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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022000400797</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20220213</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220213</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Diretrizes</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Diretriz Conjunta sobre Tromboembolismo Venoso &#8211; 2022</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1622-6621</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Albricker</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cristina Lopes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2153-7301</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Freire</surname>
            <given-names>Cl&#225;udia Maria Vilas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3438-0526</contrib-id><name><surname>Santos</surname><given-names>Simone Nascimento dos</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>3</sup></xref>, <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31"><sup>31</sup></xref></contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1348-9074</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alcantara</surname>
            <given-names>Monica Luiza de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Saleh</surname>
            <given-names>Mohamed Hassan</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4217-8977</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cantisano</surname>
            <given-names>Armando Luis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Teodoro</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Aldo Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2531-4308</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Porto</surname>
            <given-names>Carmen Lucia Lascasas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amaral</surname>
            <given-names>Salomon Israel do</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Veloso</surname>
            <given-names>Orlando Carlos Gloria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6186-1531</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Petisco</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cl&#225;udia Gomes Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4272-646X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>Fanilda Souto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6213-3226</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcio Vin&#237;cius Lins de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Adriano Jos&#233; de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2271-5878</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sobreira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcone Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9469-639X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Miranda</surname>
            <given-names>Robson Barbosa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moraes</surname>
            <given-names>Domingos de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fnb31">&#8224;</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Verrastro</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Gustavo Yuji</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3047-519X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Man&#231;ano</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Dias</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8071-6516</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Ronaldo de Souza Le&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4700-0599</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Muglia</surname>
            <given-names>Valdair Francisco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7602-0433</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Matushita</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina Sebasti&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9599-7688</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael Willain</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5555-4583</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Coutinho</surname>
            <given-names>Artur Martins Novaes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6342-4471</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pianta</surname>
            <given-names>Diego Bromfman</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8640-3657</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Alair Augusto Sarmet Moreira Damas dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7153-4614</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Naves</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno de Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Luiz Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label> 1 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio de Belo Horizonte</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Centro Universit&#225;rio de Belo Horizonte (UniBH), Belo Horizonte , MG &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label> 2 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte , MG &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label> 3 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Eccos Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular Avan&#231;ado</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Eccos Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular Avan&#231;ado , Bras&#237;lia , DF &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label> 4 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or , Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz , Rio de Janeiro , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label> 5 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label> 6 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or , Rio de Janeiro , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label> 7 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Ecovitall</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Ecovitall , Rio de Janeiro , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label> 8 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">PRENOTO Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica e Diagn&#243;stica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> PRENOTO Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica e Diagn&#243;stica , Ribeir&#227;o Preto , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label> 9 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label> 10 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Samaritano</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital Samaritano , Rio de Janeiro , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label> 11 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">UnitedHealth Group</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> UnitedHealth Group (UHG), Rio de Janeiro , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label> 12 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Angiolab Vit&#243;ria</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Laborat&#243;rio Vascular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Vit&#243;ria</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Angiolab Vit&#243;ria , Laborat&#243;rio Vascular , Vit&#243;ria , ES &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label> 13 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Rede Mater Dei de Sa&#250;de,</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Rede Mater Dei de Sa&#250;de, Belo Horizonte , MG &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label> 14 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Ecocenter Medicina Diagn&#243;stica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Ecocenter Medicina Diagn&#243;stica , Belo Horizonte , MG &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15">
        <label> 15 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (FMB), Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16">
        <label> 16 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Cl&#237;nica Fluxo de Cirurgia Vascular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Bernardo do Campo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Cl&#237;nica Fluxo de Cirurgia Vascular , S&#227;o Bernardo do Campo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17">
        <label> 17 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro , Rio de Janeiro , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18">
        <label> 18 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19">
        <label> 19 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">RA Sabin Medicina Diagn&#243;stica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> RA Sabin Medicina Diagn&#243;stica , Bras&#237;lia , DF &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20">
        <label> 20 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21">
        <label> 21 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), Ribeir&#227;o Preto , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22">
        <label> 22 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do C&#233;rebro do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Instituto do C&#233;rebro do Rio Grande do Sul (InsCer) da Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre , RS &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff23">
        <label> 23 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Medicina Nuclear Joinville S&#227;o Marcos Diagn&#243;sticos</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Joinville</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SC</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Medicina Nuclear Joinville S&#227;o Marcos Diagn&#243;sticos , Joinville , SC &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff24">
        <label> 24 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Hcor), S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff25">
        <label> 25 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff26">
        <label> 26 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i , RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff27">
        <label> 27 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Madre Teresa</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital Madre Teresa , Belo Horizonte , MG &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff28">
        <label>28</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff29">
        <label>29</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff30">
        <label> 30 </label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">DASA-ALTA</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original"> DASA-ALTA , S&#227;o Paulo , SP &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff31">
        <label>31</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Rede D&#8217;Or</institution>
        <institution content-type="ordiv1">Hospital DF Star</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital DF Star, Rede D&#8217;Or, 31 Bras&#237;lia, DF Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01">Correspond&#234;ncia: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av.Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: 20020-907. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="deceased" id="fnb31">
          <label>&#8224;</label>
          <p>In memoriam.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>118</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>797</fpage>
      <lpage>857</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="66"/>
        <table-count count="22"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="282"/>
        <page-count count="61"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <table-wrap>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <colgroup>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th colspan="2">Diretriz Conjunta sobre Tromboembolismo Venoso &#8211; 2022</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th colspan="2">O relat&#243;rio abaixo lista as declara&#231;&#245;es de interesse conforme relatadas &#224; SBC pelos especialistas durante o per&#237;odo de desenvolvimento deste posicionamento, 2021/2022.</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th>Especialista</th>
              <th align="left">Tipo de relacionamento com a ind&#250;stria</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Adriano Jos&#233; de Souza</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Alair Augusto Sarmet Moreira Damas dos Santos</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Alexandre Dias Man&#231;ano</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ana Cl&#225;udia Gomes Pereira Petisco</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ana Cristina Lopes Albricker</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Bayer: curso sobre risco cardiovascular no INCOR.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Armando Luis Cantisano</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Artur Martins Novaes Coutinho</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Bruno de Lima Naves</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Bayer: Xarelto.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Bayer: Xarelto; Apsen: Dobeven; Servier: Daflon.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carlos Eduardo Rochitte</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carlos Gustavo Yuji Verrastro</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Carmen Lucia Lascasas Porto</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Bayer: Xarelto; Pfizer: Eliquis; Boehringer Ingelhem: Pradaxa Estudos fase III.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Bayer: Xarelto; Pfizer: Eliquis; Boehringer Ingelhem: Pradaxa Estudos fase III.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Bayer: pesquisa.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Cl&#225;udia Maria Vilas Freire</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Cristina Sebasti&#227;o Matushita</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- GE HealthCare: aula PET-CT PSMA e Aplication m&#233;dica da CZT; R2/IBF: aula PET-CT 18-PSMA/1007; AMB: aula sobre Medicina Nuclear.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Diego Bromfman Pianta</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- GE Healthcare: aula PET-CT PSMA em c&#226;ncer de pr&#243;stata; R2/IBF: aula PET-CT 18F-PSMA em c&#226;ncer de pr&#243;stata.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Domingos de Morais</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Fanilda Souto Barros</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Jos&#233; Aldo Ribeiro Teodoro</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>M&#225;rcio Vin&#237;cius Lins de Barros</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Marcone Lima Sobreira</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Sanofi:Enoxaparina e TEV; Bayer: Rivaroxabana e TEV; Pfizer: Apixabana e TEV.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Pfizer: Apixaban e Doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica; Venosan: Ready Wrap &#233; doen&#231;a venosa cr&#244;nica; Bayer: Rivaroxabana e TEV.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Sanofi: TEV.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Mohamed Hassan Saleh</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Monica Luiza de Alcantara</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Orlando Carlos Gloria Veloso</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Rafael Willain Lopes</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Robson Barbosa de Miranda</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Mindray Brasil: Equipamentos de diagn&#243;stico.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Outros relacionamentos</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Participa&#231;&#227;o societ&#225;ria de qualquer natureza e qualquer valor economicamente apreci&#225;vel de empresas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, de ensino ou em empresas concorrentes ou fornecedoras da SBC:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- &#193;rea de Ensino: Curso de Ecografia Vascular com Doppler.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Ronaldo de Souza Le&#227;o Lima</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Salomon Israel do Amaral</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Simone Nascimento dos Santos</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>- Jonhson e Abbott: Eco intracard&#237;aco.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Valdair Francisco Muglia</td>
              <td>
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Nada a ser declarado</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </p>
    <sec>
      <title>Sum&#225;rio</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o 801</title>
        <p>1. Fisiopatologia e Diagn&#243;stico Cl&#237;nico e Laboratorial do Trombembolismo Venoso 802</p>
        <p>1.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 802</p>
        <p>1.2. Fisiopatologia 802</p>
        <p>1.3. Diagn&#243;stico Cl&#237;nico e Laboratorial 803</p>
        <p><bold>1.3.1. Dosagem do D-d&#237;mero</bold> 803</p>
        <p>2. Altera&#231;&#245;es Ecocardiogr&#225;ficas no Trombembolismo Pulmonar 805</p>
        <p>2.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 805</p>
        <p>2.2. Ecocardiograma em Trombembolismo Pulmonar (TEP) de Baixo Risco 805</p>
        <p>2.3. Ecocardiograma em Trombembolismo Pulmonar de Alto Risco 807</p>
        <p>2.4. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es 813</p>
        <p>3. Ultrassonografia Vascular no Diagn&#243;stico da Trombose Venosa Profunda 813</p>
        <p>3.1. Sinais Ultrassonogr&#225;ficos da Trombose Venosa: Modo B e <italic>Doppler</italic> 813</p>
        <p><bold>3.1.1. Metodologia de Realiza&#231;&#227;o do Exame &#8211; Aspectos T&#233;cnicos</bold> 813</p>
        <p>3.2. Protocolos de Realiza&#231;&#227;o de USV na TVP 822</p>
        <p>3.3. Protocolos de Exame 823</p>
        <p><bold>3.3.1. Exame Completo de USV</bold> 823</p>
        <p><bold>3.3.2. Exame de Ultrassom de Compress&#227;o Completo das Veias dos Membros Inferiores</bold> 826</p>
        <p><bold>3.3.3. Exame de ultrassom de compress&#227;o estendido (3 pontos)</bold> 826</p>
        <p><bold>3.3.4. Exame de Ultrassom de Compress&#227;o de 2 Pontos</bold> 826</p>
        <p>3.4. Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial 827</p>
        <p>3.5. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es 827</p>
        <p>3.6. Como Descrever o Laudo do Exame 827</p>
        <p>4. Ultrassonografia Vascular no Diagn&#243;stico da recorr&#234;ncia de trombose venosa profunda e &#8220;s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica&#8221; 829</p>
        <p>4.1. Recorr&#234;ncia de trombose venosa (RTV) 829</p>
        <p>4.2. Diagn&#243;stico Ultrassonogr&#225;fico da Recorr&#234;ncia de Trombose 830</p>
        <p>4.3. S&#237;ndrome P&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica 831</p>
        <p><bold>4.3.1. Fisiopatologia</bold> 831</p>
        <p><bold>4.3.2. Quadro Cl&#237;nico</bold> 831</p>
        <p><bold>4.3.3. Diagn&#243;stico</bold> 831</p>
        <p>5. Protocolos de Seguimento com a Ultrassonografia Vascular ap&#243;s a Trombose Venosa Profunda 834</p>
        <p>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o 834</p>
        <p>5.2. Recanaliza&#231;&#227;o 834</p>
        <p>5.3. Recorr&#234;ncia da Trombose 834</p>
        <p>5.4. Insufici&#234;ncia Valvular 834</p>
        <p>5.5. Discuss&#227;o 834</p>
        <p><bold>5.5.1. Primeiro USV Negativo</bold> 834</p>
        <p><bold>5.5.2. Trombose Proximal x Distal</bold> 834</p>
        <p><bold>5.5.3. Recorr&#234;ncia de Trombose Venosa Profunda</bold> 836</p>
        <p>5.4. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es 836</p>
        <p>6. Diagn&#243;stico do Trombembolismo Pulmonar por Angiotomografia, Angio-RM e Angiografia Pulmonar 837</p>
        <p>6.1. Angiotomografia de T&#243;rax (Angio-TC) 837</p>
        <p><bold>6.1.1. T&#233;cnica e Protocolos de Exames</bold> 837</p>
        <p>6.3. Gera&#231;&#245;es Antigas de Tom&#243;grafos 838</p>
        <p>6.4. Crit&#233;rios Diagn&#243;sticos 838</p>
        <p>6.5. Crit&#233;rios Progn&#243;sticos 840</p>
        <p>6.6. Contraindica&#231;&#227;o e Situa&#231;&#245;es Especiais 840</p>
        <p>6.7. Angiorresson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica (Angio-RM) 841</p>
        <p>6.8. Angiografia Digital com Subtra&#231;&#227;o 842</p>
        <p>6.9. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es 842</p>
        <p>7. Cintilografia Pulmonar 842</p>
        <p>7.1. Evid&#234;ncias 842</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 842</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.2. Evid&#234;ncias Relacionadas aos Crit&#233;rios de Interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos Exames</bold> 843</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.3. Acur&#225;cia Diagn&#243;stica</bold> 843</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.4. Indica&#231;&#245;es da Cintilografia Pulmonar por Limita&#231;&#245;es da Angiotomografia Pulmonar</bold> 845</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.5. Protocolo</bold> 845</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.6. Reconstru&#231;&#227;o de imagens</bold> 846</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.7. Interpreta&#231;&#227;o</bold> 846</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.8. Trombembolismo Pulmonar Cr&#244;nico</bold> 846</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.9. Achados Diagn&#243;sticos Adicionais</bold> 847</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.10. Pitfalls na Interpreta&#231;&#227;o de Estudos V/Q</bold> 847</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.11. O Futuro da Avalia&#231;&#227;o de EP por T&#233;cnicas de Medicina Nuclear</bold> 847</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.12. Algoritmo Cl&#237;nico para Investiga&#231;&#227;o de Pacientes com Suspeita de TEP</bold> 848</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.13. Algoritmo Diagn&#243;stico</bold> 849</p>
        <p><bold>7.1.14. Conclus&#245;es</bold> 850</p>
        <p>Refer&#234;ncias 850</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O trombembolismo venoso (TEV) manifesta-se como trombembolismo pulmonar (TEP) e/ou trombose venosa profunda (TVP), fazendo parte de um mesmo espectro de doen&#231;a e apresentando os mesmos fatores de risco. &#201; a terceira causa mais frequente de s&#237;ndrome cardiovascular aguda no mundo, com potencial risco de vida. <sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref> , <xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>No Brasil, segundo dados do Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de coletados entre os anos de 2010 e 2021, o n&#250;mero de interna&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao TEV ultrapassou 520 mil, com um total de mais de 67.000 &#243;bitos entre 2010 e 2019. <sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Apresenta um alto &#237;ndice de mortalidade, sendo que aproximadamente 34% dos pacientes acometidos morrem subitamente ou em poucas horas ap&#243;s a primeira manifesta&#231;&#227;o, ou seja, antes mesmo de receberem qualquer tipo de tratamento.</p>
      <p>Quase 2/3 dos casos de TEV manifestam-se por TVP isolada, sendo a maioria trombose das veias proximais do membro inferior e um ter&#231;o por TEP. <sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Na literatura, diversos estudos relacionam a presen&#231;a de TEV com a varia&#231;&#227;o clim&#225;tica. No Brasil, Ohki et al. <sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> relataram maior incid&#234;ncia de TEV nos estados do Sul, onde as temperaturas s&#227;o mais baixas. A incid&#234;ncia de casos de TEV nesses locais apresentou uma m&#233;dia de 2,86 para cada 100.000 habitantes. <sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Tal s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica aumenta exponencialmente com a idade, mesmo com a aplica&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> A mulheres s&#227;o mais comumente afetadas na juventude, sobretudo no puerp&#233;rio. Durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o, o uso do tabaco, a trombofilia e/ou a hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de TEV aumentam o risco nesse grupo de pacientes. Outras situa&#231;&#245;es, como imobilidade prolongada, obesidade, neoplasias, cirurgias de grande porte com tempo anest&#233;sico prolongado, politraumatismos, varizes de membros inferiores, terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, s&#227;o consideradas de risco para TEV, reconhecendo-se que h&#225; varia&#231;&#227;o na predi&#231;&#227;o do risco entre essas causas. <sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>A etnia &#233; considerada um fator de risco para TEV, com uma incid&#234;ncia significativamente maior entre caucasianos e afro-americanos e menor entre hisp&#226;nicos e asi&#225;ticos. De modo geral, aproximadamente 25-50% dos pacientes que apresentam o primeiro epis&#243;dio de TEV t&#234;m condi&#231;&#227;o idiop&#225;tica, sem um fator de risco facilmente identific&#225;vel. A mortalidade precoce no TEV est&#225; fortemente associada ao acometimento pulmonar, na forma de TEP, al&#233;m de idade avan&#231;ada, neoplasias e doen&#231;a cardiovascular subjacente. <sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>O &#237;ndice de recorr&#234;ncia &#233; relevante, e os casos n&#227;o fatais podem cursar com sequelas como hipertens&#227;o pulmonar nos casos de TEP cr&#244;nico ou s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica na TVP. Notadamente, houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o dos &#243;bitos por conta da melhor condu&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e terap&#234;utica ap&#243;s a publica&#231;&#227;o de posicionamentos e diretrizes internacionais sobre o tema. <sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>O diagn&#243;stico de TEV pode n&#227;o ser t&#227;o objetivo; portanto, &#233; necess&#225;rio foco na abordagem diagn&#243;stica de TEP e TVP, visto que a falha no diagn&#243;stico correto pode ser fatal ou levar a comorbidades permanentes.</p>
      <p>Nesse contexto, o Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular (DIC/SBC), o Col&#233;gio Brasileiro de Radiologia (CBR), a Sociedade Brasileira de Angiologia e Cirurgia Vascular (SBACV) e a Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Nuclear (SBMN) desenvolveram em conjunto este documento. O objetivo &#233; abordar aspectos cl&#237;nicos e diagn&#243;sticos, visando a criar uma recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#250;nica entre as quatro sociedades, que sirva como fonte de informa&#231;&#227;o para os m&#233;dicos brasileiros, assim como padroniza&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico, laboratorial e por imagem do TEV. A abordagem profil&#225;tica e terap&#234;utica do TEV n&#227;o est&#225; no escopo desse documento.</p>
      <p>A cria&#231;&#227;o dessa recomenda&#231;&#227;o teve como base diretrizes e estudos populacionais e de caso existentes na literatura, assim como a <italic>expertise</italic> dos participantes. Cada grupo de trabalho compilou os dados, redigiu os escritos e posteriormente apresentou o texto revisado para os ajustes finais. Os temas mais pol&#234;micos foram discutidos em reuni&#227;o com a participa&#231;&#227;o da maioria. Quando necess&#225;rio, foram realizadas corre&#231;&#245;es no texto original.</p>
      <p>Essa recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; direcionada a m&#233;dicos cl&#237;nicos ou cirurgi&#245;es, visando a melhor informa&#231;&#227;o a respeito da abordagem diagn&#243;stica do TEV, fornecendo dados sobre a acur&#225;cia das ferramentas diagn&#243;sticas utilizadas na pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria. Para os m&#233;dicos imaginologistas, a descri&#231;&#227;o detalhada dos protocolos de exames poder&#225; auxiliar na realiza&#231;&#227;o de diagn&#243;sticos mais precisos, contribuindo para a melhor condu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dos casos suspeitos ou confirmados.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>1. Fisiopatologia e Diagn&#243;stico Cl&#237;nico e Laboratorial do Trombembolismo Venoso</title>
      <sec>
        <title>1.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O espectro do trombembolismo venoso (TEV) compreende a trombose venosa profunda (TVP) e a embolia pulmonar (TEP). A doen&#231;a trombemb&#243;lica &#233; a terceira doen&#231;a cardiovascular aguda mais comum depois das s&#237;ndromes isqu&#234;micas card&#237;acas e do acidente vascular encef&#225;lico. A manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dessas doen&#231;as abrange um amplo espectro, desde clinicamente silenciosa &#224; embolia maci&#231;a, levando ao &#243;bito. <sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> Cerca de um ter&#231;o de todos os casos de TEP &#233; fatal, e o c&#226;ncer mostra-se um dos muitos estados de doen&#231;a associados a um maior risco de doen&#231;a trombemb&#243;lica. Aproximadamente dois ter&#231;os dos casos de TEV s&#227;o constitu&#237;dos por TVP, 85-90% em membros inferiores e um ter&#231;o por TEP. <sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref> , <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> </sup> Nesse contexto, devemos sempre lembrar que o TEV &#233; doen&#231;a grave e pass&#237;vel de preven&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.2. Fisiopatologia</title>
        <sec>
          <title>A) Trombose Venosa Profunda (TVP):</title>
          <p>A TVP &#233; uma afec&#231;&#227;o frequente e potencialmente fatal, tendo como principal complica&#231;&#227;o a embolia pulmonar, que pode ser considerada a primeira causa de morbimortalidade evit&#225;vel no ambiente intra-hospitalar. Al&#233;m disso, tamb&#233;m pode levar, como complica&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, a s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica (SPT), o que acarreta importante impacto socioecon&#244;mico. Tais complica&#231;&#245;es podem ocorrer, apesar do diagn&#243;stico e da terap&#234;utica adequados, tendo seu potencial delet&#233;rio diminu&#237;do qu&#227;o mais cedo for realizado o diagn&#243;stico e institu&#237;do o tratamento correto.</p>
          <p>A TVP pode ocorrer tanto em pacientes internados quanto ambulatoriais, tendo sintomatologia inespec&#237;fica, podendo variar desde completamente assintom&#225;tica at&#233; um Quadro catastr&#243;fico, como na <italic>phlegmasia cerulea dolens</italic> (PCD). A PCD caracteriza-se pela oclus&#227;o total ou suboclus&#227;o maci&#231;a das veias de drenagem do membro (segmento femoroil&#237;aco) e colaterais, podendo se estender &#224; microcircula&#231;&#227;o. A hipertens&#227;o venosa chega a tal n&#237;vel que impede o fluxo arterial. <sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> , <xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> </sup> Com a elevada press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica e sequestro de fluidos para o interst&#237;cio, h&#225; forma&#231;&#227;o de edema endurecido de todo o membro, que pode acumular de 3 a 5 litros em volume e levar ao colapso das arter&#237;olas, flictenas pela isquemia tecidual, equimose p&#250;rpura, cianose, perda dos pulsos distais, colapso circulat&#243;rio e choque hipovol&#234;mico. <sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>&#201; importante ressaltar que o diagn&#243;stico da TVP tem in&#237;cio com a hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica. Deve-se atentar para antecedentes que potencializem ou predisponham ao risco aumentado de desenvolver fen&#244;menos trombemb&#243;licos venosos, conforme postulado por Virchow:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>- ALTERA&#199;&#213;ES DO FLUXO (estase):</bold> idade, imobiliza&#231;&#227;o &#8805;3 dias ou inatividade f&#237;sica como em p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico, fratura de quadril ou joelho, cirurgia geral de grande porte (&gt;45min, aumentando o risco quanto mais longo for o procedimento), traumatismo grave, les&#227;o da medula espinal com paresia de membro, imobiliza&#231;&#227;o de extremidades com aparelhos gessados ou &#243;rteses, viagem prolongada em &#225;rea confinada, gravidez, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva, varizes, DPOC e queimaduras, entre outras. <sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>- LES&#195;O DE ENDOT&#201;LIO (traumatismo):</bold> idade avan&#231;ada (a partir dos 40 anos, dobrando o risco a cada d&#233;cada), tabagismo, antecedente trombemb&#243;lico conhecido, traumatismos, cirurgias e cateteres venosos, entre outras. <sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> , <xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>- HIPERCOAGULABILIDADE:</bold> neoplasias e/ou seus tratamentos, trombofilias heredit&#225;rias ou adquiridas, obesidade, uso de contraceptivos orais contendo estrog&#234;nio e reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal, gravidez, tabagismo, doen&#231;as infecciosas agudas, s&#237;ndrome nefr&#243;tica e doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria intestinal, entre outras. <sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> , <xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref> , <xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>1.3. Diagn&#243;stico Cl&#237;nico e Laboratorial</title>
      <p>Identificado o risco epidemiol&#243;gico para TVP, que deve ser obrigat&#243;rio, proceder ao exame f&#237;sico do paciente. O diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico da TVP apresenta baixa sensibilidade e especificidade, visto que apenas 20-40% dos pacientes com Quadro cl&#237;nico sugestivo t&#234;m a doen&#231;a confirmada. Os sinais e sintomas mais comuns apresentados pelos pacientes com TVP s&#227;o dor e edema. Apesar da baixa acur&#225;cia do diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico, &#233; importante ressaltar que, a princ&#237;pio, todo edema assim&#233;trico em extremidades inferiores deve ser valorizado at&#233; a completa avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica finalizada.</p>
      <p>Por outro lado, deve-se levar em conta que em uma parcela consider&#225;vel dos casos (20-50%) o paciente pode apresentar Quadro de TVP extensa (at&#233; mesmo proximal), sem ter qualquer sintomatologia sugestiva. A suspei&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; essencial para o diagn&#243;stico nesses casos, mas conv&#233;m ter por base que o diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico n&#227;o mostra sensibilidade/especificidade satisfat&#243;rios, e sua confirma&#231;&#227;o deve ser feita por meio de exames complementares. Entre esses m&#233;todos, a ultrassonografia vascular com <italic>Doppler</italic> &#233; o m&#233;todo de escolha por sua alta acur&#225;cia, sendo de f&#225;cil execu&#231;&#227;o, boa reprodutibilidade e in&#243;cuo. Entretanto, a disponibilidade dessa modalidade de diagn&#243;stico &#233; limitada em centros m&#233;dicos menores e ambulat&#243;rios e durante os turnos noturnos e de fins de semana. <sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>A TVP &#233; classificada como proximal quando envolve as veias femorais e/ou popl&#237;tea, com ou sem o envolvimento de outras veias da perna; e distal quando envolve as veias profundas infrapatelares. <sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> , <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref> </sup> A TVP proximal &#233; a de maior potencial embolig&#234;nico. Outras classifica&#231;&#245;es, que podem determinar a gravidade da TVP, s&#227;o aquelas baseadas no grau de extens&#227;o do trombo; os mais extensos costumam gerar consequ&#234;ncias maiores por carregarem a hipertens&#227;o venosa e o grau de obstru&#231;&#227;o da luz parcial e total. O grau de ocupa&#231;&#227;o da luz, bem como sua localiza&#231;&#227;o e extens&#227;o determinar&#225; a gravidade e o progn&#243;stico do Quadro cl&#237;nico da trombose venosa.</p>
