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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">67QDmX46yz9WJ6zgqSdYsgK</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022000500976</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200798</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200798</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Endocardite Infecciosa: Ainda mais Desafios que Certezas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1709-6283</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>Catarina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8034-4529</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto</surname>
            <given-names>Fausto J.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Centro Cardiovascular Universidade de Lisboa</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Lisboa</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Lisboa</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Cardiovascular Universidade de Lisboa (CCUL), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Hospitalar Barreiro Montijo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Barreiro</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Centro Hospitalar Barreiro Montijo (CHBM), Barreiro &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento Cora&#231;&#227;o e Vasos</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Hospitalar e Universit&#225;rio Lisboa Norte</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Lisboa</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento Cora&#231;&#227;o e Vasos, Centro Hospitalar e Universit&#225;rio Lisboa Norte (CHULN), Lisboa &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Catarina Sousa &#8226; Centro Cardiovascular Universidade Lisboa - Faculdade de Medicina de Lisboa - Av. Prof. Egas Moniz MB, 1648-028, Lisboa - Portugal E-mail: <email>catarinasousacardio@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Sousa C, Pinto F; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Sousa C; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Pinto F.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>13</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>118</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>976</fpage>
      <lpage>988</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Ap&#243;s catorze d&#233;cadas de evolu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica e tecnol&#243;gica, a endocardite infeciosa continua a desafiar m&#233;dicos no seu diagn&#243;stico e manejo di&#225;rio. O aumento da incid&#234;ncia, altera&#231;&#245;es demogr&#225;ficas (afetando pacientes mais idosos), microbiologia com taxas de infe&#231;&#227;o por <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> mais elevadas, com complica&#231;&#245;es graves ainda frequentes e uma mortalidade substancial tornam a endocardite uma doen&#231;a muito complexa. Apesar de tudo, a inova&#231;&#227;o no seu diagn&#243;stico, nomeadamente na &#225;rea da microbiologia e imagem, e a melhoria nos cuidados intensivos e na cirurgia card&#237;aca (quanto &#224;s t&#233;cnicas, materiais usados e momento de interven&#231;&#227;o) podem ter um impacto no seu progn&#243;stico. Os desafios persistem, incluindo repensar a profilaxia, melhorar os crit&#233;rios de diagn&#243;stico incluindo a endocardite com culturas negativas e endocardite de pr&#243;tese valvar, o <italic>timing</italic> para a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, e sua realiza&#231;&#227;o ou n&#227;o na presen&#231;a de acidente vascular cerebral isqu&#234;mico e em usu&#225;rios de drogas intravenosas. Uma estrat&#233;gia combinada na endocardite infeciosa &#233; fundamental, incluindo decis&#245;es e protocolos cl&#237;nicos avan&#231;ados, um manejo multidisciplinar, organiza&#231;&#227;o e pol&#237;ticas de sa&#250;de que culminem em melhores resultados para os nossos pacientes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Palavras-chave: Endocardite Infecciosa</kwd>
        <kwd>Epidemiologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Profilaxia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="120"/>
        <page-count count="13"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <disp-quote>
      <p>&#8220;Vale a pena, de tempos e tempos, reavaliar nosso</p>
      <p>conhecimento sobre uma doen&#231;a espec&#237;fica, para</p>
      <p>verificar exatamente nossa posi&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o a ela e</p>
      <p>a que conclus&#245;es os fatos acumulados at&#233; o momento</p>
      <p>apontam, e para determinar a que dire&#231;&#227;o deveremos</p>
      <p>olhar visando investiga&#231;&#245;es produtivas no futuro&#8221;.</p>
      <p>
        <italic>William Osler (1885)</italic>
      </p>
    </disp-quote>
    <sec>
      <title>Epidemiologia</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Incid&#234;ncia e aspectos demogr&#225;ficos</title>
        <p>A incid&#234;ncia da endocardite infecciosa (EI) varia entre 3 e 15 casos por 100 000 em estudos populacionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Tal varia&#231;&#227;o provavelmente esteja relacionada a v&#225;rios fatores: crit&#233;rios para defini&#231;&#227;o dos casos (caso definitivo, caso poss&#237;vel, inclus&#227;o de EI com cultura negativa), diferentes fontes de caso ou o per&#237;odo temporal analisado tendo como refer&#234;ncia a publica&#231;&#227;o das diretrizes. Nesta an&#225;lise, n&#227;o inclu&#237;mos estudos observacionais unic&#234;ntricos ou multic&#234;ntricos com alto risco de vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o que poderiam, ent&#227;o, subestimar a real incid&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a. Observou-se uma predomin&#226;ncia do sexo masculino, com uma raz&#227;o de homens:mulheres entre 0,96 e 2.8. Tal fato tamb&#233;m &#233; observado em grandes registros internacionais, tais como o estudo ICE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> o registro GAMES na Espanha,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> ou o estudo EURO-ENDO recentemente publicado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na maioria das s&#233;ries populacionais e registros internacionais, os pacientes mais velhos s&#227;o os geralmente mais afetados, com idade mediana entre 50 (mais para fim da d&#233;cada) e 60 anos ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ). Ainda, a incid&#234;ncia aumenta com a idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Estudos populacionais sobre incid&#234;ncia, aspectos demogr&#225;ficos e desfechos da endocardite bacteriana</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="9%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Autores/estudo</th>
                  <th>Pa&#237;s</th>
                  <th>Tamanho amostral (Fonte)</th>
                  <th>Per&#237;odo de tempo</th>
                  <th>Fontes dos casos</th>
                  <th>N&#250;mero de casos</th>
                  <th>Incid&#234;ncia/100 000</th>
                  <th>Faixa et&#225;ria</th>
                  <th>Homens/Mulheres</th>
                  <th>Cultura negativa (%)</th>
                  <th>Desfechos: cirurgia de v&#225;lvula e mortalidade</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fonager et al.<sup>1</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Dinamarca</td>
                  <td align="center">5,2 milh&#245;es</td>
                  <td align="center">1980-1997</td>
                  <td align="center">Registro nacional da Dinamarca</td>
                  <td align="center">3351</td>
                  <td align="center">An&#225;lise por sexo: Homens 4 - 6 Mulheres 3 - 4</td>
                  <td align="center">60,4</td>
                  <td align="center">1,32</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">Taxa de letalidade em 30 dias 23%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tleyjeh et al.<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Estados Unidos (Olmsted)</td>
                  <td align="center">1970 - 51 000 2000 - 90 000</td>
                  <td align="center">1970-2000</td>
                  <td align="center">Projeto de epidemiologia Rochester</td>
                  <td align="center">107</td>
                  <td align="center">5,0-7,0</td>
                  <td align="center">61,5 (18,8-90,6)</td>
                  <td align="center">2,7</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                  <td align="center">Cirurgia de v&#225;lvula 15% Mortalidade em seis meses 14-33%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sy et al.<sup>7</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Austr&#225;lia (Nova Gales do Sul)</td>
                  <td align="center">6,6 milh&#245;es</td>
                  <td align="center">2000-2006</td>
                  <td align="center">Banco de dados estadual</td>
                  <td align="center">1536</td>
                  <td align="center">4,7</td>
                  <td align="center">62 (42-75)</td>
                  <td align="center">1,8</td>
                  <td align="center">15</td>
                  <td align="center">Cirurgia de v&#225;lvula 20% Mortalidade hospitalar 14% Mortalidade em seis meses 18%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fedeli et al.<sup>8</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">It&#225;lia (Veneto)</td>
                  <td align="center">4,8 milh&#245;es</td>
                  <td align="center">2000-2008</td>
                  <td align="center">Arquivos eletr&#244;nicos dos registros de alta hospitalar</td>
                  <td align="center">1863</td>
                  <td align="center">4,4</td>
                  <td align="center">68</td>
                  <td align="center">1,4 - 2</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">Cirurgia de v&#225;lvula 23% Mortalidade hospitalar 14%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Selton-Suty et al.<sup>108</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Fran&#231;a (grande Paris, Lorraine, Rh&#244;ne-Alpes, Franco- Condado, Marne, Ille-et-Vilaine, eLanguedoc-Roussillon)</td>
                  <td align="center">15,3 milh&#245;es</td>
                  <td align="center">2008</td>
                  <td align="center">Formul&#225;rios de relato de caso enviados a m&#233;dicos envolvidos no tratamento de endocardite infecciosa</td>
                  <td align="center">497</td>
                  <td align="center">3,2</td>
                  <td align="center">62,3</td>
                  <td align="center">2,8</td>
                  <td align="center">5</td>
                  <td align="center">Cirurgia de v&#225;lvula 45% Mortalidade hospitalar 23%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Bikdeli et al.<sup>109</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">EUA</td>
                  <td align="center">NA (pacientes internados &gt;65 anos de idade)</td>
                  <td align="center">1999-2010</td>
                  <td align="center">Servi&#231;os do Medicare &amp; Medicaid Arquivos padr&#245;es de interna&#231;&#227;o de pacientes usu&#225;rios do Medicare</td>
                  <td align="center">262 658</td>
                  <td align="center">7,2</td>
                  <td align="center">79</td>
                  <td align="center">0,7-0,8</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade hospitalar 9-11% Mortalidade em 30 dias &#8211; 14-16,5% Mortalidade em um ano &#8211; 32,6-36,2%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Duval et al.<sup>9</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Fran&#231;a (grande Paris, Lorraine, e R&#243;dano-Alpes)</td>
                  <td align="center">11 milh&#245;es</td>
                  <td align="center">Inqu&#233;rito de um ano (1991, 1999 e 2008)</td>
                  <td align="center">Formul&#225;rios de relato de caso enviados a m&#233;dicos envolvidos no tratamento de endocardite infecciosa</td>
                  <td align="center">1991 - 323 1999 &#8211; 331 2008 - 339</td>
                  <td align="center">1991 &#8211; 3,5 1999 &#8211; 3,3 2008 &#8211; 3,2</td>
                  <td align="center">1991 &#8211; 57,9 1999 &#8211; 59,8 2008 &#8211; 61,6</td>
                  <td align="center">1991 &#8211; 1,9 1999 &#8211; 2,3 2008 &#8211; 2,9</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">Cirurgia valvar (1991 &#8211; 31,3%; 1999 &#8211; 50,2%; 2008 &#8211; 49,6%) Mortalidade hospitalar (1991 &#8211; 20,7%; 1999 &#8211; 15,4%; 2008 &#8211; 21,2%)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ternhag et al.<sup>110</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Su&#233;cia</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">1997-2007</td>
                  <td align="center">Registro de alta hospitalar do Swedish Hospital</td>
                  <td align="center">7603</td>
                  <td align="center">7,7</td>
                  <td align="center">65,7</td>
                  <td align="center">1,45</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade de 30 dias &#8211; 10,4% Taxa de mortalidade 1-5 anos 14,7%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dayer et al.<sup>111</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Inglaterra</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">2000-2013</td>
                  <td align="center">Dados do <italic>Secondary Uses Service</italic></td>
                  <td align="center">19804</td>
                  <td align="center">2,7</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pant et al.<sup>112</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">EUA</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">2000-2011</td>
                  <td align="center">Banco de dados nacional de pacientes hospitalizados</td>
                  <td align="center">457052</td>
                  <td align="center">11-15</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Erichsen et al.<sup>10</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Dinamarca</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">1994&#8211;2011</td>
                  <td align="center">Registro nacional da Dinamarca</td>
                  <td align="center">5486</td>
                  <td align="center">7,55 (2009&#8211;2011)</td>
                  <td align="center">63</td>
                  <td align="center">1,8</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Keller et al.<sup>62</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Alemanha</td>
                  <td align="center">80 milh&#245;es</td>
                  <td align="center">2005-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Banco de dados nacional do Departamento de Estat&#237;stica da Alemanha</td>
                  <td align="center">94364</td>
                  <td align="center">11,6</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade hospitalar 17%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Toyoda et al.<sup>11</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">EUA (Calif&#243;rnia e estado de Nova Iorque)</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">1998-2013</td>
                  <td align="center">Banco de dados estadual cooperativo de planejamento e pesquisa (Nova Iorque); Banco de dados estadual do servi&#231;o de desenvolvimento e planejamento da sa&#250;de (Calif&#243;rnia)</td>
                  <td align="center">75 829</td>
                  <td align="center">7,6 a 9,3</td>
                  <td align="center">62,3</td>
                  <td align="center">1,2</td>
                  <td align="center">25</td>
                  <td align="center">Cirurgia de v&#225;lvula - 17-13% Mortalidade em 90 dias&#8211; 24%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Van den Brink et al. <sup>113</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Pa&#237;ses baixos</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">2005-2011</td>
                  <td align="center">Autoridade em sa&#250;de dos Pa&#237;ses Baixos</td>
                  <td align="center">5213</td>
                  <td align="center">2005-3.0 2011- 6.3</td>
                  <td align="center">66,4</td>
                  <td align="center">2,3</td>
