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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">DtmLzJHhBGCyjsbNXddCNQz</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="previous-pid" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022005001215</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022000500885</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20201384</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20201384</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Esquistossomose e o Cora&#231;&#227;o - Em Nome das Doen&#231;as Tropicais Negligenciadas e Outras Doen&#231;as Infecciosas que Afetam o Cora&#231;&#227;o (Projeto NET-Heart)</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3749-4281</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Posada-Mart&#237;nez</surname>
            <given-names>Edith Liliana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8472-9509</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gonzalez-Barrera</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Gerardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Liblik</surname>
            <given-names>Kiera</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6635-6224</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gomez-Mesa</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Esteban</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Saldarriaga</surname>
            <given-names>Clara</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5824-8485</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Farina</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Parodi</surname>
            <given-names>Josefina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zhou</surname>
            <given-names>Zier</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martinez-Selles</surname>
            <given-names>Manuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Baranchuk</surname>
            <given-names>Adrian</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Ignacio Chavez National Institute for Cardiology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Juan Badiano</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="MX">M&#233;xico</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Ignacio Chavez National Institute for Cardiology &#8211; Echocardiography, Juan Badiano &#8211; M&#233;xico</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Medical Society</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">National Medical Center</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Mexico City</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="MX">M&#233;xico</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Medical Society of 20 of November National Medical Center &#8211; Cardiology, Mexico City &#8211; M&#233;xico</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Queen&#8217;s University</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Kingston</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Ontario</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CA">Canad&#225;</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Queen&#8217;s University, Kingston, Ontario &#8211; Canad&#225;</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Valle del Lili Foundation</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Internal Medicine Department</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Valle del Cauca</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CO">Col&#244;mbia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Valle del Lili Foundation Internal Medicine Department, Valle del Cauca &#8211; Col&#244;mbia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Cardiovascular Clinic Santa Maria</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Medellin</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CO">Col&#244;mbia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardiovascular Clinic Santa Maria - Cardiology and Heart Failure, Medellin &#8211; Col&#244;mbia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of Antioquia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Medellin</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CO">Col&#244;mbia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">University of Antioquia, Medellin &#8211; Col&#244;mbia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Clinica Olivos</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Clinica Olivos &#8211; Cardiology, Buenos Aires &#8211; Argentina</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Cardiovascular Institute of Buenos Aires</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardiovascular Institute of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires &#8211; Argentina</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>9</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Gregorio Maranon General University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Cardiology Service</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Madrid</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Espanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Gregorio Maranon General University Hospital Cardiology Service, Madrid &#8211; Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Adrian Baranchuk &#8226; Queen&#8217;s University - Kingston Health Science Center K7L 2V7 Email: <email>barancha@kgh.kari.net</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Posada-Mart&#237;nez EL, Gonzalez-Barrera LG, Liblik K, Gomez-Mesa JE, Saldarriaga C, Farina JM, Parodi J, Zhou Z, Martinez-Selles M, Baranchuk A; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Posada-Mart&#237;nez EL, Gonzalez-Barrera LG, Baranchuk A; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Posada-Mart&#237;nez EL, Gonzalez-Barrera LG, Gomez-Mesa JE, Saldarriaga C, Farina JM, Parodi J, Zhou Z, Martinez-Selles M, Baranchuk A.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>118</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>885</fpage>
      <lpage>893</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> A esquistossomose &#233; uma doen&#231;a tropical negligenciada que pode levar a complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares. No entanto, o envolvimento cardiovascular na esquistossomose ainda precisa ser totalmente elucidado, devido ao n&#250;mero limitado de casos e aus&#234;ncia de evid&#234;ncia confi&#225;vel, uma vez que a doen&#231;a ocorre tipicamente em locais sem infraestrutura adequada para uma coleta de dados robusta.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo</title>
          <p> Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica teve como objetivo avaliar as implica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares da esquistossomose, incluindo no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento, e propor um algoritmo para rastrear as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Foi realizada uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica nos bancos de dados MEDLINE/PubMed e LILACS, com busca por artigos sobre o comprometimento cardiovascular na esquistossomose.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Trinta e tr&#234;s artigos foram considerados para esta revis&#227;o: seis artigos de revis&#227;o, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, um ensaio cl&#237;nico, 14 estudos observacionais, sete relatos de casos, e quatro s&#233;ries de casos. O comprometimento cardiovascular inclui um amplo espectro de condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, tais como isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, miocardite, hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar, e pericardite.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p> As complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas da esquistossomose podem causar incapacidade em longo prazo e morte. O monitoramento cl&#237;nico, exame f&#237;sico, eletrocardiograma precoce, e ecocardiograma devem ser considerados como medidas chave para detectar o envolvimento cardiovascular. Dada a aus&#234;ncia de um tratamento eficaz das complica&#231;&#245;es, s&#227;o necess&#225;rios saneamento e educa&#231;&#227;o nas &#225;reas end&#234;micas para a elimina&#231;&#227;o desse problema de sa&#250;de mundial.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Esquistossomose</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Medicina Tropical</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="44"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A esquistossomose &#233; uma doen&#231;a tropical negligenciada (DTN) causada por platelmintos, que s&#227;o tremat&#243;deos do g&#234;nero Schistosoma. A doen&#231;a &#233; end&#234;mica de regi&#245;es rurais com m&#225; infraestrutura de sa&#250;de, e acesso limitado &#224; &#225;gua pot&#225;vel ou m&#233;todos de saneamento da &#225;gua. A esquistossomose foi inclu&#237;da no plano de combate &#224;s DTNs da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) de 2008-2015.