      <p>No ano de 1997, tentando simplificar a abordagem diagn&#243;stica desses pacientes, Wells et al. <sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> desenvolveram um modelo de predi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica para classificar os pacientes quanto ao risco de TVP. O m&#233;todo, quando associado a exames complementares n&#227;o invasivos, mostrou-se fact&#237;vel e &#250;til em diversos estudos. O mesmo grupo implementou modifica&#231;&#245;es em 2003, tornando mais f&#225;cil o entendimento dos cl&#237;nicos. <sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> V&#225;rias sociedades de especialidade e consensos recomendam a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de modelos de predi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica para estimar a probabilidade do diagn&#243;stico de TVP, antes da realiza&#231;&#227;o da USV. <sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup> Entre as ferramentas, a mais utilizada &#233; o escore de Wells associado aos valores s&#233;ricos do D-d&#237;mero. <sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">Quadro 1</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Quadro 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Modelo de predi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de trombose venosa profunda (TVP) de Wells 6 </title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Achados Cl&#237;nicos</th>
                <th>Escore</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>C&#226;ncer ativo OU c&#226;ncer tratado nos &#250;ltimos seis meses.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Paresia, paralisia ou imobiliza&#231;&#227;o recente nos MMII.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Acamado recente por mais de 3 dias OU cirurgia maior nas &#250;ltimas 4 semanas.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Palpa&#231;&#227;o dolorosa ao longo do trajeto de veias do sistema venoso profundo.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Edema de toda a extremidade.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Edema de panturrilha com circunfer&#234;ncia medindo pelo menos 3cm mais que a circunfer&#234;ncia da panturrilha contralateral com medida realizada 10cm abaixo da tuberosidade da t&#237;bia.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Edema depress&#237;vel (cacifo positivo) apenas na perna sintom&#225;tica.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Veias colaterais superficiais n&#227;o varicosas.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TVP pr&#233;via documentada.</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Presen&#231;a de diagn&#243;stico diferencial mais prov&#225;vel: linfedema, celulite, altera&#231;&#245;es articulares, tromboflebite superficial, ruptura muscular, cisto de Baker.</td>
                <td align="center">-2</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>- Escore simplificado: &#8805; 2 TVP prov&#225;vel; &#8804;1 TVP improv&#225;vel</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>- A varia&#231;&#227;o na acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica do escore de Wells depende da popula&#231;&#227;o avaliada (ambulatorial x internado), da extens&#227;o da TVP (proximal x distal) e do grau de probabilidade (baixa x moderada x alta), sendo melhor nos pacientes ambulatoriais com TVP proximal e que apresentam escore de alta probabilidade (&gt;2). De modo geral, Silveira et al., em estudo populacional, obtiveram uma acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica de 0,56 (AUC &#8211; &#225;rea sobre a curva) para pacientes internados. Em pacientes ambulatoriais, a efic&#225;cia do escore pode variar de 11,9% a 79,5%. <sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref> </sup> </p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <sec>
        <title>1.3.1. Dosagem do D-d&#237;mero</title>
        <p>A medi&#231;&#227;o do D-d&#237;mero (um produto de degrada&#231;&#227;o do co&#225;gulo de fibrina reticulado) &#233; amplamente utilizada na investiga&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com suspeita de trombembolismo venoso. <sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> </sup> O ensaio quantitativo do D-d&#237;mero, com base no m&#233;todo r&#225;pido de Elisa, apresenta alta sensibilidade (pr&#243;ximo de 95%) para o diagn&#243;stico. No entanto, o teste revela baixa especificidade (40%), visto que o D-d&#237;mero pode estar aumentado em v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es al&#233;m do trombembolismo venoso, como nos casos de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico, inflama&#231;&#245;es, c&#226;ncer ativo e gravidez. A especificidade tamb&#233;m cai com a idade, e em idosos pode alcan&#231;ar apenas 10%. Em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, apurou-se que o uso de um ponto de corte ajustado para pacientes acima de 50 anos visando a afastar a presen&#231;a de TVP (idade do paciente em anos [acima de 50] x 10 &#181;g/L) parece t&#227;o seguro quanto o ponto de corte padr&#227;o, o que foi apontado como uma recomenda&#231;&#227;o na &#250;ltima diretriz europeia de 2019. <sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref> , <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref> </sup> </p>
        <p>Consequentemente, um teste quantitativo negativo do D-d&#237;mero tem um alto valor preditivo negativo para TEV. Os resultados dos estudos revelam que o risco de desenvolvimento de TEP em pacientes com baixa probabilidade cl&#237;nica, que n&#227;o s&#227;o tratados ap&#243;s um teste de D-d&#237;mero negativo, &#233; &lt;1% em tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial. Por outro lado, por conta de seu baixo valor preditivo, um teste D-d&#237;mero quantitativo positivo n&#227;o modifica a probabilidade pr&#233;-teste (cl&#237;nica) e, portanto, &#233; clinicamente in&#250;til. Um teste de D-d&#237;mero negativo de alta sensibilidade em combina&#231;&#227;o com uma baixa probabilidade pr&#233;-teste pode excluir a TVP. <sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>Os n&#237;veis do D-d&#237;mero tamb&#233;m podem variar de acordo com a quantidade de veias acometidas, extens&#227;o e volume do trombo. Tromboses proximais e mais extensas apresentam n&#237;veis mais altos de D-d&#237;mero do que as confinadas &#224;s panturrilhas, o que pode ser importante na avalia&#231;&#227;o da carga da doen&#231;a trombemb&#243;lica. <sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref> - <xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref> </sup> Evid&#234;ncias recentes tamb&#233;m sugerem que n&#237;veis muito altos do D-d&#237;mero est&#227;o associados a um aumento de quatro vezes na probabilidade de TEP. <sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref> </sup> Entretanto, quando a probabilidade cl&#237;nica &#233; alta, independente dos n&#237;veis do D-d&#237;mero, &#233; obrigat&#243;ria a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um exame de USV para confirmar ou descartar a presen&#231;a de TVP <sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="gt01" ref-type="fig">Quadro 2</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="gt01">
            <label>Quadro 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma diagn&#243;stico para a pesquisa de trombose venosa profunda (TVP)</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>B) Trombembolismo Pulmonar (TEP):</title>
      <p>Define-se o TEP como a obstru&#231;&#227;o de uma ou mais art&#233;rias pulmonares. Na maioria dos casos, &#233; causado por co&#225;gulos sangu&#237;neos que chegam &#224;s art&#233;rias pulmonares vindo, mais comumente, de TVP das extremidades inferiores.</p>
      <p>Os sinais cl&#237;nicos de TEP s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos, como dispneia, dor tor&#225;cica, hemoptise, s&#237;ncope ou pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope. Em alguns casos, pode ser assintom&#225;tica e descoberta incidentalmente. A s&#237;ncope parece estar presente em cerca de 17% dos casos e est&#225; associada a alta preval&#234;ncia de instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica e fal&#234;ncia do ventr&#237;culo direito. O TEP que apresenta instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica n&#227;o &#233; frequente, mas indica um comprometimento maci&#231;o da circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar.</p>
      <p>Quando suspeito, o TEP deve ser confirmado ou refutado para evitar os riscos de super e subtratamento. Habitualmente, utilizam-se os escores de risco cl&#237;nico de Wells ou de Genebra para classificar a probabilidade pr&#233;-teste.</p>
      <p>A acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica dos escores de Wells para o diagn&#243;stico de TEP foi estabelecida por uma metan&#225;lise de 11 estudos, na qual a sensibilidade variou de 63,8% a 79,3%; e a especificidade, de 48,8% a 90%, com &#225;rea sobre a curva (AUC) de 0,778. Por outro lado, no escore de Genebra a sensibilidade variou de 55,3% a 73,6%; e especificidade, de 48,8% a 90,0%, com &#225;rea sobre a curva (AUC) de 0,693. <sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Tais escores, quando combinados com a dosagem do D-d&#237;mero, como descrito anteriormente, apresentam implica&#231;&#227;o importante na condu&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e na indica&#231;&#227;o de testes de imagem ( <xref rid="t4" ref-type="table">Quadros 3</xref> e <xref rid="t5" ref-type="table">4</xref> ).</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Quadro 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Modelo de Wells de predi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de trombembolismo pulmonar 33 </title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">VARI&#193;VEIS</th>
                <th>PONTUA&#199;&#195;O SIMPLIFICADA</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Sinais cl&#237;nicos de TVP</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &gt; 100 bpm</td>
                <td align="center">1,5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Imobiliza&#231;&#227;o ou cirurgia recente</td>
                <td align="center">1,5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TEP ou TVP pr&#233;vias</td>
                <td align="center">1,5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hemoptise</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>C&#226;ncer</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Diagn&#243;stico alternativo menos prov&#225;vel que TEP</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TEP prov&#225;vel &gt; 4 e TEP improv&#225;vel &#8804; 4</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Quadro 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Modelo de Genebra revisado para predi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de trombembolismo pulmonar (TEP). Adaptado de Le Gal et al. 34 </title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="2">VARI&#193;VEIS</th>
                <th colspan="2">PONTOS CL&#205;NICOS AVALIADOS</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>ORIGINAL</th>
                <th>SIMPLIFICADO</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>TEP ou TVP pr&#233;via</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>FREQU&#202;NCIA CARD&#205;ACA</td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>75 &#8211; 94 bpm</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#8805; 95 bpm</td>
                <td align="center">5</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cirurgia ou fratura &#8804; 1 m&#234;s</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hemoptise</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>C&#226;ncer ativo</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dor unilateral membro inferior</td>
                <td align="center">3</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dor a palpa&#231;&#227;o no trajeto venoso profundo do membro e edema unilateral</td>
                <td align="center">4</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade maior 65 anos</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>PROBABILIDADE CL&#205;NICA</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Escore de 3 n&#237;veis</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Baixo</td>
                <td align="center">0 - 3</td>
                <td align="center">0 - 1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Intermedi&#225;rio</td>
                <td align="center">4 - 10</td>
                <td align="center">2 - 4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Alto</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 11</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Escore de 2 n&#237;veis</bold>
                </td>
                <td> </td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Improv&#225;vel</td>
                <td align="center">0 - 5</td>
                <td align="center">0 - 2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Prov&#225;vel</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 6</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 3</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o da probabilidade cl&#237;nica de TEP, as estrat&#233;gias diagn&#243;sticas depender&#227;o da estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica do paciente. Al&#233;m do Quadro cl&#237;nico e do D-d&#237;mero, as t&#233;cnicas complementares recomendadas para diagn&#243;stico de TEP s&#227;o a angiotomografia pulmonar (angio-TC), a cintilografia com V/Q Spect e o ecocardiograma ( <xref rid="gt02" ref-type="fig">Quadros 5</xref> e <xref rid="gt03" ref-type="fig">6</xref> ). Cada uma dessas t&#233;cnicas e o papel do ecocardiograma no fluxograma diagn&#243;stico quando o TEP tem repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, hipotens&#227;o ou choque, ser&#225; discutida nas pr&#243;ximas sess&#245;es.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="gt02">
          <label>Quadro 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Fluxograma diagn&#243;stico na avalia&#231;&#227;o da suspeita de trombembolismo pulmonar (TEP) sem repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="gt03">
          <label>Quadro 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Algoritmo diagn&#243;stico para trombembolismo pulmonar (TEP) agudo em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. Altera&#231;&#245;es Ecocardiogr&#225;ficas no Trombembolismo Pulmonar</title>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A utilidade do ecocardiograma (transtor&#225;cico e/ou transesof&#225;gico) no trombembolismo pulmonar agudo (TEP) reside na investiga&#231;&#227;o de sobrecarga press&#243;rica de ventr&#237;culo direito (decorrente de aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar, com consequente eleva&#231;&#227;o da p&#243;s-carga de VD) e na avalia&#231;&#227;o funcional dessa cavidade. Pacientes com epis&#243;dio trombemb&#243;lico sem repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica cursam, na maioria das vezes, com exames normais. Em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, o ecocardiograma desempenha importante papel de apoio nas etapas de diagn&#243;stico e acompanhamento n&#227;o invasivo da resposta ao tratamento.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2.2. Ecocardiograma em Trombembolismo Pulmonar (TEP) de Baixo Risco</title>
      <p>O ecocardiograma n&#227;o &#233; um exame obrigat&#243;rio na rotina diagn&#243;stica em pacientes com suspeita de TEP com estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica nos algoritmos de investiga&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> O valor preditivo negativo da ecocardiografia varia entre 40-50%; e o resultado normal n&#227;o exclui TEP. <sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> - <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref> </sup> Ainda que n&#227;o contribua para o diagn&#243;stico, representa importante ferramenta para discrimina&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica: a aus&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es de tamanho ou fun&#231;&#227;o do VD indicam bom progn&#243;stico. <sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> - <xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref> </sup> O exame &#233; tamb&#233;m importante para definir diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais de dispneia aguda.</p>
      <p>O estudo do ventr&#237;culo direito, com seu formato &#250;nico em crescente, apresenta dificuldade t&#233;cnica inerente &#224; geometria assim&#233;trica da cavidade. Entretanto, a padroniza&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica para um exame completo foi estabelecida em 2015 em documento conjunto atualizado das sociedades de ecocardiografia norte-americana e europeia. <sup><xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref></sup> As recomenda&#231;&#245;es gerais definem janelas e cortes essenciais que fornecem as imagens exigidas na obten&#231;&#227;o de todos os dados necess&#225;rios para a quantifica&#231;&#227;o:</p>
      <list list-type="alpha-lower">
        <list-item>
          <p>Paraesternal esquerda, eixo longo e curto;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Apical de 4 c&#226;maras;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Apical de 4 c&#226;maras focando cavidade ventricular direita;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Paraesternal esquerda demonstrando a via de entrada de VD;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Subcostal.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>O <xref rid="t8" ref-type="table">Quadro 7</xref> cont&#233;m as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para aferir as dimens&#245;es cavit&#225;rias direitas e os par&#226;metros de fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular direita.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t8">
          <label>Quadro 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para medidas de dimens&#245;es cavit&#225;rias direitas e par&#226;metros de fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular direita (VD)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" colspan="2" scope="col">MEDIDAS LINEARES DO TRATO DE ENTRADA DO VENTR&#205;CULO DIREITO (VD)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b6d6ca0833a052c1359972897de30c9deb08127b.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/083b6d1e5885215ec3fe275bc37dab677944c9a4.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td align="left">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>VDd1 =</bold> di&#226;metro linear basal do VD (dimens&#227;o transversa m&#225;xima no 1/3 basal do trato de entrada da cavidade, ao final da di&#225;stole na janela focada no VD).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 33 &#177; 4mm <sup>25-41</sup> </p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>VDd2 =</bold> di&#226;metro linear m&#233;dio cavit&#225;rio do VD (dimens&#227;o transversa do VD no 1/3 m&#233;dio do trato de entrada, aproximadamente no ponto entre o di&#226;metro basal m&#225;ximo e o &#225;pice, na altura dos m&#250;sculos papilares, ao final da di&#225;stole.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 27 &#177; 4mm <sup>19-35</sup> </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>MEDIDAS LINEARES DO TRATO DE SA&#205;DA DO VENTR&#205;CULO DIREITO (VD)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/dcb9ae4da47bc359a323f3a640ab3c8f6cf6fdce.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/6528d64d84f9ca430c0fba5fb063946a06decbcf.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>A)</bold> Di&#226;metro proximal do trato de sa&#237;da do VD (janela paraesternal longitudinal) = dimens&#227;o linear medida da parede anterior do VD at&#233; a jun&#231;&#227;o interventricular septo a&#243;rtica, ao final da di&#225;stole.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 25 &#177; 2,5mm <sup>20-30</sup> </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/e13e45d055e9ae8f97dbc635f152e9bf341b6d3e.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/6280dce709b2d4f7ab16b0ee024abf291b6b3b94.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>B)</bold> Di&#226;metro proximal do trato de sa&#237;da de VD (janela paraesternal, corte transverso) = dimens&#227;o linear medida da parede anterior do VD at&#233; a v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica, ao final da di&#225;stole.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 28 &#177; 3,5mm <sup>21-35</sup> </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/dda5cf9abe8a03e33014c19d28a2db766055a4c4.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/fe4a12ef5d46f6e028c3376875288570bcada968.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>C)</bold> Di&#226;metro distal do trato de sa&#237;da do VD (janela paresternal, corte transverso) = dimens&#227;o linear transversal medida justa proximal &#224; v&#225;lvula pulmonar ao final da di&#225;stole.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 22 &#177; 2,5mm <sup>17-27</sup> </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>MEDIDAS LINEARES DA ESPESSURA DA PAREDE DO VD</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/680bbc9ea6e890df7ccffcf37f4b575119256964.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/4741b8b8289bcf744a1f821fe6ffb4ba775d6cfe.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A medida linear da espessura de parede do VD (por meio do modo uni ou bidimensional) &#233; realizada ao final da di&#225;stole, abaixo do anel tric&#250;spide e em uma dist&#226;ncia que se aproxima do comprimento do folheto anterior desta v&#225;lvula (totalmente aberta e paralela &#224; parede livre do ventr&#237;culo direito).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 3 &#177; 1mm <sup>1-5</sup> </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>MEDIDAS VOLUM&#201;TRICAS DO VD AO ECOCARDIOGRAMA TRIDIMENSIONAL (ECO 3D)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/1a9460e873325f7849f0b6868f0f179d4f6002db.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/9f4a7c0e691dcd733c8b6d647ee4f876ec7ba7a5.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Recomenda-se que o tamanho do VD deve ser medido por meio do eco bidimensional convencional, utilizando m&#250;ltiplas janelas ac&#250;sticas. Entretanto, nos laborat&#243;rios com experi&#234;ncia em eco 3D, &#233; recomendada a quantifica&#231;&#227;o dos volumes atrav&#233;s de tal m&#233;todo.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN para VDFVD: <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Homem 61 &#177; 13mL/m <sup>235-87</sup> </p></list-item><list-item><p>Mulher 53 &#177; 10,5mL/m <sup>232-74</sup> </p></list-item></list> </p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN para VSFVD: <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Homem 27 &#177; 8,5mL/m <sup>210-44</sup> </p></list-item><list-item><p>Mulher 22 &#177; 7 mL/m <sup>28-36</sup> </p></list-item></list> </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>FUN&#199;&#195;O SIST&#211;LICA GLOBAL DO VD AVALIADA PELA &#193;REA DA FRA&#199;&#195;O DE ENCURTAMENTO DE VD &#8211; (FAC)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/d2506c68f45bea1c931fc7868fee2c4b933d8fc1.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/14a1d1bc5819b814677255fe14ab37f87b7d97be.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>FAC VD (%) = 100 X (ADF &#8211; ASF)/ADF</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Apical de 4 c&#226;maras focado no VD. Tra&#231;ado manual da borda endoc&#225;rdica do VD desde o anel tric&#250;spide lateral, passando pela parede livre at&#233; o &#225;pice e retornando ao anel tric&#250;spide medial atrav&#233;s do septo interventricular. Medida realizada ao final da s&#237;stole (ASF) e di&#225;stole (ADF). Trabecula&#231;&#245;es, m&#250;sculos papilares e banda moderadora s&#227;o inclu&#237;dos na medida da &#225;rea cavit&#225;ria.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 49 &#177; 7% (&gt;35%)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>FUN&#199;&#195;O SIST&#211;LICA GLOBAL DE VD AVALIADA ATRAV&#201;S DA FRA&#199;&#195;O DE EJE&#199;&#195;O PELO ECO 3D</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/a755310507022d686080a81128f08587d922ddb5.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/5698f2068765cc21642ccbb2893014c838652dad.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Altera&#231;&#227;o fracional de volume de ventr&#237;culo direito pelo eco 3D [FEVD (%) = 100 X (VDF-VSF)/VDF]. Quando realizada corretamente, correlaciona-se com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o calculada pela resson&#226;ncia nuclear magn&#233;tica. Em laborat&#243;rios capacitados, recomenda-se a medida de fra&#231;&#227;o e de eje&#231;&#227;o de VD pelo eco 3D.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 58 &#177; 6,5% (&gt;45%)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>FUN&#199;&#195;O SIST&#211;LICA LONGITUDINAL DE VD AVALIADA PELO TAPSE</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b3267c25f65e04fad742c01ff14260b0ea25bfa3.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/8284ac338d71b4feccf08720d9ea600f487b0993.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Excurs&#227;o longitudinal do anel tric&#250;spide medido usando-se o modo-M, entre o fim da di&#225;stole e o pico sist&#243;lico. Janela apical, corte 4 c&#226;maras focado no VD, para alinhamento adequado entre o cursor do modo-M e a excurs&#227;o da dire&#231;&#227;o longitudinal do VD (anel tric&#250;spide lateral).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN=24 &#177; 3,5mm (&gt;17mm)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>FUN&#199;&#195;O SIST&#211;LICA LONGITUDINAL DE VD AVALIADA PELA ONDA &#8220; S&#8217; &#8221; DO <italic>DOPPLER</italic> TECIDUAL</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>
                    <alternatives>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/fcc3ac2b235538a811ddbfe456dabd02ce4e13b8.tif"/>
                      <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/092179ab41830fabc6534ead9afb0ceeaafe6ae2.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                    </alternatives>
                  </bold>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Velocidade de pico sist&#243;lico do anel tric&#250;spide avaliado por meio do uso de <italic>Doppler</italic> tecidual pulsado (cm/s), atrav&#233;s da janela apical e corte de 4 c&#226;maras focado no VD. Importante manter segmento basal e anel alinhados com o <italic>Doppler</italic> para evitar subestimativa dessa medida.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN = 14,1 &#177; 2,3cm/s (&gt;9,5cm/s)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>FUN&#199;&#195;O SIST&#211;LICA LONGITUDINAL DE VD AVALIADA ATRAV&#201;S DO <italic>STRAIN</italic> DE LONGITUDINAL GLOBAL</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/c096e565208e68b254d986ef6d6923761f744ca5.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/908f30456c3e9314c44e37f973cb0f3fff7d0a18.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>O <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal do ventr&#237;culo direito deve ser medido atrav&#233;s do corte apical 4 c&#226;maras focado na avalia&#231;&#227;o do VD. O painel mostra o <italic>strain</italic> global longitudinal dos 6 segmentos (3 da parede livre e 3 segmentos septais); calcula-se a m&#233;dia dos valores. O <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal do VD &#233; realizado, muitas vezes, por <italic>software</italic> n&#227;o dedicado a essa c&#226;mara. Hoje, temos <italic>softwares</italic> dedicados para VD, que devem ser os de prefer&#234;ncia e fornecem dados do <italic>strain</italic> da parede livre do VD e do <italic>strain</italic> que incorpora o septo interventricular.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN: 29 &#177; 4.5 ( 20% em valor absoluto)</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>MEDIDA DO VOLUME DE &#193;TRIO DIREITO (VOLUME PELO ECO2D)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/c7206ff6d677715bd7e49f4c9276c04977536830.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/f19da23898bd799480dfdd579bc4a5003e575776.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>O par&#226;metro recomendado para avaliar o tamanho do AD &#233; seu volume calculado usando a t&#233;cnica com plano &#250;nico do somat&#243;rio dos discos (2D), no corte apical 4 c&#226;maras realizado adequadamente.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VN: <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Homem 25 &#177; 7mL/cm <sup>2 18-32</sup> </p></list-item><list-item><p>Mulher 21 &#177; 6mL/cm <sup>2 15-27</sup> </p></list-item></list> </p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2">
                  <bold>MEDIDA DAS DIMENS&#213;ES DA VEIA CAVA INFERIOR (VCI)</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/67a67d118186633b9e494d0f8ce961eaf7f48ad7.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/5927d5e1f0478a1d21d8ac8920a1cafef1d836d0.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Janela subcostal, posi&#231;&#227;o supina, cerca de 1-2 cm da jun&#231;&#227;o com o AD (perpendicular ao eixo longo).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>O &#8220;&#237;ndice de colapsabilidade&#8221; (% de redu&#231;&#227;o do di&#226;metro da VCI durante a inspira&#231;&#227;o) se correlaciona com a press&#227;o em AD.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VCI &#8804; 21mm e IC &gt; 50% = press&#227;o AD normal (3mmHg, variando entre 0-5 mmHg).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VCI &#8804; 21mm e IC &lt; 50% = press&#227;o intermedi&#225;ria (8mmHg, variando entre 5-10mmHg).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>VCI &gt; 21mm e IC &lt; 50% = press&#227;o elevada 15mmHg, variando entre 10-20mmHg).</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="2"> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>TSVD: trato de sa&#237;da do VD; ASC: &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie corporal; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; AD: &#225;trio direito; VCI: veia cava inferior; VN: valor de normalidade.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2.3. Ecocardiograma em Trombembolismo Pulmonar de Alto Risco</title>
      <p>Em todos os pacientes com suspeita cl&#237;nica de TEP e instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, o ecocardiograma &#233; exame obrigat&#243;rio, pois consegue detectar com seguran&#231;a altera&#231;&#245;es em cavidades direitas tradutoras do aumento s&#250;bito e grave da resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar (p&#243;s-carga de VD), respons&#225;veis por disfun&#231;&#227;o e hipotens&#227;o. Nesses pacientes, o registro de um exame normal elimina em definitivo a hip&#243;tese de embolia pulmonar maci&#231;a. <sup><xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref> , <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref> </sup> Por outro lado, a detec&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es correspondentes &#224; sobrecarga de press&#227;o e &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita (na aus&#234;ncia de outras causas &#243;bvias de diagn&#243;stico diferencial) permite o diagn&#243;stico de TEP maci&#231;o e a terapia de reperfus&#227;o de emerg&#234;ncia, mesmo na impossibilidade de realiza&#231;&#227;o de angiotomografia de t&#243;rax ou cintilografia de ventila&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>O &#250;nico achado ecocardiogr&#225;fico patognom&#244;nico de TEP &#233; a presen&#231;a de trombos m&#243;veis em cavidades direitas, tronco e/ou ramos de art&#233;ria pulmonar ( <xref rid="f01" ref-type="fig">Figura 1</xref> ). Tal achado associa-se a alta mortalidade precoce <sup><xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref> - <xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref> </sup> e ocorre em apenas 4% dos casos de embolia pulmonar em geral, podendo alcan&#231;ar 18% de preval&#234;ncia nos pacientes com TEP em unidades de terapia intensiva. <sup><xref rid="B50" ref-type="bibr">50</xref> , <xref rid="B51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; A-C: visibiliza&#231;&#227;o direta de trombo em cavidades direitas e art&#233;ria pulmonar esquerda. Tr: trombo; Ao: aorta; PE: art&#233;ria pulmonar esquerda; PD: art&#233;ria pulmonar direita.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf04.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>a) As altera&#231;&#245;es fundamentais relativas ao trombembolismo agudo grave <sup><xref rid="B52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref></sup> s&#227;o:</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>b) Dilata&#231;&#227;o de VD;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>c) Disfun&#231;&#227;o de VD;</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Sobrecarga press&#243;rica pulmonar. Ocorre em 30-40% dos pacientes com TEP e indica pior progn&#243;stico. <sup><xref rid="B53" ref-type="bibr">53</xref> - <xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>Quando a dilata&#231;&#227;o da cavidade ventricular ( <xref rid="f02" ref-type="fig">Figura 2</xref> ) associa-se ao sinal 60/60 &#8211; combina&#231;&#227;o de tempo de acelera&#231;&#227;o do fluxo de eje&#231;&#227;o pulmonar &lt;60ms e ao gradiente de pico sist&#243;lico valvar tric&#250;spide &lt;60 mmHg &#8211;, ou com sinal de McConell &#8211; hipocinesia de segmentos basal e m&#233;dio de parede livre do VD e contratilidade normal da regi&#227;o apical ( <xref rid="f03" ref-type="fig">Figura 3</xref> ) &#8211;, o valor preditivo positivo para embolia pulmonar maci&#231;a &#233; alto. <sup><xref rid="B56" ref-type="bibr">56</xref></sup> No entanto, o sinal 60/60 est&#225; presente em apenas 12%; e o sinal de McConell em 20% dos pacientes n&#227;o selecionados. Outro sinal de aumento da p&#243;s-carga do VD &#233; redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de acelera&#231;&#227;o pulmonar e a presen&#231;a de desacelera&#231;&#227;o mesossist&#243;lica ( <xref rid="f04" ref-type="fig">Figura 4</xref> ). Sinais de sobrecarga press&#243;rica de VD ajudam a diferenciar hipocinesia ou acinesia de parede livre decorrente de TEP daquela causada por infarto agudo de ventr&#237;culo direito (que pode mimetizar o sinal de McConell). <sup><xref rid="B52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref> , <xref rid="B57" ref-type="bibr">57</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Sobrecarga press&#243;rica e/ou disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) A: retifica&#231;&#227;o do septo ventricular com dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD ao corte paraesternal transverso; B: dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD avaliada ao corte apical pela rela&#231;&#227;o &#225;rea diast&#243;lica final VD/VE (&gt;0,6 leve; 1-2 importante; &gt;2 severa); C: equivalente da rela&#231;&#227;o VD/VE avaliada pela angio-TC. VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; AD: &#225;trio direito; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Sinal de McConell. Observam-se dilata&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito, hipocinesia de parede livre e preserva&#231;&#227;o da contratilidade apical. A: di&#225;stole; B: s&#237;stole; C: strain longitudinal do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD); ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE); &#225;trio direito (AD); e &#225;trio esquerdo (AE).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf06.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Perfil hemodin&#226;mico do fluxo da via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo direito (VSVD) causada pelo aumento do p&#243;s-carga do VD: redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de acelera&#231;&#227;o e presen&#231;a de desacelera&#231;&#227;o mesossist&#243;lica (notch &#8211; seta branca).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf07.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Pacientes com embolia pulmonar tamb&#233;m podem apresentar excurs&#227;o sist&#243;lica do plano do anel tric&#250;spide (Tapse) reduzido. <sup><xref rid="B58" ref-type="bibr">58</xref> , <xref rid="B59" ref-type="bibr">59</xref> </sup> O <italic>Doppler</italic> tecidual e o <italic>strain</italic> parietal do VD apresentam baixa sensibilidade como achados isolados nos pacientes com TEP agudo. <sup><xref rid="B60" ref-type="bibr">60</xref> , <xref rid="B61" ref-type="bibr">61</xref> </sup> Nos pacientes com suspeita de TEP agudo, mas que apresentem espessura aumentada da parede livre de VD ou velocidades do jato regurgitante valvar tric&#250;spide acima &gt;3,8 m/s, ou gradiente de pico sist&#243;lico valvar tric&#250;spide &gt;60 mmHg, devemos incluir diagn&#243;stico diferencial com hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar trombemb&#243;lica cr&#244;nica. <sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> , <xref rid="B62" ref-type="bibr">62</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>O ecocardiograma 3D pode ser utilizado em laborat&#243;rios com experi&#234;ncia na t&#233;cnica, para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da an&#225;lise evolutiva dos pacientes com TEP maci&#231;o e submetidos a tromb&#243;lise. Nas <xref rid="f05" ref-type="fig">Figuras 5</xref> e <xref rid="f06" ref-type="fig">6</xref> , est&#225; exemplificado um caso de TEP maci&#231;o, com importante repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, tratado com trombol&#237;tico, evoluindo para um Quadro de melhora da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VD e redu&#231;&#227;o significativa dos volumes cavit&#225;rios direitos.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f05">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise evolutiva ao eco 3D do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD), com medida dos volumes diast&#243;lico final (VDFVD), sist&#243;lico final (VSFVD) e de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (FEVD). Paciente com trombembolismo pulmonar submaci&#231;o em 3 momentos: A: pr&#233;-tromb&#243;lise (VDFVD = 165mL, VSFVD = 115mL, FEVD = 30%); B: segundo dia p&#243;s-tromb&#243;lise (VDFVD = 137mL, VSFVD = 82mL, FEVD = 40%); C: quinto dia p&#243;s-tromb&#243;lise (VDFVD = 113mL, VSFVD = 62mL, FEVD = 47,8%).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf08.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f06">