                  <td align="center">9.3</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade por todas as causas 36,1%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cresti et al.<sup>3</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">It&#225;lia (Grosseto)</td>
                  <td align="center">217 778</td>
                  <td align="center">1998-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Dados do sistema de sa&#250;de</td>
                  <td align="center">170</td>
                  <td align="center">4.6</td>
                  <td align="center">69,5</td>
                  <td align="center">1,54</td>
                  <td align="center">19</td>
                  <td align="center">Cirurgia de v&#225;lvula &#8211; 46% Mortalidade hospitalar 25% Mortalidade em um ano 32%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ahtela et al.<sup>114</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Finl&#226;ndia</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">2005-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Dados do sistema de sa&#250;de ( <italic>Care Register for Health Care</italic> )</td>
                  <td align="center">2611</td>
                  <td align="center">6.33</td>
                  <td align="center">60,0</td>
                  <td align="center">2,1</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade em 30 dias&#8211; 11,3%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Olmos et al.<sup>97</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Espanha</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">2003-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Sistema nacional de sa&#250;de da Espanha</td>
                  <td align="center">16867</td>
                  <td align="center">2,7 em 2003 3,5 em 2014 por 100 000 pessoas/ano</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade hospitalar 20,4%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Shah et al.<sup>65</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Esc&#243;cia</td>
                  <td align="center">ND</td>
                  <td align="center">1990-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Registro nacional de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar Registro nacional de microbiologia</td>
                  <td align="center">7638</td>
                  <td align="center">5,3 em 1990</td>
                  <td align="center">65</td>
                  <td align="center">0,96</td>
                  <td align="center">58</td>
                  <td align="center">Desfecho em 30 dias: Mortalidade por todas as causas&#8211; 9,6%-17,3%% Cirurgia de v&#225;lvula &#8211; 3,8-6,3% Desfecho em um ano: mortalidade por todas as causas&#8211; 27-33,3% Cirurgia de v&#225;lvula&#8211; 9,2-15,5%</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>
                  <italic>ND: n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Finalmente, uma metan&#225;lise publicada em 2013<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> que incluiu 160 estudos de todo o mundo concluiu que a predomin&#226;ncia do sexo masculino e a idade aumentaram com o tempo.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatores de risco</title>
        <p>Tr&#234;s condi&#231;&#245;es subjacentes podem predispor o paciente a adquirir EI:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Doen&#231;a valvular card&#237;aca e pr&#243;tese valvular card&#237;aca, enxertos ou dispositivos</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Cardiopatia cong&#234;nita (CC)</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de EI</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>A doen&#231;a valvular card&#237;aca contribui fortemente para o volume de pacientes card&#237;acos nos centros de sa&#250;de, com uma preval&#234;ncia importante na comunidade,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> resultante de uma maior expectativa de vida, envelhecimento populacional,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> e melhor atendimento m&#233;dico e cir&#250;rgico desses pacientes. Um decl&#237;nio na doen&#231;a valvar reum&#225;tica foi observado nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> com a etiologia degenerativa como a causa mais comum em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos. No entanto, a carga da doen&#231;a valvar reum&#225;tica persiste em pa&#237;ses de rendas baixa e m&#233;dia, com preval&#234;ncia (a doen&#231;a afeta at&#233; 7 em 1000 crian&#231;as escolares no Brasil, versus 0,1-0,4 em 1000 nos EUA)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> e mortalidade (275 mil mortes por ano no mundo) significativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Um estudo recente de Glaser et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> indicou que as biopr&#243;steses t&#234;m maior risco de infec&#231;&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o a v&#225;lvulas mec&#226;nicas, mas mais estudos ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, o implante de pr&#243;teses, enxertos ou dispositivos card&#237;acos est&#225; aumentado continuamente, com impacto crescente sobre o n&#250;mero de infec&#231;&#245;es nesses implantes. Estima-se que 25-30% de todos os casos de EI ocorram em pr&#243;teses valvares, de acordo com registros dos estudos Euro-Heart Survey de 2005,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> ICE de 2009,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> GAMES de 2015<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> e EURO-ENDO de 2019.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O implante de v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica transcateter (TAVI) tem sido cada vez mais utilizado em pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica sintom&#225;tica grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> de quatro estudos, com um total de 3761 pacientes, publicada em 2019, concluiu que o risco de EI com TAVI n&#227;o foi diferente quando comparado ao risco com cirurgia convencional de substitui&#231;&#227;o da v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica.</p>
        <p>As infec&#231;&#245;es relacionadas a marca-passo permanente e a cardioversor desfibrilhador implant&#225;vel tamb&#233;m t&#234;m aumentado ao longo do tempo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> e correspondem a cerca de 10% dos epis&#243;dios de EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s CCs, a incid&#234;ncia acumulada em 25 anos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> de EI p&#243;s-cirurgia variou entre 1,3 e 13,3%, sendo mais elevada no grupo com estenose valvar a&#243;rtica. De fato, CC complexa, defeito do septo ventricular, v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide, tetralogia de Fallot, e substitui&#231;&#227;o da v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica constituem importantes fatores predisponentes para EI,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> com alto risco de mortalidade, cuja taxa foi estimada entre 6 e 14%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>S&#233;ries de acompanhamento em longo prazo de pacientes com EI revelam que uma propor&#231;&#227;o significativa de pacientes que sobrevivem ao primeiro epis&#243;dio de EI t&#234;m alto risco de recidiva (novo epis&#243;dio de EI causada pelo mesmo microrganismo dentro dos primeiros seis meses ap&#243;s o epis&#243;dio inicial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> ) ou reinfec&#231;&#227;o<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> (infec&#231;&#227;o por um microrganismo diferente), estimado em 2,6-8,8%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> com uma alta taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outras condi&#231;&#245;es importantes aumentam o risco de EI e necessitam ser consideradas clinicamente.</p>
        <p>Apesar de o uso de drogas injet&#225;veis, principalmente opioides, estar possivelmente diminuindo na Uni&#227;o Europeia, o risco de infec&#231;&#245;es sangu&#237;neas ainda &#233; alto, com um aumento na infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> sens&#237;vel &#224; meticilina e <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> resistente &#224; meticilina registrada nos &#250;ltimos seis anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A evid&#234;ncia crescente de bacteremia induzida por manipula&#231;&#227;o vascular e por cateter<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> pode explicar o risco aumentado de EI no setor da sa&#250;de,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> atingindo at&#233; 35% das coortes, no setor de tatuagem e <italic>body piercing,</italic> <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> e pacientes com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica em hemodi&#225;lise,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> o que tem influenciado fortemente o padr&#227;o mais contempor&#226;neo de microrganismos predominantes nessa doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, outras comorbidades aumentam o risco de EI, tais como diabetes mellitus,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> doen&#231;a pulmonar cr&#244;nica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica cr&#244;nica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> c&#226;ncer,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> em particular c&#226;ncer colorretal e urogenital, e doen&#231;a periodontal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Diagn&#243;stico</title>
      <sec>
        <title>O papel do exame por imagem</title>
        <p>Embora a hist&#243;ria e o exame cl&#237;nicos sejam fundamentais no diagn&#243;stico de EI, o exame por imagem contribui exponencialmente para essa confirma&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>A ecocardiografia, pilar na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria, desenvolveu consideravelmente, desde o exame bidimensional, ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico (ETE),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> imagem harm&#244;nica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> at&#233; a contribui&#231;&#227;o valiosa do ETE tridimensional na imagem de pr&#243;tese valvar,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> melhorando a sensibilidade do ecocardiograma em detectar endocardite e complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas locais.</p>
        <p>No entanto, os crit&#233;rios modificados de Duke ainda t&#234;m um papel limitado na confirma&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico de casos mais complexos, tais como pr&#243;teses valvulares, dispositivos card&#237;acos, e casos de hemoculturas negativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Novas modalidades de imagem, tais como tomografia computadorizada (TC) card&#237;aca e TC por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons com fluorodeoxiglicose (<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> FDG-PET) ou cintilografia com leuc&#243;citos marcados (TC por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico - SPECT)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> parecem complementar a ecocardiografia, especialmente em pr&#243;teses valvares,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> com melhora na sensibilidade quando associados aos crit&#233;rios de Duke modificados. Por isso, em 2015, a Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia (ESC, <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> )<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> publicou novos crit&#233;rios baseados nos crit&#233;rios modificados de Duke incluindo o valor adicional (crit&#233;rios &#8220;maiores&#8221;) dessas novas t&#233;cnicas de imagem.</p>
        <p>Ainda, a busca ativa por eventos emb&#243;licos ou aneurismas infecciosos por resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica (RM), TC de corpo inteiro, e/ou PET/CT foi adicionada como crit&#233;rio &#8220;menor&#8221;.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Microbiologia</title>
        <p>Praticamente qualquer agente pode causar EI, embora os mais frequentes sejam bact&#233;rias gram-positivas, principalmente <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> e <italic>Streptococcus</italic> , e mais recentemente, <italic>Enterococcus</italic> .</p>
        <p>Na d&#233;cada de 70, estudos com pacientes internados revelaram <italic>Streptococcus viridans</italic> como o agente causal mais frequente de EI,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> e simultaneamente reconheceram que a frequ&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> estava crescendo em pacientes com IE. Entre as <italic>Streptococcus spp</italic> , a mais frequente &#233; <italic>Streptococcus viridans</italic> (um pat&#243;geno comum da mucosa oral), seguido por <italic>Streptococcus bovis</italic> (associado com neoplasias do c&#243;lon). Em 2007, uma metan&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> concluiu que a incid&#234;ncia de <italic>Staphylococci</italic> e <italic>Enterococci</italic> aumentava, enquanto a incid&#234;ncia de EI causada por <italic>Streptococci</italic> e EI com cultura negativa reduziam significativamente. Essa tend&#234;ncia &#233; preocupante, uma vez que esses agentes est&#227;o associados a uma alta taxa de mortalidade,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> sendo localmente destrutivos, com alta capacidade de causar embolia s&#233;ptica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
        <p>De fato, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica recentemente publicada<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> sobre agentes causadores de EI em 105 estudos concluiu que <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> era o agente mais comum; <italic>S. viridans</italic> tamb&#233;m estava entre os agentes mais comuns nos subgrupos de pacientes pedi&#225;tricos, pacientes com CCs, e usu&#225;rios de drogas injet&#225;veis. No entanto, n&#227;o podemos descartar a possibilidade de um vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o, uma vez que a maioria dos estudos inclu&#237;dos eram europeus e norte-americanos, com menor representa&#231;&#227;o da &#193;sia, Am&#233;rica do Sul, e &#193;frica, onde o <italic>S. viridans</italic> &#233; ainda um pat&#243;geno muito relevante e comum, apesar do menor n&#250;mero de estudos com foco nesse agente.</p>
        <p>As bact&#233;rias do grupo HACEK ( <italic>Haemophilus species, Aggregatibacter species, Cardiobacterium hominis, Eikenella corrodens,</italic> e <italic>Kingella kingae</italic> ), normalmente presentes na orofaringe, s&#227;o descritas como bact&#233;rias fastidiosas com uma baixa taxa em culturas, e respons&#225;vel por menos que 5% das EIs.</p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; EI com cultura negativa, sua ocorr&#234;ncia &#233; de cerca de 10 a 20% dos casos, segundo a maioria dos estudos populacionais ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ), com exce&#231;&#227;o do estudo escoc&#234;s de Shah et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> que relatou uma alta taxa de 58% em sua coorte. O uso pr&#233;vio ou concomitante de antibi&#243;tico &#233; uma etiologia comum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, diferen&#231;as em amostragem e testes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> bem como infec&#231;&#227;o causada por microrganismos fastidiosos, intracelulares ou de dif&#237;cil cultura tamb&#233;m contribui para EI com cultura negativa. Tem se observado um atraso no diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e escolha de um regime de antibi&#243;ticos associados com deteriora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> embora haja evid&#234;ncias conflitantes sobre seu impacto sobre a mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Ainda, deve-se suspeitar de fungos e bact&#233;rias fastidiosas, e realizar culturas em meios espec&#237;ficos, considerando-se que uma baixa taxa de crescimento &#233; esperada. Devem ser realizados testes sorol&#243;gicos para Coxiella burnetii, Bartonella spp, Aspergillus spp., Mycoplasma pneumonia, Brucella spp. e Legionella pneumophila. Testes de rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) para Tropheryma whipplei, Bartonella spp e fungos (Candida spp, Aspergillus spp)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> podem ser realizados, apesar de sua baixa especificidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> Na &#225;rea da cirurgia, Brand&#227;o et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> relataram que a inclus&#227;o da an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica e de PCR em v&#225;lvulas card&#237;acas explantadas cirurgicamente foi mais &#250;til no diagn&#243;stico da causa da EI que somente a cultura da v&#225;lvula.</p>