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Segundo a OMS, aproximadamente 240 milh&#245;es de pessoas s&#227;o afetadas pela esquistossomose no mundo, com mais de 90% dos casos registrados na &#193;frica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A esquistossomose &#233; transmitida pela penetra&#231;&#227;o de larvas de Schistosoma (cerc&#225;rias), presentes em &#225;gua doce, na pele. Uma vez que as larvas penetram na pele, elas invadem o sistema venoso e se espalham por &#243;rg&#227;os tais como cora&#231;&#227;o, pulm&#245;es, f&#237;gado e intestinos. O <italic>Schistosoma mansoni</italic> &#233; a principal esp&#233;cie que infecta os humanos, e pode levar a eventos cardiovasculares fatais. Em relatos de casos publicados, miocardite, pericardite, e isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio foram documentados na fase aguda da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Esses desfechos cardiovasculares s&#227;o pouco compreendidos, devido ao n&#250;mero limitado de casos e aus&#234;ncia de registros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Pacientes com complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares agudas podem ainda se apresentarem assintom&#225;ticos, contribuindo para defici&#234;ncias na coleta de dados. A complica&#231;&#227;o mais importante da esquistossomose &#233; a hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar (HAP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Sinais e sintomas de pacientes com HAP associada &#224; esquistossomose n&#227;o s&#227;o diferentes daqueles causados por HAP com outras etiologias.</p>
      <p>Estima-se que a esquistossomose seja a principal causa de HAP em pa&#237;ses end&#234;micos. Apesar disso, o diagn&#243;stico &#233; limitado a regi&#245;es com acesso a equipamentos m&#233;dicos adequados e, atualmente, n&#227;o existem medicamentos espec&#237;ficos para a HAP associada &#224; esquistossomose. O agente farmacol&#243;gico mais utilizado &#233; o praziquantel (PZQ), que presumivelmente previne a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a por revers&#227;o do remodelamento vascular.</p>
      <p>Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica &#233; parte do projeto &#8220;NET-Heart&#8221; (<italic>Neglected Tropical Diseases and Other Infectious Diseases Affecting the Heart</italic>, ou Doen&#231;as tropicais Negligenciadas e Outras Doen&#231;as Infecciosas que Afetam o Cora&#231;&#227;o), uma iniciativa da se&#231;&#227;o &#8220;L&#237;deres Emergentes&#8221; da Sociedade Interamericana de Cardiologia (SIAC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> O objetivo deste estudo foi expandir o conhecimento do impacto da DTN sobre a sa&#250;de cardiovascular. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o foi apresentar uma vis&#227;o geral do envolvimento cardiovascular na esquistossomose e propor um algoritmo para o diagn&#243;stico.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura foi conduzida seguindo-se o delineamento do projeto NET-Heart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>Foi realizada uma busca nos bancos de dados MEDLINE/PubMed e LILACS por qualquer associa&#231;&#227;o entre esquistossomose e envolvimento cardiovascular, sem restri&#231;&#227;o de data. Foram analisados somente estudos em ingl&#234;s, envolvendo humanos. Artigos sem o texto completo dispon&#237;vel foram exclu&#237;dos. As palavras chaves utilizadas, de acordo com a terminologia MESH foram: &#8220;esquistossomose, &#8220;cora&#231;&#227;o&#8221;, &#8220;card&#237;aco&#8221;, &#8220;peric&#225;rdio&#8221;, &#8220;pericardite&#8221;, e &#8220;doen&#231;a cardiovascular&#8221;. Os artigos foram rastreados por dois investigadores independentes (ELPM e LGGB). A concord&#226;ncia entre observadores, calculada pelo coeficiente Kappa, foi de 0,93. Discrep&#226;ncias foram resolvidas por consenso. Uma busca manual foi tamb&#233;m realizada a partir das refer&#234;ncias dos artigos selecionados. A busca resultou em 110 artigos, dos quais 33 artigos foram inclu&#237;dos nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica: seis artigos de revis&#227;o, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, um ensaio cl&#237;nico, 14 estudos observacionais, sete relatos de casos, e quatro s&#233;ries de casos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref>). A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> (material suplementar) resume os estudos considerados nesta revis&#227;o.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Fluxograma da metodologia PRISMA.</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Sintomas e sinais de hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar associada &#224; esquistossomose</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" scope="col">Sintomas</th>
                <th colspan="2" rowspan="1" scope="col">Sinais</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" colspan="3">Hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Dispneia</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Disfonia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Fraqueza</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Hemoptise</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Angina</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Impulso paraesternal esquerdo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">S&#237;ncope</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Componente pulmonar acentuado do segundo som card&#237;aco</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Tosse</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Terceira bulha card&#237;aca no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">N&#225;usea e v&#244;mito</td>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Sopro sist&#243;lico paraesternal da regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left"> </td>
                <td align="center" colspan="2">Sopro diast&#243;lico da regurgita&#231;&#227;o pulmonar</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="3">
                  <bold>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">Dispneia</td>
                <td align="center">Pletora jugular</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">Dor abdominal</td>
                <td align="center">Ascite</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">Edema de membros</td>
                <td align="center">Hepatomegalia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">Fadiga</td>
                <td align="center">Edema perif&#233;rico</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>Dados adaptados de Galie et al. 2015 ESC/ERS Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: The Joint Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS). Eur Heart J. 2016;37(1):67-119.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Epidemiologia</title>
        <p>A esquistossomose &#233; uma doen&#231;a parasit&#225;ria cr&#244;nica causada por platelmintos do g&#234;nero Schistosoma. Entre os indiv&#237;duos infectados, aproximadamente 120 milh&#245;es de pessoas s&#227;o sintom&#225;ticas, e 20 milh&#245;es apresentam formas graves da doen&#231;a, incluindo a forma hepatoespl&#234;nica e a forma urin&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A esquistossomose &#233; considerada end&#234;mica na Am&#233;rica do Sul, Caribe, sudeste asi&#225;tico, e &#193;frica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2</xref>). A &#193;frica &#233; a &#225;rea mais afetada, com mais de 90% das 41 mortes e 1,7 milh&#245;es de anos de vida ajustados por incapacidade atribu&#237;dos a essa doen&#231;a anualmente. Ainda, a expans&#227;o do turismo internacional a pa&#237;ses end&#234;micos tem resultado em um aumento crescente de infec&#231;&#245;es entre os trabalhadores. Em termos de envolvimento cardiovascular, a esquistossomose &#233; uma das principais causas de HAP em todo o mundo, contribuindo para 30,8% de todos os casos de HAP nas &#225;reas end&#234;micas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Esp&#233;cies de Schistosoma e sua distribui&#231;&#227;o geogr&#225;fica; imagem adaptada da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de.<sup>1</sup></italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Patofisiologia e envolvimento cardiovascular</title>
        <p>Existem cinco principais esp&#233;cies de Schistosoma que infectam os humanos. <italic>S. mansoni, S. haematobium</italic>, e <italic>S. japonicum</italic> causam a maioria das infec&#231;&#245;es no homem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O ciclo de vida do Schistosoma est&#225; apresentado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Ciclo de vida do Schistosoma.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </p>