          <label>Figura 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; An&#225;lise evolutiva do strain longitudinal da parede livre do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) em valores absolutos e 3 momentos: A: pr&#233;-tromb&#243;lise; B: segundo dia p&#243;s-tromb&#243;lise; C: quinto dia p&#243;s-tromb&#243;lise com valores de strain normalizados.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf09.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>No in&#237;cio de 2020, a pandemia do novo coronav&#237;rus (covid-19) acrescentou um novo e crucial papel para a ecocardiografia. At&#233; o momento, os achados registrados em publica&#231;&#245;es indicam que o v&#237;rus causa aumento significativo no risco de trombose venosa (traduzida por eleva&#231;&#227;o do D-d&#237;mero) e, consequentemente, da ocorr&#234;ncia de TEP. Por outro lado, parece provocar trombose local em vasos da microcircula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar, gerando sobrecarga press&#243;rica sobre o ventr&#237;culo direito. Ambos os fatores podem resultar em dilata&#231;&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o de VD, mensurados por v&#225;rios par&#226;metros, como citado no <xref rid="t9" ref-type="table">Quadro 8</xref> . Esses pacientes evoluem com insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria aguda, exigindo ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica invasiva sob press&#227;o positiva, o que tamb&#233;m contribui para o aumento de p&#243;s-carga ao VD. Nesses pacientes, as altera&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas s&#227;o muito semelhantes (dilata&#231;&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o de VD com hipertens&#227;o pulmonar), e nem sempre &#233; poss&#237;vel diferenciar a causa preponderante. Em publica&#231;&#227;o recente de uma coorte multinacional de 870 pacientes em interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar por covid-19, o <italic>strain</italic> da parede livre do VD foi um marcador progn&#243;stico independente de mortalidade sem a an&#225;lise de outros par&#226;metros como Tapse e S&#8217; do anel tric&#250;spide. <sup><xref rid="B63" ref-type="bibr">63</xref></sup> Al&#233;m do <italic>strain</italic> do VD, a dilata&#231;&#227;o dele foi um marcador progn&#243;stico de pacientes com a forma grave da doen&#231;a. <sup><xref rid="B64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref></sup> Concluindo, o papel da ecocardiografia nesse cen&#225;rio &#233; fundamental, n&#227;o s&#243; do exame completo como tamb&#233;m do ecocardiograma focado ( <italic>point of care</italic> ), recentemente abordado pelo posicionamento do DIC/SBC. <sup><xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t9">
          <label>Quadro 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Sum&#225;rio de altera&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas no tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP) agudo</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>PAR&#194;METROS</th>
                <th>ALTERA&#199;&#195;O ECOCARDIOGRAMA</th>
                <th>IMAGEM</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Dimens&#245;es da cavidade ventricular direita</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Eco 2D: di&#226;metro linear basal &gt; 4,2 cm e longitudinal &gt; 8,1 cm.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Eco 3D: volume diast&#243;lico final &gt; 87 ml/m <sup>2</sup> em homens e 74 mL/m <sup>2</sup> em mulheres; volume sist&#243;lico final &gt; 44 mL/m <sup>2</sup> em homens e 36 mL/m <sup>2</sup> em mulheres.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rela&#231;&#227;o de dimens&#245;es VD/VE &gt; 1,0</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/5576fe0a50c246a31b63f7139c4b360f8680b50f.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/c51729ab9980b60b98b98cbfb7b805b2b8faf032.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VD</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Hipocinesia ou acinesia de paredes.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>FAC &lt; 35%.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>TAPSE &lt; 17 mm.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><italic>Doppler</italic> tecidual: onda S&#8217; &lt; 9,5 cm/s.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>&#8220; <italic>Strain</italic> &#8221; longitudinal de parede livre acima de -20% (&lt; 20% em valor absoluto).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Eco 3D: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o &lt; 45%.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/dc8a74e7a7f703b97dbfed1262c9a3f1748d443b.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/e1121b2d358d9bc2f2d21c08b1797eef9ee00c4e.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Septo interventricular</td>
                <td align="center">Retifica&#231;&#227;o ou deslocamento para esquerda devido &#224; sobrecarga press&#243;rica em VD.</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/fa285fffa91a9e367f04c070a917de3e7317f25f.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/8796bbe274de74834ce4a55d3a2faf6a840f697d.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Di&#226;metro do tronco de art&#233;ria pulmonar</td>
                <td align="center">Dilata&#231;&#227;o (acima 3,0 cm di&#226;metro).</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/a2ab5d1515ce7196b5124ab3746ac1567d470c7f.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/cdc2d1328c743e2812a720a10aed9d2856d3e3c8.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Refluxo tric&#250;spide</td>
                <td align="center">Aumento do refluxo tric&#250;spide devido ao aumento da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica em art&#233;ria pulmonar.</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/9155d098db13c510a9dee82d92fd1abe672259f2.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b76262ea36bdb53b35057e7ebd9c57cd9427b41d.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#8220;Sinal de 60/60&#8221;</td>
                <td align="center">TAC do fluxo pulmonar &lt; 60ms com entalhe mesossist&#243;lico + gradiente de pico sist&#243;lico da regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide &lt; 60 mmHg.</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b4b7fcd7f1c35a95fa71ba803a6bb0b69c3b489d.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/47417d028ccee2be93b886505e8546667b8ef557.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#8220;Sinal de McConell&#8221;</td>
                <td align="center">Hipocinesia ou acinesia de segmentos basal e m&#233;dio de parede livre do VD e contratilidade preservada do segmento apical.</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b886095907387e710e93b9ff52abdf55fc464b99.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/796cb5207cac83b26b0b53b90e899de378549dbc.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cava inferior</td>
                <td align="center">&#8220;&#205;ndice de colapsabilidade&#8221; &lt; 50% durante a inspira&#231;&#227;o.</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/5adfe88d17c59c46ab657f4359eff8997c788652.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/721f0449680b70cf1460ae6742cbf17e546aa30f.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Trombo intracavit&#225;rio</td>
                <td align="center">&#218;nico achado patognom&#244;nico [presente em cavidades direitas e/ou tronco (ou ramos) de art&#233;ria pulmonar em apenas 4% dos casos].</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <alternatives>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/d2e224a4ba6b7352dfc100f6faac591be619cf04.tif"/>
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/1ba7335847b3fdbe66581c3c8fc3cf507407df96.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                  </alternatives>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2.4. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>O ecocardiograma a beira do leito &#233; exame obrigat&#243;rio em todo paciente com suspeita cl&#237;nica de TEP e instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica. <sup><xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref> , <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref> , <xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref> </sup> (classe I/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia C).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>O ecocardiograma n&#227;o &#233; exame obrigat&#243;rio na rotina diagn&#243;stica em paciente com suspeita de TEP e hemodinamicamente est&#225;vel, nos algoritmos de investiga&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref> ,</sup> <sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> - <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref> </sup> No entanto, representa uma importante ferramenta para discrimina&#231;&#227;o e defini&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico diferencial. <sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> - <xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref> </sup> (classe IIa/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B).</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Ultrassonografia Vascular no Diagn&#243;stico da Trombose Venosa Profunda</title>
      <sec>
        <title>3.1. Sinais Ultrassonogr&#225;ficos da Trombose Venosa: Modo B e <italic>Doppler</italic> </title>
        <p>A trombose venosa profunda (TVP) &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o que deve ser diagnosticada e tratada adequadamente, podendo levar ao tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP), situa&#231;&#227;o potencialmente fatal. <sup><xref rid="B66" ref-type="bibr">66</xref></sup> Os trombos originam-se dentro do sistema venoso, muitas vezes em uma &#225;rea de fluxo mais lento, como a c&#250;spide de uma v&#225;lvula, propagando-se ao longo do l&#250;men da veia, que &#233; preenchido do modo parcial ou total pelo trombo. Na fase aguda, os trombos induzem uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria na parede venosa adjacente; dessa maneira, o termo tromboflebite &#233; aplicado, com sintomas de c&#226;imbras e dor local. <sup><xref rid="B67" ref-type="bibr">67</xref></sup> Muitos fatores podem iniciar a trombose venosa: no caso de cateteres venosos, o traumatismo da parede inicia a resposta inflamat&#243;ria que leva a trombose dentro do l&#250;men venoso. <sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref> </sup> Entretanto, os sinais cl&#237;nicos da TVP muitas vezes podem ser inespec&#237;ficos; portanto, a anamnese, o exame f&#237;sico e o conhecimento dos principais fatores que se relacionam com o processo tromb&#243;tico s&#227;o fundamentais. <sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> , <xref rid="B70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref> </sup> </p>
        <p>Os fatores de risco para trombose venosa podem ser agrupados em modelos de predi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, sendo o escore de Wells um m&#233;todo bem estabelecido pelo qual se pode acessar a probabilidade cl&#237;nica do diagn&#243;stico da TVP. Uma vez que o diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico da TVP possa estar correto em apenas 50% dos casos, exames complementares s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para confirmar ou excluir o diagn&#243;stico. <sup><xref rid="B70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref></sup> De modo geral, a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com suspeita de TVP passa por estratifica&#231;&#227;o, escore cl&#237;nico, dosagem do D-d&#237;mero e realiza&#231;&#227;o da ultrassonografia vascular (USV). <sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> </p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1.1. Metodologia de Realiza&#231;&#227;o do Exame &#8211; Aspectos T&#233;cnicos</title>
          <p>A USV &#233; o exame de escolha na suspeita de TVP, e fornece informa&#231;&#245;es da anatomia e funcionalidade venosa. N&#227;o &#233; um procedimento invasivo, n&#227;o usa contraste nefrot&#243;xico e &#233; reprodut&#237;vel e de baixo custo, mas &#233; examinador e depende de equipamento. <sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup> Dessa forma, analisamos as imagens da parede e do l&#250;men venoso em tempo real no modo bidimensional (modo B), realizando as manobras de compress&#227;o com o transdutor e o estudo do mapeamento de fluxo em cores (MFC), <italic>Doppler</italic> pulsado e <italic>Power Doppler</italic> . <sup><xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>Como publicado recentemente pelo Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular, <sup><xref rid="B73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref></sup> a t&#233;cnica para realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame de pesquisa de TVP inclui os seguintes itens.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>a) Posicionamento do paciente:</title>
          <p>Para membros inferiores, o paciente deve ser posicionado em dec&#250;bito dorsal, com o tronco e cabe&#231;a elevados at&#233; 30&#176;, posi&#231;&#227;o confort&#225;vel, pr&#243;ximo da borda do leito, do mesmo lado do examinador e fazendo uma leve rota&#231;&#227;o lateral da articula&#231;&#227;o coxofemoral e flex&#227;o do joelho. Para o exame das veias femorais comum e femoral superficial, e tibiais posteriores, o paciente deve manter a perna em rota&#231;&#227;o externa e o joelho levemente fletido. Para o exame da veia popl&#237;tea e das veias fibulares (peroneiras), o paciente pode ficar em dec&#250;bito ventral ou lateral, apoiado no membro contralateral e com o joelho levemente fletido. Neste &#250;ltimo caso, se houver condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, o paciente pode permanecer sentado, com as pernas pendentes ao lado da cama. <sup><xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref></sup> Para o exame das tibiais posteriores, fibulares e musculares da panturrilha, eventualmente podemos manter o paciente em dec&#250;bito dorsal e a perna dobrada com o p&#233; apoiado na cama. Por outro lado, o estudo das veias cavas e il&#237;acas &#233; realizado com o paciente em dec&#250;bito dorsal, lembrando-se da necessidade de preparo pr&#233;vio para diminui&#231;&#227;o dos gases intestinais. Na suspeita de s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica, o paciente, quando poss&#237;vel, deve ser examinado tamb&#233;m em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, e para membros superiores, deve ser posicionado em dec&#250;bito dorsal, com o membro estendido paralelamente ao corpo e discretamente afastado dele.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>b) Ajustes do aparelho de US:</title>
          <p>Deve-se trabalhar com equipamentos capazes de fornecer uma boa qualidade de imagem em modo B e que sejam dotados de <italic>Dopplers</italic> espectral e colorido. A escolha do transdutor baseia-se primordialmente na rela&#231;&#227;o frequ&#234;ncia do transdutor e da localiza&#231;&#227;o do objeto a ser estudado. Transdutores de maior frequ&#234;ncia fornecem melhor qualidade de imagem, por&#233;m t&#234;m menor penetra&#231;&#227;o nos tecidos. Em contrapartida, os transdutores de menor frequ&#234;ncia permitem uma maior penetra&#231;&#227;o, ainda que ocorra perda de qualidade da imagem. Habitualmente, s&#227;o utilizados transdutores lineares com frequ&#234;ncia entre 4 a 10 MHz para estudo das veias profundas dos membros inferiores ou superiores, e transdutores lineares com frequ&#234;ncia entre 7 a 13 MHz para estudo das veias superficiais dos membros inferiores ou superiores. Nos casos de membros inferiores edemaciados e em pacientes obesos, ou seja, com di&#226;metros muito aumentados e, tamb&#233;m, para a avalia&#231;&#227;o das veias il&#237;acas e da veia cava inferior, por vezes torna-se necess&#225;rio a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de transdutores convexos multifrequenciais (entre 1 a 5 Mhz), os quais exibem frequ&#234;ncias de onda menores e maior penetra&#231;&#227;o das ondas de ultrassom. Os <italic>presets</italic> devem ser adequadamente calibrados para o exame do sistema profundo e superficial, com zona focal ajustada e escala de cinza, de modo que o l&#250;men seja escuro na aus&#234;ncia de estase ou trombose. O ganho do <italic>Doppler</italic> , seja colorido ou espectral, deve ser ajustado para uma escala de velocidades baixas e adequada na avalia&#231;&#227;o do fluxo venoso. Quando o exame se direciona &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o das veias profundas, os equipamentos de USV devem ser ajustados com foco e densidade de linha adequados para o exame bidimensional e as estruturas s&#227;o avaliadas em cortes transversos e longitudinais. <sup><xref rid="B73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref></sup> Em geral, as veias s&#227;o facilmente compress&#237;veis pelo transdutor. <sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup> </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>c) Sequ&#234;ncia do exame:</title>
          <p><bold>Modo B:</bold> inicialmente, o transdutor &#233; posicionado abaixo do ligamento inguinal, visualizando-se a jun&#231;&#227;o safenofemoral. Faz-se, ent&#227;o, uma varredura transversa e longitudinal de todo o sistema venoso do membro inferior. No corte transverso, deve ser realizada a compress&#227;o com o transdutor, em especial ao longo da veia femoral comum, da veia femoral e da veia popl&#237;tea, com dist&#226;ncias entre cada compress&#227;o em torno de 2 a 3 cm. A t&#233;cnica de uso da USV para diagn&#243;stico da TVP foi inicialmente descrita por Talbot em 1982, e vem sendo aprimorada ao longo dos anos. <sup><xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">75</xref></sup> Uma veia normal e sem trombose demonstra completo colabamento luminal pela compress&#227;o de suas paredes pelo transdutor ( <xref rid="f07" ref-type="fig">Figuras 7</xref> e <xref rid="f08" ref-type="fig">8</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f07">
              <label>Figura 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; A-E: Esquema de avalia&#231;&#227;o da compressibilidade venosa pelo transdutor do ultrassom utilizado na pesquisa de trombose venosa. A: art&#233;ria e veia sem compress&#227;o pelo transdutor. B: veia normal com compress&#227;o total. C: veia dilatada e incompress&#237;vel, com trombo de aspecto agudo/recente. D: veia de calibre normal a reduzido, pouco compress&#237;vel pela manobra com o transdutor e compat&#237;vel com achados de trombose venosa antiga/cr&#244;nica. E: recorr&#234;ncia de trombose.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf10.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f08">
              <label>Figura 8</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Corte ultrassonogr&#225;fico transversal da art&#233;ria e veia femoral comum para teste de compressibilidade venosa.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf11.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>As figuras demonstram a compressibilidade completa da veia femoral comum ao modo B (superiores) e com mapeamento de fluxo em cores (inferiores). A = art&#233;ria, V = veia.</p>
          <p><bold><italic>Doppler</italic>: </bold> Objetiva-se registrar as velocidades do fluxo venoso, que s&#227;o baixas em condi&#231;&#245;es normais ao <italic>Doppler</italic> pulsado. Na presen&#231;a de trombose venosa, as velocidades podem estar ainda mais reduzidas, necessitando de ajustes em suas escalas. O fluxo venoso nos membros inferiores &#233; espont&#226;neo e apresenta-se f&#225;sico com a respira&#231;&#227;o e as varia&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o intra-abdominal ( <xref rid="f09" ref-type="fig">Figura 9</xref> ). Na fase inspirat&#243;ria, as velocidades diminuem por conta da eleva&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o intra-abdominal; por outro lado, a manobra de compress&#227;o distal (compress&#227;o da panturrilha, p. ex.) demonstra um pico de fluxo na veia interrogada quando esta se encontra patente. Em alguns casos, a detec&#231;&#227;o adequada do fluxo s&#243; &#233; poss&#237;vel atrav&#233;s do uso do <italic>Power Doppler</italic> , que, apesar de n&#227;o demonstrar sua dire&#231;&#227;o, consegue detectar fluxos de velocidade muito baixos.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f09">
              <label>Figura 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Doppler pulsado em veia femoral comum demonstrando fluxo normal, f&#225;sico com os movimentos respirat&#243;rios e compat&#237;vel com aus&#234;ncia de trombose oclusiva.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf12.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>d) Altera&#231;&#245;es ao modo B, <italic>Doppler</italic> colorido e espectral no diagn&#243;stico da TVP aguda/recente:</title>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico ultrassonogr&#225;fico da TVP aguda/recente baseia-se na altera&#231;&#227;o da compress&#227;o com o transdutor, total ou parcial da veia acometida, bem como a dilata&#231;&#227;o se d&#225; pela presen&#231;a de material tromb&#243;tico intraluminal. A altera&#231;&#227;o na compressibilidade da veia, mesmo diante de um Quadro muito recente de TVP, talvez seja o achado mais importante para o diagn&#243;stico de trombose venosa. A presen&#231;a de trombo s&#243; pode ser exclu&#237;da quando, ap&#243;s a compress&#227;o, ocorrer o desaparecimento total do l&#250;men venoso. Caso isso n&#227;o aconte&#231;a completamente, o l&#250;men pode estar parcialmente preenchido com trombos. Para tal procedimento de compress&#227;o, &#233; adequado que seja observada a art&#233;ria adjacente.</p>
          <p>Na maioria das vezes, as veias recentemente trombosadas apresentam-se distendidas, com di&#226;metros maiores que os vasos arteriais adjacentes. Essa distens&#227;o venosa tamb&#233;m &#233; importante na diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre trombos agudos e antigos. Quando o trombo &#233; oclusivo, h&#225; dilata&#231;&#227;o venosa e aus&#234;ncia de fluxo detect&#225;vel tanto ao <italic>Doppler</italic> pulsado quanto ao MFC e ao <italic>Power Doppler</italic> &#8211; <xref rid="f10" ref-type="fig">Figura 10 A</xref> e <xref rid="f10" ref-type="fig">B</xref> . A dilata&#231;&#227;o venosa j&#225; foi descrita como um par&#226;metro acurado para identificar a TVP aguda. <sup><xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">76</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f10">
              <label>Figura 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Trombose oclusiva e n&#227;o oclusiva de aspecto agudo ao ultrassom. A: corte transversal da veia femoral comum; B: veias fibulares evidenciando dilata&#231;&#227;o e incompressibilidade sem evid&#234;ncias de fluxo ao mapeamento de fluxo em cores e ao Power Doppler; C: corte longitudinal da veia femoral comum com e sem mapeamento de fluxo em cores evidenciando trombo flutuante de aspecto recente e n&#227;o oclusivo.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf13.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Primariamente, o trombo agudo &#233; composto por uma densa malha de fibrina, que persiste por aproximadamente 5 a 7 dias. Nessa fase, o trombo &#233; mais ecolucente ou tem ecogenicidade intermedi&#225;ria, com brilho menor que os tecidos adjacentes. O diagn&#243;stico do trombo agudo/recente &#233; importante, pois em tal fase pode ser melhor tratado com terapia anticoagulante e fibrinol&#237;tica. Em geral, considera-se a trombose venosa como aguda nas primeiras 2 semanas de seu in&#237;cio. <sup><xref rid="B77" ref-type="bibr">77</xref></sup> Muitas vezes, na extremidade de um trombo agudo, forma-se um co&#225;gulo mais recente e que flutua livre dentro da veia. Nesses casos, conv&#233;m maior cautela para evitar o deslocamento dele, requerendo uma menor manipula&#231;&#227;o do paciente ( <xref rid="f10" ref-type="fig">Figura 10 A-C</xref> ). Adicionalmente, devem ser avaliados, al&#233;m da compressibilidade venosa, o aspecto da parede venosa (paredes finas e lisas costumam estar presentes na TVP aguda), o tamanho do l&#250;men da veia, a funcionalidade das v&#225;lvulas e a presen&#231;a de circula&#231;&#227;o colateral.</p>
          <p>Quanto ao fluxo, dependendo do grau de obstru&#231;&#227;o total ou parcial do l&#250;men venoso, pode estar diminu&#237;do ou ausente, com aus&#234;ncia de varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria. Entretanto, um l&#250;men parcialmente obstru&#237;do pode n&#227;o alterar os sinais de fluxo ao <italic>Doppler</italic> .</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>e) Altera&#231;&#245;es ao modo B e <italic>Color Doppler</italic> no diagn&#243;stico da TVP clinicamente subaguda e na TVP cr&#244;nica/antiga: 11 </title>
          <p>Em geral, na avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da TVP, considera-se a trombose venosa como aguda nas primeiras 2 semanas do seu in&#237;cio; subaguda, entre 2 semanas e 6 meses; e cr&#244;nica, ap&#243;s 6 meses de evolu&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B78" ref-type="bibr">78</xref> </sup> Na evolu&#231;&#227;o da TVP, o trombo torna-se mais ecog&#234;nico; no entanto, como tal altera&#231;&#227;o &#233; vari&#225;vel, muitas vezes n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel estimar de maneira precisa sua idade apenas avaliando a ecogenicidade dele. Por essa raz&#227;o, quando encontramos um trombo anecoico ou hipoecoico, com poucos dias de evolu&#231;&#227;o, corrobora-se o diagn&#243;stico de trombose aguda. Por&#233;m, quando temos uma imagem intraluminal isoecoica ou hiperecoica, fica muito dif&#237;cil nesse intervalo estimar a idade do trombo com exatid&#227;o. Durante tal per&#237;odo, podem ocorrer lise ou retra&#231;&#227;o do trombo, com a veia menos distendida; por isso a import&#226;ncia do exame seriado. Com a retra&#231;&#227;o do trombo e sua lise, o fluxo pode ser reestabelecido n&#227;o necessariamente ao normal, e as paredes da veia tornam-se espessas ( <xref rid="f11" ref-type="fig">Figura 11</xref> ). <sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref> </sup> <underline>Desse modo, pela USV,</underline> nem sempre &#233; poss&#237;vel determinar a idade do trombo por sua apar&#234;ncia ou sua ecogenicidade. <sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f11">
              <label>Figura 11</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Altera&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas. A: veia femoral ao modo B sem dilata&#231;&#227;o, com imagem ecog&#234;nica luminal correspondendo a altera&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas; B: fluxo luminal reduzido ao Power Doppler; C: veias tibiais posteriores com paredes espessadas ao modo B; D: preenchimento parcial da luz do vaso das veias tibiais posteriores pelo Power Doppler.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf14.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Ap&#243;s a trombose aguda, caso o trombo n&#227;o desapare&#231;a por completo, ele se torna infiltrado por fibroblastos, se organiza e reendoteliza. A fibrose produz cicatrizes, espessamento das paredes e sin&#233;quias que podem causar obstru&#231;&#227;o parcial do vaso e permanecer por anos; esse material residual n&#227;o deve mais ser chamado de trombo. O espessamento da parede venosa &#233; um achado comum, o calibre pode estar reduzido e o fluxo apresenta-se alterado, dependendo do calibre venoso. Em alguns casos, cicatrizes fibr&#243;ticas p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas surgem com a evolu&#231;&#227;o do Quadro e produzem, ao longo da parede venosa, imagens semelhantes a placas, pois s&#227;o ecog&#234;nicas e eventualmente apresentam calcifica&#231;&#245;es com sombras ac&#250;sticas. A Sociedade Americana de Radiologistas sugeriu, em consenso publicado em 2018, que as imagens ultrassonogr&#225;ficas referentes a essas altera&#231;&#245;es, que persistem ap&#243;s o evento agudo da TVP, fossem denominadas &#8220;altera&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas&#8221;. Portanto, as anormalidades encontradas na TVP, identificadas &#224; ultrassonografia, deveriam ser classificadas, segundo esses autores, como: &#8220;trombose venosa aguda, altera&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas ou altera&#231;&#245;es indeterminadas&#8221;, estas &#250;ltimas, quando os achados s&#227;o duvidosos, e n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel, apenas pela USV, determinar a idade do trombo, como nos casos de TVP clinicamente subaguda. De acordo com essa recomenda&#231;&#227;o, alguns casos podem ser enquadrados em car&#225;ter experimental como trombose subaguda no laudo ultrassonogr&#225;fico como:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Diante de exame pr&#233;vio mostrando a TVP aguda;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Em estudo subsequente que mostre altera&#231;&#227;o da apar&#234;ncia do trombo. <sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Esses conceitos s&#227;o corroborados por recente publica&#231;&#227;o da SBACV. <sup><xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref></sup> Entretanto, em consenso, seus autores, com o receio de que o uso do termo &#8220;altera&#231;&#245;es indeterminadas&#8221; possa gerar confus&#227;o para o cl&#237;nico solicitante quanto &#224; necessidade de iniciar o tratamento ou n&#227;o, sugerem que o ultrassonografista vascular informe as caracter&#237;sticas da imagem de forma completa, analise a informa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tempo de ocorr&#234;ncia e d&#234; prefer&#234;ncia a concluir como &#8220;predomin&#226;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es agudas ou recentes&#8221; ou &#8220;predomin&#226;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas ou antigas&#8221;. Dessa forma, o termo indeterminado seria usado em poucas ocasi&#245;es, nas quais n&#227;o seja realmente poss&#237;vel avaliar o tempo do evento.</p>
          <p>A TVP pode acometer diversos segmentos venosos em conjunto ou isoladamente. Um exemplo &#233; a trombose de veias plantares, n&#227;o avaliada com frequ&#234;ncia. Deve-se buscar esse diagn&#243;stico quando h&#225; a presen&#231;a de dor aguda e/ou edema no p&#233;. Os aspectos ultrassonogr&#225;ficos da TVP plantar recentemente observados s&#227;o a dilata&#231;&#227;o venosa e a presen&#231;a do trombo luminal com redu&#231;&#227;o da compressibilidade venosa ( <xref rid="f12" ref-type="fig">Figura 12</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f12">
              <label>Figura 12</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Trombose venosa de veias plantares incompress&#237;veis e sem fluxo no mapeamento de fluxo a cores.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf15.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>O <xref rid="t15" ref-type="table">Quadro 9</xref> , adaptado de <italic>Gornik HL and Sharma AM</italic> , <sup><xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref></sup> demonstra as altera&#231;&#245;es ultrassonogr&#225;ficas que podem ser encontradas na TVP aguda/recente, cr&#244;nica/antiga ou de caracter&#237;sticas agudas ou cr&#244;nicas. Devemos sempre lembrar que, em alguns casos, h&#225; sobreposi&#231;&#227;o das caracter&#237;sticas ultrassonogr&#225;ficas, que devem ser relatadas como &#8220;idade indeterminada&#8221;.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t15">
              <label>Quadro 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas ultrassonogr&#225;ficas na trombose venosa profunda (TVP)</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Caracter&#237;stica</th>
                    <th>Aguda/Recente</th>
                    <th>Predom&#237;nio de trombo agudo ou Predom&#237;nio de trombo cr&#244;nico</th>
                    <th>P&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica Cr&#244;nica/Antiga</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ecogenicidade do trombo</td>
                    <td align="center">Hipoecoico ou isoecoico</td>
                    <td align="center">Vari&#225;vel (mais ecog&#234;nico que na TVP aguda)</td>
                    <td align="center">Hiperecoico</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Presen&#231;a de trombo m&#243;vel</td>
                    <td align="center">Pode estar presente</td>
                    <td align="center">Geralmente ausente</td>
                    <td align="center">Ausente</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ader&#234;ncia do trombo &#224; parede venosa</td>