        <p>Assim, uma abordagem sistem&#225;tica, incluindo hist&#243;ria completa do paciente (aspectos geogr&#225;ficos, viagem recente, contato com animais), histopatologia, investiga&#231;&#245;es baseadas na cultura e aspectos moleculares e sorol&#243;gicos &#233; essencial na pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> para aumentar a probabilidade de se identificar o agente causal.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Manejo e desfechos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Antibi&#243;ticos</title>
          <p>A escolha dos antimicrobianos enquanto se aguarda resultado de culturas, ou quando o microrganismo respons&#225;vel &#233; conhecido, bem como na EI com cultura negativa, est&#225; bem definida e dispon&#237;vel nas diretrizes da ESC e da <italic>American Heart Association</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> A terapia &#233; normalmente longa e por via parenteral.</p>
          <p>O per&#237;odo de tratamento com antibi&#243;ticos deve ser calculado a partir do primeiro dia do tratamento efetivo. Somente em caso de cultura da v&#225;lvula cir&#250;rgica positiva o tempo de terapia deve ser reiniciado, contando a partir da data da cirurgia; se n&#227;o, a administra&#231;&#227;o de antibi&#243;ticos por mais duas semanas parece segura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> A administra&#231;&#227;o de antibi&#243;ticos por um longo prazo &#233; a regra, variando de duas a quatro semanas para <italic>Streptococcus</italic> oral em EI de v&#225;lvula nativa, a seis semanas na infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>Enterococcus</italic> ; EI de pr&#243;tese valvar requer um per&#237;odo de tratamento de seis semanas. Isso significa um tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o prolongado para completar o ciclo completo de antibi&#243;ticos.</p>
          <p>A terapia antimicrobiana parenteral ambulatorial ( <italic>Outpatient Parenteral Antimicrobial Therapy</italic> &#8211; OPAT) &#233; geralmente usada para administra&#231;&#227;o de terapia antimicrobiana parenteral em pelo menos duas doses em dias diferentes sem hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> e tem sido usada em diferentes doen&#231;as infecciosas tais como pneumonia, pielonefrite, osteomielite, infec&#231;&#227;o de pele, diminuindo o tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; EI, diretrizes europeias atuais apoiam o uso de OPAT em pacientes com endocardite ap&#243;s duas semanas de interna&#231;&#227;o e em pacientes cooperativos e clinicamente est&#225;veis (a OPAT pode ser iniciada mais cedo na infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>Streptococci</italic> oral nativa ou <italic>Streptococcus bovis</italic> ) na presen&#231;a de um programa ambulatorial bem estabelecido, com avalia&#231;&#227;o di&#225;ria por um(a) enfermeiro(a) e semanalmente por um m&#233;dico experiente.</p>
          <p>Contudo, a terapia parenteral ambulatorial tamb&#233;m tem limita&#231;&#245;es: a terapia parenteral prolongada pode ser desafiadora logisticamente, e dif&#237;cil em caso de usu&#225;rios de drogas intravenosas ou pacientes com c&#226;ncer com acesso venoso deficiente. H&#225; poucos estudos investigando o uso de antibi&#243;ticos orais para completar o ciclo de antibi&#243;tico na EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> Ap&#243;s um curto per&#237;odo de terapia tripla de antibi&#243;ticos intravenosa, ciprofloxacino e rifampicina orais mostraram-se efetivos em um pequeno ensaio com usu&#225;rios de drogas endovenosas com EI do lado direito n&#227;o complicada causada por <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> , em que a terapia parenteral n&#227;o era vi&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> Um estudo recente, POET,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m testou a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a de se trocar a terapia intravenosa por oral em 400 pacientes est&#225;veis com EI no lado esquerdo do cora&#231;&#227;o. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que a mudan&#231;a para o tratamento oral n&#227;o foi inferior ao regime parenteral cont&#237;nuo convencional nesses pacientes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cirurgia</title>
          <p>A cirurgia tem um papel crucial na EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> A Europa apresenta taxas mais altas de interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas na EI em compara&#231;&#227;o ao restante do mundo. S&#233;ries populacionais apresentam taxas entre 15% e 50% ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ). Nos registros do EURO-ENDO<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> ou ICE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> quase metade dos pacientes foram operados.</p>
          <p>V&#225;rios estudos observacionais conclu&#237;ram que a cirurgia tem efeito protetor durante a fase ativa da EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> Entretanto, nem todos os pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica para cirurgia s&#227;o de fato operados. O registro ICE-PLUS<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> e o estudo GAMES<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> estimaram que aproximadamente um quarto dos pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica n&#227;o foram submetidos &#224; cirurgia. Raz&#245;es para isso inclu&#237;ram um progn&#243;stico ruim, instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, acidente vascular cerebral, sepse, e morte antes da cirurgia. Ainda, observou-se uma concord&#226;ncia moderada entre a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e as diretrizes recomendadas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s indica&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas na EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O melhor momento para se realizar a cirurgia ainda &#233; um ponto controverso; o &#8220;precoce&#8221; e o &#8220;tardio&#8221; podem ter diferentes tradu&#231;&#245;es. Enquanto diretrizes europeias<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> enfatizam a que a cirurgia deve ser realizada em car&#225;ter de emerg&#234;ncia (dentro de 24 horas) ou urg&#234;ncia (dentro de poucos dias), diretrizes americanas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> referem-se &#224; cirurgia &#8220;precoce&#8221; como aquela realizada durante interna&#231;&#227;o inicial e antes de se completar um ciclo completo de antibi&#243;ticos. Estudos observacionais mostraram uma redu&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade hospitalar com cirurgia precoce,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> e uma meta-an&#225;lise conduzida em 2016 tamb&#233;m demonstrou um papel protetor da cirurgia precoce sobre o progn&#243;stico.</p>
          <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tipo de procedimento na v&#225;lvula, deve-se fazer uma escolha entre reparo e substitui&#231;&#227;o da v&#225;lvula. Diretrizes internacionais<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> enfatizam que o reparo da v&#225;lvula deve ser a op&#231;&#227;o de escolha em v&#225;lvulas nativas com envolvimento limitado dos folhetos ou c&#250;spides. Em um estudo populacional<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> referente ao estado de Nova Iorque e ao estado da Calif&#243;rnia nos EUA, 19% dos pacientes com EI de v&#225;lvula mitral nativa foram submetidos a reparo da v&#225;lvula, o que foi associado a uma melhor taxa de sobrevida e menor risco de recorr&#234;ncia. No entanto, tal fato pode n&#227;o representar a pr&#225;tica na vida real. Por outro lado, se a destrui&#231;&#227;o da v&#225;lvula nativa for grave, a escolha pelo tipo de pr&#243;tese deve considerar fatores relacionados ao paciente, tais como idade, ades&#227;o a anticoagulantes, e expectativa de vida. De fato, atualmente, n&#227;o existe evid&#234;ncia sobre a superioridade das biopr&#243;teses ou das v&#225;lvulas mec&#226;nicas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup> uma vez que elas apresentam taxas similares de sobrevida e recorr&#234;ncia de endocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Al&#233;m disso, v&#225;rios grupos t&#234;m conduzido uma busca cont&#237;nua por um escore progn&#243;stico ideal para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco na cirurgia card&#237;aca na EI,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> embora nenhum escore de risco atualmente tem se mostrado superior aos demais na EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> A estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco antes da cirurgia &#233;, no entanto, crucial, e deve levar em considera&#231;&#227;o o estado cl&#237;nico, comorbidades, e risco cir&#250;rgico do paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> H&#225; um papel decisivo da equipe multidisciplinar na abordagem da EI, no encaminhamento do paciente, em tempo h&#225;bil, para avalia&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica e cl&#237;nica, especialmente em casos de EI do lado esquerdo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A mortalidade p&#243;s-cir&#250;rgica varia entre 6 e 29% em estudos observacionais ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> ). Uma metan&#225;lise publicada em 2019 por Varela-Barca<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> identificou os seguintes fatores associados &#224; maior mortalidade ap&#243;s cirurgia: idade, sexo feminino, cirurgia de urg&#234;ncia ou emerg&#234;ncia, cirurgia card&#237;aca pr&#233;via, classe NYHA &#8805; III, choque cardiog&#234;nico, pr&#243;tese valvar, envolvimento de m&#250;ltiplas v&#225;lvulas, insufici&#234;ncia renal, abscesso perivalvular e infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> .</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2">
              <label>Tabela 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas de s&#233;ries cir&#250;rgicas observacionais sobre pacientes com endocardite infecciosa obtidas</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="14%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Autores/estudo</th>
                    <th>Pa&#237;s</th>
                    <th>Delineamento do estudo</th>
                    <th>Per&#237;odo de tempo</th>
                    <th>N</th>
                    <th>V&#225;lvula nativa (%)/Pr&#243;tese valvar</th>
                    <th>Taxa de mortalidade (%)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Jassal et al.<sup>115</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">EUA</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">1995-2004</td>
                    <td align="center">91</td>
                    <td align="center">85,7/14,3</td>
                    <td align="center">15,4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Bannay et al.<sup>116</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Fran&#231;a</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">1998-2000</td>
                    <td align="center">240</td>
                    <td align="center">67,5/32,5</td>
                    <td align="center">19,4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lalani et al.<sup>83</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Multic&#234;ntrico</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2000-2005</td>
                    <td align="center">720</td>
                    <td align="center">100/0</td>
                    <td align="center">12,1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Gaca et al.<sup>95</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">EUA</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2002-2008</td>
                    <td align="center">19543</td>
                    <td align="center">ND</td>
                    <td align="center">8,2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lalani et al.<sup>86</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Multic&#234;ntrico</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2000-2005</td>
                    <td align="center">490</td>
                    <td align="center">0/100</td>
                    <td align="center">22</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pang et al.<sup>117</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Singapura</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2000-2012</td>
                    <td align="center">191</td>
                    <td align="center">92,7/7,3</td>
                    <td align="center">6,3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Machado et al.<sup>118</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Brasil</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2003-2010</td>
                    <td align="center">64</td>
                    <td align="center">ND</td>
                    <td align="center">17</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Madeira et al.<sup>94</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Portugal</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2007-2014</td>
                    <td align="center">128</td>
                    <td align="center">75,7/15</td>
                    <td align="center">16</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Olmos et al.<sup>97</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Espanha</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">1996-2014</td>
                    <td align="center">671</td>
                    <td align="center">60/40</td>
                    <td align="center">28,6</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pivatto et al.<sup>93</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Brasil</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2007-2016</td>
                    <td align="center">107</td>
                    <td align="center">-/31</td>
                    <td align="center">29</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Varela et al.<sup>119</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Espanha</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2002-2016</td>
                    <td align="center">180</td>
                    <td align="center">62,6/37,5</td>
                    <td align="center">26,8</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Guiomar et al.<sup>120</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Portugal</td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospectivo</td>
                    <td align="center">2006-2017</td>
                    <td align="center">145</td>
                    <td align="center">68/32</td>
                    <td align="center">13,1</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2">
                  <p>
                    <italic>ICE-PCS: International Collaboration on Endocarditis&#8211;Prospective Cohort Study; ND: n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Embora as taxas de cirurgia tenderam a aumentar em 7% por d&#233;cada de 1969 a 2000,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> desde o in&#237;cio deste s&#233;culo, a tend&#234;ncia geral &#233; em dire&#231;&#227;o a estabilidade,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> mesmo estudos populacionais conduzidos na Espanha<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> e nos EUA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup> terem apresentado taxas crescentes continuamente. Isso provavelmente &#233; resultante das diretrizes cient&#237;ficas recentes, dos avan&#231;os cont&#237;nuos no cuidado intensivo e manejo cir&#250;rgico desses pacientes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mortalidade</title>