        <p>A HAP causada pela esquistossomose est&#225; particularmente associada com a forma hepatoespl&#234;nica da infec&#231;&#227;o pelo <italic>S. mansoni</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Os ovos de Schistosoma podem passar para o f&#237;gado atrav&#233;s dos vasos colaterais portossist&#234;micos e se depositarem nos pulm&#245;es. Os ovos induzem resposta imune predominantemente de c&#233;lulas T <italic>helper</italic> do tipo 2, resultando na forma&#231;&#227;o de granuloma. Foi demonstrado que as interleucinas (IL-3 e IL-4) estimulam a libera&#231;&#227;o do fator de transforma&#231;&#227;o de crescimento beta, levando &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o e les&#245;es angiomatosas e plexiformes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Ainda, esp&#233;cies cujos ovos encontram-se no plexo venoso vesical podem alcan&#231;ar diretamente os pulm&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A fisiopatologia da HAP associada &#224; esquistossomose pode ser resumida a seguir: obstru&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica da circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar pelos ovos; inflama&#231;&#227;o que leva &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas endoteliais; e hipertens&#227;o portal devido &#224; fibrose periportal, levando &#224; sobrecarga pulmonar e consequente disfun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas endoteliais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A esquistossomose aguda, conhecida como febre de Katayama, pode ter efeitos cardiovasculares, tais como miocardite, isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio assintom&#225;tica, e pericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup>As esp&#233;cies com envolvimento card&#237;aco na fase aguda s&#227;o <italic>S. haematobium, S. mansoni,</italic> e <italic>S. japonjicum</italic>. A miocardite e a pericardite durante a esquistossomose aguda podem estar relacionadas a uma resposta al&#233;rgica induzida pelo Schistosoma, em que os eosin&#243;filos t&#234;m um papel essencial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> O mecanismo da isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio como uma consequ&#234;ncia da esquistossomose n&#227;o foi descrito, e &#233; raramente relatado;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> pode ocorrer como consequ&#234;ncia da compress&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda causada pela dilata&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria pulmonar. Dilata&#231;&#227;o grave da art&#233;ria pulmonar pode resultar em ruptura, causando tamponamento card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sintomas</title>
        <p>A HAP induzida por esquistossomose &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o que pode ser assintom&#225;tica. No entanto, nos est&#225;gios posteriores da doen&#231;a, os pacientes podem apresentar sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita, tais como dispneia, edema bilateral de membros inferiores, e taquicardia. Sinais e sintomas de HAP na esquistossomose est&#227;o descritos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>Os sintomas s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos, e principalmente associados &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita. No in&#237;cio dos sintomas, os pacientes podem relatar que os sintomas foram induzidos por exerc&#237;cio. Na progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a, os pacientes podem desenvolver insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita avan&#231;ada, com sintomas de congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Disfonia pode ser notada, a qual &#233; causada por compress&#227;o do nervo lar&#237;ngeo recorrente. Angina foi relatada em casos que evolu&#237;ram para isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Outros sinais cl&#237;nicos de HAP associada &#224; esquistossomose incluem hepatomegalia, ascite, edema perif&#233;rico, e press&#227;o venosa jugular elevada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na esquistossomose aguda que envolve o cora&#231;&#227;o, os pacientes com miocardite podem exibir dor tor&#225;cica. Esses pacientes podem ser assintom&#225;ticos, com o diagn&#243;stico feito com base em testes laboratoriais. Ainda, h&#225; um relato de um paciente que apresentou perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica tardia do septo, com realce do realce subendoc&#225;rdico dois meses ap&#243;s a fase aguda, sem sinais cl&#237;nicos de isquemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Testes diagn&#243;sticos</title>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico de esquistossomose requer uma anamnese precisa e orientada, exames f&#237;sicos, testes laboratoriais, e estudos de imagens. Em &#225;reas end&#234;micas, deve-se suspeitar de esquistossomose em pacientes com manifesta&#231;&#245;es de HAP. Em pa&#237;ses n&#227;o end&#234;micos, na presen&#231;a de sintomas cardiovasculares, uma viagem recente a &#225;reas end&#234;micas deve ser considerada.</p>
        <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o do parasita &#233; uma parte importante do diagn&#243;stico. No entanto, o exame microsc&#243;pico de ovos na urina (<italic>S. haematobium</italic>) ou nas fezes (<italic>S. japonicum, S. mansoni</italic>) nem sempre &#233; poss&#237;vel se o parasita se encontra no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-patente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Ainda, os testes sorol&#243;gicos dispon&#237;veis s&#227;o limitados, uma vez que n&#227;o discriminam ente infec&#231;&#227;o ativa e exposi&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Finalmente, testes baseados em PCR foram desenvolvidos para a detec&#231;&#227;o de DNA de Schistosoma nas fezes, soro, e plasma durante todas as fases da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao envolvimento card&#237;aco, pacientes com HAP podem apresentar aumento do &#225;trio direito, hipertrofia ventricular direita, e bloqueio do ramo direito no eletrocardiograma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o exame de raio-X mostra t&#237;picas art&#233;rias pulmonares direita e esquerda proeminentes nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na esquistossomose aguda, o ecocardiograma ajuda a identificar miocardite, pericardite, ou isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Em pacientes com HAP, o exame pode revelar aumento do ventr&#237;culo direito, com desvio do septo interventricular para a esquerda, regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide, hipertrofia da parede livre do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, e aumento na press&#227;o ventricular direita. Ainda, o ecocardiograma permite avaliar diferentes par&#226;metros da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita, tais como excurs&#227;o sist&#243;lica do plano do anel tric&#250;spide ou varia&#231;&#227;o fracional da &#225;rea. N&#227;o existe sinal patognom&#244;nico de HAP induzida por esquistossomose, de modo que o diagn&#243;stico diferencial deve incluir todas as outras causas de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em pacientes com miocardite aguda, o ECG mostra principalmente dist&#250;rbios de repolariza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Em um estudo com 1500 soldados americanos que contra&#237;ram esquistossomose aguda durante a segunda guerra mundial, anomalias de onda T (99%) e segmentos ST (52%) foram as anomalias mais comuns. Contudo, essas mudan&#231;as foram atribu&#237;das a efeitos colaterais de medicamentos usados no tratamento &#224; esquistossomose utilizados na ocasi&#227;o. Altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG incluindo eleva&#231;&#227;o no segmento ST e depress&#227;o do segmento PR, foram apresentadas na fase aguda de at&#233; 60% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O ecocardiograma &#233; o m&#233;todo de imagem de escolha para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Em pacientes com miocardite, o exame pode mostrar disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo com press&#227;o alta de enchimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Efus&#227;o peric&#225;rdica pode estar presente em at&#233; 60% dos casos com pericardite, e anormalidades na motilidade da parede em repouso podem estar presentes na isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) &#233; o padr&#227;o outro para avalia&#231;&#227;o do volume e da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, e permite uma caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual diferenciada. Assim, a RMC deve ser considerada como uma ferramenta &#250;til em pacientes com les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou envolvimento do peric&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um