                    <td align="center">Fracamente aderido</td>
                    <td align="center">Firmemente aderido</td>
                    <td align="center">Traves fibr&#243;ticas hiperecog&#234;nicas no l&#250;men ou na parede</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Apar&#234;ncia da parede venosa</td>
                    <td align="center">Vari&#225;vel</td>
                    <td align="center">Vari&#225;vel</td>
                    <td align="center">Paredes espessadas, cicatrizes. Pode haver dep&#243;sito de c&#225;lcio</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>L&#250;men venoso</td>
                    <td align="center">Dilatado</td>
                    <td align="center">Retraindo para o tamanho normal</td>
                    <td align="center">Menor que o tamanho normal</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Compresibilidade</td>
                    <td align="center">Pouco compress&#237;vel ou levemente deform&#225;vel</td>
                    <td align="center">Mais compress&#237;vel que o agudo</td>
                    <td align="center">Parcialmente compress&#237;vel</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Compressibilidade</td>
                    <td align="center">Geralmente ausente</td>
                    <td align="center">Pode estar presente</td>
                    <td align="center">Pode estar presente</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Fun&#231;&#227;o das v&#225;lvulas venosas</td>
                    <td align="center">Geralmente competentes</td>
                    <td align="center">Pode haver incompet&#234;ncia</td>
                    <td align="center">Geralmente incompetentes</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>O comprometimento da fasicidade respirat&#243;ria e a redu&#231;&#227;o na velocidade do fluxo em um vaso venoso de aspecto normal, com fluxo presente e compress&#237;vel, podem estar relacionados com o acometimento tromb&#243;tico em segmento venoso proximal ao vaso que est&#225; sendo avaliado ( <xref rid="f13" ref-type="fig">Figura 13</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f13">
              <label>Figura 13</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Trombose de veia il&#237;aca externa esquerda: compara&#231;&#227;o de fluxo nas veias femorais comuns esquerda e direita. A: veia il&#237;aca externa esquerda dilatada, com a luz preenchida por trombo de aspecto recente, sem fluxo ao mapeamento de fluxo a cores; B: fluxo cont&#237;nuo ao Doppler espectral em veia femoral comum esquerda, secund&#225;rio a trombose de veia il&#237;aca externa ipsolateral; C: fluxo f&#225;sico e normal na veia femoral comum contralateral.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf16.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3.2. Protocolos de Realiza&#231;&#227;o de USV na TVP</title>
      <p>O USV &#233; utilizado desde a d&#233;cada de 1960 para o diagn&#243;stico da trombose venosa e vem se aperfei&#231;oando ao longo do tempo com estudos sobre a medida do fluxo sangu&#237;neo venoso e a compressibilidade venosa. Como dito anteriormente, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da compressibilidade venosa em combina&#231;&#227;o com a cor e o <italic>Doppler</italic> espectral do fluxo &#233; a abordagem recomendada para a detec&#231;&#227;o do co&#225;gulo venoso. Isso se deve, em parte, &#224; disponibilidade, &#224; facilidade de implanta&#231;&#227;o em uma variedade de contextos cl&#237;nicos e &#224; sua acur&#225;cia.</p>
      <p>Desde os estudos de acur&#225;cia em pacientes sintom&#225;ticos e assintom&#225;ticos com suspeita de TVP supra ou infrageniculares, a USV &#233; o m&#233;todo de refer&#234;ncia para o diagn&#243;stico. <sup><xref rid="B82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref></sup> Atualmente, o US de compress&#227;o das veias dos membros inferiores substitui amplamente a venografia para diagnosticar TVP, pois apresenta sensibilidade acima de 90% e especificidade de cerca de 95% para o diagn&#243;stico de tromboses proximais. Nas tromboses distais, a sensibilidade do m&#233;todo cai para cerca de 65%, mas mant&#233;m especificidade acima de 90%. Em contrapartida, o ultrassom vascular completo, ou seja, a associa&#231;&#227;o de modo B e o <italic>Doppler</italic> de todas as veias, &#233; o exame de imagem de primeira linha para o diagn&#243;stico de TVP, com sensibilidade de 96% e especificidade de 98% a 100%. Entretanto, ele se mostra um exame demorado, que requer o transporte do paciente para o local de realiza&#231;&#227;o e a disponibilidade imediata de um especialista. <sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> , <xref rid="B83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref> , <xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr">84</xref> </sup> Al&#233;m disso, para um diagn&#243;stico acurado, o examinador deve estar familiarizado com as indica&#231;&#245;es e limita&#231;&#245;es do m&#233;todo. Lembramos que apenas 20% a 30% dos exames com suspeita de TVP s&#227;o alterados, e 90% dos pacientes com TEP fatal s&#227;o assintom&#225;ticos para TVP. <sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> , <xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref> </sup> As limita&#231;&#245;es na realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame e, consequentemente, sua acur&#225;cia, est&#227;o relacionadas com obesidade, restri&#231;&#227;o de mobilidade, edema importante, e/ou presen&#231;a de feridas, dispositivos ortop&#233;dicos, ataduras/gesso etc. Informa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas relevantes e um exame f&#237;sico focado s&#227;o elementos essenciais para ajudar na interpreta&#231;&#227;o de um exame de USV na pesquisa de TVP, e o adequado treinamento na realiza&#231;&#227;o dos protocolos de exames mostra-se fundamental. Apesar dessas limita&#231;&#245;es, a grande disponibilidade de aparelhos port&#225;teis, o f&#225;cil manejo e a inocuidade tornam essa ferramenta de extrema aplicabilidade na pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria. Al&#233;m disso, os avan&#231;os na miniaturiza&#231;&#227;o eletr&#244;nica resultaram no advento de dispositivos de exames de ultrassom de bolso equipados com transdutor de matriz linear, tornando o uso do US de compress&#227;o para o diagn&#243;stico de TVP ainda mais difundido. <sup><xref rid="B85" ref-type="bibr">85</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Seja qual o protocolo de exame escolhido, a sala de exame dever&#225; estar confortavelmente aquecida para evitar o venoespasmo. Para avaliar a veia cava inferior (VCI), o paciente dever&#225; estar em posi&#231;&#227;o de Trendelenburg reverso. <sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup> A <italic>Society for Vascular Ultrasound</italic> recomenda um tempo de aproximadamente 75 minutos para realizar um exame completo bilateral, com 40-60 minutos para fazer diretamente o exame e 15 minutos para an&#225;lise de dados cl&#237;nicos, consulta de exames pr&#233;vios e preparo da sala e do paciente. <sup><xref rid="B86" ref-type="bibr">86</xref></sup> </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3.3. Protocolos de Exame</title>
      <p>Com a maior disponibilidade de aparelhos de USV, que habitualmente apresentam &#243;tima resolu&#231;&#227;o, o treinamento de profissionais n&#227;o especialistas em imagem vem se tornando muito frequente e ganhando aceita&#231;&#227;o, sobretudo nos setores de emerg&#234;ncia e urg&#234;ncia ou ainda em locais distantes. Assim, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames para pesquisa de TVP por intensivistas, emergencistas e residentes do &#250;ltimo ano de radiologia/US/ecografistas vasculares &#233; uma realidade atual. A acur&#225;cia do exame de US realizado por emergencistas foi testada em uma metan&#225;lise e revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica que incluiu 16 estudos com 2.379 pacientes. Os autores encontraram uma preval&#234;ncia em TVP de 23% (7,4% &#8211; 47,3%), com sensibilidade m&#233;dia dos exames realizados por emergencistas de 96,1 % (95% IC; 90,6 &#8211; 98,5%) e uma especificidade de 96,8 % (95% IC; 94,6 &#8211; 98,1%). Entretanto, os estudos inclu&#237;dos eram muito heterog&#234;neos, os treinamentos dos emergencistas foram mal descritos e n&#227;o havia, na maioria deles, um seguimento maior. Um estudo prospectivo publicado no mesmo ano e com um n&#250;mero muito menor de pacientes n&#227;o reproduziu esses dados, o que refletiu a necessidade de protocolos de treinamento rigorosos desses profissionais, visto que, nesse estudo, apenas os tr&#234;s primeiros exames realizados por n&#227;o especialistas foram supervisionados. <sup><xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr">84</xref> , <xref rid="B87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref> </sup> Muitos dos protocolos realizados por n&#227;o especialistas em imagens vasculares foram desenvolvidos para locais em que n&#227;o h&#225; disponibilidade de profissional especializado ou mesmo para reduzir o n&#250;mero de chamadas fora do hor&#225;rio de funcionamento habitual do laborat&#243;rio de USV. Assim, apenas um protocolo de simples realiza&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para afastar definitivamente a TVP. Al&#233;m do adequado treinamento sob supervis&#227;o, mostra-se fundamental a an&#225;lise da probabilidade pr&#233;-teste associada, ou seja, o uso de escores cl&#237;nicos de probabilidade de TEP/TVP e o conhecimento da menor acur&#225;cia da USV no diagn&#243;stico da TVP infragenicular e na TVP assintom&#225;tica. Nas publica&#231;&#245;es que avaliaram esse tema, n&#227;o houve preju&#237;zo maior para o paciente, e o seguimento de protocolos bem estruturados, contemplando os crit&#233;rios de probabilidade cl&#237;nica de Wells, ajudou na melhora da acur&#225;cia do exame e no encaminhamento adequado dos pacientes com dif&#237;cil acesso ao especialista. <sup><xref rid="B82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref> , <xref rid="B88" ref-type="bibr">88</xref> - <xref rid="B90" ref-type="bibr">90</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>Para a pesquisa de trombose venosa pelo USV, conv&#233;m analisar os par&#226;metros descritos, ou seja, a combina&#231;&#227;o de componentes da escala de cinza (modo B) com manobras de compress&#227;o pelo transdutor e avalia&#231;&#227;o pelo mapeamento de fluxo em cores e <italic>Doppler</italic> espectral. Os protocolos de exames v&#227;o usar esses par&#226;metros para chegar ao diagn&#243;stico: compressibilidade da veia (o mais importante); calibre (di&#226;metro) da veia, aspecto ecogr&#225;fico das paredes e do l&#250;men venoso, e a an&#225;lise do mapeamento de fluxo em cores e do <italic>Doppler</italic> espectral.</p>
      <p>Existem alguns protocolos de pesquisa de TVP bastante estabelecidos, que podem ser completos ou n&#227;o ( <italic>Point of Care</italic> ). Eles s&#227;o escolhidos conforme a disponibilidade de aparelho de US no local em que o paciente &#233; atendido, do hor&#225;rio do atendimento e da presen&#231;a de m&#233;dico especialista ou n&#227;o para realizar o exame de USV.</p>
      <p>Protocolos para pesquisa de TVP ( <xref rid="f14" ref-type="fig">Figuras 14</xref> e <xref rid="f15" ref-type="fig">15</xref> ):</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f14">
          <label>Figura 14</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Protocolo de exame completo de ecografia vascular das veias do membro inferior para o diagn&#243;stico de TVP. A: desenho esquem&#225;tico dos pontos de compress&#227;o em todo sistema venoso suprapatelar, e avalia&#231;&#227;o pelo mapeamento de fluxo em cores e Doppler pulsado do segmento femoral; B: desenho esquem&#225;tico da compress&#227;o e avalia&#231;&#227;o pelo mapeamento de fluxo em cores e Doppler pulsado do segmento popl&#237;teo; C: desenho esquem&#225;tico de compress&#227;o e avalia&#231;&#227;o pelo mapeamento de fluxo em cores do segmento distal.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf17.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f15">
          <label>Figura 15</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; A: protocolo de exame de ultrassom de compress&#227;o completo das veias dos membros inferiores; B: protocolo de exame de ultrassom de compress&#227;o estendido (3 pontos); C: protocolo de exame de ultrassom de compress&#227;o (2 pontos)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf18.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Exame completo de ultrassonografia vascular &#8211; <xref rid="f14" ref-type="fig">Figura 14A-C</xref> .</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Exame de ultrassom de compress&#227;o completo das veias dos membros inferiores &#8211; <xref rid="f15" ref-type="fig">Figura 15A</xref> .</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Exame de ultrassom de compress&#227;o estendido (3 pontos) &#8211; <xref rid="f15" ref-type="fig">Figura 15B</xref> .</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Exame de ultrassom de compress&#227;o de 2 pontos &#8211; <xref rid="f15" ref-type="fig">Figura 15C</xref> .</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3.1. Exame Completo de USV</title>
        <p>Recentemente, a Sociedade Americana de Radiologia e a Sociedade Brasileira de Angiologia e Cirurgia Vascular recomendaram (classe I/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia A) a realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame completo de ecografia vascular para o diagn&#243;stico de TVP aguda. Al&#233;m de ser uma abordagem mais completa do paciente, a inclus&#227;o do exame do segmento infrapopl&#237;teo permite o diagn&#243;stico de outras doen&#231;as musculosquel&#233;ticas, que fazem parte do diagn&#243;stico diferencial da TVP, como cisto de Baker, hematomas ou doen&#231;as musculares. <sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref> , <xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref> </sup> O protocolo completo constitui na utiliza&#231;&#227;o de todos os recursos do US para definir o diagn&#243;stico da trombose, ou seja, avalia&#231;&#227;o da compressibilidade, calibre, aspecto ecogr&#225;fico da parede e l&#250;men e <italic>Doppler</italic> colorido e espectral de todas as veias infrainguinais at&#233; o tornozelo, em todos os segmentos: veias femorais, popl&#237;tea, tibiais posteriores e fibulares ( <xref rid="f04" ref-type="fig">Figura 14A-C</xref> ). De modo geral, a pesquisa de trombose venosa nas veias tibiais anteriores n&#227;o est&#225; inclu&#237;da nesse protocolo, por conta da raridade de seu comprometimento, sendo avaliada quando h&#225; sinais e/ou sintomas em seus trajetos. O sistema venoso superficial e muscular deve ser avaliado especialmente nas &#225;reas sintom&#225;ticas.</p>
        <p>Realiza-se o exame com compress&#245;es a cada 2 cm de intervalo, an&#225;lise do preenchimento do vaso pelo <italic>Doppler</italic> colorido (usando ajustes de escalas necess&#225;rios), observa&#231;&#227;o da fasicidade do fluxo e an&#225;lise da morfologia do <italic>Doppler</italic> espectral em veias femorais e popl&#237;teas. Ainda que seja realizado de forma completa apenas o exame do membro sintom&#225;tico, &#233; relevante lembrar que a an&#225;lise do <italic>Doppler</italic> espectral dever&#225; ser feita em ambas as veias femorais comuns para avaliar a simetria. Quando houver assimetria no padr&#227;o do fluxo, h&#225; a necessidade de estudar as veias intrabdominais (classe I/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia A). <sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref> - <xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref> </sup> </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3.2. Exame de Ultrassom de Compress&#227;o Completo das Veias dos Membros Inferiores</title>
        <p>Desde o ano de 1982, Steve Talbot descreveu a t&#233;cnica de compress&#227;o que se tornou o exame padr&#227;o no diagn&#243;stico de TVP. <sup><xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">75</xref></sup> Esse protocolo utiliza apenas a avalia&#231;&#227;o da compressibilidade de todas as veias infrainguinais at&#233; o tornozelo, em todos os segmentos ( <xref rid="f15" ref-type="fig">Figura 15A</xref> ). Como mencionado anteriormente, a perda da compressibilidade da veia &#233; o indicador mais confi&#225;vel de presen&#231;a de trombo.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3.3. Exame de ultrassom de compress&#227;o estendido (3 pontos)</title>
        <p>Nesse protocolo de exame, apenas a compressibilidade &#233; avaliada da veia femoral comum at&#233; a veia popl&#237;tea, onde h&#225; a conflu&#234;ncia das veias da perna. Ele tamb&#233;m &#233; chamado de protocolo de 3 pontos, visto que avalia a compressibilidade de todas as veias proximais do membro inferior investigado ( <xref rid="f15" ref-type="fig">Figura 15B</xref> ). A sensibilidade apurada nesse protocolo de exame foi significativamente maior do que no protocolo de compress&#227;o de 2 pontos (90,57% <italic>vs.</italic> 82,76%) com a mesma especificidade (98,52%). <sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref></sup> Um resultado bastante semelhante foi obtido em um estudo de acur&#225;cia do protocolo de 3 pontos realizado por m&#233;dicos emergencistas (91,7% de acur&#225;cia; 95% IC; 85-95,6%). <sup><xref rid="B96" ref-type="bibr">96</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise recente, que incluiu 17 estudos de 16 artigos originais, comparou o protocolo de Pocus ( <italic>Point of Care UltraSound</italic> ) de 3 pontos com o de 2 pontos. No geral, o Pocus de 2 pontos apresentou sensibilidade combinada [0,91; IC 95%, 0,68-0,98; P = 0,86) e especificidade (0,98; IC 95%, 0,96-0,99; P = 0,60) semelhantes com o Pocus de 3 pontos (sensibilidade 0,90; IC 95% 0,83-0,95 e especificidade, 0,95; IC 95%, 0,83 -0,99). As taxas de falso-negativos do Pocus 2 pontos (4,0%) e 3 pontos (4,1%) foram quase semelhantes. A an&#225;lise de metarregress&#227;o mostrou que alta sensibilidade e especificidade tendem a estar associadas ao executante inicial do Pocus e ao treinamento separado do Pocus para TVP. <sup><xref rid="B97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref></sup> (classe II / n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia A).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3.4. Exame de Ultrassom de Compress&#227;o de 2 Pontos</title>
        <p>Nesse protocolo de exame, &#233; avaliada a compressibilidade em apenas 2 locais: na veia femoral comum 1-2 cm acima e abaixo da jun&#231;&#227;o safenofemoral (na virilha); e na veia popl&#237;tea at&#233; onde houver a conflu&#234;ncia das veias da perna ( <xref rid="f15" ref-type="fig">Figura 15C</xref> ).</p>
        <p>De modo geral, os m&#233;dicos emergencistas conseguem realizar esse protocolo ap&#243;s treinamento, com boa reprodutibilidade, e v&#225;rios s&#227;o os m&#233;todos deste protocolo de pesquisa de TVP no cen&#225;rio da emerg&#234;ncia. A maioria dos treinamentos inclui aulas te&#243;ricas sobre a t&#233;cnica de realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame, treinamento em modelos e observa&#231;&#227;o de um n&#250;mero vari&#225;vel de exames. Entretanto, existem estudos que citam treinamentos de apenas 10 minutos ou menos de duas horas. Essa grande diferen&#231;a entre os protocolos dificulta a compara&#231;&#227;o entre os estudos e, consequentemente, a acur&#225;cia. <sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref> - <xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">100</xref> </sup> Os m&#233;dicos de emerg&#234;ncia podem obter um n&#237;vel de compet&#234;ncia equivalente ao dos especialistas, mas esse processo requer treinamento e pr&#225;tica substanciais para alcan&#231;arem e manterem esse desempenho. Para chegarem a esse n&#237;vel de excel&#234;ncia, precisam de treinamento regular com aplica&#231;&#245;es de ultrassom.</p>
        <p>Um estudo comparativo entre procedimentos de 2 pontos, realizado por m&#233;dicos emergencistas experientes com o exame completo, mostrou que, em 2.451 pacientes avaliados, 362 deles apresentavam TVP. O US de 2 pontos deixaria de diagnosticar 23 pacientes com TVP proximal (6,2%). <sup><xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">100</xref></sup> Outro estudo, controlado, randomizado e envolvendo mais de 2.000 pacientes em que foi comparado o US completo com o de 2 pontos seriado associado a dosagem do d&#237;mero D no manejo de pacientes sintom&#225;ticos para TVP atendidos na emerg&#234;ncia, mostrou equival&#234;ncia entre as duas estrat&#233;gias. Entretanto, neste &#250;ltimo estudo, os m&#233;dicos eram especialistas em USV, o que indica a necessidade do protocolo deste exame ser realizado por m&#233;dicos bem treinados para que seja acurado, e siga os escores cl&#237;nicos de probabilidade. Na maioria das vezes, quando o paciente permanece com sintomas ou o d&#237;mero-D est&#225; elevado, o US de compress&#227;o deve ser repetido. <sup><xref rid="B101" ref-type="bibr">101</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>Por fim, o protocolo completo recomendado de exame &#233; o destinado &#224; pesquisa de TVP, pois se avalia toda a rede de veias profundas da perna nesse procedimento, devendo ser realizado por especialistas. Al&#233;m disso, exige m&#225;quinas dedicadas de alto n&#237;vel e que os pacientes sejam transferidos do pronto-socorro/enfermaria para serem avaliados.</p>
        <p>Por outro lado, os protocolos de US de compress&#227;o de 2 e 3 pontos s&#227;o abordagens simples, r&#225;pidas e de cabeceira, que n&#227;o necessitam de operadores especializados ou equipamentos sofisticados. Tais metodologias s&#227;o muito adequadas para serem realizadas em setores de emerg&#234;ncia e enfermarias de hospitais, especialmente ap&#243;s o hor&#225;rio comercial e nos fins de semana, para que, juntamente &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o de probabilidade pr&#233;-teste, sejam capazes de conduzir inicialmente o paciente com suspeita de TVP.</p>
        <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos protocolos de US de compress&#227;o de 2 pontos em pacientes cr&#237;ticos &#233; uma ferramenta importante em alguns cen&#225;rios, como na atual pandemia do novo coronav&#237;rus (covid-19). Existe uma rela&#231;&#227;o com um estado protromb&#243;tico, o que favorece a ocorr&#234;ncia de fen&#244;menos trombemb&#243;licos. Assim, diante da possibilidade cl&#237;nica de TVP, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um exame de US r&#225;pido e focado no membro suspeito deve ser avaliada quando o diagn&#243;stico impactar na conduta do paciente. <sup><xref rid="B102" ref-type="bibr">102</xref></sup> </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3.4. Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial</title>
      <p>Os sintomas desencadeados pelo evento tromb&#243;tico podem ser comuns a diversas outras condi&#231;&#245;es agudas ou cr&#244;nicas, como cistos sinoviais rotos, insufici&#234;ncia venosa cr&#244;nica, roturas e hematomas musculares. <sup><xref rid="B103" ref-type="bibr">103</xref></sup> Em outras situa&#231;&#245;es, a trombose venosa pode ocorrer devido &#224; compress&#227;o extr&#237;nseca por anormalidades vasculares como aneurismas e pseudoaneurismas, ou condi&#231;&#245;es extravasculares como hematomas, abscessos, cistos sinoviais, linfadenomegalias, e tumores de linhagem neural e hematol&#243;gica. <sup><xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">104</xref></sup> O exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico completo do membro proporciona a capacidade de identificar as condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas associadas e diferenci&#225;-las das anormalidades n&#227;o tromb&#243;ticas. Por outro lado, um membro edemaciado, associado a estase ou diminui&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade respirat&#243;ria na veia femoral, pode indicar compress&#227;o extr&#237;nseca em territ&#243;rio p&#233;lvico. Linfadenomegalias, miomas uterinos, tumores de retroperit&#244;nio e s&#237;ndrome de May-Thurner podem ser os agentes da compress&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">105</xref></sup> Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, o examinador deve chamar a aten&#231;&#227;o para os achados e sugerir essa possibilidade em seu relat&#243;rio.</p>
      <p>Linfadenomegalias, notadamente em regi&#227;o inguinal por doen&#231;a linfoproliferativa, podem cursar com Quadro cl&#237;nico de edema pronunciado no membro, tanto pelo eventual componente compressivo venoso, quanto pela insufici&#234;ncia na drenagem linf&#225;tica regional. Embora seja de f&#225;cil identifica&#231;&#227;o, ocasionalmente a massa tumoral pode ser de tal forma volumosa que oculta a visualiza&#231;&#227;o da veia, dificultando a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de fluxo ou mesmo a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de trombo. <sup><xref rid="B106" ref-type="bibr">106</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Pseudoaneurismas, n&#227;o obstante tenham caracter&#237;sticas bastante definidas ao USV com fluxo colorido, podem cursar, quando trombosados, com variedade de ecogenicidade ao modo B na depend&#234;ncia do volume e tempo de oclus&#227;o. Quando volumosos, podem tamb&#233;m levar &#224; compress&#227;o venosa e estarem associados a outras condi&#231;&#245;es como traumatismos fechados ou tumora&#231;&#245;es &#243;sseas, levando &#224; dificuldade de identifica&#231;&#227;o da veia. <sup><xref rid="B107" ref-type="bibr">107</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>Um diagn&#243;stico diferencial ultrassonogr&#225;fico frequente da trombose venosa profunda &#233; o hematoma muscular, principalmente quando localizado na musculatura da panturrilha. A apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; muito semelhante &#224; oclus&#227;o venosa e nem sempre &#233; clara. Na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, h&#225; refer&#234;ncias ao traumatismo ou dor s&#250;bita. Su et al. <sup><xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref></sup> descrevem algumas caracter&#237;sticas que podem sugerir que a les&#227;o se trata de um hematoma, como: ecogenicidade mista, aus&#234;ncia de &#225;reas anecoicas, hiperecogenicidade perilesional (sobretudo refor&#231;o no tecido subjacente) e rela&#231;&#227;o entre o eixo longitudinal e transverso da les&#227;o &gt; 2.</p>
      <p>Um dos achados adicionais n&#227;o vasculares mais comuns nos exames venosos &#233; o cisto sinovial popl&#237;teo ou de Baker, mais comumente localizado na face medioposterior da fossa popl&#237;tea e que n&#227;o costuma ser sintom&#225;tico quanto ao sistema vascular. Entretanto, em raras condi&#231;&#245;es, um cisto &#237;ntegro pode ter apresenta&#231;&#227;o posterolateral, com variados graus de compress&#227;o venosa, arterial e nervosa, e apresentar sintomas neurovasculares no membro afetado. Quando h&#225; rotura do cisto de Baker em dire&#231;&#227;o &#224; panturrilha, pode cursar com Quadro cl&#237;nico similar &#224; trombose venosa aguda. Apesar da semelhan&#231;a cl&#237;nica, &#233; importante ressaltar que a diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre a condi&#231;&#227;o articular e a vascular deve ser feita em fun&#231;&#227;o do tratamento completamente distinto a ser empregado. Algumas caracter&#237;sticas do cisto podem ajudar a diferenci&#225;-lo do evento tromb&#243;tico. O cisto de Baker comunica-se com a cavidade articular pr&#243;xima &#224; cabe&#231;a medial do m&#250;sculo gastrocn&#234;mico, e essa &#233; uma caracter&#237;stica-chave para o diagn&#243;stico ( <xref rid="f16" ref-type="fig">Figura 16</xref> ). Apesar de seu conte&#250;do l&#237;quido (portanto anecoico), pode apresentar grumos em seu interior. Habitualmente, apresenta c&#226;mara &#250;nica e ser multiloculado. <sup><xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f16">
          <label>Figura 16</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Imagem de cisto de Baker na regi&#227;o posteromedial do joelho (diagn&#243;stico diferencial da trombose venosa profunda).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf19.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Tumores de partes moles, benignos (schwanomas, neuromas histiocitomas fibrosos) ou malignos (sarcomas, osteosarcomas), podem cursar com Quadro semelhante &#224; trombose venosa ou se apresentar como condi&#231;&#227;o compressiva ( <xref rid="f17" ref-type="fig">Figura 17</xref> ). <sup><xref rid="B110" ref-type="bibr">110</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f17">
          <label>Figura 17</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Hemangioendotelioma venoso. A: aspecto cl&#237;nico; B: imagem hipoecog&#234;nica circundando uma veia superficial &#224; ultrassonografia com mapeamento de fluxo a cores; C: exame anatomopatol&#243;gico.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf20.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>O USV &#233; uma ferramenta bastante acess&#237;vel e dispon&#237;vel na abordagem inicial da pesquisa de trombose venosa; no entanto, condi&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o tromb&#243;ticas podem cursar como diagn&#243;stico diferencial. Em m&#227;os experientes, o USV proporciona a possibilidade de propor diagn&#243;sticos alternativos que se apresentam com frequ&#234;ncia nos casos suspeitos de obstru&#231;&#227;o venosa.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3.5. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Recomenda-se a realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame completo de ecografia vascular para o diagn&#243;stico de TVP aguda. (classe 1/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia A).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>A an&#225;lise do <italic>Doppler</italic> espectral deve ser feita em ambas as veias femorais comuns, para avaliar simetria. Quando houver assimetria no padr&#227;o do fluxo, h&#225; a necessidade de estudar as veias intra-abdominais <sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref> - <xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref> </sup> (classe 1/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia A).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Por esse consenso, recomenda-se o uso das seguintes terminologias para as anormalidades ultrassonogr&#225;ficas encontradas na TVP: <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Aguda/recente;</p></list-item><list-item><p>Cr&#244;nica/antiga;</p></list-item><list-item><p>Predomin&#226;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es agudas;</p></list-item><list-item><p>Predomin&#226;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas.</p></list-item></list> </p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>O termo &#8220;indeterminado&#8221; poderia ser usado nas poucas ocasi&#245;es em que, de fato, n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel avaliar o tempo do evento.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3.6. Como Descrever o Laudo do Exame</title>
      <p><bold>Corpo do laudo:</bold> primeiramente, &#233; fundamental informar a qualidade t&#233;cnica do exame, em quais condi&#231;&#245;es foi realizado (se em car&#225;ter de urg&#234;ncia ou n&#227;o), se o paciente pode cooperar no posicionamento adequado, se foi detectado edema importante associado ou qualquer fator que impediu uma qualidade t&#233;cnica adequada.</p>
      <p>Descrever separadamente a avalia&#231;&#227;o das veias, sobretudo quando houver trombose venosa, descrevendo todos os aspectos ultrassonogr&#225;ficos do exame: modo B e <italic>Doppler</italic> (que levam a concluir sobre a presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de trombose), tempo de evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e se apresenta aspecto agudo, indeterminado ou altera&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas.</p>
      <p>Aspectos a serem descritos no corpo do laudo sobre as veias:</p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Calibre (comparar com a contralateral e/ou com o calibre da art&#233;ria adjacente) e aspecto da parede venosa em todos os segmentos avaliados;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Compressibilidade parcial ou total, especificando o segmento acometido;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de material intraluminal. Quando presente, avaliar ecogenicidade, ocupa&#231;&#227;o total ou parcial da luz da veia e se tem ou n&#227;o componente m&#243;vel;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de colaterais;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Sobre o fluxo: <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p><italic>- Color</italic><italic>Doppler</italic>:  presente ou ausente e se ocupa total ou parcialmente a luz da veia;</p></list-item><list-item><p>- An&#225;lise espectral: fluxo pode ser ausente. Quando presente, informar a fasicidade com a respira&#231;&#227;o ou cont&#237;nuo, se aumenta (ou n&#227;o) compress&#227;o distal e/ou (ou n&#227;o) refluxo associado.</p></list-item></list> </p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Descrever a presen&#231;a de outros poss&#237;veis diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais, quando houver: cisto de Baker, tumores, sinais sugestivos de linfedema e imagens sugestivas de hematoma.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p><bold>Conclus&#227;o:</bold> Na conclus&#227;o, relatar se h&#225; ou n&#227;o sinais de trombose. Em caso positivo, informar se ela &#233; total ou parcialmente oclusiva e se a(s) veia(s) e os segmentos venosos est&#227;o comprometidos. Determinar se a trombose &#233; aguda/recente ou apresenta altera&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas cr&#244;nicas/antigas. No caso de trombose clinicamente subaguda (2 semanas a 6 meses), recomendam-se as express&#245;es: sinais predominantes de trombose aguda ou predominantes de trombose cr&#244;nica. Nos casos de tromboses n&#227;o oclusivas, descrever se apresenta (ou n&#227;o) refluxo associado. Os aspectos descritos no laudo para o fundamento da conclus&#227;o est&#227;o resumidos no <xref rid="t16" ref-type="table">Quadro 10</xref> .</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t16">
          <label>Quadro 10</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Aspectos a serem descritos no laudo e que fundamentam a conclus&#227;o</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">SINAIS AO ULTRASSOM</th>
                <th>TEMPO DE EVOLU&#199;&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</th>
                <th>GRAU DE COMPRESSIBILIDADE</th>
                <th>ECOGENICIDADE DO TROMBO</th>
                <th>DI&#194;METRO DA VEIA</th>
                <th>TIPO DE FLUXO</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Trombose aguda / recente</td>
                <td align="center">Inferior a 15 dias</td>
                <td align="center">Total ou parcialmente incompress&#237;vel</td>
                <td align="center">Hipoecog&#234;nico ou ecolucente</td>
                <td align="center">Aumentado</td>
                <td align="center">Ausente / Fasicidade reduzida ou cont&#237;nuo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Trombose Cr&#244;nica / antiga</td>
                <td align="center">Acima de 6 meses</td>
                <td align="center">Total ou parcialmente incompress&#237;vel</td>
                <td align="center">Hiperecog&#234;nico / trabecula&#231;&#245;es fibr&#243;ticas residuais</td>
                <td align="center">Reduzido ou Normal</td>
                <td align="center">Cont&#237;nuo / ausente / permeado com as altera&#231;&#245;es residuais</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Trombose com predomin&#226;ncia de sinais de trombose aguda ou predomin&#226;ncia de sinais de trombose cr&#244;nica, ou excepcionalmente, indeterminada</td>