          <p>A taxa de mortalidade hospitalar varia entre pa&#237;ses, de 8 a 40%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; mortalidade em curto prazo (at&#233; 30 dias de acompanhamento) relatada em estudos populacionais nas duas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, as taxas variam entre 11e 25%, enquanto um seguimento de um ano revelou uma taxa de 32% ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ). Uma metan&#225;lise publicada em 2017<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> incluindo 25 estudos observacionais, estimou uma taxa de mortalidade de curto (seis meses) e longo prazo (at&#233; 10 anos) de 20% e 37%, respectivamente. Fernandez-Hildago et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Toyoda et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> e Ilh&#227;o Moreira et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> relataram uma taxa de mortalidade de cinco anos de 52%, 53% e 43%, e Netzer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup> relataram uma taxa de mortalidade em sete anos de 56%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup> Apesar da escassez dos de acompanhamento de longo prazo, os dados dispon&#237;veis revelam uma tend&#234;ncia de um progn&#243;stico ruim desses pacientes, mesmo se sobrevivem &#224; hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por EI ativa.</p>
          <p>V&#225;rios fatores t&#234;m sido associados &#224; mortalidade relacionada ao aumento da EI. Em 2019, uma meta-an&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> com 16 estudos, incluindo 7484 pacientes, identificou que sexo feminino, cirurgia de urg&#234;ncia ou emerg&#234;ncia, cirurgia card&#237;aca pr&#233;via, classe NYHA &#8805; III, choque cardiog&#234;nico, pr&#243;tese valvar, comprometimento de m&#250;ltiplas v&#225;lvulas, insufici&#234;ncia renal, abscesso perivalvular e infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> como marcadores importantes de mortalidade hospitalar.</p>
          <p>As causas de morte t&#234;m sido pouco abordadas na maioria das s&#233;ries. Fernandez-Hildago et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> descreveram, em estudo observacional prospectivo do tipo coorte com 438 pacientes com EI, uma taxa de mortalidade hospitalar de 29%, 80% das mortes diretamente relacionadas &#224; EI, enquanto as mortes restantes deveram-se, principalmente, &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o nosocomial ou hemorragia importante. Registros prospectivos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> identificaram causas cardiovasculares, principalmente insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, e sepse, como as principais causas de mortalidade hospitalar nesses pacientes. Causas de mortalidade em longo prazo n&#227;o foram exploradas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Profilaxia da EI</title>
          <p>Em 2007 nos EUA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> e em 2009 na Europa,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> as indica&#231;&#245;es para profilaxia antibi&#243;tica foram reduzidas, com importantes limita&#231;&#245;es quanto ao uso de antibi&#243;ticos durante procedimentos dent&#225;rios, e interrup&#231;&#227;o do tratamento durante procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios e gastrointestinais. Em 2008, o Instituto Nacional de Excel&#234;ncia em Sa&#250;de e Assist&#234;ncia do Reino Unido<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> emitiu diretrizes abolindo todas as indica&#231;&#245;es para o uso de profilaxia antibi&#243;tica para procedimentos dent&#225;rios e n&#227;o dent&#225;rios.</p>
          <p>De acordo com diretrizes europeias,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> a profilaxia antibi&#243;tica deve ser administrada para pacientes de alto risco:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Pacientes com protese valvar ou com material de pr&#243;tese usado para reparo de v&#225;lvula card&#237;aca;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Pacientes com EI pr&#233;via;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Pacientes com CC cian&#243;tica n&#227;o tratada, e pacientes com CC com deriva&#231;&#245;es e condutos paliativos, ou outras pr&#243;teses.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Neste subgrupo de pacientes, a profilaxia antibi&#243;tica deve ser usada para procedimentos dent&#225;rios que requeiram manipula&#231;&#227;o da regi&#227;o gengival ou perif&#233;rica dos dentes, ou perfura&#231;&#227;o da mucosa oral.</p>
          <p>Por&#233;m, tais decis&#245;es n&#227;o s&#227;o consensuais entre os pa&#237;ses. Pa&#237;ses da Am&#233;rica Latina, incluindo o Brasil, permanecem conservadores. A profilaxia antibi&#243;tica na EI ainda inclui pacientes com doen&#231;a valvar significativa, tais como v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica degenerativa ou bic&#250;spide, prolapso da v&#225;lvula mitral com regurgita&#231;&#227;o ou doen&#231;a valvar reum&#225;tica. Ainda, a profilaxia &#233; usada antes de procedimentos geniturin&#225;rios ou gastrointestinais que envolvam mucosa em pacientes de alto risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Tend&#234;ncias da incid&#234;ncia e da mortalidade</title>
      <p>Em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos como Dinamarca, It&#225;lia, Inglaterra, Espanha, Alemanha, Finl&#226;ndia e Pa&#237;ses Baixos, tem se observado uma tend&#234;ncia de aumento da incid&#234;ncia de EI nas duas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> ). Tal fato pode ser explicado por raz&#245;es demogr&#225;ficas (por exemplo, envelhecimento populacional), mudan&#231;as na etiologia da valvulopatia, n&#250;mero crescente de pacientes com implante de pr&#243;teses ou dispositivos card&#237;acos, aumento na sobrevida de pacientes com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca estrutural ou cong&#234;nita, necessidade de uso prolongado de acesso vascular em diferentes condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, e avan&#231;os nas medidas profil&#225;ticas.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Evolu&#231;&#227;o das taxas de incid&#234;ncia e mortalidade nos estudos populacionais sobre endocardite infecciosa</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="17%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Autores/estudo</th>
                <th>Pa&#237;s</th>
                <th>Per&#237;odo de tempo</th>
                <th>Tend&#234;ncia de incid&#234;ncia crescente</th>
                <th>Tend&#234;ncia das taxas de cirurgia</th>
                <th>Tend&#234;ncia da mortalidade</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Fonager et al.<sup>1</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Dinamarca</td>
                <td align="center">1980-1997</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Decrescente</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tleyjeh et al.<sup>2</sup></td>
                <td align="center">EUA (Condado de Olmsted)</td>
                <td align="center">1970-2000</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Est&#225;vel</td>
                <td align="center">Est&#225;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sy et al.<sup>7</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Austr&#225;lia (Nova Gales do Sul)</td>
                <td align="center">2000-2006</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Est&#225;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fedeli et al.<sup>8</sup></td>
                <td align="center">It&#225;lia (Veneto)</td>
                <td align="center">2000-2008</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Est&#225;vel</td>
                <td align="center">Crescente</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Bikdeli et al.<sup>109</sup></td>
                <td align="center">EUA</td>
                <td align="center">1999-2010</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Est&#225;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Duval et al.<sup>9</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Fran&#231;a (grande Paris, Lorraine e R&#243;dano-Alpes)</td>
                <td align="center">Inqu&#233;rito de um ano (1991, 1999 e 2008)</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Aumento de 1991 a 1999. Em seguida, est&#225;vel.</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dayer et al.<sup>111</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Inglaterra</td>
                <td align="center">2000-2013</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (mais pronunciada ap&#243;s 2008)</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pant et al.<sup>112</sup></td>
                <td align="center">EUA</td>
                <td align="center">2000-2011</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (para EI por <italic>Streptococcus</italic> ap&#243;s 2007)</td>
                <td align="center">Aumento 2000-2007/est&#225;vel 2007-2011</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Erichsen et al.<sup>10</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Dinamarca</td>
                <td align="center">1994&#8211;2011</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (em homens e idosos)</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Keller et al.<sup>62</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Alemanha</td>
                <td align="center">2005-2014</td>
                <td align="center">Sim (mais pronunciado ap&#243;s 2009)</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Est&#225;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Toyoda et al.<sup>11</sup></td>
                <td align="center">EUA (Calif&#243;rnia e estado de Nova Iorque)</td>
                <td align="center">1998-2013</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Est&#225;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Van den Brink et al.<sup>113</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Pa&#237;ses Baixos</td>
                <td align="center">2005-2011</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cresti et al.<sup>3</sup></td>
                <td align="center">It&#225;lia (Grosseto)</td>
                <td align="center">1998-2014</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Aumento leve (p=0,055)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Olmos et al.<sup>97</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Espanha</td>
                <td align="center">2003-2014</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">Aumento</td>
                <td align="center">Decrescente (0,2%/ano)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ahtela et al.<sup>114</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Finl&#226;ndia</td>
                <td align="center">2005-2014</td>
                <td align="center">Sim</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Est&#225;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Shah et al.<sup>65</sup></td>
                <td align="center">Esc&#243;cia</td>
                <td align="center">1990-2014</td>
                <td align="center">N&#227;o (aumento em pacientes &gt;80 anos de idade)</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Khan et al.<sup>98</sup></td>
                <td align="center">EUA</td>
                <td align="center">2002-2016</td>
                <td align="center">ND</td>
                <td align="center">Aumento</td>
                <td align="center">Decrescente (de 16,7% a 9,7%)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>
                <italic>ND: n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Por outro lado, essa tend&#234;ncia n&#227;o &#233; observada em outros pa&#237;ses como Fran&#231;a, Austr&#225;lia, Esc&#243;cia ou Estados Unidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Essas discrep&#226;ncias est&#227;o provavelmente relacionadas a diferentes fontes e defini&#231;&#227;o de casos, e timing do impacto da melhoria nos m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos (imagem, microbiologia).</p>
      <p>O maior impacto da profilaxia da EI sobre a incid&#234;ncia da EI em pacientes de alto risco (diretrizes da American Heart Association de 2007<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> e da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia em 2009<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> ) foi avaliado em diferentes estudos, mas incertezas persistem, conforme mostrou uma metan&#225;lise de Khan et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup> publicada em 2016. De fato, enquanto alguns autores mostraram um aumento mais evidente na incid&#234;ncia de EI em pa&#237;ses como Reino Unido, Alemanha e Holanda ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> ), DeSimone et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> e Duval et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> dos Estados Unidos e Fran&#231;a, respectivamente, n&#227;o observaram essa tend&#234;ncia. Assim, esfor&#231;os s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do impacto de diretrizes locais e ades&#227;o por parte dos m&#233;dicos sobre a incid&#234;ncia da EI no mundo.</p>
      <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os significativos no diagn&#243;stico e no manejo (cl&#237;nico e cir&#250;rgico) da EI, observa-se estabilidade em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; mortalidade na maioria das s&#233;ries populacionais. Exce&#231;&#245;es foram It&#225;lia, onde se observou um aumento,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e Dinamarca,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Espanha,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> e Estados Unidos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup> onde registrou-se diminui&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade. Os registros ICE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> e EURO-ENDO<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> apresentaram uma taxa de mortalidade moderadamente maior de 18% e 17%, respectivamente, em compara&#231;&#227;o ao Euro Heart Survey (13%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Finalmente, em 2013, uma meta-an&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> mostrou uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade hospitalar de 1960 a 1980, com estabilidade desde ent&#227;o.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Desafios e direcionamentos futuros</title>
      <p>No &#250;ltimo s&#233;culo, avan&#231;os cir&#250;rgicos e cl&#237;nicos permitiram uma melhora marcante no manejo e progn&#243;stico da EI. Por&#233;m, m&#233;dicos ainda enfrentam desafios di&#225;rios no manejo desses pacientes ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Principais desafios atuais da endocardite infecciosa</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">&#193;rea principal</th>