algoritmo diagn&#243;stico para a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce do envolvimento cardiovascular como uma complica&#231;&#227;o da esquistossomose pode ser visto na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Algoritmo de diagn&#243;stico proposto para o diagn&#243;stico de envolvimento card&#237;aco na esquistossomose; ECG: eletrocardiograma; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; RM: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica; HAP: hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento</title>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref> descreve os principais agentes farmacol&#243;gicos usados no manejo da esquistossomose. O medicamento de escolha para a doen&#231;a &#233; o PZQ, e derivado da pirazinoisoquinolona, com boa efic&#225;cia contra todas as esp&#233;cies de Schistosoma patog&#234;nico ao homem, e taxa de cura de 80%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A principal desvantagem &#233; o fato de que o PZQ n&#227;o pode ser usado na quimioprofilaxia, uma vez que a droga &#233; eficaz somente contra larvas maduras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Deve-se salientar que, quando prescrito durante a fase aguda da doen&#231;a, o PZQ n&#227;o previne o avan&#231;o para a fase cr&#244;nica. O medicamento ainda est&#225; associado com exacerba&#231;&#227;o de sinais e sintomas em aproximadamente 50% dos casos, induzindo um tipo de resposta al&#233;rgica &#224; destrui&#231;&#227;o causada pelo parasita. Em alguns casos, essa exacerba&#231;&#227;o de sintomas pode ser fatal, causando encefalite, miocardite, e eventos pulmonares secund&#225;rios &#224; vasculite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> O tratamento principal durante a fase aguda da doen&#231;a baseia-se em corticosteroides, que atenuam a toxicidade card&#237;aca dos eosin&#243;filos, complexos imunes, rea&#231;&#245;es de hipersensibilidade a toxinas dos parasitas, e ant&#237;genos de superf&#237;cie. Na suspeita de miocardite, o uso de PZQ deve ser adiado at&#233; recupera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, e o manejo ir&#225; variar de acordo com dados cl&#237;nicos e hemodin&#226;micos do paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Em dois casos de miocardite secund&#225;ria &#224; esquistossomose, inibidores de enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA), e betabloqueadores foram efetivos na recupera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Nos pacientes cuja condi&#231;&#227;o piora apesar do manejo cl&#237;nico adequado, podem ser necess&#225;rios suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico, dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular, ou oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea como ponte para o transplante ou recupera&#231;&#227;o. Ainda, em casos de doen&#231;as do peric&#225;rdio, o tratamento deve consistir em terapia com esteroides para suprimir a inflama&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Tratamento da esquistossomose</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Medicamento</th>
                  <th>Dose</th>
                  <th>Considera&#231;&#245;es especiais</th>
                  <th>Fase da doen&#231;a</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Corticosteroides* (prednisona)</td>
                  <td align="center">Adulto: 1,5-2,0 mg/kg por dia por tr&#234;s semanas Crian&#231;as: 0,05-2,0 mg/kg por dia, tr&#234;s doses por dia vira oral</td>
                  <td align="center">Reduz em 50% os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de PZQ Elimina infec&#231;&#227;o bacteriana e Strongyloides</td>
                  <td align="center">Uso durante os dois primeiros meses ap&#243;s o contato com &#225;gua</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Praziquantel</td>
                  <td align="center"><italic>S haematobium, S mansoni</italic>, 40 mg/kg por dia, uma ou duas doses por dia via oral; <italic>S japonicum</italic>, 60 mg/kg por dia, duas ou tr&#234;s doses por dia via oral</td>
                  <td align="center">Requer uma resposta espec&#237;fica do hospedeiro efetiva contra o Schistosoma. Cuidado na realiza&#231;&#227;o de tarefas que requerem alerta durante os dois primeiros dois dias de tratamento</td>
                  <td align="center">Ao longo do curso da doen&#231;a</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Oxamniquina</td>
                  <td align="center">Contra <italic>S mansoni</italic>, 20 mg/kg por dia por dois ou tr&#234;s dias via oral</td>
                  <td align="center">Efetiva contra cercaria invasiva, esquistoss&#244;mulo maduro, te larvas maduras</td>
                  <td align="center">Fase precoce da doen&#231;a</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Artemether</td>
                  <td align="center"><italic>S haematobium, S mansoni, S japonicum</italic>, profilaxia: 6 mg/kg cada 2-4 semanas por m&#234;s</td>
                  <td align="center">Efetiva contra cercaria invasiva, esquistoss&#244;mulo maduro, te larvas maduras</td>
                  <td align="center">Pode ser usada como um quimioprofil&#225;tico em &#225;reas end&#234;micas para indiv&#237;duos com risco elevado de infec&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="4">
                    <bold>Tratamento de hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar associada &#224; esquistossomose</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Inibidores da fosfodiesterase tipo 5</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Sildenafila, tadalafila, vardenafila</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">antagonistas do receptor da endotelina-1</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Ambrisentana, bosentana, macitentan</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>
                  <italic>* Tratamento associado para prevenir ou tratar complica&#231;&#245;es agudas</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A quimioterapia no tratamento da esquistossomose tem taxa de cura entre 40% e 80%, e depende do agente quimioter&#225;pico usado, esp&#233;cies de parasita, e estado nutricional do hospedeiro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dados sobre a efic&#225;cia do tratamento da HAP na esquistossomose s&#227;o escassos. Estudos experimentais mostraram que a terapia contra a esquistossomose reduz o remodelamento vascular pulmonar e, consequentemente, hipertens&#227;o pulmonar. No entanto. a terapia pode n&#227;o ser ben&#233;fica na hipertens&#227;o pulmonar cr&#244;nica, onde estudos sugerem que o remodelamento pulmonar e a HAP podem persistir mesmo ap&#243;s a desparasita&#231;&#227;o e desaparecimento dos ovos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em uma pequena coorte de 12 pacientes com HAP secund&#225;ria &#224; esquistossomose, foi demonstrada melhora na classe funcional, no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, e na dist&#226;ncia no teste de caminhada de seis minutos com o uso de inibidores da fosfodiesterase tipo 5 ou antagonistas do receptor da endotelina-1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Por outro lado, o manejo cir&#250;rgico das varizes esof&#225;gicas, como a anastomose portossist&#234;mica intra-hep&#225;tica transjugular, pode aumentar a carga sobre o ventr&#237;culo direito, aumentando o risco de desvio de ovos do sistema portal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar das similaridades com HAP idiop&#225;tica, estudos indicam que pacientes com HAP secund&#225;ria &#224; esquistossomose apresentam um perfil hemodin&#226;mico menos grave e taxas de sobrevida significativamente maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>A esquistossomose &#233; uma das DTNs mais prevalentes, que impacta de maneira desproporcional indiv&#237;duos marginalizados em regi&#245;es end&#234;micas. Preval&#234;ncia aumentada da doen&#231;a tem sido atribu&#237;da, em parte, ao aumento do turismo e visitas &#224;s regi&#245;es afetadas. A esquistossomose &#233; uma quest&#227;o de sa&#250;de p&#250;bica global, que requer melhoria em sua detec&#231;&#227;o e manejo.</p>
      <p>O comprometimento cardiovascular da esquistossomose depende da fase da doen&#231;a. Foi relatado que, na esquistossomose aguda, o paciente pode apresentar miocardite, pericardite, ou isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio silenciosa, acompanhando uma rea&#231;&#227;o cl&#225;ssica de hipersensibilidade. A HAP &#233; a complica&#231;&#227;o mais importante da esquistossomose cr&#244;nica, e um dado interessante &#233; que os achados histopatol&#243;gicos relatados na vasculatura pulmonar na HAP relacionada &#224; esquistossomose s&#227;o similares &#224; HAP idiop&#225;tica. Contudo, uma meta-an&#225;lise recente mostrou um perfil hemodin&#226;mico e uma taxa de sobrevida de cinco anos significativamente melhores em pacientes com HAP relacionada &#224; esquistossomose em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; HAP idiop&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Existe uma lacuna consider&#225;vel em termos de diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da esquistossomose, uma vez que n&#227;o existe um m&#233;todo considerado padr&#227;o ouro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Hist&#243;ria de resid&#234;ncia ou viagem a uma &#225;rea end&#234;mica deveria levantar suspeita cl&#237;nica.</p>