                <td align="center">Clinicamente Subagudo: Entre 2 semanas e 6 meses</td>
                <td align="center">Total ou parcialmente incompress&#237;vel</td>
                <td align="center">Isoecog&#234;nico / ecogenicidade mista / predominantemente hipoecog&#234;nico / predominantemente hiperecog&#234;nico</td>
                <td align="center">Normal ou pouco modificado</td>
                <td align="center">Fasicidade reduzida / Cont&#237;nuo / ausente</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Ultrassonografia Vascular no Diagn&#243;stico da recorr&#234;ncia de trombose venosa profunda e &#8220;s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica&#8221;</title>
      <sec>
        <title>4.1. Recorr&#234;ncia de trombose venosa (RTV)</title>
        <p>Refere-se &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de um novo epis&#243;dio de trombembolismo venoso em indiv&#237;duo com hist&#243;ria de evento pr&#233;vio. Em se tratando de trombose de membros inferiores, a recorr&#234;ncia da trombose pode se manifestar por trombo em nova localiza&#231;&#227;o (propaga&#231;&#227;o para segmento proximal ou distal ao evento inicial, segmento diferente do mesmo membro, membro diferente) ou em segmento previamente acometido. <sup><xref rid="B111" ref-type="bibr">111</xref></sup> Na pratica m&#233;dica atual, recomenda-se que o paciente diagnosticado com um primeiro epis&#243;dio de TVP seja tratado com algum anticoagulante por um per&#237;odo de 3 a 6 meses, <sup><xref rid="B112" ref-type="bibr">112</xref></sup> o que na maioria das vezes resulta na resolu&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas, por conta da recanaliza&#231;&#227;o da veia ou surgimento de circula&#231;&#227;o colateral.</p>
        <p>A recorr&#234;ncia de trombose &#233; um evento comum. Estima-se que ap&#243;s a descontinua&#231;&#227;o do anticoagulante, a taxa de recorr&#234;ncia aumente progressivamente ao longo do tempo, chegando a 40% entre todos os pacientes no per&#237;odo de 10 anos (incid&#234;ncia cumulativa: 7,2% em 6 meses, 11% em 1 ano, 19,6% em 3 anos, 29,1% em 5 anos, 34,3% em 8 anos, e 39,9% em 10 anos). <sup><xref rid="B113" ref-type="bibr">113</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>O fator de risco mais importante para recorr&#234;ncia &#233; a causa do primeiro epis&#243;dio da TVP. Em pacientes com TVP provocada por um fator de risco transit&#243;rio (p. ex., ap&#243;s uma grande cirurgia), o risco anual &#233; de apenas 1%, podendo-se cogitar um tratamento limitado a 3 meses na depend&#234;ncia de outros fatores de risco. <sup><xref rid="B114" ref-type="bibr">114</xref></sup> Quando n&#227;o h&#225; um fator causal principal identific&#225;vel, ou quando h&#225; apenas uma causa m&#237;nima transit&#243;ria (trombose &#8220;n&#227;o provocada&#8221;/idiop&#225;tica), o que ocorre em cerca da metade dos casos de TVP, a preval&#234;ncia de recorr&#234;ncia aumenta para 5%-10% em 1 ano e at&#233; 30% em 5 anos, <sup><xref rid="B115" ref-type="bibr">115</xref></sup> o que justifica a continuidade do tratamento com antagonistas da vitamina K (AVK) ou novos anticoagulantes (NOACS) por 6 meses ou mais, visto que estes reduzem significativamente o risco de recorr&#234;ncia em 80 a 90%. <sup><xref rid="B116" ref-type="bibr">116</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>Primariamente, a recorr&#234;ncia ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o depende de dois fatores: primeiro, se a TVP aguda foi tratada efetivamente, incluindo a dura&#231;&#227;o m&#237;nima do tratamento anticoagulante; e, segundo, a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco intr&#237;nsecos que, de fato, aumentam a recorr&#234;ncia, notadamente a doen&#231;a maligna e as trombofilias. <sup><xref rid="B117" ref-type="bibr">117</xref></sup> A dura&#231;&#227;o ideal do tratamento anticoagulante &#233; discutida at&#233; hoje, sendo embasada na extens&#227;o da trombose (proximal ou distal) e na causa do evento tromb&#243;tico, quando relacionada a um fator principal predisponente. Adotamos as recomenda&#231;&#245;es do American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP). <sup><xref rid="B112" ref-type="bibr">112</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da causa precipitante da TVP, outros fatores s&#227;o importantes para determinar o risco de recorr&#234;ncia. O ultrassonografista deve estar alerta aos fatores cl&#237;nicos que est&#227;o associados a recorr&#234;ncia da trombose, como: TVP n&#227;o provocada RR 2,3 (IC 95%; 1,8-2,9), obesidade RR 1,6 (IC 95%; 1,1-2,4), sexo masculino RR 2,8 (IC 95%; 1,4-5,7), d&#237;mero D positivo RR 2,6 (IC 95%; 1,9-3,5), trombose residual RR 1,5 (IC 95%; 1,1-2,0), trombofilia heredit&#225;ria RR 1,5 (IC 95%; 1,1-1,9), doen&#231;a intestinal inflamat&#243;ria RR 2,5 (IC 95%; 1,4-4,2), anticorpo antifosfolip&#237;dio RR 2,4 (IC 95%; 1,3-4,1) e neoplasia maligna. <sup><xref rid="B117" ref-type="bibr">117</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>A doen&#231;a maligna &#233; um dos principais fatores de risco tanto para trombose quanto para recorr&#234;ncia de TVP. Pacientes com c&#226;ncer apresentam risco 2 a 4 vezes maior para RTV, chegando a 4,2 vezes nos indiv&#237;duos em quimioterapia, <sup><xref rid="B118" ref-type="bibr">118</xref></sup> procedimento que afeta o endot&#233;lio vascular e a cascata de coagula&#231;&#227;o, o que libera subst&#226;ncias pr&#243;-tromb&#243;ticas durante a lise do tumor.</p>
        <p>Deter conhecimentos sobre a hist&#243;ria natural da TVP &#233; importante para determinar a terap&#234;utica, e, no caso da USV, para o seguimento dos pacientes. A recanaliza&#231;&#227;o &#233; um processo din&#226;mico, que depende das for&#231;as l&#237;ticas ou pr&#243;-coagulantes, come&#231;a na primeira semana ap&#243;s o epis&#243;dio de TVP e continua por meses, sendo que a maior parte da massa tromb&#243;tica &#233; reduzida nos primeiros 3 meses. <sup><xref rid="B119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref></sup> Demonstrou-se nos pacientes seguidos com ultrassonografia que 56% apresentaram resolu&#231;&#227;o completa, <sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup> sendo que esta taxa &#233; diferente para as tromboses pr&#243;ximas e distais. Nas tromboses distais, &#233; mais frequente uma recanaliza&#231;&#227;o total e sem sequelas como refluxo significativo ou obstru&#231;&#227;o. Por outro lado, nas tromboses pr&#243;ximas ou nas que envolvem os dois segmentos, a preval&#234;ncia de refluxo ou obstru&#231;&#227;o &#233; bem mais significativa. <sup><xref rid="B121" ref-type="bibr">121</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>A taxa de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o guarda rela&#231;&#227;o com a preval&#234;ncia de refluxo no sistema venoso. Quanto mais r&#225;pida a recanaliza&#231;&#227;o, maior &#233; a associa&#231;&#227;o com valvas competentes. <sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref> , <xref rid="B122" ref-type="bibr">122</xref> </sup> O refluxo, associado ou n&#227;o a obstru&#231;&#227;o venosa decido a recanaliza&#231;&#227;o incompleta, pode provocar hipertens&#227;o venosa persistente, levando ao aparecimento dos sinais de hipertens&#227;o venosa cr&#244;nica, que s&#227;o chamados de s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica (SPT).</p>
        <p>Apesar de v&#225;rios estudos ressaltarem a import&#226;ncia da trombose venosa residual, que &#233; essencialmente diagnosticada em exames de USV em seguimento dos pacientes com TVP, <sup><xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref> - <xref rid="B125" ref-type="bibr">125</xref> </sup> uma metan&#225;lise recente, englobando 14 estudos, mostrou apenas um leve aumento do risco de recorr&#234;ncia (HR,1,5; 95% CI, 1,1-2,0) em pacientes com trombose venosa residual. <sup><xref rid="B126" ref-type="bibr">126</xref></sup> </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.2. Diagn&#243;stico Ultrassonogr&#225;fico da Recorr&#234;ncia de Trombose</title>
        <p>N&#227;o existem par&#226;metros isolados pela USV que caracterizem a recorr&#234;ncia de trombose, ou modelos cl&#237;nicos validados que permitam o diagn&#243;stico, que &#233; feito levando-se em conta o reaparecimento dos sintomas e achados cl&#237;nicos de TVP, mediante a probabilidade em face aos fatores de risco e na presen&#231;a de achados ultrassonogr&#225;ficos que sugiram a recorr&#234;ncia da trombose.</p>
        <p>Os achados comparativos entre o exame da atual suspeita de recorr&#234;ncia com o exame &#8220;base&#8221;, ao t&#233;rmino do tratamento, s&#227;o a &#250;nica forma validada para o diagn&#243;stico de RTV. Dessa forma, &#233; de suma import&#226;ncia a exist&#234;ncia de exames pr&#233;vios que descrevam de maneira clara e precisa a extens&#227;o do acometimento e o grau de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o da trombose pr&#233;via.</p>
        <p>Os achados ultrassonogr&#225;ficos s&#227;o similares aos descritos para o diagn&#243;stico da primeira trombose, dificultados pela presen&#231;a de massa tromb&#243;tica antiga que pode confundir o diagn&#243;stico. Tais achados est&#227;o relacionados no <xref rid="t15" ref-type="table">Quadro 9</xref> desse documento.</p>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico pode ser f&#225;cil quando a recorr&#234;ncia da trombose ocorrer no membro contralateral ou em um segmento novo, claramente n&#227;o envolvido na trombose venosa anterior. Quando ocorre em um segmento anteriormente envolvido, um aumento de 2 mm no di&#226;metro da veia sob compress&#227;o do segmento previamente trombosado foi relatado como diagn&#243;stico de recorr&#234;ncia de TVP. <sup><xref rid="B127" ref-type="bibr">127</xref> , <xref rid="B128" ref-type="bibr">128</xref> </sup> Por conta do aumento de 2 mm com a compress&#227;o m&#225;xima ter um valor preditivo positivo baixo, outros autores propuseram a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um aumento de di&#226;metro &#8805;4mm para o diagn&#243;stico de RTV. <sup><xref rid="B129" ref-type="bibr">129</xref></sup> Um estudo recente que revisou 36 artigos publicados sobre o tema demonstra que uma nova veia n&#227;o compress&#237;vel ou um aumento no di&#226;metro de um segmento de veia previamente trombosada &#8805;4mm s&#227;o suficientes para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de recorr&#234;ncia de TVP. O aumento de di&#226;metro menor que 2mm permite que a recorr&#234;ncia seja descartada, e o aumento entre 2 e 4 mm seria considerado duvidoso. <sup><xref rid="B130" ref-type="bibr">130</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>A ecogenicidade do trombo, mesmo quando correlacionada com a organiza&#231;&#227;o do trombo <italic>in vitro</italic> , torna subjetiva a avalia&#231;&#227;o <italic>in vivo</italic> . Importante ressaltar que mesmo trombos agudos podem demonstrar diferentes est&#225;gios de organiza&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B131" ref-type="bibr">131</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>La Gal et al. <sup><xref rid="B132" ref-type="bibr">132</xref></sup> demonstraram que a estrat&#233;gia diagn&#243;stica de compara&#231;&#227;o do exame, na atual suspeita de recorr&#234;ncia com um exame &#8220;base&#8221; ao t&#233;rmino do tratamento, pode ser seguramente utilizada no descarte da recorr&#234;ncia de TVP.</p>
        <p>Tais considera&#231;&#245;es refor&#231;am a necessidade de um exame minucioso ao final do tratamento para servir de base comparativa com outros procedimentos subsequentes, descrevendo todos os achados, inclusive o di&#226;metro residual ap&#243;s compress&#227;o m&#225;xima, bem como o local em que a medida foi realizada (conv&#233;m realizar no local de maior massa tromb&#243;tica residual).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3. S&#237;ndrome P&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica</title>
        <p>A s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica (SPT) &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica caracterizada por sinais e sintomas que se desenvolvem como consequ&#234;ncia de TVP pr&#233;via, cuja complica&#231;&#227;o mais comum surge a longo prazo e acomete em torno de 20-40% dos casos de TVP nos membros inferiores, mesmo na vig&#234;ncia de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o adequada. <sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>A SPT causa um significativo impacto na qualidade de vida dos pacientes acometidos, comprometendo e limitando suas atividades di&#225;rias e a sua produtividade. Tal impacto pode ser comparado ao c&#226;ncer e &#224;s doen&#231;as card&#237;acas, al&#233;m de provocar um expressivo aumento de custos ao sistema de sa&#250;de. Dados de estudos suecos demonstram custos em torno de 75% maiores que a TVP prim&#225;ria. <sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup> </p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.1. Fisiopatologia</title>
          <p>A fisiopatologia da SPT &#233; uma combina&#231;&#227;o entre fen&#244;menos obstrutivos e o refluxo venoso por insufici&#234;ncia valvular, que determinam como resultado a hipertens&#227;o venosa. O aumento da press&#227;o venosa nos capilares subcut&#226;neos e na microcircula&#231;&#227;o culmina em incompet&#234;ncia valvular de veias perfurantes. Na maioria dos casos, o processo obstrutivo caracteriza-se por uma recanaliza&#231;&#227;o que ocorre nos primeiros 6-12 meses ap&#243;s o evento agudo, o que leva a uma combina&#231;&#227;o de obstru&#231;&#227;o parcial e variados graus de refluxo dos segmentos acometidos. Todas as altera&#231;&#245;es resultam, em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, em destrui&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;lvulas venosas, desenvolvimento de v&#225;lvulas colaterais em locais em que persiste um grau maior de obstru&#231;&#227;o e maior tend&#234;ncia de recorr&#234;ncia de epis&#243;dios agudos. <sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref> , <xref rid="B134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>Um sistema de veias safenas competentes pode atuar favoravelmente na drenagem venosa nos casos em que h&#225; um significativo componente obstrutivo. Por outro lado, quando h&#225; insufici&#234;ncia de veias safenas preexistentes, o retorno venoso se tornar&#225; ainda mais comprometido, podendo a condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica destes pacientes se deteriorar mais rapidamente.</p>
          <p>O processo inflamat&#243;rio &#233; o principal fator na SPT e est&#225; presente na resolu&#231;&#227;o da trombose. A fibrin&#243;lise, a organiza&#231;&#227;o do trombo e a neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o envolvem a interleucina-6 e a ades&#227;o intercelular de m&#243;lecula-1, o que causa danos valvares nos primeiros meses ap&#243;s a fase aguda da TVP. Prandoni e Kahn sugerem que a aus&#234;ncia de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o neste per&#237;odo &#233; um importante preditor para a SPT. <sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref> , <xref rid="B135" ref-type="bibr">135</xref> , <xref rid="B136" ref-type="bibr">136</xref> </sup> </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.2. Quadro Cl&#237;nico</title>
          <p>Apresenta-se com um largo espectro de manifesta&#231;&#245;es, que passam por sinais cl&#237;nicos leves at&#233; sintomas graves como dor cr&#244;nica no membro acometido (limitante para as atividades di&#225;rias), edema intrat&#225;vel e surgimento de &#250;lceras. Outros sinais podem aparecer, como hiperemia, hiperpigmenta&#231;&#227;o, dilata&#231;&#245;es venosas e lipodermatoesclerose, al&#233;m de sintomas como dor, sensa&#231;&#227;o de peso, parestesia, prurido e c&#227;ibra. Em casos mais avan&#231;ados, podem ocorrer infec&#231;&#245;es de pele, do subcut&#226;neo e do sistema linf&#225;tico.</p>
          <p>O grau do componente obstrutivo luminal residual incide diretamente na gravidade da repercuss&#227;o dessas manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, levando &#224; dor acentuada e &#224; claudica&#231;&#227;o venosa.</p>
          <p>Os fatores de risco que podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento da SPT s&#227;o:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>- Obesidade;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Veias varicosas;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Trombose proximal e recorr&#234;ncia;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Uso inadequado da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Tempo da resolu&#231;&#227;o da TVP: quanto menor e mais lenta, maior a probabilidade de SPT;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Idade e g&#234;nero (apresentam estudos contradit&#243;rios);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Outros potenciais fatores, ainda n&#227;o comprovados: malignidade, imobiliza&#231;&#227;o, cirurgia, gravidez e trombofilia.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.3. Diagn&#243;stico</title>
          <p>Essa condi&#231;&#227;o deve ser diagnosticada ap&#243;s a finaliza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento do epis&#243;dio da TVP, ou seja, n&#227;o pode ser caracterizada como SPT durante os primeiros tr&#234;s meses. <sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>O arsenal diagn&#243;stico para SPT deve ser composto por cl&#237;nica, laborat&#243;rio, imagem e pletismografia a ar. N&#227;o existe um m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico referencial, laboratorial, de imagem ou fundamentado em testes funcionais para SPT. Entretanto, &#233; fundamental que seja registrada por imagem a presen&#231;a de obstru&#231;&#227;o e refluxo venoso, e mesmo de forma n&#227;o quantitativa deve-se tentar informar qual dos dois componentes fisiopatol&#243;gicos predomina.</p>
          <p>A classifica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, etiol&#243;gica, anat&#244;mica, patol&#243;gica (CEAP) e o escore de severidade cl&#237;nica venosa (ESCV), utilizados para a insufici&#234;ncia venosa cr&#244;nica (IVC), podem ser aplicados de forma apropriada para quantificar com v&#225;rias medidas a SPT. <sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref> , <xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref> - <xref rid="B139" ref-type="bibr">139</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>A escala de <italic>Brandjes</italic> , as medidas de <italic>Ginsberg</italic> e a escala de <italic>Villalta</italic> foram especificamente desenvolvidas para auxilar no diagn&#243;stico da SPT, mas infelizmente n&#227;o tem sido adotadas como comparativos em outros estudos. No congresso da Sociedade Internacional de Trombose e Hemostasia de 2008, em Viena, passou-se a recomendar a escala de Villalta para a defini&#231;&#227;o e presen&#231;a de SPT, atrav&#233;s da qual o escore &gt;5 indica o diagn&#243;stico da s&#237;ndrome. A presen&#231;a de &#250;lcera torna o escore ainda mais grave ( <xref rid="t17" ref-type="table">Quadro 11</xref> ). <sup><xref rid="B140" ref-type="bibr">140</xref> , <xref rid="B141" ref-type="bibr">141</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t17">
              <label>Quadro 11</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Escala de Villalta para s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica 141 </title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">SINTOMAS</th>
                    <th>NORMAL</th>
                    <th>DISCRETO</th>
                    <th>MODERADO</th>
                    <th>ACENTUADO</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dor</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>C&#227;ibras</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Peso</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Parestesia</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Prurido</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sinais</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Edema pretibial</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pele endurecida</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hiperpigmenta&#231;&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Vermelhid&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ectasia venosa</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dor durante a compress&#227;o da panturrilha</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#218;lcera venosa</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>O m&#233;todo de imagem de escolha &#233; a USV, por conta de baixo custo, disponibilidade em pequenos centros e alta acur&#225;cia. Em pacientes com apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica sugestiva de SPT, mas sem hist&#243;ria de TVP, a ultrassonografia &#233; indicada para rastreio de evid&#234;ncias de TVP pr&#233;via.</p>
          <p>A USV possibilita informar localiza&#231;&#227;o, medidas dos di&#226;metros da veia ap&#243;s a manobra de compress&#227;o ( <xref rid="f18" ref-type="fig">Figura 18</xref> ), e, de maneira mais subjetiva, o grau de componente obstrutivo luminal nas veias acometidas, danos valvares e qualifica&#231;&#227;o do refluxo ( <xref rid="f19" ref-type="fig">Figuras 19</xref> e <xref rid="f20" ref-type="fig">20</xref> ). Embora pouco utilizada e pouco dispon&#237;vel, a pletismografia a ar mostra-se eficaz na quantifica&#231;&#227;o do refluxo venoso e se presta para o controle evolutivo da recanaliza&#231;&#227;o e diagn&#243;stico de retrombose.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f18">
              <label>Figura 18</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Imagem ultrassonogr&#225;fica bidimensional, com medida do di&#226;metro da veia popl&#237;tea ap&#243;s manobra de compress&#227;o.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf21.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f19">
              <label>Figura 19</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; A: imagem bidimensional em corte longitudinal de veia femoral comum com espessamento parietal e trabecula&#231;&#245;es/traves no interior do vaso. B: mapeamento de fluxo em cores, evidenciando fluxo ao redor da trabecula&#231;&#227;o. C: achados semelhantes em veia popl&#237;tea.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf22.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f20">
              <label>Figura 20</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Refluxo ao mapeamento de fluxo a cores (em vermelho) e ao Doppler pulsado em veia popl&#237;tea.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf23.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Al&#233;m de definir o diagn&#243;stico, a USV tamb&#233;m se presta ao planejamento da terap&#234;utica. Destaca-se tanto na avalia&#231;&#227;o do comprometimento do segmento cavoil&#237;aco para abordagem endovascular e reestabelecimento de sua perviedade quanto para o seguimento p&#243;s-tratamento, sendo imprescind&#237;vel no diagn&#243;stico de recorr&#234;ncia da trombose. <sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref> , <xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">142</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>Em casos que apresentem limita&#231;&#245;es para a USV, como a presen&#231;a de edema acentuado e lipodermatoesclerose, que muitas vezes apresenta n&#243;dulos focais de fibrocalcifica&#231;&#227;o, recomenda-se a ado&#231;&#227;o de algumas estrat&#233;gias para melhor aquisi&#231;&#227;o das imagens.</p>
          <p>Mudan&#231;as de posi&#231;&#227;o do transdutor e &#226;ngulo de insona&#231;&#227;o do feixe de US, redu&#231;&#227;o na frequ&#234;ncia do transdutor, mudan&#231;a para o modo trapezoidal no caso do transdutor linear s&#227;o recomendadas, e, caso necess&#225;rio, efetuar troca de transdutores por aqueles com frequ&#234;ncia ainda mais baixa, que possibilitam maior penetra&#231;&#227;o, como &#233; o caso dos transdutores convexos, setoriais e endocavit&#225;rios.</p>
          <p>Pacientes portadores de SPT devem ser examinados em dec&#250;bito dorsal e ortostatismo, posi&#231;&#227;o em que &#233; poss&#237;vel visibilizar melhor altera&#231;&#245;es luminais como espessamentos e trab&#233;culas, al&#233;m de promover uma pesquisa de refluxo mais eficaz ( <xref rid="f19" ref-type="fig">Figuras 19A-C</xref> e <xref rid="f20" ref-type="fig">20</xref> ). As veias do segmento infragenicular podem tamb&#233;m ser avaliadas com o paciente sentado e de p&#233;s levemente apoiados sobre um tablado, mantendo a musculatura mais relaxada, facilitando a insona&#231;&#227;o de veias mais profundas.</p>
          <p>No segmento cavoil&#237;aco, deve-se n&#227;o apenas avaliar a perviedade, mas tamb&#233;m procurar por sinais de compress&#227;o extr&#237;nseca, com destaque para a compress&#227;o da veia il&#237;aca comum esquerda em seu trajeto entre a art&#233;ria il&#237;aca comum direta e o corpo vertebral adjacente, usualmente L5.</p>
          <p>Os principais achados &#224; ultrassonografia s&#227;o a redu&#231;&#227;o do di&#226;metro venoso e as altera&#231;&#245;es luminais cr&#244;nicas, como espessamento parietal e trab&#233;culas hiperecoicas, al&#233;m da insufici&#234;ncia valvular. Outro achado menos frequente &#233; a presen&#231;a de fluxo com padr&#227;o de f&#237;stula arteriovenosa em pontos focais de segmentos venosos acometidos por trombose, sem repercuss&#227;o em veias e art&#233;rias axiais adjacentes e de significado cl&#237;nico desconhecido. <sup><xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">142</xref></sup> </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Protocolos de Seguimento com a Ultrassonografia Vascular ap&#243;s a Trombose Venosa Profunda</title>
      <sec>
        <title>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A TVP &#233; um processo din&#226;mico com per&#237;odos de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o, progress&#227;o e recorr&#234;ncia, e a USV mostra-se uma importante ferramenta para o diagn&#243;stico e o seguimento da TVP. Os aspectos ultrassonogr&#225;ficos t&#234;m um papel importante no desfecho dessa doen&#231;a, possibilitando seu estudo em diferentes est&#225;gios que ser&#227;o descritos a seguir.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Recanaliza&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A recanaliza&#231;&#227;o da trombose venosa &#233; um processo complexo, envolvendo mecanismos de fibrin&#243;lise intr&#237;nseca e extr&#237;nseca, fragmenta&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o e retra&#231;&#227;o do trombo. <sup><xref rid="B134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref> , <xref rid="B143" ref-type="bibr">143</xref> , <xref rid="B144" ref-type="bibr">144</xref> </sup> Tais dados t&#234;m sido confirmados por estudos por meio do uso da USV, que demonstraram a regress&#227;o do trombo nos tr&#234;s primeiros meses, podendo ocorrer recanaliza&#231;&#227;o completa na metade dos pacientes dentro de 6 a 9 meses ap&#243;s o epis&#243;dio de TVP. <sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> , <xref rid="B145" ref-type="bibr">145</xref> </sup> A recanaliza&#231;&#227;o parcial e a persist&#234;ncia do segmento oclu&#237;do ocorrem em cerca de 20% e 5% dos casos, respectivamente <sup><xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">146</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="f21" ref-type="fig">Figura 21A</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f21">
            <label>Figura 21</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Processo de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o na recanaliza&#231;&#227;o da trombose. A: corte transverso de veia com imagens ecog&#234;nicas correspondentes ao trombo no interior do vaso. O mapeamento em cores demonstra fluxo no interior do trombo. B: Doppler pulsado, detectando fluxo no interior do trombo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf24.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A observa&#231;&#227;o de imagens de pequenos vasos tortuosos identificados pelo mapeamento de fluxo em cores e <italic>Doppler</italic> pulsado, no interior do trombo e adjacente &#224; parede venosa, sugerem a presen&#231;a de neovasculariza&#231;&#227;o no complexo processo de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o <sup><xref rid="B134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref> , <xref rid="B143" ref-type="bibr">143</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="f21" ref-type="fig">Figura 21B</xref> ).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.3. Recorr&#234;ncia da Trombose</title>
        <p>Apesar de a evolu&#231;&#227;o para o processo de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o ser importante, a recorr&#234;ncia de eventos tromb&#243;ticos n&#227;o &#233; incomum. A taxa de recorr&#234;ncia de trombembolismo sintom&#225;tico varia entre 5% a 13% dos casos, dependendo do tempo de seguimento realizado com o USV. Entretanto, os eventos tromb&#243;ticos sem manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que s&#227;o identificados pelo USV tendem a ser maiores. <sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico de recorr&#234;ncia da trombose &#233; bastante dependente do exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico realizado durante o primeiro epis&#243;dio. S&#227;o crit&#233;rios sugestivos de recorr&#234;ncia:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Identifica&#231;&#227;o de novos s&#237;tios de trombose;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Oclus&#227;o de segmentos venosos parcialmente recanalizados registrados em exame pr&#233;vio;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Aumento maior que 4mm no di&#226;metro de segmentos venosos parcialmente recanalizados registrados em exames pr&#233;vios <sup><xref rid="B111" ref-type="bibr">111</xref> , <xref rid="B130" ref-type="bibr">130</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="f22" ref-type="fig">Figura 22</xref> ).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f22">
                <label>Figura 22</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Altera&#231;&#245;es ultrassonogr&#225;ficas que podem ser encontradas no seguimento do paciente com trombose venosa profunda. A: corte longitudinal da art&#233;ria femoral (em vermelho) e veia femoral (em azul). Presen&#231;a de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o parcial do segmento venoso circundando traves residuais. B: corte longitudinal da veia femoral. Fluxo venoso ascendente normal &#233; detectado em azul pelo mapeamento de fluxo em cores, e refluxo em vermelho, ap&#243;s a manobra de compress&#227;o distal. C: corte transversal de veia muscular em panturrilha, com di&#226;metros aumentados e compressibilidade reduzida. Em 1, observa-se imagem ecog&#234;nica referente a TVP pr&#233;via, e em 2 observa-se imagem hipoecoica referente ao processo de recorr&#234;ncia atual. Alguns fatores associados &#224; persist&#234;ncia da altera&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica, como presen&#231;a de trombos residuais e/ou insufici&#234;ncia valvular p&#243;s-fleb&#237;tica, foram considerados preditores de SPT. No entanto, tais achados podem ser utilizados para alterar o planejamento terap&#234;utico ainda s&#227;o temas controversos na literatura. 148,149 </title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf25.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.4. Insufici&#234;ncia Valvular</title>
        <p>O refluxo secund&#225;rio &#224; TVP, resultante do dano valvar, &#233; descrito em cerca de 33% a 59% dos segmentos venosos acometidos ( <xref rid="f22" ref-type="fig">&gt;Figura 22B</xref> ). Sabe-se que a veia mais frequentemente acometida &#233; a popl&#237;tea, seguida da femoral. <sup><xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">146</xref></sup> A avalia&#231;&#227;o do tempo de refluxo com as manobras de compress&#227;o distal &#233; considerada anormal quando superior 1.000 ms nas veias femoral comum, femoral e popl&#237;tea, e igual ou superior a 500ms nas demais veias. <sup><xref rid="B147" ref-type="bibr">147</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>Alguns fatores associados &#224; persist&#234;ncia da altera&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica, como presen&#231;a de trombos residuais e/ou insufici&#234;ncia valvular p&#243;s-fleb&#237;tica, foram considerados preditores de SPT. No entanto, tais achados podem ser utilizados para alterar o planejamento terap&#234;utico ainda s&#227;o temas controversos na literatura. <sup><xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">148</xref> , <xref rid="B149" ref-type="bibr">149</xref> </sup> </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.5. Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.5.1. Primeiro USV Negativo</title>
          <p>De acordo com recente recomenda&#231;&#227;o da Sociedade Americana de Radiologia e Ultrassonografia, orienta-se o cumprimento completo do protocolo para diagnosticar TVP pela USV. <sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m orienta-se para que seja realizado um exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico completo entre o per&#237;odo de 5 dias a 1 semana ap&#243;s o primeiro ultrassom completo ou <italic>point of care</italic> negativos nas seguintes situa&#231;&#245;es:</p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Quando houver persist&#234;ncia ou piora dos sintomas;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Em pacientes de alto risco para TVP, cuja etiologia dos sintomas n&#227;o foi elucidada;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Depois de exames anteriores tecnicamente prejudicados.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.5.2. Trombose Proximal x Distal</title>
          <p>Discute-se na literatura o protocolo de seguimento com USV para os pacientes em tratamento de TVP proximal, ou seja, nos territ&#243;rios il&#237;aco, femoral e popl&#237;teo. N&#227;o est&#225; claro se os pacientes em uso de medica&#231;&#227;o anticoagulante adequada obtiveram benef&#237;cios com a realiza&#231;&#227;o do USV durante o tratamento ou, ainda, se as conclus&#245;es de um exame repetido alterariam a estrat&#233;gia do tratamento estabelecido. Entretanto, demostrou-se que a realiza&#231;&#227;o do USV ao final do tratamento &#233; importante para basear avalia&#231;&#245;es futuras, sendo crucial determinar as veias que foram recanalizadas e quais ainda apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas. <sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref> , <xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref> , <xref rid="B150" ref-type="bibr">150</xref> - <xref rid="B152" ref-type="bibr">152</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>No que diz respeito &#224; trombose isolada das veias da perna, classificada como axial quando envolve as veias tibiais e/ou fibulares, e musculares quando envolve apenas as veias musculares, em alguns centros a pesquisa da TVP pelo USV em casos suspeitos n&#227;o inclui seu estudo. Com essa conduta inicial, recomenda-se o seguimento do paciente para um segundo exame no s&#233;timo dia ap&#243;s o surgimento dos sintomas. A indica&#231;&#227;o desse segundo procedimento serve para avaliar a possibilidade do envolvimento do segmento proximal, caso tenha ocorrido propaga&#231;&#227;o da TVP distal n&#227;o diagnosticada na fase aguda. Quando o resultado deste segundo exame for normal, afasta-se a possibilidade de trombose e o paciente n&#227;o &#233; anticoagulado. Nesses centros, o risco de embolia pulmonar estimado ao final de 3 meses &#233; relatado em 0,5% (95% CI, 0,4%-0,9%) dos casos. <sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref> , <xref rid="B153" ref-type="bibr">153</xref> , <xref rid="B154" ref-type="bibr">154</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>Aconselha-se o protocolo de seguimento seriado com USV, dada a baixa taxa de propaga&#231;&#227;o proximal da trombose da veia popl&#237;tea, que varia de 3 a 15% na literatura <sup><xref rid="B155" ref-type="bibr">155</xref> - <xref rid="B158" ref-type="bibr">158</xref> </sup> , e apresenta poucos benef&#237;cios advindos da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. Masuda et al., <sup><xref rid="B159" ref-type="bibr">159</xref></sup> em uma revis&#227;o de metan&#225;lise, refor&#231;am essa baixa taxa de propaga&#231;&#227;o. Schwartz et al., <sup><xref rid="B160" ref-type="bibr">160</xref></sup> em estudo randomizado, demonstraram n&#227;o haver diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica significante entre os pacientes tratados com anticoagula&#231;&#227;o por 10 dias e os indiv&#237;duos sem tratamento (3,7% <italic>versus</italic> 3,8%), sendo que a taxa de propaga&#231;&#227;o descrita por esses autores para a veia popl&#237;tea foi de 1,9%.</p>
