 2.8; p = 0.001), and cardiac tamponade (OR: 5.6; 95% CI: 1.2 to 25.3; p = 0.002).<sup><xref rid="B470" ref-type="bibr">470</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Ventricular arrhythmias have the highest probability of sudden death and may account for approximately one fourth of all arrhythmias reported in hospitalized patients with myocarditis. Ventricular tachycardia is the most frequent type.<sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Arrhythmia management in the acute phase should be consistent with the transient nature of the process, and recurrent ectopia or nonsustained tachycardia should not be treated with specific antiarrhythmics, except beta-blockers when indicated. During this phase, a temporary pacemaker may be used for advanced AV block, and the indication for a definitive pacemaker or implantable cardioverter-defibrillator should follow conventional indications ( <xref rid="t78001" ref-type="table">Table 43</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t78001">
              <label>Table 43</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- Treatment and prevention of myocarditis-associated arrhythmia and sudden death</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Treatment with beta-blockers, spironolactone, and sacubitril/valsartan for patients with LV systolic dysfunction</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Temporary pacemaker for symptomatic bradyarrhythmias and/or advanced AV block in the acute phase of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Antiarrhythmic therapy with amiodarone in symptomatic NSVT or sustained VT in the acute phase of myocarditis</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>ICD implantation for primary prevention of sudden death in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy in the chronic phase (&gt;6 months) of myocarditis with optimized clinical treatment for classes II and III, LVEF &#8804;35%, and life expectancy of at least 1 year</td>
                    <td>IIa</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Indication for ICD in the acute and subacute phases of myocarditis (&lt;6 months)</td>
                    <td>III</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Indication for antiarrhythmic agents for primary prevention of cardiac arrhythmias in patients with myocarditis</td>
                    <td>III</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN22001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>AV: atrioventricular; ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; LV: left ventricular; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; NSVT: nonsustained ventricular tachycardia; VT: ventricular tachycardia.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10. Prognostic evaluation and follow-up</title>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1. Prognosis and evolution markers</title>
          <p>Myocarditis has a wide phenotypic diversity. Most individuals with acute myocarditis who also develop acute dilated cardiomyopathy improve within a few days.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup>Case series report rates between 10% and 20% of serious cardiovascular events in the long term and a risk of recurrence of 10%.<sup><xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Several clinical and laboratory factors are involved in prognosis. Maintenance of preserved ventricular function during the acute phase has been repeatedly associated with spontaneous improvement and no sequelae.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup>Other studies have reported that reduced levels of blood pressure and heart rate, syncope, RV systolic dysfunction, elevated pulmonary arterial pressure, and advanced NYHA functional class play an important role.<sup><xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref></sup>Etiology has also been shown to be valuable in the prognostic spectrum. Patients with acute lymphocytic myocarditis and preserved ventricular function showed spontaneous improvement and no sequelae. In contrast, the MTT study reported that patients with HF and LVEF &lt;45% had a 4-year mortality rate of 56%. The course of giant cell and eosinophilic myocarditis is more dismal.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup>Patients with fulminant myocarditis have a dramatic short-term prognosis; however, when they survive, the prognosis is better compared to other causes.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref> , <xref rid="B98" ref-type="bibr">98</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>ECG was shown to have prognostic value in a recent study.<sup><xref rid="B471" ref-type="bibr">471</xref></sup>MRI, whose value for the diagnosis of myocarditis is outstanding, has been shown to be useful with late gadolinium enhancement;<sup><xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref></sup>however, a more recent study could not confirm the predictive value of MRI for long-term improvement or remodeling of ventricular function.<sup><xref rid="B472" ref-type="bibr">472</xref></sup>Despite advances in diagnosis, prognosis remains a challenge, probably due to numerous known and unknown factors as well as the different causes of myocarditis, which vary widely in terms of characteristics, clinical presentation, and genetic and immunological involvement, among others.<sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.2 Outpatient follow-up with additional evaluations</title>
          <p>Clinical follow-up with ECG should be continuous in patients who have already been diagnosed. Given the undeniable value of ventricular function, imaging tests should also be performed. Echocardiography emerges as a useful and easily accessible alternative, providing the most relevant information in this setting ( <xref rid="t79001" ref-type="table">Table 44</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t79001">
              <label>Table 44</label>
              <caption>
                <title>- General follow-up recommendations in myocarditis473,474</title>
              </caption>
              <table>
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Indications</th>
                    <th>Class</th>
                    <th>Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Clinical follow-up of low-risk patients with ECG at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, then annually</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Clinical follow-up of low-risk patients with echocardiogram at 1, 6, and 12 months, then annually</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>For intermediate-risk patients, clinical and laboratory evaluation with Holter monitoring and imaging tests should be performed at 1, 3, and 6 months (echocardiogram and/or MRI according to availability), then annually</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>For high-risk patients with myocarditis, clinical and laboratory follow-up with Holter monitoring and imaging tests should be performed at 15 days, 1, 3, and 6 months (echocardiogram or MRI according to availability), then annually</td>
                    <td>I</td>
                    <td>C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN23001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>CG: electrocardiogram; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn1001">
          <p>Development: Heart Failure Department, Brazilian Society of Cardiology (DEIC-SBC)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2001">
          <p>Note: Guidelines are meant to inform and not to replace the clinical judgment of physicians, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for patients.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Erratum</label>
          <p>
            <bold>July 2022 Issue, vol. 119 (1), pages 143-211</bold>
          </p>
          <p>In the &#8220;Brazilian Society of Cardiology Guideline on Myocarditis &#8211; 2022&#8221;, with DOI number: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20220412">https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20220412</ext-link>, published in the journal Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, 119(1):143-21, on pages 143 and 147, correct the name of the author Marcelo Imbroise Bittencourt to: Marcelo Imbroinise Bittencourt.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