                <th align="left">Desafios</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Preven&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- profilaxia da EI (uso de indica&#231;&#245;es mais restritas ou mais amplas)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- conhecimento por parte de m&#233;dicos e pacientes</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Diagn&#243;stico</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- crit&#233;rios</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- culturas de sangue negativas</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- dispositivos e pr&#243;teses card&#237;acas &#8211; valor do teste de imagem</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Terapia cl&#237;nica</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- evid&#234;ncia robusta (ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados controlados)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- uso de terapia antimicrobiana parenteral ambulatorial</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cirurgia</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- evid&#234;ncia robusta (ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados controlados)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- timing</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- reparo <italic>versus</italic> substitui&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;lvula (expertise t&#233;cnica)</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- em pacientes com acidente vascular cerebral isqu&#234;mico</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- em usu&#225;rios de drogas intravenosas</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- na endocardite de pr&#243;teses (&#8220;sempre&#8221; versus &#8220;ocasionalmente&#8221;)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Manejo</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- equipe de cardiologia <italic>versus</italic> equipe multidisciplinar</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- centros de refer&#234;ncia</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <p>
                <italic>EI: endocardite infecciosa.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>A preven&#231;&#227;o deveria ser uma prioridade nas pol&#237;ticas de sa&#250;de nacionais. Campanhas educacionais a m&#233;dicos e pacientes s&#227;o de suma import&#226;ncia e a profilaxia da EI, analisando-se quais pacientes mais se beneficiariam, deve ser otimizada.</p>
      <p>Devem ser criados centros especializados reunindo experts em diagn&#243;stico da EI por imagem, doen&#231;a infecciosa, e cardiologia, objetivando-se melhores desfechos cl&#237;nicos e cir&#250;rgicos. Ainda, deve-se estimular a comunica&#231;&#227;o direta com outros centros. Protocolos de imagem multimodais devem ser estabelecidos, bem como pesquisas sobre melhorias tecnol&#243;gicas devem ser realizadas. A necessidade de se reduzir o tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, com o estabelecimento de equipes ambulatoriais bem treinadas e pacientes devidamente orientados, o que permitiria a realiza&#231;&#227;o de OPAT sempre que poss&#237;vel, tamb&#233;m deve ser estimulado pelas institui&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      <p>Estudos baseados em evid&#234;ncia s&#227;o ainda bem excepcionais e globalmente heterog&#234;neos. De fato, a maioria dos nossos dados foram obtidos de registros, estudos populacionais, e experi&#234;ncias unic&#234;ntricas e multic&#234;ntricas de pa&#237;s de renda m&#233;dia e alta, o que leva a um poss&#237;vel vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o ao considerar a realidade mundial. Ensaios controlados randomizados devem ser realizados para fornecer mais evid&#234;ncias acerca do momento adequado para cirurgia, esquemas de antibi&#243;ticos, o efeito da terapia cl&#237;nica adjuvante durante tratamento ativo da IE e uso de material prost&#233;tico menos vulner&#225;vel &#224; ades&#227;o por bact&#233;rias.</p>
      <p>Um coment&#225;rio final sobre o uso de redes de intelig&#234;ncia artificial atualmente desenvolvidas em centros de grande porte,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> que permitir&#225; uma estimativa precisa do risco de complica&#231;&#245;es e do momento ideal para cirurgia, levando a um melhor progn&#243;stico do paciente.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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            <name>
              <surname>Mbala</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sousa-Pinto</surname>
              <given-names>B</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Monteiro</surname>
              <given-names>JP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ponce</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Cardiac Surgery in Infective Endocarditis and Predictors of in-Hospital Mortality</article-title>
          <source>Rev Port Cardiol (Engl Ed)</source>
          <year>2020</year>
          <volume>39</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>137</fpage>
          <lpage>149</lpage>
          <issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.repc.2019.08.009.</issue-id>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Catarina Sousa pela Universidade de Lisboa.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Infective Endocarditis: Still More Challenges Than Convictions</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1709-6283</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>Catarina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8034-4529</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pinto</surname>
            <given-names>Fausto J.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Cardiovascular Universidade de Lisboa (CCUL), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Centro Hospitalar Barreiro Montijo (CHBM), Barreiro &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento Cora&#231;&#227;o e Vasos, Centro Hospitalar e Universit&#225;rio Lisboa Norte (CHULN), Lisboa &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>M</bold> ailing Address: Catarina Sousa &#8226; Centro Cardiovascular Universidade Lisboa - Faculdade de Medicina de Lisboa - Av. Prof. Egas Moniz MB, 1648-028, Lisboa - Portugal E-mail: catarinasousacardio@gmail.com</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Sousa C, Pinto F; Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of the data and Writing of the manuscript: Sousa C; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Pinto F.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>After fourteen decades of medical and technological evolution, infective endocarditis continues to challenge physicians in its daily diagnosis and management. Its increasing incidence, demographic shifts (affecting older patients), microbiology with higher rates of <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> infection, still frequent serious complications and substantial mortality make endocarditis a very complex disease. Despite this, innovations in the diagnosis, involving microbiology and imaging, and improvements in intensive care and cardiac surgical techniques, materials and timing can impact the prognosis of this disease. Ongoing challenges persist, including rethinking prophylaxis, improving the diagnosis criteria comprising blood culture-negative endocarditis and prosthetic valve endocarditis, timing of surgical intervention, and whether to perform surgery in the presence of ischemic stroke or in intravenous drug users. A combined strategy on infective endocarditis is crucial, involving advanced clinical decisions and protocols, a multidisciplinary approach, national healthcare organization and health policies to achieve better results for our patients.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Infective Endocarditis</kwd>
        <kwd>Epidemiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Prophylaxis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <disp-quote>
        <p>&#8220; <italic>It is of use from time to time to take stock, so to</italic></p>
        <p>
          <italic>speak, of our knowledge of a particular disease, to see</italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>exactly where we stand in regard to it, to inquire to what</italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>conclusions the accumulated facts seem to point, and</italic>
        </p>
        <p>
          <italic>to ascertain in what direction we may look for fruitful</italic>
        </p>
        <p><italic>investigations in the future</italic> .&#8221;</p>
        <p>
          <italic>William Osler (1885)</italic>
        </p>
      </disp-quote>
      <sec>
        <title>Epidemiology</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Incidence and demographics</title>
          <p>The incidence of infective endocarditis (IE) varies between 3 and 15 cases per 100,000 in population-based studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ). This variation is probably related to several factors: case definition criteria (definitive case, possible case, inclusion of blood culture-negative IE), different sources of cases or the time period analyzed with reference to the publication of the guidelines. In this analysis, we did not include single-center or multicentric observational studies with a high risk of selection bias that could therefore underestimate the real incidence of this disease.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Population studies on infective endocarditis incidence, demographic and outcome features</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Authors/study</th>
                    <th>Country</th>
                    <th>Population Size (Source)</th>
                    <th>Time period</th>
                    <th>Source list of cases</th>
                    <th>Number of cases</th>
                    <th>Crude incidence/100,000</th>
                    <th>Age range</th>
                    <th>Male/Female ratio</th>
                    <th>Negative Blood culture (%)</th>
                    <th>Outcomes: Valve surgery and mortality</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Fonager et al.<sup>1</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Denmark</td>
                    <td align="center">5.2 million</td>
                    <td align="center">1980-1997</td>
                    <td align="center">Danish National Registry</td>
                    <td align="center">3,351</td>
                    <td align="center">Gender analysis: Men 4 - 6 Women 3 - 4</td>
                    <td align="center">60.4</td>
                    <td align="center">1.32</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">30-d case fatality rate 23%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Tleyjeh et al.<sup>2</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">USA (Olmsted County)</td>
                    <td align="center">1970 - 51 000 2000 - 90 000</td>
                    <td align="center">1970-2000</td>
                    <td align="center">Rochester Epidemiology Project</td>
                    <td align="center">107</td>
                    <td align="center">5.0-7.0</td>
                    <td align="center">61.5 (18.8-90.6)</td>
                    <td align="center">2.7</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">Valve surgery 15% 6 mo mortality 14-33%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sy et al.<sup>7</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Australia (New South Wales)</td>
                    <td align="center">6.6 million</td>
                    <td align="center">2000-2006</td>
                    <td align="center">Statewide database</td>
                    <td align="center">1,536</td>
                    <td align="center">4.7</td>
                    <td align="center">62 (42-75)</td>
                    <td align="center">1.8</td>
                    <td align="center">15</td>
                    <td align="center">Valve surgery 20% In Hospital mortality 14% 6 mo. mortality 18%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Fedeli et al.<sup>8</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Italy (Veneto region)</td>
                    <td align="center">4.8 million</td>
                    <td align="center">2000-2008</td>
                    <td align="center">Electronic archives of hospital discharge records</td>
                    <td align="center">1,863</td>
                    <td align="center">4.4</td>
                    <td align="center">68</td>
                    <td align="center">1.4 - 2</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">Valve surgery 23% In Hospital mortality 14.3%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Selton-Suty et al.<sup>108</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">France (greater Paris, Lorraine, Rhone-Alpes, Franche-Comte&#180;, Marne, Ille-et-Vilaine, and Languedoc-Roussillon)</td>
                    <td align="center">15.3 million</td>
                    <td align="center">2008</td>
                    <td align="center">Case report forms sent to physicians likely to be in charge of IE cases</td>
                    <td align="center">497</td>
                    <td align="center">3.2</td>
                    <td align="center">62.3</td>
                    <td align="center">2.8</td>
                    <td align="center">5</td>
                    <td align="center">Valve surgery 44.9% In-hospital mortality 22.7%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Bikdeli et al.<sup>109</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">USA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA (inpatients &gt;65 yrs. old)</td>
                    <td align="center">1999-2010</td>
                    <td align="center">Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services, Medicare inpatient Standard Analytic Files</td>
                    <td align="center">262,658</td>
                    <td align="center">7.2</td>
                    <td align="center">79</td>
                    <td align="center">0.7-0.8</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">In hospital mortality 9-11% 30 d mortality &#8211; 14-16.5% 1 yr. mortality &#8211; 32.6-36.2%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Duval et al.<sup>9</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">France (Greater Paris, Lorraine, and Rh&#244;ne-Alpes)</td>
                    <td align="center">11 million</td>
                    <td align="center">1 yr. survey 1991, 1999 and 2008</td>
                    <td align="center">Case report forms sent to physicians likely to be in charge of IE cases</td>
                    <td align="center">1991 - 323 1999 &#8211; 331 2008 - 339</td>
                    <td align="center">1991 &#8211; 3.5 1999 &#8211; 3.3 2008 &#8211; 3.2</td>
                    <td align="center">1991 &#8211; 57.9 1999 &#8211; 59.8 2008 &#8211; 61.6</td>
                    <td align="center">1991 &#8211; 1.9 1999 &#8211; 2.3 2008 &#8211; 2.9</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">Valve surgery (1991 &#8211; 31.3%; 1999 &#8211; 50.2%; 2008 &#8211; 49.6%) In Hospital mortality (1991 &#8211; 20.7%; 1999 &#8211; 15.4%; 2008 &#8211; 21.2%)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ternhag et al.<sup>110</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Sweden</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">1997-2007</td>
                    <td align="center">Swedish Hospital Discharge Register</td>
                    <td align="center">7,603</td>
                    <td align="center">7.7</td>
                    <td align="center">65.7</td>
                    <td align="center">1.45</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">30-day mortality rate &#8211; 10.4% 1-5 yr. mortality rate &#8211; 14.7%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dayer et al.<sup>111</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">England</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">2000-2013</td>
                    <td align="center">Secondary Uses Service</td>
                    <td align="center">19,804</td>
                    <td align="center">2.7</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pant et al.<sup>112</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">USA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">2000-2011</td>
                    <td align="center">Nationwide Inpatient Sample database</td>
                    <td align="center">457,052</td>
                    <td align="center">11-15</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Erichsen et al.<sup>10</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Denmark</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">1994&#8211;2011</td>
                    <td align="center">Danish nationwide registry</td>
                    <td align="center">5,486</td>
                    <td align="center">7.55 (2009&#8211;2011)</td>
                    <td align="center">63</td>