          <p>Poucos estudos na literatura versam sobre a recorr&#234;ncia na TVP distal. Masuda et al. <sup><xref rid="B159" ref-type="bibr">159</xref></sup> n&#227;o encontraram publica&#231;&#245;es robustas para comparar os pacientes tratados com anticoagula&#231;&#227;o ou apenas acompanhados por USV. Lagerstedt et al. <sup><xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">161</xref></sup> estudaram pacientes com TVP distal sintom&#225;tica e medicados com varfarina por 5 dias em todos os pacientes. Ap&#243;s esse per&#237;odo, os pacientes foram randomizados para manuten&#231;&#227;o da varfarina por 3 meses ou suspens&#227;o do tratamento. Ap&#243;s 3 meses, a taxa de recorr&#234;ncia da TVP foi de 29% x 0% nos grupos &#8220;tratado&#8221; <italic>versus</italic> &#8220;n&#227;o tratado&#8221;, respectivamente.</p>
          <p>Nos casos de TVP distal sintom&#225;tica, opta-se por tratamento com anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. A maioria dos autores sugere que seja curto, pelo per&#237;odo m&#225;ximo de 6 semanas em pacientes com baixo risco. <sup><xref rid="B160" ref-type="bibr">160</xref> , <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref> </sup> Para os casos de alto risco (c&#226;ncer, TVP pr&#233;via, envolvimento de duas ou mais veias, idade maior que 50 anos e trombofilia) recomenda-se o tratamento por 12 semanas. <sup><xref rid="B163" ref-type="bibr">163</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>Os centros que utilizam o protocolo com USV completo optam por tratar o paciente independente de a trombose ser proximal ou distal. O risco estimado de embolia pulmonar com essa conduta, ao final de tr&#234;s meses, tamb&#233;m &#233; baixo, de 0,6% (95% CI, 0,3%-0,9%). <sup><xref rid="B101" ref-type="bibr">101</xref> , <xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas, utilizadas como par&#226;metros para orientar a dura&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, s&#227;o pouco robustas. S&#227;o necess&#225;rias mais pesquisas nesse campo. <sup><xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref> , <xref rid="B165" ref-type="bibr">165</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>Estudo realizado em pacientes com TVP proximal e uso de rivaroxabana avaliou as altera&#231;&#245;es ultrassonogr&#225;ficas encontradas no primeiro, terceiro, no sexto e no d&#233;cimo segundo meses, e a taxa de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o das veias acometidas. <sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref></sup> Outros autores <sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref></sup> ressaltam a liga&#231;&#227;o entre a presen&#231;a de refluxo na veia popl&#237;tea, a perman&#234;ncia de traves fibr&#243;ticas e o desenvolvimento de SPT. Sartori et al. <sup><xref rid="B168" ref-type="bibr">168</xref></sup> acompanharam 172 pacientes com trombose isolada de perna em tratamento com enoxaparina por 6 semanas e avaliaram o grau de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o pela USV. O exame foi realizado durante o diagn&#243;stico e no t&#233;rmino do tratamento. Aproximadamente metade destes pacientes (49,5%) apresentaram recanaliza&#231;&#227;o das veias, e n&#227;o houve signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica entre recanaliza&#231;&#227;o e tamanho do trombo ou s&#237;tio anat&#244;mico de acometimento (veias axiais <italic>versus</italic> musculares).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.5.3. Recorr&#234;ncia de Trombose Venosa Profunda</title>
          <p>Ap&#243;s um epis&#243;dio inicial de TVP, a recorr&#234;ncia pode ocorrer em cerca de 25% dos pacientes em 5 anos e ser respons&#225;vel pelo aumento do risco de embolia pulmonar e s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-tromb&#243;tica. <sup><xref rid="B169" ref-type="bibr">169</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico da TVP recorrente &#233; mais complexo porque, ao contr&#225;rio da abordagem do primeiro epis&#243;dio de TVP, em que temos algoritmos validados de probabilidade pr&#233;-teste associado ao uso do d&#237;mero D e da ultrassonografia vascular (USV), <sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup> tais crit&#233;rios n&#227;o est&#227;o validados em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; recorr&#234;ncia. <sup><xref rid="B170" ref-type="bibr">170</xref></sup> O achado da aus&#234;ncia de compressibilidade pela USV de um segmento anteriormente n&#227;o afetado pode ser considerado diagn&#243;stico. <sup><xref rid="B152" ref-type="bibr">152</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>&#192;s vezes, o trombo inicial n&#227;o se resolve completamente, resultando em altera&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas cr&#244;nicas, o que dificulta o diagn&#243;stico. Nesse caso, o diagn&#243;stico da TVP recorrente em um segmento venoso previamente afetado pode ser feito por meio da observa&#231;&#227;o do aumento no di&#226;metro do trombo em pelo menos 4 mm quando comparado a um estudo pr&#233;vio. Entretanto, a acur&#225;cia desse achado &#233; controv&#233;rsia nos, <sup><xref rid="B171" ref-type="bibr">171</xref></sup> e o diagn&#243;stico depende de um exame pr&#233;vio de qualidade e com n&#250;mero adequado de imagens para compara&#231;&#227;o, associado a medidas dos calibres nos diversos segmentos venosos afetados, o que n&#227;o ocorre na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria. Al&#233;m disso, esse crit&#233;rio n&#227;o &#233; usado nos epis&#243;dios pr&#233;vios de trombose de panturrilha, o que dificulta ainda mais a abordagem dos pacientes.</p>
          <p>O acompanhamento dos pacientes com TVP recorrente deve seguir os crit&#233;rios adotados durante o epis&#243;dio inicial pela escassez de estudos que avaliem especificamente o seguimento desse grupo. Enfatizamos ainda a import&#226;ncia de um estudo completo no t&#233;rmino do tratamento, ou a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um exame de acompanhamento ap&#243;s seis meses nos casos de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o prolongada, incluindo a investiga&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas cr&#244;nicas com uma avalia&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a de insufici&#234;ncia venosa em ortostatismo.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5.4. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <p>Com base nos dados de literatura e na discuss&#227;o de especialistas da diretriz, sugerimos:</p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>USV inicial negativo:</bold> realizar exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico completo entre 5 dias a 1 semana ap&#243;s um primeiro ultrassom completo ou <italic>point of care</italic> negativos nas seguintes situa&#231;&#245;es: (a) persist&#234;ncia ou piora dos sintomas, (b) em pacientes de alto risco para TVP cuja etiologia dos sintomas n&#227;o foi elucidada, e (c) com exames anteriores tecnicamente prejudicados.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>USV inicial com diagn&#243;stico de TVP proximal (territ&#243;rio il&#237;aco, femoral e popl&#237;teo):</bold> repetir o exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico completo pr&#243;ximo ao t&#233;rmino do tratamento para avalia&#231;&#227;o do grau de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o e presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-tromb&#243;ticas. Ou ainda, em qualquer momento no qual o paciente apresente sintomas no decorrer do tratamento, para avalia&#231;&#227;o de recorr&#234;ncia ou extens&#227;o da trombose inicial.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>USV inicial com diagn&#243;stico de TVP distal (veias tibiais, fibulares ou musculares):</bold> repetir o exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico em 6 semanas ou em 12 semanas do in&#237;cio do Quadro cl&#237;nico, de acordo com o planejamento terap&#234;utico estipulado.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Pacientes com TVP recorrente:</bold> repetir o exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico no t&#233;rmino do tratamento, ou um exame de acompanhamento ap&#243;s seis meses nos casos de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o prolongada, ou em qualquer momento na presen&#231;a de sintomas.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. Diagn&#243;stico do Trombembolismo Pulmonar por Angiotomografia, Angio-RM e Angiografia Pulmonar</title>
      <sec>
        <title>6.1. Angiotomografia de T&#243;rax (Angio-TC)</title>
        <p>O estudo Pioped II <sup><xref rid="B172" ref-type="bibr">172</xref></sup> avaliou o papel da angio-TC das art&#233;rias pulmonares associadas a angiotomografia venosa dos membros inferiores (angio-VTC) no diagn&#243;stico do TEP. Os pacientes foram classificados clinicamente quanto &#224; probabilidade do TEP pelo escore de Wells, <sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref></sup> e os resultados pr&#233;-teste foram comparados aos resultados p&#243;s-teste. Os autores demonstraram que o exame de angio-TC, quando associado ao angio-VTC, possui VPP de 96% em pacientes com alta probabilidade cl&#237;nica para TEP, e VPN de 97% em pacientes de baixa probabilidade cl&#237;nica. Em pacientes com probabilidade cl&#237;nica intermedi&#225;ria, tanto o VPN quanto o VPP foram de 92%, demonstrando a excelente resolutividade do m&#233;todo.</p>
        <p>A angio-TC tamb&#233;m possibilita a avalia&#231;&#227;o da aorta, do par&#234;nquima pulmonar, da parede tor&#225;cica e do espa&#231;o pleural, com excelente resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial, e a realiza&#231;&#227;o de diagn&#243;sticos alternativos nos casos de suspeita do TEP, o que pode ocorrer em at&#233; 2/3 dos casos, como a dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta, o pneumot&#243;rax, a pneumonia e o c&#226;ncer de pulm&#227;o, permitindo que o tratamento para cada uma destas situa&#231;&#245;es seja adequadamente institu&#237;do. <sup><xref rid="B173" ref-type="bibr">173</xref></sup> </p>
        <p>Atualmente a angio-TC &#233; o exame de escolha para avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com suspeita de TEP ap&#243;s estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cl&#237;nico, sendo um exame de angio-TC negativo para TEP em pacientes com baixa probabilidade cl&#237;nica e um procedimento suficiente para afastar este diagn&#243;stico. Um exame de angio-TC positivo para TEP em paciente com alta probabilidade cl&#237;nica confirma o diagn&#243;stico.</p>
        <p>Visto que a angio-TC &#233; o exame de escolha para o diagn&#243;stico do TEP, trabalhos que tentam caracterizar fatores progn&#243;sticos atrav&#233;s da avalia&#231;&#227;o tomogr&#225;fica do VD v&#234;m surgindo na literatura. <sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> - <xref rid="B177" ref-type="bibr">177</xref> </sup> </p>
        <p>Schoepf et al., <sup><xref rid="B177" ref-type="bibr">177</xref></sup> em estudo retrospectivo, demonstraram que o aumento do VD, avaliado pela angio-TC atrav&#233;s da rela&#231;&#227;o entre as dimens&#245;es do VD e do VE (anormal quando &gt; 0,9), &#233; um fator independente de mortalidade (OR = 5,17; IC 95%), <sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref> , <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> , <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> , <xref rid="B63" ref-type="bibr">63</xref> </sup> o que confirma o potencial uso dessa ferramenta na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco dos pacientes com embolia pulmonar aguda.</p>
        <p>Araoz et al. <sup><xref rid="B175" ref-type="bibr">175</xref></sup> avaliaram tr&#234;s achados na angio-TC (abaulamento do septo interventricular, carga emb&#243;lica e rela&#231;&#227;o VD/VE) para avaliar o risco de &#243;bito precoce, definido como morte durante a interna&#231;&#227;o ou 30 dias ap&#243;s a angio-TC para diagn&#243;stico do TEP ( <xref rid="f23" ref-type="fig">Figura 23</xref> ). Conclu&#237;ram que, como preditor de &#243;bito precoce, o abaulamento do septo interventricular poderia apresentar algum valor, com alta especificidade (87% a 88%) e baixa sensibilidade (18% a 21%). Os outros dois fatores avaliados n&#227;o aumentaram o risco de morte precoce na amostra estudada.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f23">
            <label>Figura 23</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Angio-TC positiva para TEP agudo. Sinais de disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito; notar aumento das dimens&#245;es do VD (rela&#231;&#227;o VD/VE &gt;1) e abaulamento &#224; esquerda do septo interventricular.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf26.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1.1. T&#233;cnica e Protocolos de Exames</title>
          <p>Ao realizar uma angio-TC de art&#233;rias pulmonares, o objetivo &#233; alcan&#231;ar o m&#225;ximo de opacifica&#231;&#227;o arterial pulmonar, mantendo o m&#237;nimo poss&#237;vel de contamina&#231;&#227;o venosa e artefatos de movimentos, al&#233;m de reduzir as doses de radia&#231;&#227;o e contraste.</p>
          <p>Os principais par&#226;metros a serem controlados s&#227;o:</p>
          <p><bold>a) Protocolos de aquisi&#231;&#227;o das imagens:</bold> dependem do equipamento dispon&#237;vel e de caracter&#237;sticas como tamanho e peso do paciente. Idealmente, deve-se:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>- Realizar aquisi&#231;&#227;o em apneia inspirat&#243;ria, treinando o paciente para evitar manobra de Valsalva ou pausa respirat&#243;ria;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Utilizar o <italic>time bolus</italic> ou <italic>bolus tracking</italic> com o ROI no tronco da art&#233;ria pulmonar para monitorizar a chegada do meio de contraste na circula&#231;&#227;o arterial pulmonar e realizar o exame no tempo adequado;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Adquirir as imagens em dire&#231;&#227;o das bases para os &#225;pices pulmonares, minimizando artefatos de movimentos nas regi&#245;es mais importantes, bem como reduzir o artefato decorrente de contraste concentrado na veia cava superior;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Adquirir e reconstruir as imagens com espessura fina (1mm ou menos) e sem intervalos entre as imagens para permitir reconstru&#231;&#245;es multiplanares sem perda de resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- O estudo deve abranger todas as estruturas tor&#225;cicas, o que permite avaliar eventuais diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais para a queixa do paciente;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Baixar Kv, o que permite atenuar de modo significativo o iodo e reduzir substancialmente a dose de radia&#231;&#227;o. Redu&#231;&#245;es do Kv provocam aumento no ru&#237;do da imagem: a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de 100 Kv, ao inv&#233;s dos tradicionais 120 Kv, deve ser a de prefer&#234;ncia, desde que a rela&#231;&#227;o sinal/ru&#237;do seja mantida em n&#237;veis aceit&#225;veis. Pacientes obesos podem precisar de Kv mais altos;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Utilizar a reconstru&#231;&#227;o iterativa, o que permite reduzir as doses de radia&#231;&#227;o e manter o ru&#237;do da imagem aceit&#225;vel.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p><bold>b) Protocolo de inje&#231;&#227;o do meio de contraste:</bold> dependem do tipo de contraste e do acesso venoso dispon&#237;veis. Idealmente, devem ter:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>- Acesso venoso antecubital calibroso que permita a inje&#231;&#227;o do meio de contraste por meio de bomba injetora a uma velocidade m&#237;nima de 4 mL/s;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>- Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de meios de contraste mais concentrados, como 350 mgI/mL.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.2. Tomografia Computadorizada de Dupla Energia (TCDE)</title>
      <p>A TCDE &#233; um m&#233;todo capaz de adquirir imagens simult&#226;neas (ou quase) sob duas diferentes energias. <sup><xref rid="B178" ref-type="bibr">178</xref></sup> Na avalia&#231;&#227;o de TEP, as principais vantagens desse m&#233;todo s&#227;o ( <xref rid="f24" ref-type="fig">Figura 24</xref> ):</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f24">
          <label>Figura 24</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Angiotomografia computarizada de art&#233;rias pulmonares em dupla energia. A: mapa de iodo refletindo a distribui&#231;&#227;o homog&#234;nea do meio de contraste no par&#234;nquima pulmonar; B: reconstru&#231;&#227;o angiogr&#225;fica MIP. A TCDE consegue aliar a informa&#231;&#227;o funcional com a imagem anat&#244;mica angiogr&#225;fica. C: mapa de iodo de TCDE em outro paciente, demonstrando defeitos de perfus&#227;o em cunha nos lobos superior e inferior esquerdos, compat&#237;veis com infartos pulmonares. As imagens angiogr&#225;ficas (n&#227;o demonstradas) confirmaram o diagn&#243;stico de TEP agudo.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf27.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <list list-type="alpha-lower">
        <list-item>
          <p>Gerar como subproduto o mapa de iodo, que reflita naquele instante a distribui&#231;&#227;o do meio de contraste pelo par&#234;nquima pulmonar. A avalia&#231;&#227;o conjunta do mapa de iodo com as imagens angiogr&#225;ficas pode sensibilizar a detec&#231;&#227;o de pequenos trombos em ramos arteriais pulmonares distais; <sup><xref rid="B179" ref-type="bibr">179</xref> , <xref rid="B180" ref-type="bibr">180</xref> </sup> permitindo reconstru&#231;&#245;es monoenerg&#233;ticas.</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Por outro lado, reconstru&#231;&#245;es monoenerg&#233;ticas a baixas energias (p. ex., 50Kev) aumentam a atenua&#231;&#227;o do iodo, ainda que tornem a imagem mais ruidosa. Este tipo de reconstru&#231;&#227;o pode melhorar as imagens angiogr&#225;ficas nos casos de opacifica&#231;&#227;o vascular sub&#243;tima ou permitir redu&#231;&#245;es na dose de contraste, p. ex., em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal. <sup><xref rid="B179" ref-type="bibr">179</xref> , <xref rid="B180" ref-type="bibr">180</xref> </sup> </p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.3. Gera&#231;&#245;es Antigas de Tom&#243;grafos</title>
      <p>Realizar uma angio-TC de art&#233;rias pulmonares em equipamentos mais antigos pode ser um grande desafio. Entretanto, ajustando-se os par&#226;metros de aquisi&#231;&#227;o e otimizando o uso do contraste, pode ser necess&#225;ria a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de maiores volumes ou adequar a velocidade de infus&#227;o para compensar uma aquisi&#231;&#227;o mais lenta para que seja poss&#237;vel obter imagens com qualidade diagn&#243;stica.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.4. Crit&#233;rios Diagn&#243;sticos</title>
      <p>O diagn&#243;stico de TEP agudo pela angio-TC baseia-se na identifica&#231;&#227;o de trombos oclusivos ou n&#227;o no interior dos ramos arteriais pulmonares. Os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos de TEP agudo na angio-TC s&#227;o: <sup><xref rid="B181" ref-type="bibr">181</xref></sup> </p>
      <list list-type="alpha-lower">
        <list-item>
          <p>Falha de enchimento oclusiva, determinando aumento no calibre do vaso acometido ( <xref rid="f25" ref-type="fig">Figura 25A</xref> );</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f25">
              <label>Figura 25</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; A: falha de enchimento oclusiva determinando aumento do calibre do vaso; B: falha de enchimento, central, margeada por meio de contraste; C: falha de enchimento, aderida &#224; parede do vaso e formando um &#226;ngulo agudo com ela.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf28.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Falha de enchimento n&#227;o oclusiva, central, margeada por meio de contraste ( <xref rid="f25" ref-type="fig">Figura 25B</xref> );</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Falha de enchimento n&#227;o oclusiva, aderida &#224; parede do vaso e formando um &#226;ngulo agudo com ela ( <xref rid="f25" ref-type="fig">Figura 25C</xref> ).</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Trombembolismo pulmonar agudo &#233; a principal causa para falhas de enchimentos em ramos arteriais pulmonares. S&#227;o eventuais <italic>pitfalls</italic> e diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais:</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>- Artefatos de fluxo e/ou de movimentos;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>- Interpreta&#231;&#227;o incorreta da anatomia;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>- Vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o reflexa;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>- TEP cr&#244;nico;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>- &#202;mbolos n&#227;o tromb&#243;ticos;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>- Altera&#231;&#245;es cong&#234;nitas (agenesia e/ou hipoplasia de art&#233;rias pulmonares);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>- Doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias (vasculites, mediastinite fibrosante);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>- Neoplasias (trombos e/ou invas&#227;o tumoral ou neoplasias prim&#225;rias das art&#233;rias pulmonares).</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>O sinal indireto de TEP agudo na tomografia computadorizada &#233; o infarto pulmonar ( <xref rid="f26" ref-type="fig">Figura 26</xref> ), que pode ser identificado mesmo nos estudos sem contraste. Nessa circunst&#226;ncia, faz-se necess&#225;ria a complementa&#231;&#227;o do estudo com t&#233;cnica angiogr&#225;fica para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico. A imagem t&#237;pica do infarto pulmonar &#233; uma opacidade perif&#233;rica, de base pleural, com focos hipertransparentes de permeio mais bem caracterizadas na janela de mediastino (sinal do miolo de p&#227;o) e sem aerobroncogramas. <sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B182" ref-type="bibr">182</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f26">
          <label>Figura 26</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Infarto pulmonar. A e B: opacidade perif&#233;rica, com focos hipertransparentes de permeio e sem aerobroncogramas. C: trombo agudo em ramo arterial pulmonar segmentar basal para o lobo inferior direito.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf29.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.5. Crit&#233;rios Progn&#243;sticos</title>
      <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es que podem ser caracterizadas na angio-TC com valor progn&#243;stico est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; sobrecarga aguda das cavidades card&#237;acas direitas. Ainda que as dilata&#231;&#245;es das veias cava superior e &#225;zigos e do tronco da art&#233;ria pulmonar, bem como as medidas objetivas da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita, tenham sido citadas como marcadores progn&#243;sticos, o sinal mais importante de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita &#233; o aumento das dimens&#245;es do ventr&#237;culo direito com a rela&#231;&#227;o VD/VE acima de 1,0 no plano axial da tomografia ( <xref rid="f27" ref-type="fig">Figura 27</xref> ). <sup><xref rid="B181" ref-type="bibr">181</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f27">
          <label>Figura 27</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Angio TC de art&#233;rias pulmonares. A: sinais t&#237;picos de TEP agudo; B: sinais de sobrecarga das cavidades card&#237;acas direitas. Notar rela&#231;&#227;o VD/VE &gt;1,0 e o aspecto retificado do septo interventricular.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf30.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.6. Contraindica&#231;&#227;o e Situa&#231;&#245;es Especiais</title>
      <p>Considerando a import&#226;ncia da angio-TC no diagn&#243;stico do TEP agudo, a &#250;nica contraindica&#231;&#227;o absoluta para a realiza&#231;&#227;o desse exame &#233; o antecedente de alergia grave ao meio de contraste iodado. Nesses casos, as alternativas diagn&#243;sticas podem ser a cintilografia V/Q, a angio-RM, a angio-TC com gadol&#237;neo ou a USG <italic>Doppler</italic> de MMII seriada. Antecedentes de rea&#231;&#245;es al&#233;rgicas leves e moderadas podem ser contornadas com o uso de pr&#233;-medica&#231;&#245;es para a dessensibiliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Existem outras situa&#231;&#245;es especiais nas quais pode ser conveniente adequar o protocolo ou substituir a angio-TC por outros m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos:</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Cen&#225;rio 1: mulher jovem em idade reprodutiva ou gestante</title>
        <p>Nesses casos, para evitar a exposi&#231;&#227;o do tecido mam&#225;rio &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante e, especialmente, nas pacientes com radiografia de t&#243;rax normal, as alternativas poderiam ser a cintilografia V/Q (ou apenas a fase de perfus&#227;o) ou a USG <italic>Doppler</italic> de MMII seriada.</p>
        <p>Quando a op&#231;&#227;o for pela angio-TC, o protocolo deve ser otimizado, garantindo um acesso venoso e velocidades de inje&#231;&#227;o adequados para conseguir um exame de alta qualidade diagn&#243;stica e evitar repeti&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cen&#225;rio 2: insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica em tratamento conservador</title>
        <p>N&#227;o &#233; uma contraindica&#231;&#227;o absoluta. Preferencialmente, deve-se antes hidratar o paciente, mas com cautela para evitar a congest&#227;o. Nos casos de urg&#234;ncia, a angio-TC pode ser realizada mesmo sem preparo pr&#233;vio. A cintilografia V/Q e a USG <italic>Doppler</italic> de MMII seriada permanecem como alternativas.</p>
        <p>Caso esteja dispon&#237;vel, utilizando tom&#243;grafos de dupla energia e reconstru&#231;&#245;es monoenerg&#233;ticas &#233; poss&#237;vel reduzir a dose do meio de contraste iodado e ainda assim garantir a opacifica&#231;&#227;o vascular adequada.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cen&#225;rio 3: Paciente internado em UTI sem condi&#231;&#245;es de transporte</title>
        <p>Nesses casos, optar por exames que podem ser executados &#224; beira do leito, como a ecocardiografia e a USG <italic>Doppler</italic> de MMII.&#8221;</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.7. Angiorresson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica (Angio-RM)</title>
      <p>A angio-RM &#233; uma alternativa &#224; angio-TC, que permite a realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudo angiogr&#225;fico direto das art&#233;rias pulmonares. <sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> , <xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> </sup> Esse m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico foi avaliado pelo estudo Pioped III, <sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref></sup> que associou a angio-RM de art&#233;rias pulmonares &#224; angiorresson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica venosa (angio-RMV) dos membros inferiores para o diagn&#243;stico.</p>
      <p>A angio-RM apresenta algumas vantagens em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; angio-TC. As principais s&#227;o a aus&#234;ncia de radia&#231;&#227;o e o uso de um meio de contraste (gadol&#237;nio) que pode ser utilizado em pacientes com alergia a contraste iodado. <sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o exame de angio-RM possibilita a realiza&#231;&#227;o de outras t&#233;cnicas de avalia&#231;&#227;o, como a perfus&#227;o pulmonar, a quantifica&#231;&#227;o de fluxo nos grandes vasos e a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. <sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> , <xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>Atualmente, pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal, sobretudo dial&#237;tica, e que at&#233; pouco tempo eram um nicho para a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, t&#234;m esta indica&#231;&#227;o revista pela ocorr&#234;ncia de fibrose sist&#234;mica progressiva relacionada ao uso do gadol&#237;nio nesses pacientes. <sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref></sup> </p>
      <p>As principais desvantagens do m&#233;todo s&#227;o menor resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial, maior custo, maior complexidade, maior tempo de exame, menor disponibilidade e dificuldade de monitorar pacientes graves no interior do equipamento devido ao alto campo magn&#233;tico. <sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> , <xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> </sup> </p>
      <p>Os resultados do estudo Pioped III(183) mostraram que at&#233; 25% das angio-RM foram consideradas tecnicamente inadequadas. Ao incluir esses exames tecnicamente inadequados, o m&#233;todo conseguiu diagnosticar o TEP em 57% dos pacientes. Quando apenas os exames considerados tecnicamente adequados foram analisados separadamente, a angio-RM teve sensibilidade de 78% e especificidade de 99% no diagn&#243;stico do TEP. Quando a angio-RM foi associada &#224; angio-RMV, o m&#233;todo mostrou sensibilidade de 92%, superior a angio-RM isolada, e especificidade de 96% no diagn&#243;stico. Contudo, em at&#233; 52% dos pacientes, os exames foram considerados inadequados, o que acarretou um grande problema.</p>
      <p>O estudo Pioped III <sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref></sup> concluiu que a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da angio-RM para o diagn&#243;stico do TEP deve ser realizada apenas em centros de refer&#234;ncia em resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica e quando outros m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o estiverem contraindicados. Atualmente, a principal indica&#231;&#227;o atual da resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica &#233; como m&#233;todo alternativo &#224; TC em pacientes com alergia ao contraste iodado. <sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> , <xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> </sup> </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.8. Angiografia Digital com Subtra&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Por muito tempo, a angiografia digital foi considerada como m&#233;todo padr&#227;o-ouro para o diagn&#243;stico de TEP. O car&#225;ter invasivo, as maiores doses de exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante e complica&#231;&#245;es do procedimento com relatos de at&#233; 0,5% de mortalidade, 1% de complica&#231;&#245;es graves e 5% de complica&#231;&#245;es menores, <sup><xref rid="B184" ref-type="bibr">184</xref></sup> associadas ao avan&#231;o tecnol&#243;gico da angio-TC e que possibilitam uma acur&#225;cia semelhante de forma menos invasiva, s&#227;o fatores determinantes para que a angiografia digital tenha praticamente ca&#237;do em desuso para o diagn&#243;stico de TEP agudo. Entretanto, o m&#233;todo permanece como uma importante ferramenta diagn&#243;stica na avalia&#231;&#227;o do TEP cr&#244;nico, especialmente nos pacientes candidatos ao tratamento por angioplastia com bal&#227;o.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6.9. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <list list-type="alpha-lower">
        <list-item>
          <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o dos m&#233;todos de imagem para o diagn&#243;stico de TEP agudo deve ser baseada na condi&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica do paciente e na avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da probabilidade pr&#233;-teste, com a aplica&#231;&#227;o de regras validadas (Wells, Geneva, Perc) associadas ao teste do D-d&#237;mero. Tem como objetivo evitar o uso desnecess&#225;rio dos m&#233;todos de imagem (classe I/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia A);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>A angio-TC &#233; o m&#233;todo de imagem de escolha para o diagn&#243;stico do TEP agudo. Pode ser substitu&#237;da pela cintilografia V/Q nos casos de alergia grave ao iodo ou em situa&#231;&#245;es especiais como gestantes ou pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal grave. A angio-RM fica reservada aos centros com experi&#234;ncia no m&#233;todo ou nos casos em que a angio-TC e a cintilografia V/Q sejam inapropriadas ou estejam indispon&#237;veis;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico de TEP agudo deve ser rejeitado nos pacientes com probabilidades baixa ou intermedi&#225;ria e angio-TC negativa (classe I/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia A);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>O diagn&#243;stico de TEP agudo deve ser aceito nos pacientes com probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria ou alta e angio-TC, demonstrando trombos em ramos segmentares ou proximais (classe I/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>N&#227;o &#233; recomendada a angio-VTC dos membros inferiores em virtude da alta exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante, devendo ser substitu&#237;da pela USV para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de TVP (classe III/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Nas pacientes gestantes, tanto a angio-TC quanto a cintilografia V/Q podem ser usadas. Com as t&#233;cnicas modernas, ambos os m&#233;todos causam pouca exposi&#231;&#227;o materna e fetal &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante. <sup><xref rid="B78" ref-type="bibr">78</xref> , <xref rid="B185" ref-type="bibr">185</xref> </sup> Nos casos com RX normal, tanto a angio-TC quanto a cintilografia V/Q podem ser utilizadas; por outro lado, nos casos com RX alterada, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; prosseguir com angio-TC (classe IIa/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia C);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>O aumento nas dimens&#245;es das cavidades card&#237;acas direitas, com a rela&#231;&#227;o VD/VE &gt; 1,0, est&#225; ligado a mortalidade ligada ao TEP agudo 5 vezes maior, <sup><xref rid="B186" ref-type="bibr">186</xref></sup> devendo esta ser considerada como um crit&#233;rio tomogr&#225;fico de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita e marcador de pior progn&#243;stico, mesmo em pacientes clinicamente considerados de baixo risco (classe IIa/n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B).</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Os fluxogramas diagn&#243;sticos em pacientes hemodinamicamente est&#225;veis e inst&#225;veis, de acordo com a probabilidade cl&#237;nica de TEP, est&#227;o nos <xref rid="gt02" ref-type="fig">Quadros 5</xref> e <xref rid="gt03" ref-type="fig">6</xref> . No <xref rid="t18" ref-type="table">Quadro 12</xref> , est&#227;o apontadas as vantagens e desvantagens do uso da angiotomografia pulmonar no diagn&#243;stico do TEP.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t18">