      <p>Na doen&#231;a aguda, o diagn&#243;stico de um comprometimento card&#237;aco &#233; um desafio, dadad sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o heterog&#234;nea. A miocardite pode estar presente sem dor tor&#225;cica, e somente com anormalidades de repolariza&#231;&#227;o inespec&#237;ficas no ECG e altos n&#237;veis de troponina. Pericardite e isquemia mioc&#225;rdica podem ser completamente assintom&#225;ticas e detectadas somente por achados eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos anormais. No algoritmo de diagn&#243;stico, o ecocardiograma &#233; sugerido como uma ferramenta chave na evolu&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes. A RMC &#233; proposta como uma ferramenta complementar, uma vez que o m&#233;todo possibilita a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual, e &#233; preciso para a quantifica&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4</xref>). Por&#233;m, a RMC pode n&#227;o ser dispon&#237;vel em &#225;reas end&#234;micas onde os recursos de sa&#250;de s&#227;o limitados.</p>
      <p>Em todos os pacientes com HAP, a exposi&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via deve ser investigada, e o exame microsc&#243;pico de ovos na urina e fezes, teste sorol&#243;gico, ou PCR devem ser realizados para estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico dos pacientes com risco de esquistossomose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Um ecocardiograma para o diagn&#243;stico e acompanhamento desses pacientes &#233; essencial.</p>
      <p>O tratamento depende do comprometimento card&#237;aco e a fase da doen&#231;a do paciente. O envolvimento card&#237;aco na fase aguda deve ser tratado com corticosteroides para atenuar a resposta inflamat&#243;ria. O uso de medicamentos card&#237;acos, tais como IECA e betabloqueadores, &#233; emp&#237;rico. H&#225; aus&#234;ncia de evid&#234;ncia cient&#237;fica que oriente um tratamento definitivo desses pacientes. Na HAP, n&#227;o existe um tratamento espec&#237;fico para a esquistossomose. Hoje, as op&#231;&#245;es limitam-se para os medicamentos para HAP idiop&#225;tica.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>As complica&#231;&#245;es da esquistossomose impactam predominantemente indiv&#237;duos com acesso limitado &#224; sa&#250;de. O tratamento &#233; vari&#225;vel, e depende do comprometimento card&#237;aco, esp&#233;cie de Schistosoma, e fase da doen&#231;a. A maneira mais efetiva de se reduzir o impacto global da doen&#231;a &#233; pela preven&#231;&#227;o, com foco na identifica&#231;&#227;o de grupos em risco, melhoria do acesso &#224; &#225;gua pot&#225;vel, e do saneamento em &#225;reas end&#234;micas.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
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      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
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      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="fn_ast1">
        <label>*</label>
        <p> Material suplementar</p>
        <p>Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2021/11705/2020-1384-suplementary.pdf">clique aqui</ext-link>.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Schistosomiasis &amp; Heart - On Behalf of the Neglected Tropical Diseases and other Infectious Diseases affecting the Heart (the NET-Heart Project)</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3749-4281</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Posada-Mart&#237;nez</surname>
            <given-names>Edith Liliana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8472-9509</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gonzalez-Barrera</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Gerardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Liblik</surname>
            <given-names>Kiera</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6635-6224</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gomez-Mesa</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Esteban</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Saldarriaga</surname>
            <given-names>Clara</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5824-8485</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Farina</surname>
            <given-names>Juan Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Parodi</surname>
            <given-names>Josefina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zhou</surname>
            <given-names>Zier</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martinez-Selles</surname>
            <given-names>Manuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Baranchuk</surname>
            <given-names>Adrian</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="MX">Mexico</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Ignacio Chavez National Institute for Cardiology &#8211; Echocardiography, Juan Badiano &#8211; Mexico</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="MX">Mexico</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Medical Society of 20 of November National Medical Center &#8211; Cardiology, Mexico City &#8211; Mexico</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="CA">Canada</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Queen&#8217;s University, Kingston, Ontario &#8211; Canada</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="CO">Colombia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Valle del Lili Foundation Internal Medicine Department, Valle del Cauca &#8211; Colombia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="CO">Colombia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardiovascular Clinic Santa Maria - Cardiology and Heart Failure, Medellin &#8211; Colombia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="CO">Colombia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">University of Antioquia, Medellin &#8211; Colombia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Clinica Olivos &#8211; Cardiology, Buenos Aires &#8211; Argentina</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cardiovascular Institute of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires &#8211; Argentina</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="ES">Spain</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Gregorio Maranon General University Hospital Cardiology Service, Madrid &#8211; Spain</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: Adrian Baranchuk &#8226; Queen&#8217;s University - Kingston Health Science Center K7L 2V7 Email: barancha@kgh.kari.net </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Posada-Mart&#237;nez EL, Gonzalez-Barrera LG, Liblik K, Gomez-Mesa JE, Saldarriaga C, Farina JM, Parodi J, Zhou Z, Martinez-Selles M, Baranchuk A; Acquisition of data and Writing of the manuscript: Posada-Mart&#237;nez EL, Gonzalez-Barrera LG, Baranchuk A; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Posada-Mart&#237;nez EL, Gonzalez-Barrera LG, Gomez-Mesa JE, Saldarriaga C, Farina JM, Parodi J, Zhou Z, Martinez-Selles M, Baranchuk A.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Schistosomiasis is a Neglected Tropical Disease which may lead to cardiovascular (CV) complications. However, the CV involvement in schistosomiasis has yet to be fully elucidated due to the limited number of cases and lack of reliable evidence, as schistosomiasis typically occurs in locations without adequate infrastructure for robust data collection.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p> This systematic review aims to assess cardiovascular implications of schistosomiasis, including in the diagnosis and treatment, and propose an algorithm for screening of CV manifestations.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> A systematic review was performed in the MEDLINE/PubMed and LILACS databases of articles on the CV involvement in schistosomiasis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> Thirty-three records were considered for this review: six review articles, one systematic review, one clinical trial, 14 observational studies, seven case reports, and four cases series. CV involvement includes a wide spectrum of clinical conditions, such as myocardial ischemia, ventricular dysfunction, myocarditis, pulmonary arterial hypertension, and pericarditis.