                    <td align="center">1.8</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Keller et al.<sup>62</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Germany</td>
                    <td align="center">80 million</td>
                    <td align="center">2005-2014</td>
                    <td align="center">Nationwide database of the Federal Statistical Office of Germany</td>
                    <td align="center">94,364</td>
                    <td align="center">11.6</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">In hospital mortality 17%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Toyoda et al.<sup>11</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">USA (California and New York State)</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">1998-2013</td>
                    <td align="center">Statewide Planning and Research Cooperative System database (New York); Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development database (California)</td>
                    <td align="center">75,829</td>
                    <td align="center">7.6 to 9.3</td>
                    <td align="center">62.3</td>
                    <td align="center">1.2</td>
                    <td align="center">25</td>
                    <td align="center">Valve surgery - 11-13% 90-day mortality &#8211; 24%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Van der Brink et al.<sup>113</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Netherlands</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">2005-2011</td>
                    <td align="center">Dutch Healthcare Authority</td>
                    <td align="center">5213</td>
                    <td align="center">2005-3.0 2011- 6.3</td>
                    <td align="center">66.4</td>
                    <td align="center">2.3</td>
                    <td align="center">9.3</td>
                    <td align="center">All-cause mortality 36.1%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cresti et al.<sup>3</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Italy (Grosseto)</td>
                    <td align="center">217778</td>
                    <td align="center">1998-2014</td>
                    <td align="center">Healthcare system database</td>
                    <td align="center">170</td>
                    <td align="center">4.6</td>
                    <td align="center">69.5</td>
                    <td align="center">1.54</td>
                    <td align="center">19</td>
                    <td align="center">Valve surgery &#8211; 46% In hospital mortality 25% 1 yr. mortality 32%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ahtela et al.<sup>114</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Finland</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">2005-2014</td>
                    <td align="center">Care Register for Health Care (CRHC) data- base</td>
                    <td align="center">2611</td>
                    <td align="center">6.3</td>
                    <td align="center">60.0</td>
                    <td align="center">2.1</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">30 d mortality &#8211; 11%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Olmos et al.<sup>97</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Spain</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">2003-2014</td>
                    <td align="center">Spanish National Health System</td>
                    <td align="center">16867</td>
                    <td align="center">2.7 in 2003 3.5 in 2014 per 100,000 person/year</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">In hospital mortality rate 20%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Shah et al.<sup>65</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Scotland</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">1990-2014</td>
                    <td align="center">National hospitalization registry National microbiology register</td>
                    <td align="center">7638</td>
                    <td align="center">5.3 in 1990</td>
                    <td align="center">65</td>
                    <td align="center">0.96</td>
                    <td align="center">58</td>
                    <td align="center">30-day outcome: All cause death &#8211; 9.6-17.3% Valve surgery &#8211; 3.8-6.3% 1-year outcome: All cause death &#8211; 27-33.3% Valve surgery &#8211; 9.2-15.5%</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>NA: non-available; IE: infective endocarditis.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>A male predominance can be noted with a male: female ratio varying between 0.96 and 2.8. This is also observed in large international registries such as the ICE study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> the GAMES registry in Spain<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> or the recently published EURO-ENDO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In most populational series and international registries, older patients are normally more affected, the median age from late 50s to 60s ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ). Also, the incidence increases with aging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Finally, a meta-analysis published in 2013<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> that included 160 studies worldwide concluded that male gender predominance and age increased over time.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Risk factors</title>
          <p>Three main underlying conditions usually predispose patients to acquire IE:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Heart valve disease and cardiac valve prothesis, grafts or devices</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Congenital heart disease (CHD)</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Previous history of IE</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Heart valve disease is a major contributor to the pool of cardiac patients in daily clinical setting, with a significant prevalence in the community,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> as a result of higher life expectancy, aging of the populations<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> and improved medical and surgical care of valvular patients. A decline in rheumatic valve disease was noted in the last decades,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> with degenerative etiology being the most prevalent in developed countries. Nevertheless, the burden of rheumatic valve disease persists in low-to-middle income countries with significant prevalence (in Brazil, it affects up to 7/1000 school children versus 0.1-0.4/1000 in the USA)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> and mortality (275,000 deaths each year worldwide).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> A recent study by Glaser et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> indicated that bioprostheses have a higher risk of infection compared to mechanical valves, but more studies are still needed.</p>
          <p>Also, the implantation of cardiac prothesis, grafts or devices is continually increasing, with a growing impact on the number of infections in these implants. It has been estimated that 25-30% of all cases of IE occur in prosthetic valves, according to the registries of the Euro-Heart Survey in 2005,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> ICE in 2009,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> GAMES in 2015<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> and EURO-ENDO in 2019.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) has been increasingly used in severe symptomatic aortic stenosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A metanalysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> of four studies, with 3,761 patients, published in 2019, concluded that the risk of IE with TAVI was not different as compared with conventional surgical aortic valve replacement.</p>
          <p>Infections related to permanent pacemakers and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators have also been increasing over time<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> and account for about 10% of IE episodes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding CHD, the 25-year cumulative incidence<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> of IE after surgery varied between 1.3 and 13.3%, being highest in the aortic valve stenosis group. In fact, complex CHD, ventricular septal defect, bicuspid aortic valve, tetralogy of Fallot and aortic valve replacement, constitute important predisposing factors for IE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> and with a high mortality risk, estimated between 6 and 14%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Long-term follow-up series of IE patients reveal that a significant proportion of patients that survive their first episode of IE carry a higher risk of relapse (new IE episode caused by the same microorganism within the first six months after the initial episode<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> ) or re-infection<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> (infection by a different microorganism), estimated in 2.6-8.8%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> with a high rate of complications and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Other important conditions increase the risk of IE and need to be considered clinically.</p>
          <p>Although the use of injection drugs, mainly opioids, may be decreasing in the European Union, the risk of blood infections remain high, with an increase in methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> infection registered in the last six years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The growing evidence on vascular manipulation- and catheter-induced bacteremia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> can explain the increased risk of IE in the health care setting<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> ranging up to 35% of total cohorts, in tattooing and body piercing<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> and in patients with chronic renal disease on hemodialysis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> which has strongly influenced the most contemporary pattern of predominant microorganisms in this disease.</p>
          <p>Besides chronic renal failure, other comorbidities increase the risk of IE such as diabetes mellitus,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> chronic lung disease,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> chronic liver disease,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> cancer,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> in particular colorectal and urogenital cancer, and periodontal disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagnosis</title>
        <sec>
          <title>The role of imaging</title>
          <p>Clinical history and examination are pivotal in the diagnosis of IE. Even so, imaging contributes exponentially for its confirmation.</p>
          <p>Echocardiography, keystone in every day clinical practice, has developed considerably, from 2D, transesophageal echo (TEE),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> harmonic imaging,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> to the increment value of 3D TEE in prosthetic valve imaging,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> improving echocardiographic sensitivity to detect endocarditis and its local cardiac complications.</p>
          <p>Nevertheless, the modified Duke criteria continue to have a limited role in confirming the diagnosis in more complex cases such as in prosthetic valves, cardiac device and Negative Blood Culture (NBC) cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
          <p>New imaging modalities, such as cardiac computed tomography (CT) and metabolic imaging by 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> FDG-PET) or leukocyte scintigraphy (radiolabeled leukocyte single-photon emission CT [SPECT])<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> have been shown to complement the use of echocardiography specially in prosthetic valves<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> with improvement in sensitivity when aggregated to the modified Duke criteria. This fact led the European Society of Cardiology<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> to issue, in 2015, a new set of criteria based on the modified Duke criteria with added value (major criteria) of these new imaging techniques.</p>
          <p>Also, the active search of embolic events or infectious aneurisms by cerebral magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), whole-body CT and/or PET/CT was added as a minor criterion.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Microbiology</title>
          <p>Almost any agent can cause IE, although the most frequent are gram positive bacteria, namely <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> and <italic>Streptococcus</italic> and more recently <italic>Enterococcus</italic> .</p>
          <p>In the 1970&#8217;s, hospital series reported <italic>Streptococcus viridans</italic> as the most frequent causal agent of IE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> but simultaneously acknowledged that <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> frequency among IE patients was increasing. Among <italic>Streptococcus spp</italic> , the most frequent is <italic>Streptococcus viridans</italic> (a common pathogen in the oral mucosa) followed by <italic>Streptococcus bovis</italic> (associated with colonic neoplasms). In 2007, a metanalysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> concluded on an increase incidence of <italic>Staphylococci</italic> and <italic>Enterococci</italic> with a significant decrease in IE caused by <italic>Streptococci</italic> and NBC IE. This trend is worrying as these agents are associated with a high mortality rate,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> being locally destructive with a high capacity to embolize (septic metastasis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In fact, a recently published systematic review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> concerning the causative agent of IE in 105 studies concluded that <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> was the most common agent; <italic>S. viridans</italic> was also among the most common agents in the subgroups of pediatric and CHD patients, and intravenous drug users. A selection bias cannot be excluded, though, as most included studies were from Europe and North America, with less representation from Asia, South America and Africa, where <italic>S. viridans</italic> is still a very relevant and common pathogen, despite fewer studies focused on it.</p>
          <p>The HACEK (H <italic>aemophilus</italic> species, <italic>Aggregatibacter</italic> species, <italic>Cardiobacterium hominis, Eikenella corrodens</italic> , and <italic>Kingella kingae</italic> ) microorganisms, normally present in the oropharynx, are described as fastidious bacteria with a low growth rate in cultures, and responsible for less than 5% of IE.</p>
          <p>Regarding NBC IE, it occurs in about 10-20% of cases, according to most populational studies ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ), excluding the Scotland study by Shah et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> that reported an unusually high rate of 58% in their cohort. Previous/concomitant antibiotic use is a common etiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Sampling and testing differences,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> as well as infection due to fastidious, intracellular or challenging to culture organisms also contributes to blood culture-negative IE. A delay in the clinical diagnosis and choice of antibiotic regimen associated with hemodynamic deterioration has been observed,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> although conflicting evidence exists regarding its impact on mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> Still, fungi and fastidious bacteria should be suspected and cultures in specialized media should be performed, considering that a slow growth rate is expected. Serological testing for Coxiella burnetii, Bartonella spp, Aspergillus spp., Mycoplasma pneumonia, Brucella spp. and Legionella pneumophila should be performed. Blood polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for Tropheryma whipplei, Bartonella spp and fungi (Candida spp, Aspergillus spp)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> can be performed although low sensitivity is acknowledged.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> In the surgical field, Brand&#227;o et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> reported that the inclusion of histopathologic and PCR analysis in surgically explanted cardiac valves proved more useful in diagnosing the IE etiology than valve culture by itself.</p>