          <label>Quadro 12</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Vantagens e desvantagens do uso da angiotomografia no diagn&#243;stico do TEP</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2">ANGIOTOMOGRAFIA PULMONAR</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>VANTAGENS</th>
                <th>DESVANTAGENS</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Grande disponibilidade</td>
                <td align="center">Exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Excelente acur&#225;cia</td>
                <td align="center">Necessidade do uso do meio de contraste iodado</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Baixo n&#250;mero de estudos inconclusivos</td>
                <td align="center">Tend&#234;ncia de uso indiscriminado pela facilidade de acesso</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">R&#225;pida execu&#231;&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Sobrediagn&#243;stico &#8211; capaz de identificar trombos subsegmentares, cujo significado cl&#237;nico &#233; incerto</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Permite investigar diagn&#243;sticos alternativos</td>
                <td> </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7. Cintilografia Pulmonar</title>
      <sec>
        <title>7.1. Evid&#234;ncias</title>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Para efeitos pr&#225;ticos, define-se nesta parte o termo &#8220;cintilografia pulmonar&#8221; como um exame &#250;nico contendo diferentes combina&#231;&#245;es entre cintilografia de perfus&#227;o pulmonar e cintilografia de inala&#231;&#227;o/ventila&#231;&#227;o pulmonar; ou mesmo o estudo de perfus&#227;o isolado. De acordo com as diretrizes internacionais dispon&#237;veis da Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging (SNMMI, Estados Unidos), da European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM, Europa) e da European Society of Cardiology (ESC, Europa), as principais indica&#231;&#245;es para o uso da cintilografia pulmonar ser&#227;o listadas e discutidas a seguir. <sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p><bold>Indica&#231;&#227;o principal:</bold> determinar a probabilidade de trombembolismo pulmonar (TEP) <sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B196" ref-type="bibr">196</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>
            <bold>Indica&#231;&#245;es secund&#225;rias:</bold>
          </p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Registrar o grau de resolu&#231;&#227;o de trombembolismo pulmonar no acompanhamento de TEP cr&#244;nica;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Quantificar a fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar diferencial antes da cirurgia para ressec&#231;&#227;o de neoplasias pulmonares; <sup><xref rid="B197" ref-type="bibr">197</xref> - <xref rid="B199" ref-type="bibr">199</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avaliar transplantes pulmonares; <sup><xref rid="B200" ref-type="bibr">200</xref> , <xref rid="B201" ref-type="bibr">201</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avaliar doen&#231;a card&#237;aca ou pulmonar cong&#234;nita, ou doen&#231;as como <italic>shunts</italic> card&#237;acos, estenose de art&#233;ria pulmonar e f&#237;stulas arteriovenosas, bem como seu tratamento. <sup><xref rid="B202" ref-type="bibr">202</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Confirmar a presen&#231;a de f&#237;stula broncopleural. <sup><xref rid="B203" ref-type="bibr">203</xref> - <xref rid="B205" ref-type="bibr">205</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avaliar dist&#250;rbios pulmonares cr&#244;nicos parenquimatosos como a fibrose c&#237;stica; <sup><xref rid="B206" ref-type="bibr">206</xref> , <xref rid="B207" ref-type="bibr">207</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avaliar TEP como causa de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar. <sup><xref rid="B208" ref-type="bibr">208</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Considera-se como positivo para TEP: <sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref></sup> </p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Discord&#226;ncia entre os estudos de ventila&#231;&#227;o ou inala&#231;&#227;o, e o estudo de perfus&#227;o em pelo menos um segmento ou dois subsegmentos, com hipocapta&#231;&#227;o presente apenas ou mais extensa na perfus&#227;o em contraste com inala&#231;&#227;o normal ( <italic>mismatch</italic> ), respeitando a estrutura pulmonar vascular (hipoperfus&#227;o com padr&#227;o em cunha e projetada a partir do centro at&#233; a periferia pulmonar).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>S&#227;o considerados negativos para TEP:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Perfus&#227;o normal, mantendo as bordas normais dos pulm&#245;es;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Padr&#245;es concordantes entre os estudos de inala&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o de qualquer tamanho, forma ou n&#250;mero;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Padr&#245;es discordantes entre inala&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o sem padr&#227;o lobar, segmentar ou subsegmentar.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>S&#227;o considerados n&#227;o diagn&#243;sticos para TEP:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Anormalidades de inala&#231;&#227;o/perfus&#227;o generalizadas, n&#227;o t&#237;picas de uma doen&#231;a espec&#237;fica.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.2 Evid&#234;ncias Relacionadas aos Crit&#233;rios de Interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos Exames</title>
          <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o da cintilografia pulmonar para a detec&#231;&#227;o de TEP, existem evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas suficientes tanto para o uso de crit&#233;rios bem definidos de interpreta&#231;&#227;o, para os crit&#233;rios modificados do estudo <italic>Prospective Investigation of Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis</italic> (Pioped), Pioped II e Pisaped, quanto para interpreta&#231;&#227;o baseada na experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica do m&#233;dico nuclear/imaginologista (m&#233;todo Gestalt).</p>
          <p>Os crit&#233;rios Pioped modificados mostraram-se mais acurados do que os originais Pioped, <sup><xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> , <xref rid="B210" ref-type="bibr">210</xref> </sup> e os chamados Pioped II (que usa menos categorias de an&#225;lise) e Pisaped resultaram em um n&#250;mero menor de estudos &#8220;indeterminados&#8221; ou &#8220;incaracter&#237;sticos&#8221;. <sup><xref rid="B211" ref-type="bibr">211</xref> , <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">212</xref> </sup> Tanto o Pioped II quanto o Pisaped resultaram em performances equivalentes quando utilizaram radiografias tor&#225;cicas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; interpreta&#231;&#227;o em conjunto com cintilografia de inala&#231;&#227;o/ventila&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. <sup><xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">213</xref></sup> N&#227;o existem, contudo, estudos suficientes replicando esses resultados, inclusive compara&#231;&#245;es multic&#234;ntricas duplo-cegas entre as duas estrat&#233;gias, o que n&#227;o suporta a afirma&#231;&#227;o de que ambos os m&#233;todos tem acur&#225;cia equivalente.</p>
          <p>Recomenda-se, assim, a associa&#231;&#227;o de estudos de inala&#231;&#227;o/ventila&#231;&#227;o sempre que poss&#237;vel, principalmente pela eleva&#231;&#227;o da especificidade do estudo combinado em compara&#231;&#227;o ao estudo comparativo com a radiografia. Em idosos, at&#233; 60% de falso-positivos podem resultar da aus&#234;ncia de inala&#231;&#227;o, pela elevada preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as de vias a&#233;reas. <sup><xref rid="B214" ref-type="bibr">214</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>A an&#225;lise baseada na experi&#234;ncia do m&#233;dico nuclear (Gestalt) tamb&#233;m pode resultar em interpreta&#231;&#227;o mais acurada do que nos estudos ao usar isoladamente crit&#233;rios bem definidos. Para que essa interpreta&#231;&#227;o seja a melhor poss&#237;vel, identificou-se que a opini&#227;o do m&#233;dico deve ser informada levando-se em considera&#231;&#227;o o conhecimento detalhado dos diferentes crit&#233;rios objetivos relacionados anteriormente. <sup><xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>No que diz respeito &#224; aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagens cintilogr&#225;ficas tomogr&#225;ficas (tomografia por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico &#8211; Spect), existe consider&#225;vel literatura suportando o seu uso, inclusive relacionada a estudos acoplados &#224; tomografia computadorizada de baixa dose (Spect/CT de baixa dose), que parecem elevar a acur&#225;cia da interpreta&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref></sup> O consenso mais recente da EANM (2019) sugere que as aquisi&#231;&#245;es tomogr&#225;ficas (SPECT ou SPECT/CT) sejam sempre feitas por rotina, deixando as aquisi&#231;&#245;es planas para quando n&#227;o seja mais poss&#237;vel a aquisi&#231;&#227;o tomogr&#225;fica. <sup><xref rid="B188" ref-type="bibr">188</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>Ainda que n&#227;o existam estudos multic&#234;ntricos robustos de compara&#231;&#227;o com imagens de cintilografia plana ou mesmo com a angio-TC, <sup><xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">216</xref></sup> ou estudos robustos prospectivos que acompanhem o desfecho dos pacientes, a exemplo da cintilografia plana e da angio-TC, <sup><xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref></sup> nos &#250;ltimos foi relatada not&#225;vel confirma&#231;&#227;o da eleva&#231;&#227;o da acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica da Spect e da Spect/CT. Existem ainda algumas incertezas sobre a interpreta&#231;&#227;o de Spect e Spect/CT nos moldes do Pioped e derivados, o melhor protocolo Spect para as imagens de inala&#231;&#227;o/ventila&#231;&#227;o e qual o melhor protocolo de investiga&#231;&#227;o ideal como um todo (Spect de perfus&#227;o e inala&#231;&#227;o, Spect/CT com ou sem contraste etc). <sup><xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">213</xref> , <xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">216</xref> </sup> No entanto, sugere-se que sejam valorizados como positivos os achados a partir de um segmento completo de discord&#226;ncia entre a perfus&#227;o e a inala&#231;&#227;o ( <italic>mismatch</italic> ). Achados de um &#250;nico <italic>mismatch</italic> subsegmentar n&#227;o devem ser valorizados como suspeitos para TEP. <sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>Frente aos dados apresentados, conv&#233;m ressaltar que, independentemente do crit&#233;rio adotado para interpreta&#231;&#227;o, &#233; bem definido que h&#225; um progn&#243;stico favor&#225;vel para os pacientes com baixa probabilidade de TEP nos exames de cintilografia pulmonar, <sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref> - <xref rid="B193" ref-type="bibr">193</xref> </sup> e que um estudo normal de perfus&#227;o virtualmente exclui TEP. <sup><xref rid="B194" ref-type="bibr">194</xref> - <xref rid="B196" ref-type="bibr">196</xref> </sup> </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.3. Acur&#225;cia Diagn&#243;stica</title>
          <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; acur&#225;cia dos m&#233;todos, deve-se ressaltar a diferen&#231;a entre os estudos mais antigos, feitos nas d&#233;cadas de 1980 e 1990, e os mais recentes, realizados com m&#225;quinas atualizadas e m&#233;todos tomogr&#225;ficos. <sup><xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref></sup> Estudos mais antigos apresentavam acur&#225;cia significativamente menor, al&#233;m de uma taxa de estudos n&#227;o diagn&#243;sticos que se aproximaram de 65% no estudo Pioped original. Atualmente, essa taxa varia de 1% a 4%, porcentagem significativamente menor que a de outros m&#233;todos de investiga&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref> , <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> , <xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>De modo geral, os valores de acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica dos estudos mais recentes, sobretudo da Spect, igualam-se ou sobrepujam os da angiotomografia computadorizada de t&#243;rax (angio-TC), o que por vezes demonstra maior capacidade da cintilografia em detectar TEP subsegmentar no estudo Pioped II. Assim, n&#227;o existem dados cient&#237;ficos robustos que sustentem a superioridade da angio-TC sobre a cintilografia. <sup><xref rid="B218" ref-type="bibr">218</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>Dessa forma, a cintilografia na forma de Spect &#233; o exame com menor taxa de resultados inconclusivos (&lt;3%). <sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref> , <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref> </sup> Contudo, na pr&#225;tica, a angio-TC permanece como o m&#233;todo de escolha, principalmente pela rapidez de sua realiza&#231;&#227;o e sua maior disponibilidade, inclusive de 24 horas em regime de plant&#227;o, frente aos exames de medicina nuclear. <sup><xref rid="B176" ref-type="bibr">176</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>As principais diferen&#231;as de acur&#225;cia entre os estudos planos e Spect se d&#227;o pela maior detec&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es subsegmentares e nos segmentos mediais pr&#243;ximos ao mediastino, que no segundo caso podem detectar at&#233; 53% mais &#225;reas sugestivas de TEP do que os estudos planos. <sup><xref rid="B219" ref-type="bibr">219</xref></sup> Os primeiros valores de sensibilidade (S) e especificidade (E) demonstraram importante variabilidade nos primeiros estudos: S = 67% para imagens planas e S = 93% para Spect em modelo animal (porcos); <sup><xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">220</xref></sup> S= 80% e E = 78% para imagens planas; S = 80% e E = 96% para Spect; <sup><xref rid="B221" ref-type="bibr">221</xref></sup> e S = 76% e E = 85% para imagens planas <italic>versus</italic> S = 97% e E = 91% para Spect. <sup><xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">222</xref></sup> Portanto, nos estudos iniciais, os valores de acur&#225;cia geralmente se elevaram da casa de 70-80% com imagens planas para acima de 90% quando foram usadas imagens Spect.</p>
          <p>Estudos mais recentes em mais de 5.000 casos com uso de Spect demonstraram valor preditivo negativo entre 97-99%, S = 96-99% e E = 96-98%, o que d&#225; largo suporte para o seu uso em detrimento das imagens planas. <sup><xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">222</xref> - <xref rid="B229" ref-type="bibr">229</xref> </sup> A incorpora&#231;&#227;o do Spect com tomografia computadorizada (Spect/CT) torna o m&#233;todo ainda superior, ao elevar sua especificidade e adicionar a capacidade da tomografia de baixa dose, o que ajuda no diagn&#243;stico diferencial ao identificar enfisema, pneumonia e/ou outras altera&#231;&#245;es parenquimatosas que causem compress&#227;o vascular, e, portanto, possam explicar os defeitos perfusionais, <sup><xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref> , <xref rid="B230" ref-type="bibr">230</xref> </sup> ( <xref rid="f28" ref-type="fig">Figura 28</xref> )</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f28">
              <label>Figura 28</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; A: s&#233;rie de imagens exemplificando uma cintilografia pulmonar V/Q Planar, com uso de DTPA/MAA marcados com 99mTc, nas proje&#231;&#245;es anterior, posterior, laterais e obl&#237;quas, mostrando inala&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o normais. B: s&#233;rie de imagens de cintilografia pulmonar V/Q Spect-CT, com uso de DTPA/MAA marcados com 99mTc da esquerda para direita: primeira coluna, ventila&#231;&#227;o Spect; segunda coluna, perfus&#227;o Spect; e terceira coluna, TC t&#243;rax. A imagem de ventila&#231;&#227;o &#233; normal, j&#225; a perfus&#227;o evidencia d&#233;ficit perfusional no segmento inferior do lobo superior esquerdo (seta) e TC normal, configurando TEP.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf31.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Nos artigos mais recentes, a compara&#231;&#227;o com a angio-TC trouxe novas respostas, mas ainda h&#225; controv&#233;rsias sobre a superioridade de performance de um m&#233;todo sobre o outro. <sup><xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref></sup> Aparentemente, Spect e Spect/CT s&#227;o superiores e demonstram diagn&#243;stico de TEP com maior acur&#225;cia em casos de doen&#231;as pulmonares, como comorbidades que podem dificultar o diagn&#243;stico pela angio-TC. <sup><xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">223</xref> , <xref rid="B232" ref-type="bibr">232</xref> - <xref rid="B234" ref-type="bibr">234</xref> </sup> Em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise, Spect foi superior &#224; angio-TC, <sup><xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref></sup> e estudos de compara&#231;&#227;o direta demonstram que a Spect &#233; superior &#224; angio-TC em an&#225;lise de curva ROC. <sup><xref rid="B235" ref-type="bibr">235</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m &#233; importante ressaltar quer a Spect possui sensibilidade superior em pacientes com TEP cr&#244;nica, onde &#233; considerado o exame de refer&#234;ncia. <sup><xref rid="B236" ref-type="bibr">236</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>Conclui-se que ambos os exames apresentam vantagens e desvantagens, sendo a cintilografia superior &#224; angio-TC em casos com outras doen&#231;as concomitantes, TEP cr&#244;nica e quando a angio-TC resulta em exames indeterminados. <sup><xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">223</xref> , <xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref> - <xref rid="B234" ref-type="bibr">234</xref> </sup> Assim, quando ambas as modalidades est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis, a cintilografia pulmonar com aquisi&#231;&#227;o Spect (ou Spect/CT, preferencialmente) deve ser recomendada, por n&#227;o possuir contraindica&#231;&#245;es, apresentar menor taxa de exames indeterminados e pela menor exposi&#231;&#227;o da mama feminina &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o (ver abaixo). <sup><xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">237</xref> - <xref rid="B241" ref-type="bibr">241</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>No que diz respeito ao estudo isolado de perfus&#227;o pulmonar pela cintilografia, compara&#231;&#245;es com a angiografia pulmonar como m&#233;todo padr&#227;o-ouro demonstraram sensibilidade de 86% e especificidade de 93% para perfus&#227;o. Quando os crit&#233;rios Pisaped foram aplicados na popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo Pioped-II, a sensibilidade ponderada do estudo de perfus&#227;o foi de 82%, e a especificidade ponderada foi de 96%. <sup><xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">213</xref></sup> Estudos de perfus&#227;o isolada s&#227;o recomendados em indiv&#237;duos com suspeita de TEP maci&#231;a e na gravidez, como comentado abaixo. Utilizar a tomografia computadorizada de baixa dose em substitui&#231;&#227;o a um estudo inalat&#243;rio eleva a sensibilidade em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; perfus&#227;o isolada ;por&#233;m, essa estrat&#233;gia leva a uma taxa maior de falso-positivos <sup><xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref> , <xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> , <xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref> </sup> e eleva a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o em gestantes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.4. Indica&#231;&#245;es da Cintilografia Pulmonar por Limita&#231;&#245;es da Angiotomografia Pulmonar</title>
          <p>Al&#233;m do que foi discutido aqui, a cintilografia pulmonar tem sido considerada a escolha preferencial sobre outros m&#233;todos em casos de gravidez, considerando-se a menor taxa de exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o para a mama de mulheres gr&#225;vidas, al&#233;m de necessidade de uso em algumas situa&#231;&#245;es de limita&#231;&#227;o do uso de contraste pela angio-TC. Tais indica&#231;&#245;es ser&#227;o detalhadas a seguir.</p>
          <p>
            <bold>a) Exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o e uso na gravidez:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Uma vez que estudos de inala&#231;&#227;o/ventila&#231;&#227;o e radiografias de t&#243;rax s&#227;o comumente normais em indiv&#237;duos jovens, &#233; comum recomendar a omiss&#227;o dessa parte do estudo em indiv&#237;duos sabidamente em risco para efeitos da radia&#231;&#227;o, como gr&#225;vidas no primeiro trimestre de gravidez, por conta da prov&#225;vel maior vulnerabilidade do feto aos efeitos da radia&#231;&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref> , <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>Na gravidez, de in&#237;cio recomenda-se um protocolo apenas com estudo perfusional e atividade reduzida do radiof&#225;rmaco (ver se&#231;&#227;o sobre t&#233;cnicas de realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame). Uma vez normal, essa fase do estudo exclui TEP, deixado &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o da fase de inala&#231;&#227;o apenas em casos de exce&#231;&#227;o e d&#250;vida de positividade no dia seguinte ao exame de perfus&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref></sup> Dessa forma, garante-se menos exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o do que uma angiotomografia pulmonar e aus&#234;ncia de exposi&#231;&#227;o ao contraste iodado. <sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>O &#243;rg&#227;o materno critico a ser protegido, neste caso, &#233; a mama, que absorve doses de radia&#231;&#227;o entre 8,6 a 44 mSv pela angio-TC <sup><xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">237</xref> , <xref rid="B238" ref-type="bibr">238</xref> , <xref rid="B244" ref-type="bibr">244</xref> </sup> e menos de 1 mSv na cintilografia de perfus&#227;o pulmonar isolada, sem associa&#231;&#227;o da tomografia ou estudo inalat&#243;rio. <sup><xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">237</xref></sup> A doses para os fetos parecem ser baixas e similares em ambos os m&#233;todos.</p>
          <p>
            <bold>b) Outras limita&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da angiotomografia:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Por conta do uso de contraste iodado intravenoso, a angio-TC pode n&#227;o ser realizada em uma grande parte dos pacientes graves, como aqueles com insufici&#234;ncia renal, doentes em estado cr&#237;tico, que sofreram infarto do mioc&#225;rdio recente, como necessidade de suporte ventilat&#243;rio e hist&#243;ria de alergia/anafilaxia ao contraste iodado. Nesses casos (al&#233;m daqueles citados no item A) e no t&#243;pico <italic>Acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica</italic> , a cintilografia pulmonar deve sempre ser indicada, por n&#227;o possuir contraindica&#231;&#245;es, pela aus&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao m&#233;todo, pela baixa taxa de inconclusivos e em raros casos de incapacidade de realizar o exame. <sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref> , <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref> , <xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">223</xref> </sup> </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.5. Protocolo</title>
          <p>
            <bold>1. Etapa de ventila&#231;&#227;o/inala&#231;&#227;o</bold>
          </p>
          <p>
            <bold>a. Radiof&#225;rmacos:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>
            <bold>i. Gases inertes:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>
            <bold>1.</bold>
            <sup>
              <xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref>
            </sup>
            <bold>Xe:</bold>
          </p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Historicamente, &#233; o f&#225;rmaco utilizado para as etapas de ventila&#231;&#227;o da cintilografia pulmonar. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">245</xref> , <xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">246</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Possui meia-vida de 5 dias e energia (baixa) de 81keV. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>No estudo do Pioped I, a t&#233;cnica de ventila&#231;&#227;o &#250;nica &#233; a mais usada. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O <sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup> Xe &#233; inalado durante os primeiros 20 segundos, e uma imagem deve ser obtida na proje&#231;&#227;o posterior. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B247" ref-type="bibr">247</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>N&#227;o h&#225; disposi&#231;&#227;o deste g&#225;s no Brasil.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>
            <bold>2.</bold>
            <sup>81m</sup>
            <bold>Kr:</bold>
          </p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p> &#201; produzido por um gerador de rub&#237;dio ( <sup><xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref></sup> Ru), de alto custo. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">248</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Tem a energia gama ideal (193 keV) e meia-vida &#233; de 13 segundos. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B249" ref-type="bibr">249</xref> </sup> Quando um paciente est&#225; respirando ar com <sup>81m</sup> Kr em uma frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria normal, a concentra&#231;&#227;o alveolar regional desse g&#225;s fica em um estado estacion&#225;rio proporcional &#224; ventila&#231;&#227;o regional. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref></sup> Durante a ventila&#231;&#227;o de <sup>81m</sup> Kr no estado estacion&#225;rio, &#233; poss&#237;vel realizar v&#225;rias imagens planares ou aquisi&#231;&#227;o Spect. Muito recentemente, a combina&#231;&#227;o de Spect com TC de baixa dose foi descrita. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O <sup>81m</sup> Kr &#233; um g&#225;s verdadeiro que n&#227;o causa artefatos por conta da deposi&#231;&#227;o das vias a&#233;reas centrais. Uma vantagem &#233; que a ventila&#231;&#227;o e a perfus&#227;o podem ser visualizadas simultaneamente, uma vez que a energia gama do <sup>81m</sup> K &#233; maior que a do <sup>99m</sup> Tc (usado como marcador de perfus&#227;o). <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A baixa exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o faz com que o <sup>81m</sup> Kr seja a melhor escolha para crian&#231;as.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>N&#227;o h&#225; disposi&#231;&#227;o desse g&#225;s no Brasil.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>
            <bold>ii. Aeross&#243;is radio marcados:</bold>
          </p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Dada a indisponibilidade dos gases inertes <sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup> Xe e <sup>81m</sup> Kr em territ&#243;rio nacional para a etapa de ventila&#231;&#227;o, geralmente s&#227;o usados radioaeross&#243;is.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Um aerossol &#233; um sistema bif&#225;sico relativamente est&#225;vel no tempo, composto por part&#237;culas suspensas no ar. As part&#237;culas radiomarcadas podem ser l&#237;quidas, s&#243;lidas ou uma combina&#231;&#227;o das duas. A porcentagem de part&#237;culas remanescentes no pulm&#227;o ap&#243;s a inala&#231;&#227;o (fra&#231;&#227;o de deposi&#231;&#227;o) depende das propriedades aerodin&#226;micas das part&#237;culas, principalmente de seu tamanho. A fra&#231;&#227;o de deposi&#231;&#227;o &#233; de at&#233; 50%, com nanopart&#237;culas ultrafinas (di&#226;metro de 0,02mm), que s&#227;o depositadas predominantemente na regi&#227;o alveolar por difus&#227;o. <sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B250" ref-type="bibr">250</xref> </sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O aerossol radiomarcado mais comumente utilizado &#233; o <sup>99</sup> mTc-DTPA, que &#233; eliminado da regi&#227;o alveolar por difus&#227;o transepitelial, apresentando meia-vida biol&#243;gica de 80 minutos em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis n&#227;o tabagistas; 45 minutos em fumantes passivos saud&#225;veis es 24 minutos em tabagistas ativos saud&#225;veis. <sup><xref rid="B251" ref-type="bibr">251</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Outra op&#231;&#227;o de aerossol radiomarcado dispon&#237;vel &#233; o technegas, que consiste em part&#237;culas extremamente pequenas de grafite s&#243;lido, radiomarcadas com <sup>99</sup> mTc, geradas a altas temperaturas e <sup><xref rid="B252" ref-type="bibr">252</xref> , <xref rid="B253" ref-type="bibr">253</xref> </sup> que apresentam di&#226;metro de cerca de 0,005 a 0,2 micr&#244;metros, <sup><xref rid="B254" ref-type="bibr">254</xref></sup> s&#227;o hidrof&#243;bicase apresentam tend&#234;ncia a se agruparem, raz&#227;o pela qual devem ser utilizadas at&#233; 10 minutos ap&#243;s serem geradas. Ficam suspensas em g&#225;s arg&#244;nio (tendo, portanto, propriedade de g&#225;s). Estudos demonstram que a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de <sup>99</sup> mTc-technegas com <sup>81m</sup> Kr geram resultados compar&#225;veis. <sup><xref rid="B255" ref-type="bibr">255</xref> - <xref rid="B259" ref-type="bibr">259</xref> </sup> Ressalta-se, entretanto, a baixa disponibilidade de equipamentos de technegas no Brasil, especialmente em fun&#231;&#227;o do alto custo.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>
            <bold>b. Protocolos de imagens:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>i. Como a embolia pulmonar &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o amea&#231;adora da vida, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; que o diagn&#243;stico seja realizado o mais breve poss&#237;vel, usualmente em protocolos de 1 dia (ventila&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o). Estudos de ventila&#231;&#227;o pulmonar, que servir&#227;o de base para compara&#231;&#227;o com o devido estudo perfusional, devem ser obtidos antes da aquisi&#231;&#227;o das imagens de perfus&#227;o, com a necessidade de atividade radioativa muito baixa. A aquisi&#231;&#227;o sequencial de imagens perfusionais de baixa a moderada atividade radioativa permite imagens comparativas de &#243;tima qualidade, com diagn&#243;stico em pouco tempo.</p>
          <p>ii. Sempre que poss&#237;vel, deve-se proceder com aquisi&#231;&#245;es tomogr&#225;ficas, como segue:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Ventila&#231;&#227;o com o devido aerossol radiomarcado, em posi&#231;&#227;o supina, usando dose de 25% em rela&#231;&#227;o ao que ser&#225; utilizado para o estudo perfusional (usualmente 25 a 30 MBq para ventila&#231;&#227;o).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Em uma <italic>gamma camera</italic> com grande campo de vis&#227;o, preferencialmente com 2 ou 3 cabe&#231;as, usar colimador de prop&#243;sito geral. Ser&#227;o obtidas, ao menos, 128 imagens, em matriz de aquisi&#231;&#227;o de 64 x 64 e tempo por imagem de 10s.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>As imagens de perfus&#227;o devem ser obtidas imediatamente ap&#243;s as imagens de ventila&#231;&#227;o. Para evitar movimenta&#231;&#245;es do paciente, proceder com o acesso venoso perif&#233;rico utilizado em imagens de perfus&#227;o antes do in&#237;cio da fase de ventila&#231;&#227;o.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>
                <bold>Etapa de Perfus&#227;o</bold>
              </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>
            <bold>a. Radiof&#225;rmaco:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>i. O radiof&#225;rmaco utilizado &#233; o macroagragado de albumina humana marcado com <sup>99</sup> mTc ( <sup>99</sup> mTc-MAA).</p>
          <p>
            <bold>b. Protocolos de imagens:</bold>
          </p>
          <list list-type="roman-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>O paciente deve estar em posi&#231;&#227;o supina, com o acesso venoso previamente instalado (previamente &#224; aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagens de ventila&#231;&#227;o &#8211; objetivando a menor movimenta&#231;&#227;o poss&#237;vel entre as etapas);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Administrar, atrav&#233;s do acesso venoso, atividade entre 100 e 120 MBq de <sup>99</sup> mTc-MAA (n&#250;mero de part&#237;culas de MAA de aproximadamente 200.000 a 700.00 em situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas espec&#237;ficas, como hipertens&#227;o pulmonar e pesquisa de <italic>shunt</italic> direita/esquerda. O n&#250;mero de part&#237;culas deve ser reduzido para um valor entre 100.000 e 150.000).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Na mesma <italic>gamma camera</italic> em que foram adquiridas as imagens de ventila&#231;&#227;o, sem qualquer movimenta&#231;&#227;o do paciente, as imagens devem ser adquiridas, como seguem:</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>128 imagens tomogr&#225;ficas (Spect) em matriz 64 x 64, 5 segundos por imagem. <sup><xref rid="B260" ref-type="bibr">260</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p><bold>3. Apenas em etapa de perfus&#227;o:</bold> em pacientes gestantes e casos de suspeita de TE maci&#231;o, &#233; indicada a realiza&#231;&#227;o da etapa de perfus&#227;o, apenas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.6. Reconstru&#231;&#227;o de imagens</title>
          <p>As imagens devem ser reconstru&#237;das de forma iterativa, utilizando-se OSEM ( <italic>ordered-subset expectation maximization</italic> ), e mediante protocolo sugerido com 8 <italic>subsets</italic> e 2 itera&#231;&#245;es. <sup><xref rid="B219" ref-type="bibr">219</xref> , <xref rid="B260" ref-type="bibr">260</xref> , <xref rid="B261" ref-type="bibr">261</xref> </sup> </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.7. Interpreta&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p><bold>a)</bold> Nas cintilografias V/Q Spect e V/Q planar, as imagens devem ser interpretadas com base em:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>i.</bold> Crit&#233;rios b&#225;sicos para avalia&#231;&#227;o de estudos de imagem;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>ii.</bold> Conhecimento e experi&#234;ncia do m&#233;dico interpretador, utilizando o princ&#237;pio &#8220;Gestalt&#8221;;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>iii.</bold> Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste, de acordo com princ&#237;pios de interpreta&#231;&#227;o hol&#237;sticos.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p><bold>b)</bold> Para que sejam clinicamente relevantes, &#233; importante que as cintilografias pulmonares sejam descritas como positivas ou negativas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; presen&#231;a de TEP (EP: SIM ou N&#195;O), n&#227;o devendo ser baseadas em categorias de probabilidades. <sup><xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr">84</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>