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p> Cardiac complications of schistosomiasis may cause long-term disability and death. Clinical monitoring, physical examination, early electrocardiogram, and echocardiogram should be considered as key measures to detect CV involvement. Due to the lack of effective treatment of complications, sanitation and education in endemic areas are necessary for the elimination of this global health problem.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Schistosomiasis</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Tropical Medicine</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Schistosomiasis is a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) caused by blood flukes, which are trematode worms of the genus <italic>Schistosoma</italic>. It is endemic to rural regions with weak health infrastructure and limited access to potable water or water sanitation methods. Accordingly, schistosomiasis was added to the World Health Organization&#180;s (WHO) 2008-2015 Global Plan to Combat NTD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>According to the WHO, approximately 240 million people are affected by schistosomiasis globally, with more than 90% of cases occurring in Africa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Schistosomiasis is transmitted through penetration of Schistosoma cercariae, which are found in fresh water, into the skin. Once the larvae penetrate the skin, they invade the venous system and spread to organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, and intestines. <italic>Schistosoma mansoni</italic> is the main specie that infects humans and may lead to potentially life-threatening cardiovascular (CV) events. In published case reports, myocarditis, pericarditis, and myocardial ischemia have been documented in the acute phase of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> These CV outcomes are poorly understood due to a limited number of cases and lack of reporting.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Patients with acute CV complications may also be asymptomatic at presentation, contributing to deficiencies in data collection. The most relevant CV complication of schistosomiasis is pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Signs and symptoms of patients with schistosomiasis-associated PAH do not differ from those documented from other etiologies.</p>
        <p>Schistosomiasis is estimated to be the main cause of PAH in endemic countries. Despite this, diagnosis is limited to regions with access to adequate medical equipment, and there are currently no specific medications for PAH associated with schistosomiasis. The most used pharmacologic agent is praziquantel (PZQ), which presumably prevents further progression of the disease by reversing vascular remodeling.</p>
        <p>This systematic review is part of the &#8220;NET-Heart Project&#8221; (Neglected Tropical Diseases and Other Infectious Diseases Affecting the Heart), an initiative of the &#8220;Emerging Leaders&#8221; section of the Interamerican Society of Cardiology (IASC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> The purpose of this study was to expand the knowledge on the impact of NTD on CV health. The aim of this review was to provide an overview of the CV involvement in schistosomiasis and to propose an algorithm for diagnosis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>A systematic review of the literature was conducted following the design of the NET-Heart Project.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> MEDLINE/PubMed and LILACS were searched using any association of schistosomiasis with CV involvement, with no date restrictions. Only human studies, available in English were used. Papers were excluded if the full text was not available. The keywords used according to the MESH terminology were: &#8220;schistosomiasis&#8221;, &#8220;heart&#8221;, &#8220;cardiac&#8221;, &#8220;pericardium&#8221;, &#8220;pericarditis&#8221;, and &#8220;cardiovascular disease&#8221;. Articles were screened by two independent investigators (ELPM and LGGB). Interobserver agreement, assessed by Kappa statistics, was 0.93. Discrepancies were solved by consensus. An additional search was manually conducted from the reference lists of the selected articles.</p>
        <p>The search yielded 110 articles, of which 33 articles were included in this systematic review: six review articles, one systematic review, one clinical trial, 14 observational studies, seven case reports, and four cases series (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref>). <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> (supplementary material) summarizes the studies considered for this review.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; <italic>Flowchart of PRISMA Methodology.</italic></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Symptoms and signs of schistosomiasis-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" colspan="2" scope="col">Symptoms</th>
                  <th scope="col">Signs</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" colspan="3">Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Shortness of breath</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Hoarseness</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Weakness</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Hemoptysis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Angina</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Left parasternal lift</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Syncope</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Accentuated pulmonary component of the second heart sound</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Cough</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Right ventricular third heart sound</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Nausea and vomiting</td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Parasternal systolic murmur of tricuspid regurgitation</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left"> </td>
                  <td align="center" colspan="2">Diastolic murmur of pulmonary regurgitation</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="3">
                    <bold>Right Heart Failure</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="2">Dyspnea</td>
                  <td align="center">Jugular plethora</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="2">Abdominal pain</td>
                  <td align="center">Ascites</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="2">Limb edema</td>
                  <td align="center">Hepatomegaly</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td colspan="2">Fatigue</td>
                  <td align="center">Peripheral edema</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>Data adapted from Galie et al. 2015 ESC/ERS Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: The Joint Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS). Eur Heart J. 2016;37(1):67-119.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Epidemiology</title>
          <p>Schistosomiasis is a chronic parasitic disease caused by blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma. Among those infected with schistosomes, approximately 120 million are symptomatic and 20 million have severe forms of the disease including the hepatosplenic and urinary forms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Schistosomiasis is considered endemic to South America, the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, and Africa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2</xref>). Africa is the most affected area, with more than 90% of the 41,000 deaths and 1.7 million disability-adjusted life years attributed to this disease annually. Moreover, the growth of international tourism to endemic countries has resulted in increasing number of infections in travelers. In terms of CV involvement, schistosomiasis is one of the most common causes of PAH worldwide, accounting for 30.8% of all cases of PAH in endemic areas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Geographical distribution of Schistosoma species; image adapted from World Health Organization<sup>1</sup></italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pathophysiology and Cardiovascular Involvement</title>
          <p>There are five major <italic>Schistosoma</italic> species which infect humans. <italic>S. mansoni, S. haematobium,</italic> and <italic>S. japonicum</italic> cause most human infections.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The <italic>life cycle of Schistosoma</italic> is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Life cycle of Schistosoma.</italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </p>