          <p>Therefore, a systematic approach with a complete patient&#8217;s history (including geography, recent travel, contact with animals), histopathology, culture-based, molecular and serological investigations are essential in every-day pratice<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> to increase the likelihood of identifying the causal agent.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Management and outcomes</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Antibiotics</title>
            <p>The selection of antimicrobials, either while waiting for the cultures, or when the responsible microorganism is known, and in NBC IE, is well defined and can be found in the European Society of Cardiogy<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> and American Heart Association<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> guidelines. Therapy is usually prolonged and parenteral.</p>
            <p>The length of antibiotic therapy should be calculated from the first day the effective treatment was established. Only in case of a positive surgical valve culture should the time of antibiotic therapy be restarted, counting from the surgical date; otherwise it may be safe to administer antibiotic therapy for another two weeks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> Long-term antibiotic administration is the rule, from two to four weeks in oral <italic>Streptococcus</italic> native-valve IE to six weeks in <italic>Enterococcus</italic> infection; prosthetic valve IE requires a six-week duration course. This usually means a prolonged hospital stay to complete the full cycle of antibiotic.</p>
            <p>The Outpatient Parenteral Antimicrobial Therapy (OPAT) is generally used for delivery of parenteral antimicrobial therapy in at least two doses on different days without intervening hospitalization,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> and it has been used in different infectious settings such as pneumonia, pyelonephritis, osteomyelitis, skin infection, decreasing hospital length of stay. Regarding IE, current European guidelines support the use of OPAT in endocarditis patients after the first two weeks of hospitalization and in cooperative and medically stable patients (the OPAT can actually be started earlier in native valve oral <italic>Streptococci</italic> or <italic>Streptococcus bovis</italic> ) as long as an outpatient program is set with daily evaluation by a nurse and weekly by an experienced physician.</p>
            <p>Nevertheless, parenteral outpatient therapy has also limitations: prolonged parenteral therapy can be logistically challenging and difficult in intravenous drug users or cancer patients with poor venous access. Few studies on the use of oral antibiotic to complete the full cycle of antibiotic therapy in IE have been performed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> After a short course of triple intravenous antibiotic, oral ciprofloxacin and rifampicin has been shown to be effective in a small trial of uncomplicated right-side <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> IE in intravenous drug users where parenteral therapy was not feasible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup> A recent trial, POET,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> also tested the efficacy and safety of switching from intravenous to oral antibiotics in 400 stable patients who had left-sided IE. It concluded that changing to oral regimen was not inferior to continuous conventional parenteral regimen in these patients.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Surgery</title>
            <p>Surgery plays a crucial role in IE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> Europe presents higher rates of surgical intervention in IE than the rest of the world. Populational series present rates between 15% and 50% ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ). At the EURO-ENDO<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> or ICE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> registries, almost half the patients were operated.</p>
            <p>Several observational studies have concluded on the protective effect of surgery during the active phase of IE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> Nevertheless, not all patients with a clinical indication for surgery are in fact operated. The ICE-Plus registry<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> and the GAMES study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> estimated that approximately a quarter of patients with surgical indication did not undergo surgery. Reasons for this included poor prognosis, hemodynamic instability, stroke, sepsis, and death before surgery. Also, only a moderate agreement was found between clinical practice and recommended guidelines regarding surgical indication in EI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The best timing for surgery continues to be controversial; &#8220;early&#8221; <italic>versus</italic> &#8220;late&#8221; may have different translations. While European guidelines<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> emphasize that surgery should be performed on an emergent (within 24 h) or urgent (within a few days) basis, American guidelines<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> refer to &#8220;early&#8221; surgery as during initial hospitalization and before completion of a full course of antibiotics. Observational studies have shown a reduction of in-hospital mortality with early surgery,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup> and a metanalysis conducted in 2016 also concluded on the protective role of early surgery on prognosis.</p>
            <p>Regarding the type of valve procedure, a choice between repair and replacement must be made. International guidelines<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> emphasize that valve repair should be the option in native valves with limited involvement of leaflets or cusps. In a population-based study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> concerning the New York State and California, USA, 19% of patients with native mitral valve IE underwent repair, which was associated with better survival and lower risk of recurrence. This may however not represent the real-world practice. On the other hand, if the native valve is largely disrupted, the choice on the type of prosthesis should consider patient-related factors such as age, compliance to anticoagulants, and life expectancy. In fact, there is currently no evidence of superiority of bioprosthesis or mechanical valves<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup> as they present similar survival and recurrence rates of endocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Also, the continuing search for the ideal prognostic score for risk stratification in cardiac surgery in IE has been undertaken by several groups,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref></sup> although currently no risk score has proven to be superior in IE setting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> Risk stratification before surgery is however crucial and should take into account patient&#8217;s clinical status, comorbidities and operative risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> A decisive role of the multidisciplinary &#8220;Endocarditis Team&#8221; in timely referral for cardiac surgery and clinical evaluation, especially in left-sided IE cases, has been recognized.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Post-operative surgical mortality ranges from 6 to 29% in observational series ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> ). A meta-analysis published by Varela-Barca<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> in 2019 identified the following factors linked to increased mortality after surgery: age, female, urgent or emergency surgery, previous cardiac surgery, NYHA class &#8805; III, cardiogenic shock, prosthetic valve, multivalvular affection, renal failure, perivalvular abscess and <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> infection.</p>
            <p>
              <table-wrap id="t2001">
                <label>Table 2</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Characteristics of observational surgical series on infective endocarditis patients</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th align="left">Study</th>
                      <th>Country</th>
                      <th>Study design</th>
                      <th>Temporal period</th>
                      <th>N</th>
                      <th>Native valve (%)/Prosthetic valve (%)</th>
                      <th>Mortality rate (%)</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Jassal et al.<sup>115</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">USA</td>
                      <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                      <td align="center">1995-2004</td>
                      <td align="center">91</td>
                      <td align="center">85.7/14.3</td>
                      <td align="center">15.4</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Bannay et al.<sup>116</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">France</td>
                      <td align="center">Prospective</td>
                      <td align="center">1998-2000</td>
                      <td align="center">240</td>
                      <td align="center">67.5/32.5</td>
                      <td align="center">19.4</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Lalani et al.<sup>83</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Multicentric</td>
                      <td align="center">Prospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2000-2005</td>
                      <td align="center">720</td>
                      <td align="center">100/0</td>
                      <td align="center">12.1</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Gaca et al.<sup>95</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">USA</td>
                      <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2002-2008</td>
                      <td align="center">19543</td>
                      <td align="center">NA</td>
                      <td align="center">8.2</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Lalani et al.<sup>86</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Multicentric</td>
                      <td align="center">Prospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2000-2005</td>
                      <td align="center">490</td>
                      <td align="center">0/100</td>
                      <td align="center">22</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Pang et al.<sup>117</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Singapore</td>
                      <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2000-2012</td>
                      <td align="center">191</td>
                      <td align="center">92.7/7.3</td>
                      <td align="center">6.3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Machado et al.<sup>118</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Brazil</td>
                      <td align="center">Prospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2003-2010</td>
                      <td align="center">64</td>
                      <td align="center">NA</td>
                      <td align="center">17</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Madeira et al.<sup>94</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Portugal</td>
                      <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2007-2014</td>
                      <td align="center">128</td>
                      <td align="center">75.7/15</td>
                      <td align="center">16</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Olmos et al.<sup>97</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Spain</td>
                      <td align="center">Prospective</td>
                      <td align="center">1996-2014</td>
                      <td align="center">671</td>
                      <td align="center">60/40</td>
                      <td align="center">28.6</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Pivatto et al.<sup>93</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Brazil</td>
                      <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2007-2016</td>
                      <td align="center">107</td>
                      <td align="center">-/31</td>
                      <td align="center">29</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Varela el al.<sup>119</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Spain</td>
                      <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2002-2016</td>
                      <td align="center">180</td>
                      <td align="center">62.6/37.5</td>
                      <td align="center">26.8</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Guiomar et al.<sup>120</sup></td>
                      <td align="center">Portugal</td>
                      <td align="center">Retrospective</td>
                      <td align="center">2006-2017</td>
                      <td align="center">145</td>
                      <td align="center">68/32</td>
                      <td align="center">13.1</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN2001">
                    <p>
                      <italic>NA: non-available.</italic>
                    </p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>Although surgical rates tended towards an increase by 7% per decade from 1969 to 2000,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> since the beginning of this century, the general trend is towards stability,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> even though populational studies conducted in Spain<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> and the USA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup> have continuously presented increasing rates. This probably results from recent scientific guidelines, continuous advances in intensive care and surgical management of these patients.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Mortality</title>
            <p>In-hospital mortality rate varies between countries, from 8 to 40%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Regarding short-term mortality (up to 30-day follow-up) in populational studies in the last two decades, the rates have ranged between 11-25%, whereas a one-year follow-up revealed a 32% mortality rate ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ). A meta-analysis published in 2017<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> including 25 observational studies, estimated a short- (six months) and long-term follow-up (up to 10 years) mortality rate of 20% and 37% respectively. Fernandez et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Toyoda et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> and Ilh&#227;o Moreira et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> reported a five-year mortality rate of 52%, 53% and 43%, and Netzer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup> reported a seven-year mortality rate of 56%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">100</xref></sup> Although data on long-term follow-up are scarce, current evidence discloses a trend toward a poor prognosis of these patients even if they survive hospitalization for active IE.</p>