          <p>PAH due to schistosomiasis is particularly associated with the hepatosplenic form of <italic>S. mansoni</italic> infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Schistosomiasis eggs may bypass the liver through portosystemic collateral vessels and be deposited into the lungs. The eggs cause T-helper type-2 cell-predominant immune response resulting in granuloma formation. It has been demonstrated that interleukins (IL-4 and IL-3) stimulate the release of transforming growth factor-&#946; leading to remodeling and angiomatous and plexiform lesions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>Alternatively, species whose eggs are in vesical plexus can reach the lungs directly.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The pathophysiology of schistosomiasis-associated PAH can be summarized as the following: mechanical obstruction of the pulmonary circulation by worm eggs; inflammation leading to endothelial cell dysfunction; and portal hypertension due to liver periportal fibrosis leading to pulmonary overflow and then endothelial cell dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Acute schistosomiasis, known as Katayama fever, may have CV effects, causing myocarditis, asymptomatic myocardial ischemia, and pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> The species identified to have cardiac involvement in the acute phase are <italic>S. haematobium, S. mansoni,</italic> and <italic>S. japonjicum</italic>. Myocarditis and pericarditis during acute schistosomiasis may be related to an allergic response induced by Schistosoma, where eosinophils play an essential role.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The mechanism of myocardial ischemia as a consequence of schistosomiasis has not been described, and is rarely reported.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> It may occur secondary to compression of the left main coronary artery due to pulmonary artery dilatation. Severe dilatation of the pulmonary artery can also result in rupture, causing cardiac tamponade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Symptoms</title>
          <p>PAH induced by schistosomiasis may be asymptomatic. However, in later stages of the disease, patients can present symptoms of right heart failure such as shortness of breath, bilateral edema in the lower extremities, and tachycardia. Signs and symptoms of PAH in schistosomiasis are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>.</p>
          <p>Symptoms are non-specific, and mainly associated to right ventricular dysfunction. At onset, patients may report that their symptoms are exercise-induced. As the disease progresses, patients may develop advanced right heart failure with symptoms of systemic venous congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> A hoarse voice has been noted, which is caused by compression of the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Angina has been reported in cases that have progressed to myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Other clinical signs of schistosomiasis-associated PAH include hepatomegaly, ascites, peripheral edema, and elevated jugular venous pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In acute schistosomiasis involving the heart, patients with myocarditis may exhibit chest pain. These patients may be asymptomatic, with diagnosis made based on laboratory tests. Also, there is a report of a patient who had delayed myocardial perfusion of the septum with subendocardial enhancement two months after the acute phase, without clinical signs of ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagnostic Tests</title>
          <p>The diagnosis of schistosomiasis requires an accurate and guided anamnesis, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. In endemic areas, schistosomiasis must be highly suspected in patients with manifestations of PAH. In non-endemic countries, a recent trip to endemic areas should be considered if CV symptoms occur.</p>
          <p>The identification of the parasite is an important part of diagnosis; however, the microscopic examination of eggs in urine (<italic>S. haematobium</italic>) or faeces (<italic>S. japonicum, S. Mansoni</italic>) is not always possible if the parasite is in the prepatent period.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Additionally, available serological tests are limited, as they do not discriminate between active infection and past exposure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Finally, PCR-based assays have been developed for the detection of Schistosome DNA in feces, sera, and plasma during all phases of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding cardiac involvement, patients with PAH may show right atrial enlargement, right ventricular hypertrophy, and right bundle branch block on electrocardiogram (ECG).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Additionally, X-ray typically shows prominent left and right pulmonary arteries. The echocardiogram is a key tool in the evaluation of these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In acute schistosomiasis, the echocardiogram helps to identify myocarditis, pericarditis, or myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> In patients with PAH, it may reveal right ventricular enlargement with septal bowing, tricuspid regurgitation, hypertrophy of the right ventricular free wall, and an increased right ventricular pressure. In addition, the echocardiogram allows to evaluate different parameters of the right ventricular function, such tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion or fractional area change. There is no pathognomonic sign of schistosomiasis-induced PAH, so the differential diagnosis should include all other causes of pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In patients with acute myocarditis, the ECG show mainly repolarization abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> In a study with 1,500 American soldiers who contracted acute schistosomiasis during World War II, the anomalies of T-waves (99%) and ST segments (52%) were the most common abnormalities. However, these changes were attributed to the side-effects of anti-schistosomiasis drugs used at that moment. ECG changes including widespread ST elevation and PR depression has been demonstrated in the acute phase of up to 60% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The echocardiogram is the first line image method for the evaluation of the cardiac function. In patients with myocarditis, it could show systolic dysfunction of the left ventricle with high filling pressures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Pericardial effusion can be present in up to 60% cases with pericarditis and wall motion abnormalities at rest may be present in myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is the gold standard for the evaluation of ventricular function and volume, and allows a unique tissue characterization; therefore, CMR should be consider as an useful tool in patients with myocardial injury or pericardium involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A diagnostic algorithm for early detection of cardiovascular involvement as a complication of schistosomiasis can be seen in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; <italic>Diagnostic algorithm proposed for diagnosis of cardiac involvement in Schistosomiasis; LV: left ventricular; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; ECG: electrocardiogram; RBBB: right bundle branch block; PAH: pulmonary arterial hypertension; RV: right ventricular.</italic></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment</title>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref> describes the principal agents used in the management of schistosomiasis. The drug of choice for schistosomiasis is PZQ, a derivative of pyrazinoisoquinoline, with good efficacy against all species of human pathogenic schistosomes and a cure rate of 80%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup>The main drawback is that PZQ cannot be used for chemoprophylaxis as it is only effective against mature worms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> It should be noted that when prescribed during the acute phase of the disease, PZQ generally does not prevent the advancement to chronic phase. It is also associated with exacerbation of signs and symptoms in approximately 50% of cases, by inducing a type of allergic response to parasitic destruction. In some cases, this exacerbation of symptoms can be life-threatening causing encephalitis, myocarditis, and pulmonary events secondary to vasculitis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Treatment for schistosomiasis</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th colspan="4">Specific treatment of Schistosomiasis</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Drug</th>
                    <th>Dose</th>
                    <th>Special considerations</th>
                    <th>Phase of the disease</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Corticosteroids* (prednisone)</td>
                    <td align="center">Adult: 1.5-2.0 mg/kg per day by mouth for 3 weeks. Pediatric: 0.05-2.0 mg/kg per day, three doses a day by mouth</td>
                    <td align="center">Decreases plasma levels of PZQ by 50%. Ruling out bacterial infection and strongyloidiaisis</td>
                    <td align="center">Use within the first two months after contact with water.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Praziquantel</td>
                    <td align="center"><italic>S haematobium, S mansoni</italic>, 40 mg/kg per day, one or two doses a day by mouth; <italic>S japonicum</italic>, 60 mg/kg per day, two or three doses a day by mouth.</td>
                    <td align="center">Requires an effective host-specific response against the schistosome. Caution when performing tasks that require alertness on the first two days of treatment</td>
                    <td align="center">Throughout the course of the disease</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Oxamniquine</td>
                    <td align="center"><italic>S mansoni</italic> only, 20 mg/kg per day, for two to three days by mouth.</td>
                    <td align="center">It is effective against schistosomula and prevents the chronic phase</td>
                    <td align="center">Early phase of the disease</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Artemether</td>
                    <td align="center"><italic>S haematobium, S mansoni, S japonicum</italic>, prophylaxis: 6 mg/kg every 2-4 weeks by mouth.</td>
                    <td align="center">It is effective against invasive cercariae, mature schistosomula, and mature adult worms</td>
                    <td align="center">It can be used as a chemoprophylactic in endemic areas for people at high risk of infection</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="4">
                      <bold>Treatment of Schistosomiasis-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">Phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors</td>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">Sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">Endothelin receptor 1 antagonists</td>
                    <td align="center" colspan="2">Ambrisentan, bosentan, macitentan</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>* Associated treatment to avoid or treat acute complications.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>The mainstay treatment during the acute phase of the disease is based on corticosteroids, which attenuate the cardiac toxicity of eosinophils, immune complexes, hypersensitivity reactions to parasite toxins, and surface antigens. If myocarditis is suspected, the use of PZQ should be postponed until cardiac recovery and management will vary according to patient&#8217;s clinical and hemodynamic data.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> In two cases of myocarditis secondary to schistosomiasis, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and beta-blockers were effective for cardiac recovery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In patients whose condition deteriorates despite optimal medical management, mechanical circulatory support, ventricular assist devices, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as a bridge to transplantation or recovery may be required. Similarly, in cases of pericardial disease, treatment should consist of steroidal therapy to suppress inflammation secondary to the infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Antischistosomal chemotherapy has cure rates ranging from 40 to 80% and is especially dependent on the specific chemotherapeutic agent, species of parasite, and nutritional status of the host.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Data on the efficacy of PAH treatment in schistosomiasis are scarce. Experimental studies showed that antischistosomal therapy reduces pulmonary vascular remodeling and, consequently, pulmonary hypertension. However, it may not be beneficial in chronic pulmonary hypertension, where studies suggest that pulmonary remodeling and PAH may persist even after complete deworming and disappearance of the eggs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a small cohort of 12 patients with PAH secondary to schistosomiasis, improvements in functional class, cardiac output, and distance in the six-minute walk test were demonstrated using phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors or endothelin receptor 1 antagonists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> On the other hand, surgical management of oesophageal varices, like the transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt, can increase the load on the right ventricle, increasing the risk of more shunting of eggs from the portal system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite the similarities with idiopathic PAH, studies support that patients with PAH secondary to schistosomiasis have a less severe hemodynamic profile and significantly better survival rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Schistosomiasis is one of the most prevalent NTD, that disproportionately impacts marginalized individuals in endemic regions. Increased prevalence has been partially attributed to increase in tourism and visits to the affected regions. Schistosomiasis is a global public health issue, that requires improved detection and management.</p>
        <p>CV involvement of schistosomiasis depends on the phase of the disease. It has been reported that in acute schistosomiasis, patient may present myocarditis, pericarditis, or silent myocardial ischemia accompanying a classic hypersensitivity reaction. PAH is the most relevant complication of chronic schistosomiasis and, interestingly, the histopathological findings reported in the pulmonary vasculature in schistosomiasis-related PAH are similar to idiopathic PAH. However, a recent meta-analysis showed significantly better hemodynamic profile and five-year survival rates in schistosomiasis-related PAH patients compared to idiopathic PAH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>There is a considerable gap in terms of diagnosis and treatment of schistosomiasis as there is no gold standard test.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> History of living in or having traveled to an endemic area should trigger a clinical suspicion.</p>
        <p>In the acute scenario, diagnosing cardiac involvement is a challenge due to its heterogenous presentation. Myocarditis can be present without chest pain and only with unspecific repolarization abnormalities in the ECG and high troponin levels. Similarly, pericarditis and myocardial ischemia may be completely asymptomatic and detected only by abnormal ECG findings. In the diagnostic algorithm, echocardiogram is suggested as a key tool in the course of these patients. CMR is proposed as a complementary tool as it provides tissue characterization and is accurate for quantification of ventricular function (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4</xref>). However, CMR maybe not available in endemic areas where the health resources are limited.</p>
        <p>In all patients with PAH, background exposure should be investigated, and microscopic examination of eggs in urine and feces, serological test, or PCR assay should be performed to establish the diagnosis of patients at risk for schistosomiasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> An echocardiogram is essential for diagnosis and follow-up in these patients.</p>
        <p>Treatment is dependent on CV involvement and disease phase of the patient. Cardiac involvement in acute disease should be treated with corticosteroids to attenuate inflammatory response. The use of cardiac medications, such as ACE inhibitors and beta blockers is empiric. There is a lack of scientific evidence guiding definitive treatment of these patients. In PAH, there is no specific treatment for schistosomiasis; currently the options are limited to medications for idiopathic PAH.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>CV complications of schistosomiasis predominantly impacts those with limited access to healthcare. Treatment is variable, and depends on CV involvement, species of Schistosoma, and disease phase. The most effective way of reducing the global impact of the disease is by prevention, focusing on identifying groups at risk, and improving access to drinking and sanitation in endemic areas.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="fn_ast1001">
          <label>*</label>
          <p> Supplemental Materials</p>
          <p>For additional information, please <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2021/11705/2020-1384-suplementary.pdf">click here</ext-link>.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>Sources of Funding: There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