            <p>Several factors have been linked to increased IE-related mortality. In 2019, a metanalysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> of 16 studies, including 7,484 patients identified female, urgent or emergency surgery, previous cardiac surgery, NYHA class &#8805; III, cardiogenic shock, prosthetic valve, multivalvular affection, renal failure, perivalvular abscess and <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> infection as important markers of in-hospital mortality.</p>
            <p>Causes of death have been poorly addressed in most series. Fernandez-Hidalgo et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> described in their prospective observational cohort study of 438 IE patients, an in-hospital mortality rate of 29%, 80% of deaths directly related to IE, whereas the remaining were mostly due to nosocomial infection or major bleeding. Prospective registries<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> identified cardiovascular causes, mainly heart failure, and sepsis as main causes of in-hospital mortality in these patients. Long term mortality causes have not been explored.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>IE prophylaxis</title>
            <p>In 2007 in the USA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> and 2009 in Europe<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> indications for antibiotic prophylaxis have been downgraded, with important limitations on the use of antibiotics during dental procedures and withdrawal of antibiotic administration during genitourinary and gastrointestinal procedures. In 2008, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) of the United Kingdom issued guidelines<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> completely removing all indications on the use of antibiotic prophylaxis for dental and non-dental procedures.</p>
            <p>According to European guidelines,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> IE antibiotic prophylaxis should be administered to high-risk patients:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Patients with a prosthetic valve or with prosthetic material used for cardiac valve repair;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Patients with previous IE;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Patients with untreated cyanotic CHD and CHD patients with postoperative palliative shunts and conduits, or other prostheses.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>In this subpopulation of patients, antibiotic prophylaxis should be used for dental procedures requiring manipulation of the gingival or periapical region of the teeth or perforation of the oral mucosa.</p>
            <p>These decisions are not consensual among countries, though. Latin American countries including Brazil remain conservative. IE antibiotic prophylaxis still includes patients with significant valve disease such as degenerative or bicuspid aortic valve, mitral valve prolapse with regurgitation, or rheumatic valve disease. It is also used before genitourinary or gastrointestinal procedures involving mucosa in high-risk patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Incidence and mortality trends</title>
        <p>In developed countries such as Denmark, Italy, England, Spain, Germany, Finland, and Netherlands, there has been an increasing trend in the incidence of IE in the last two decades ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> ). This may be explained by demographic reasons (e.g., aging population), changes in the etiology of valve disease, an increasing number of patients with implanted cardiac devices or prosthesis, an increasing survival of patients with structural and CHD, need for long-term vascular access for different conditions, and advances in prophylaxis measures.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Evolution of incidence and/or mortality rates in populational studies on infective endocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Authors/Study</th>
                  <th>Country</th>
                  <th>Time period</th>
                  <th>Increasing incidence trends</th>
                  <th>Surgical rate trends</th>
                  <th>Mortality trends</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fonager et al.<sup>1</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Denmark</td>
                  <td align="center">1980-1997</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">Decreasing</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tleyjeh et al.<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">USA (Olmsted County)</td>
                  <td align="center">1970-2000</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">Stable</td>
                  <td align="center">Stable</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sy et al.<sup>7</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Australia (New South Wales)</td>
                  <td align="center">2000-2006</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">Stable</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Fedeli et al.<sup>8</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Italy (Veneto region)</td>
                  <td align="center">2000-2008</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Stable</td>
                  <td align="center">Increasing</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Bikdeli et al.<sup>109</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">USA</td>
                  <td align="center">1999-2010</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">Stable</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Duval et al.<sup>9</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">France (Greater Paris, Lorraine, and Rh&#244;ne-Alpes)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 yr. survey 1991, 1999 and 2008</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">Increase from 1991-1999. Then stable.</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dayer et al.<sup>111</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">England</td>
                  <td align="center">2000-2013</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (more pronounced after 2008)</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pant et al.<sup>112</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">USA</td>
                  <td align="center">2000-2011</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (to <italic>Streptococcus</italic> IE after 2007)</td>
                  <td align="center">Increase 2000-2007/stable 2007-2011</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Erichsen et al.<sup>10</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Denmark</td>
                  <td align="center">1994&#8211;2011</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (in men and older age)</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Keller et al.<sup>62</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Germany</td>
                  <td align="center">2005-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes (more pronounced after 2009)</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">Stable</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Toyoda et al.<sup>11</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">USA (California and New York State)</td>
                  <td align="center">1998-2013</td>
                  <td align="center">No</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">Stable</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Van der Brink et al.<sup>113</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Netherlands</td>
                  <td align="center">2005-2011</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cresti et al.<sup>3</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Italy (Grosseto)</td>
                  <td align="center">1998-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">Mild increase (p=0.055)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Olmos et al.<sup>97</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Spain</td>
                  <td align="center">2003-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">Increase</td>
                  <td align="center">Decrease (0.2%/year)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ahtela et al.<sup>114</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Finland</td>
                  <td align="center">2005-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">Stable</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Shah et al.<sup>65</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Scotland</td>
                  <td align="center">1990-2014</td>
                  <td align="center">No (increase in patients &gt;80 years old)</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Khan et al.<sup>98</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">USA</td>
                  <td align="center">2002-2016</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">Increase</td>
                  <td align="center">A decrease (from 16.7% to 9.7%)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>
                  <italic>NA: non-available.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>On the other hand, this trend has not been seen in other countries including France, Australia, Scotland or the United States of America (USA).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> These disparities are probably related to the different sources and definition of cases, and impact timing of improvements in diagnostic methods (imaging, microbiology).</p>
        <p>The greater impact of IE prophylaxis on IE incidence in high-risk patients (2007&#8217;s American Heart Association<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup> and 2009&#8217;s European Society Cardiology<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> ) has been evaluated in different studies, but uncertainty persists, as Khant et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup> concluded in a metanalysis in 2016. In fact, several authors showed a more pronounced increase in the IE incidence in countries such as United Kingdom, Germany and Netherland ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> ), whereas DeSimone et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup> and Duval et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> from the USA and France respectively, have not detected this trend. Efforts should be made to assess, worldwide, the impact of local guidelines and physician&#8217;s compliance on the incidence of IE.</p>
        <p>Despite significant advances in the field of diagnosis and management (medical and surgical) of IE, stability is noted regarding in hospital mortality in most populational series. Exceptions were Italy, where an increase was noted,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and in Denmark,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Spain<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> and the USA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup> where a decrease was registered. The ICE<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> and EURO-ENDO<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> registries displayed a mildly increased mortality rate of 18% and 17% respectively, compared to the Euro Heart Survey<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> (13%). Finally, in 2013 a metanalysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> concluded on a decrease in in-hospital mortality from 1960 to 1980 with stability afterwards.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Challenges and future directions</title>
        <p>In the last century, medical and surgical advances allowed for a remarkable improvement in the management and prognosis of IE. Still, physicians face daily challenges when dealing with such patients ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 4</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4001">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Current major challenges of infective endocarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Main area</th>
                  <th align="left">Challenges</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Prevention</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- IE prophylaxis (the use of stricter or broader indications)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- clinicians/patients&#8217; awareness</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diagnosis</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- criteria</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- negative blood cultures</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- prosthesis and cardiac devices &#8211; the value of imaging</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Medical therapy</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- robust evidence (randomized controlled clinical trials)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- use of OPAT</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Surgery</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- robust evidence (randomized controlled clinical trials)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- timing</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- valve repair versus replacement (technical expertise)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- in patients with ischemic stroke</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- in intravenous drug users</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- in prosthetic endocarditis (always versus occasionally)</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Overall management</td>
                  <td>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- heart team versus multidisciplinary IE team</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p>- referral centres</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4001">
                <p>
                  <italic>OPAT: Outpatient Parenteral Antimicrobial Therapy. IE: infective endocarditis.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Prevention should be a priority in national health policies. Patient and physician education campaigns are of crucial importance, and IE prophylaxis, analyzing which patients benefit the most, should be optimized.</p>
        <p>Centers of expertise gathering experts in imaging, infectious disease, and cardiology should be established, aiming at better clinical and surgical outcomes. Straightforward communication with non-referral centers should be highly supported. Multimodality imaging protocols should be established, and technological improvements researched. The need to reduce hospital length of stay with the establishment of well-trained, outpatient teams and educated patients that would allow for OPAT, whenever feasible, must also be endorsed by institutions.</p>
        <p>Evidence-based investigation is still quite exceptional and globally heterogeneous. In fact, most of our data were obtained from registries, populational studies and single/multicenter experiences in middle-to-high income countries, allowing for a non-neglectable selection bias when considering the worldwide condition. Randomized controlled trials should be performed to provide further evidence specifically regarding timing of surgery, antibiotic schemes, the effect of adjunctive medical therapy during the active treatment of IE or use of prosthetic material less predisposed to bacteria adhesion.</p>
        <p>As a final comment, the use of artificial intelligence networks that are currently being built in high-volume centers<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> will allow an accurate estimation of the risk of complications and the ideal surgical timing, ultimately improving patient&#8217;s prognosis.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Catarina Sousa, from Universidade de Lisboa.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