            <bold>c) Crit&#233;rios b&#225;sicos para interpreta&#231;&#227;o de cintilografias pulmonares V/Q:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>
            <bold>i. Aus&#234;ncia de EP &#233; relatada quando houver:</bold>
          </p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>i.1</bold> . Perfus&#227;o pulmonar normal;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>i.2.</bold> Defeitos V/Q sobrepostos ou revers&#237;veis (presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#227;o na ventila&#231;&#227;o, sem sobreposi&#231;&#227;o perfusional) de qualquer tamanho, forma ou n&#250;mero, e na aus&#234;ncia de <italic>mismatch</italic> verdadeiro;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>i.3</bold> . <italic>Mismatch</italic> sem padr&#227;o lobar, segmentar ou subsegmentar.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>
            <bold>ii. Presen&#231;a de EP &#233; relatada quando houver:</bold>
          </p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>ii.1</bold> . <italic>Mismatch</italic> V/Q de pelo menos 1 segmento ou 1 subsegmento que siga a anatomia de perfus&#227;o pulmonar.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>
                <bold>iii. O estudo &#233; n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico quando:</bold>
              </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>iii.1.</bold> M&#250;ltiplas anormalidades V/Q s&#227;o observadas, n&#227;o t&#237;picas de doen&#231;as espec&#237;ficas.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.8. Trombembolismo Pulmonar Cr&#244;nico</title>
          <p>TEP cr&#244;nico &#233; uma entidade m&#233;dica diferente do TEP agudo, com surgimento insidioso e que sem tratamento, &#233; progressivo e apresenta mau progn&#243;stico. <sup><xref rid="B262" ref-type="bibr">262</xref> , <xref rid="B263" ref-type="bibr">263</xref> </sup> A mortalidade decorre de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar, fal&#234;ncia card&#237;aca direita e arritmias. De modo geral, cintilografias pulmonares V/Q s&#227;o auxiliares no diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar trombemb&#243;lica cr&#244;nica, <sup><xref rid="B208" ref-type="bibr">208</xref> , <xref rid="B264" ref-type="bibr">264</xref> </sup> com sensibilidade e especificidade superiores &#224;s de tomografias computadorizadas de m&#250;ltiplos detectores. <sup><xref rid="B265" ref-type="bibr">265</xref></sup> </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.9. Achados Diagn&#243;sticos Adicionais</title>
          <p>A realiza&#231;&#227;o de cintilografias pulmonares ventilat&#243;rias e perfusionais, com aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagens topogr&#225;ficas (V/Q Spect) t&#234;m sido capazes de demonstrar outras situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que n&#227;o apenas a embolia pulmonar, como DPOC, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca esquerda e pneumonia. Em aproximadamente 39% dos pacientes que se submetem ao procedimento diagn&#243;stico e n&#227;o apresentam TEP, e em 22% com TEP, algum dos seguintes achados adicionais estar&#225; presente. <sup><xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">223</xref></sup> </p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>DPOC:</bold> caracteriza-se por defeitos pareados ventilat&#243;rios e perfusionais. Frequentemente, os defeitos ventilat&#243;rios s&#227;o mais pronunciados que os defeitos perfusionais, fen&#244;meno conhecido como <italic>mismatch</italic> reverso. <sup><xref rid="B266" ref-type="bibr">266</xref> , <xref rid="B267" ref-type="bibr">267</xref> </sup> A correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre o grau de anormalidades ventilat&#243;rias identificadas ao estudo cintilogr&#225;fico e os resultados de testes de fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar foi descrita. <sup><xref rid="B268" ref-type="bibr">268</xref></sup> A TEP &#233; frequente em pacientes com DPOC, <sup><xref rid="B269" ref-type="bibr">269</xref></sup> sendo respons&#225;vel por cerca de 10% das mortes de pacientes com DPOC est&#225;vel. <sup><xref rid="B270" ref-type="bibr">270</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca esquerda:</bold> a perfus&#227;o sofre redistribui&#231;&#227;o rumo &#224;s regi&#245;es superiores dos pulm&#245;es. <sup><xref rid="B271" ref-type="bibr">271</xref> , <xref rid="B272" ref-type="bibr">272</xref> </sup> A redistribui&#231;&#227;o ventilat&#243;ria &#233; menos extensa que a redistribui&#231;&#227;o perfusional. O <italic>mismatch</italic> pode ser observado nas regi&#245;es dorsais e apresenta padr&#227;o difuso n&#227;o segmental, n&#227;o devendo ser interpretado como EP.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Pneumonia:</bold> apresenta-se com defeitos ventilat&#243;rios e perfusionais pareados ( <italic>matched)</italic> , sendo que os primeiros usualmente s&#227;o maiores, o que causa <italic>mismatch</italic> reverso. <sup><xref rid="B273" ref-type="bibr">273</xref> , <xref rid="B274" ref-type="bibr">274</xref> </sup> Um achado sugestivo de pneumonia &#233; o <italic>stripe sign</italic> , que se refere a manuten&#231;&#227;o de perfus&#227;o na superf&#237;cie pleural perif&#233;rica &#224; uma &#225;rea central de defeito pareado. <sup><xref rid="B275" ref-type="bibr">275</xref></sup> O padr&#227;o <italic>stripe sign</italic> &#233; melhor identificado em estudos com aquisi&#231;&#245;es tomogr&#225;ficas.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.10. <italic>Pitfalls</italic> na Interpreta&#231;&#227;o de Estudos V/Q</title>
          <p>Assim como em qualquer m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico, &#233; fundamental que o m&#233;dico nuclear respons&#225;vel pelo laudo do referido estudo conhe&#231;a os poss&#237;veis e inerentes erros ao m&#233;todo, como os que seguem:</p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Artefatos t&#233;cnicos podem surgir a partir da manipula&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-inje&#231;&#227;o do <sup>99m</sup> Tc-MAA. A retirada de sangue de um paciente atrav&#233;s de uma seringa que contenha a solu&#231;&#227;o de <sup>99m</sup> Tc-MAA pode levar a agrega&#231;&#227;o de part&#237;culas, criando os chamados <italic>hotspots</italic> . Defeito semelhante pode surgir decorrente da falha de ressuspens&#227;o das part&#237;culas de <sup>99m</sup> Tc-MAA previamente &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o endovenosa.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Imagens planares podem subestimar a presen&#231;a e/ou a extens&#227;o das anormalidades perfusionais, decorrentes da sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de &#225;reas normalmente perfundidas. Esse artefato &#233; eliminado atrav&#233;s das imagens cintilogr&#225;ficas em cortes tomogr&#225;ficos (Spect).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Sempre que poss&#237;vel, o uso de technegas &#233; prefer&#237;vel em rela&#231;&#227;o aos aeross&#243;is l&#237;quidos em pacientes com DPOC. Raramente, em pacientes com enfisema pulmonar, as part&#237;culas de technegas podem ficar presas em bolhas, levando a m&#225; interpreta&#231;&#227;o de poss&#237;vel <italic>mismatch.</italic> <sup><xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">222</xref></sup> </p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Defeitos perfusionais n&#227;o pareados ( <italic>mismatch</italic> ) e que n&#227;o apresentam um claro padr&#227;o segmentar podem ser vistos em pacientes idosos em casos de TEP parcialmente resolvidas, mas n&#227;o em casos de TEP aguda. Al&#233;m disso, defeitos perfusionais n&#227;o pareados ( <italic>mismatch</italic> ) s&#227;o observados em outras etiologias pulmonares como c&#226;ncer, linfadenopatia mediastinal, sequelas act&#237;nicas, pneumonite, fibrose e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Cintilografias pulmonares de ventila&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o podem falhar na detec&#231;&#227;o de trombembolismo que causem apenas obstru&#231;&#227;o parcial vascular, com poucos efeitos hemodin&#226;micos. Tal altera&#231;&#227;o apresenta baixo significado cl&#237;nico. Uma explica&#231;&#227;o para essa ocorr&#234;ncia &#233; que o &#234;mbolo n&#227;o oclusivo, geralmente, est&#225; associado a outros sinais de TEP em outras regi&#245;es, levando ao diagn&#243;stico correto. De qualquer forma, quando a presen&#231;a de oclus&#227;o parcial &#233; identificada (defeito perfusional segmentar evidente, na presen&#231;a de ventila&#231;&#227;o normal), o estudo deve ser relatado como positivo para TEP.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>De modo geral, a aus&#234;ncia completa de perfus&#227;o unilateral, na presen&#231;a de ventila&#231;&#227;o normal ipsolateral e sem qualquer outro <italic>mismatch</italic> no pulm&#227;o contralateral, n&#227;o decorre de TEP. <sup><xref rid="B276" ref-type="bibr">276</xref> , <xref rid="B277" ref-type="bibr">277</xref> </sup> Nesses casos, as tomografias computadorizadas de t&#243;rax costumam demonstrar a presen&#231;a de outras patologias, como tumores ou outros processos mediastinais, anormalidades vasculares pulmonares cong&#234;nitas ou aneurisma de aorta.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.11. O Futuro da Avalia&#231;&#227;o de EP por T&#233;cnicas de Medicina Nuclear</title>
          <p>Ainda na d&#233;cada de 1970, o <sup>68</sup> Ga, um dos primeiros is&#243;topos utilizados na avalia&#231;&#227;o de perfus&#227;o pulmonar, foi apresentado como o futuro da avalia&#231;&#227;o pulmonar pela medicina nuclear. Trata-se de um is&#243;topo emissor de p&#243;sitron; portanto, sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o depende de equipamentos de PET e se daria na forma de microesferas marcadas com <sup>68</sup> Ga para avaliar a perfus&#227;o. Por outro lado, a ventila&#231;&#227;o seria avaliada de forma semelhante ao que se faz com o technegas: part&#237;culas marcadas com <sup>68</sup> Ga, o chamado <italic>galligas</italic> <sup><xref rid="B278" ref-type="bibr">278</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="f29" ref-type="fig">Figura 29</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f29">
              <label>Figura 29</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; &#192; esquerda, s&#233;rie de imagens exemplificando uma cintilografia pulmonar V/Q Spect-CT normal, com uso de technegas/MAA marcados com 99mTc, mostrando de cima para baixo: TC baixa dose; ventila&#231;&#227;o Spect; fus&#227;o da ventila&#231;&#227;o/TC; perfus&#227;o Spect; e fus&#227;o perfus&#227;o/TC. &#192; direita, s&#233;rie de imagens exemplificando um V/Q PET-CT normal, com uso de Galligas/MAA marcados com 68Ga de cima para baixo, cortes sagitais de fus&#227;o da ventila&#231;&#227;o/TC (esquerda) e perfus&#227;o/TC (direita). Adaptado de Le Roux Pyet et al.279e Bailey DL et al. 280 </title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf32.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Uma transi&#231;&#227;o da V/Q Spect para PET-CT teria como vantagens caracter&#237;sticas superiores de imagem intr&#237;nsecas da metodologia, como: maior sensibilidade do detector em anel, cobrindo 360 graus simultaneamente; melhor estat&#237;stica de contagens; maior resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial e temporal; redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de aquisi&#231;&#227;o em torno de 10 min, podendo chegar a 5min com os novos PET/CT digitais. Outras vantagens seriam a disponibilidade comercial de sistemas de gatilhamento respirat&#243;rio que permitam a redu&#231;&#227;o de artefatos, especialmente nas bases pulmonares; permitir a possibilidade de m&#250;ltiplos estudos ventilat&#243;rios, com ou sem broncodilatador, no mesmo dia, devido a curta meia-vida do g&#225;lio-68; e, claro, manuten&#231;&#227;o de caracter&#237;sticas como simplicidade de execu&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o invasivo, e sem contraindica&#231;&#245;es ou efeitos colaterais, relacionados ao uso de contraste (alergia e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal). Do ponto de vista t&#233;cnico, n&#227;o implica grandes dificuldades ou investimentos, pois os requisitos de radiofarm&#225;cia permanecem relativamente simples, com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um equipamento de Technegas existente, modificando apenas na s&#237;ntese do macro agregado de albumina (MAA) e sua consequente marca&#231;&#227;o com G&#225;lio-68 (cujos geradores s&#227;o cada vez mais dispon&#237;veis, possibilitando uma ado&#231;&#227;o mais ampla deste is&#243;topo) ao inv&#233;s do <sup>99m</sup> Tc, mantendo uma dose de radia&#231;&#227;o muito pr&#243;xima daquela de uma V/Q Spect/CT convencional <sup><xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref></sup> ( <xref rid="f30" ref-type="fig">Figura 30</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f30">
              <label>Figura 30</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; &#192; esquerda, s&#233;rie de imagens exemplificando uma cintilografia pulmonar V/Q SPECT-CT normal, com uso de technegas/MAA marcados com 99m Tc, mostrando, de cima para baixo: TC baixa dose, ventila&#231;&#227;o Spect, fus&#227;o da ventila&#231;&#227;o/CT, perfus&#227;o Spect e fus&#227;o perfus&#227;o/CT. &#192; direita, s&#233;rie de imagens exemplificando um V/Q PET-CT, com uso de Galligas/MAA marcados com 68 Ga, de cima para baixo: cortes sagitais de fus&#227;o da ventila&#231;&#227;o/TC (a esquerda) e perfus&#227;o/TC (a direita); d&#233;ficit concordante, imagem de fus&#227;o perfus&#227;o PET/CT mostrando d&#233;ficit de perfus&#227;o (seta); e imagem de CT apenas, demonstrando tumor obstruindo br&#244;nquio, correspondendo ao defeito de ventila&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o no PET.</title>
              </caption>
              <attrib>Adaptado de Le Roux PY et al. <sup>279</sup> e Bailey DL et al. <sup>280</sup> </attrib>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf33.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Em 2018, Le Roux et al. <sup><xref rid="B281" ref-type="bibr">281</xref></sup> propuseram um protocolo para revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, a metan&#225;lise da acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica e os desfechos cl&#237;nicos da V/Q SPECT, cujos resultados ainda n&#227;o se encontram publicados e certamente colaborar&#227;o com mais evid&#234;ncia na ado&#231;&#227;o desta t&#233;cnica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.12. Algoritmo Cl&#237;nico para Investiga&#231;&#227;o de Pacientes com Suspeita de TEP</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da probabilidade cl&#237;nica de TEP ajuda os m&#233;dicos a escolherem o teste objetivo mais apropriado para diagnosticar ou excluir o diagn&#243;stico ( <xref rid="gt03" ref-type="fig">Quadro 6</xref> ). A medi&#231;&#227;o do D-d&#237;mero (um produto de degrada&#231;&#227;o do co&#225;gulo de fibrina reticulado) &#233; amplamente utilizada para investigar pacientes com suspeita de trombembolismo venoso. O ensaio quantitativo do D-d&#237;mero, fundamentado em um m&#233;todo r&#225;pido de Elisa, apresenta alta sensibilidade (pr&#243;ximo aos 95%) ao trombembolismo venoso. <sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> </sup> No entanto, o teste apresenta uma baixa especificidade (40%), porque o D-d&#237;mero pode ser aumentado em v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es al&#233;m do trombembolismo venoso, como infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular cerebral, inflama&#231;&#227;o, c&#226;ncer ativo e gravidez. A especificidade cai com a idade e, em idosos, pode alcan&#231;ar apenas 10%. <sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref> , <xref rid="B214" ref-type="bibr">214</xref> </sup> Consequentemente, um teste quantitativo negativo do D-d&#237;mero tem um alto valor preditivo negativo para o trombembolismo venoso. Os resultados dos estudos revelam que o risco de desenvolver TEP em pacientes com baixa probabilidade cl&#237;nica, que n&#227;o s&#227;o tratados ap&#243;s um teste de D-d&#237;mero negativo &#233; &lt; 1% em tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial. <sup><xref rid="B282" ref-type="bibr">282</xref></sup> Por outro lado, o baixo valor preditivo de um teste D-d&#237;mero quantitativo positivo n&#227;o modifica a probabilidade pr&#233;-teste (cl&#237;nica), sendo, portanto, clinicamente in&#250;til. Evidencias recentes, no entanto, sugerem que n&#237;veis muito altos do D-d&#237;mero est&#227;o associados a um aumento de quatro vezes na probabilidade de TEP, <sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup> sendo importante na avalia&#231;&#227;o da carga da doen&#231;a trombemb&#243;lica e podendo ter significado progn&#243;stico. <sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref> , <xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref> </sup> </p>
          <p>As estrat&#233;gias diagn&#243;sticas variam com a estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica dos pacientes:</p>
          <p>
            <bold>a) Pacientes est&#225;veis:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Com base no exposto, quando a probabilidade cl&#237;nica de TEP for baixa e o D-d&#237;mero quantitativo for negativo, o diagn&#243;stico &#233; improv&#225;vel e n&#227;o s&#227;o necess&#225;rias investiga&#231;&#245;es adicionais ( <xref rid="gt02" ref-type="fig">Quadro 5</xref> ). Quando a probabilidade cl&#237;nica de TEP for baixa e o D-d&#237;mero quantitativo for positivo, poder&#227;o ser necess&#225;rias investiga&#231;&#245;es adicionais para uma variedade de diagn&#243;sticos, inclu&#237;do o TEP, sobretudo quando o n&#237;vel do D-d&#237;mero estiver marcadamente elevado. Quando a probabilidade cl&#237;nica for diferente de baixa, parece mais apropriado pular o teste do D-d&#237;mero e encaminhar o paciente diretamente para a t&#233;cnica de imagem apropriada ( <xref rid="gt02" ref-type="fig">Quadro 5</xref> ). Pode ser V/Q Spect ou angio-TC, dependendo da disponibilidade local, do conhecimento m&#233;dico e da condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do paciente. O V/Q Spect praticamente n&#227;o tem contraindica&#231;&#245;es e produz uma carga de radia&#231;&#227;o substancialmente menor do que a angio-TC. <sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> </p>
          <p>
            <bold>b) Pacientes hemodicamente inst&#225;veis:</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Quando o paciente apresentar hipotens&#227;o grave ou choque cardiog&#234;nico ( <xref rid="gt03" ref-type="fig">Quadro 6</xref> ), o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico pode permanecer como a t&#233;cnica de imagem de primeira linha, j&#225; que possibilita detectar dilata&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o direito e hipocinesia. Em raras circunst&#226;ncias, pode visualizar embolia dentro das cavidades card&#237;acas direitas ou na art&#233;ria pulmonar principal. A cintilografia pulmonar por perfus&#227;o &#233; uma op&#231;&#227;o alternativa &#224; angio-TC, pois pode mostrar rapidamente v&#225;rios defeitos de perfus&#227;o segmentar ou lobar t&#237;picos da TEP aguda. <sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup> Quando houver suspeita de dissec&#231;&#227;o aguda da aorta tor&#225;cica por conta de dor no peito, a angio-TC possibilita a avalia&#231;&#227;o desse diagn&#243;stico diferencial.</p>
          <p>Dada a necessidade de rapidez no diagn&#243;stico e no tratamento desses pacientes, a estrat&#233;gia empregada em uma institui&#231;&#227;o especifica deve ser adaptada &#224; situa&#231;&#227;o clinica espec&#237;fica e as circunst&#226;ncias locais. Quando o exame inicial sugerir uma a&#231;&#227;o maci&#231;a de TEP, outras iniciativas devem ser adaptadas &#224; situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, podendo ser ministrada terapia trombembol&#237;stica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.13. Algoritmo Diagn&#243;stico</title>
          <p>Quando suspeito, o TEP deve ser confirmado ou refutado para evitar os riscos de super e subtratamento, o que requer testes de imagem. Apenas as t&#233;cnicas &#243;timas s&#227;o recomendadas, ou seja, a angio-TC e o V/Q Spect. A modalidade de imagem usada depender&#225; da disponibilidade. <sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup> Ainda que a angio-TC esteja mais prontamente dispon&#237;vel, ela &#233; contraindicada em um n&#250;mero substancial de pacientes, conforme mostrado no estudo Pioped II. <sup><xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref></sup> Nos dias atuais, o V/Q Spect raramente est&#225; dispon&#237;vel 24 horas/dia, 7 dias por semana. Consequentemente, esses dois m&#233;todos devem estar prontos para uso pelo menos em centros hospitalares terci&#225;rios, visto que ambos s&#227;o cruciais para algoritmos adequados no diagn&#243;stico de TEP. Em cada centro, o algoritmo aplicado para o diagn&#243;stico de TEP deve estar fundamentado em condi&#231;&#245;es locais e, principalmente, na disponibilidade de V/Q Spect e angio-TC.</p>
          <p>O V/Q SPECT, quando dispon&#237;vel, oferece vantagens consider&#225;veis sobre as outras t&#233;cnicas de imagem para o diagn&#243;stico de TEP, como alta sensibilidade e especificidade para o diagn&#243;stico de TEP, menor carga de radia&#231;&#227;o previs&#237;vel e adequa&#231;&#227;o ao acompanhamento de pacientes com TEP e sua hist&#243;ria natural.</p>
          <p>Os fluxogramas diagn&#243;sticos em pacientes hemodinamicamente est&#225;veis e inst&#225;veis, de acordo com a probabilidade cl&#237;nica de TEP, est&#227;o nos <xref rid="gt02" ref-type="fig">Quadros 5</xref> e <xref rid="gt03" ref-type="fig">6</xref> . No <xref rid="t19" ref-type="table">Quadro 13</xref> , est&#227;o apontadas as vantagens e desvantagens do uso da cintilografia pulmonar no diagn&#243;stico do TEP.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t19">
              <label>Quadro 13</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Vantagens e desvantagens do uso da cintilografia pulmonar no diagn&#243;stico do TEP</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th colspan="2">CINTILOGRAFIA PULMONAR</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>VANTAGENS</th>
                    <th>DESVANTAGENS</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Baixa exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o</td>
                    <td align="center">Disponibilidade limitada</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Pode ser realizada por gestantes</td>
                    <td align="center">N&#227;o permite identificar com absoluta seguran&#231;a a art&#233;ria oclu&#237;da</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">O radiof&#225;rmaco utilizado n&#227;o prejudica fun&#231;&#227;o renal</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Alta acur&#225;cia</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Procedimento coberto pelo SUS e pelo rol da ANS</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Permite avaliar TEP cr&#244;nico</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Permite avaliar resolu&#231;&#227;o de TEP agudo</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1.14. Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Cintilografia pulmonar V/Q &#233; fortemente recomendada no diagn&#243;stico de TEP, apresentando grande acur&#225;cia mesmo na presen&#231;a de DPOC e pneumonia;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Technegas &#233; superior ao DTPA em pacientes com DPOC;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Quando dispon&#237;vel, <sup>81m</sup> Kr &#233; vantajoso;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A dose de radia&#231;&#227;o deve ser reduzida ao m&#225;ximo poss&#237;vel, sem preju&#237;zo cl&#237;nico na imagem (princ&#237;pio Alara). De modo geral, devem ser usados 30MBq de <sup>99m</sup> Tc-aerosol para ventila&#231;&#227;o e 100-120 MBq de <sup>99m</sup> Tc-MAA para perfus&#227;o;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Em pacientes gestantes, recomenda-se apenas a etapa de perfus&#227;o;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A interpreta&#231;&#227;o deve ser feita de forma hol&#237;stica; a interpreta&#231;&#227;o probabil&#237;stica &#233; obsoleta;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Crit&#233;rio fundamental para o diagn&#243;stico de TEP &#233; a presen&#231;a de <italic>mismatch</italic> em mais de 1 subsegmento.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p><bold>Realiza&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (DIC/SBC), Col&#233;gio Brasileiro de Radiologia (CBR), Sociedade Brasileira de Angiologia e Cirurgia Vascular (SBACV) e Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Nuclear (SBMN)</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p><bold>Coordenadoras da Diretriz:</bold> Ana Cristina Lopes Albricker, Cl&#225;udia Maria Vilas Freire, Simone Nascimento dos Santos</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p><bold>Nota:</bold> Estas diretrizes se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Errata</label>
        <p>Na &#8220;Diretriz Conjunta sobre Tromboembolismo Venoso &#8211; 2022&#8221;, com n&#250;mero de DOI: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20220213">https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20220213</ext-link>, publicado no peri&#243;dico Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, 118(4): 797-857, foram realizadas as seguintes corre&#231;&#245;es:</p>
        <p>Inclu&#237;da a institui&#231;&#227;o Hospital DF Star, Rede D&#8217;Or, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil, para a autora Simone Nascimento dos Santos.</p>
        <p>Na institui&#231;&#227;o Angiolab Vit&#243;ria, Laborat&#243;rio Vascular, corrigida a localiza&#231;&#227;o &#8220;Rio de Janeiro, RJ&#8221; para &#8220;Vit&#243;ria, ES&#8221;.</p>
        <p>Na p&#225;gina 804, Quadro 2, foi inserida uma seta de &#8220;Positivo&#8221; para &#8220;USV&#8221;.</p>
        <p>Somente na vers&#227;o portugu&#234;s, p&#225;gina 806, Quadro 5, coluna da direita, foi trocada a posi&#231;&#227;o de &#8220;Positivo&#8221; e &#8220;Negativo&#8221;.</p>
        <p>Somente na vers&#227;o portugu&#234;s, p&#225;gina 822, Quadro 9, linha 7, corrigida a grafia de &#8220;Compressibilidade&#8221;.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Guidelines</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Joint Guideline on Venous Thromboembolism &#8211; 2022</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author"/>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1622-6621</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Albricker</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cristina Lopes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2153-7301</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Freire</surname>
            <given-names>Cl&#225;udia Maria Vilas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3438-0526</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Simone Nascimento dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31001">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1348-9074</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alcantara</surname>
            <given-names>Monica Luiza de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Saleh</surname>
            <given-names>Mohamed Hassan</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4217-8977</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cantisano</surname>
            <given-names>Armando Luis</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Teodoro</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Aldo Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2531-4308</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Porto</surname>
            <given-names>Carmen Lucia Lascasas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amaral</surname>
            <given-names>Salomon Israel do</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10001">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Veloso</surname>
            <given-names>Orlando Carlos Gloria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6186-1531</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Petisco</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cl&#225;udia Gomes Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4272-646X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>Fanilda Souto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12001">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6213-3226</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcio Vin&#237;cius Lins de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13001">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Adriano Jos&#233; de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14001">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2271-5878</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sobreira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcone Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15001">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9469-639X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Miranda</surname>
            <given-names>Robson Barbosa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16001">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moraes</surname>
            <given-names>Domingos de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17001">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="fn" rid="fnb31">&#8224;</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Verrastro</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Gustavo Yuji</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3047-519X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Man&#231;ano</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Dias</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19001">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8071-6516</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Ronaldo de Souza Le&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20001">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4700-0599</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Muglia</surname>
            <given-names>Valdair Francisco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21001">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7602-0433</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Matushita</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina Sebasti&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22001">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23001">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9599-7688</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael Willain</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24001">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5555-4583</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Coutinho</surname>
            <given-names>Artur Martins Novaes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25001">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6342-4471</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pianta</surname>
            <given-names>Diego Bromfman</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22001">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8640-3657</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Alair Augusto Sarmet Moreira Damas dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26001">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7153-4614</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Naves</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno de Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27001">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Luiz Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28001">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29001">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24001">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29001">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30001">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio de Belo Horizonte (UniBH), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Eccos Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular Avan&#231;ado, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or, Rede D&#8217;Or S&#227;o Luiz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Ecovitall, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">PRENOTO Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica e Diagn&#243;stica, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10001">
        <label>10</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Samaritano, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11001">
        <label>11</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">UnitedHealth Group (UHG), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12001">
        <label>12</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Angiolab Vit&#243;ria, Laborat&#243;rio Vascular, Vit&#243;ria, ES &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13001">
        <label>13</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Rede Mater Dei de Sa&#250;de, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14001">
        <label>14</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Ecocenter Medicina Diagn&#243;stica , Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15001">
        <label>15</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (FMB), Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16001">
        <label>16</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica Fluxo de Cirurgia Vascular, S&#227;o Bernardo do Campo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17001">
        <label>17</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18001">
        <label>18</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff19001">
        <label>19</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">RA Sabin Medicina Diagn&#243;stica, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff20001">
        <label>20</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff21001">
        <label>21</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff22001">
        <label>22</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do C&#233;rebro do Rio Grande do Sul (InsCer) da Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff23001">
        <label>23</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Medicina Nuclear Joinville S&#227;o Marcos Diagn&#243;sticos, Joinville, SC &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff24001">
        <label>24</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Hcor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff25001">
        <label>25</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff26001">
        <label>26</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff27001">
        <label>27</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Madre Teresa, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff28001">
        <label>28</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein,S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff29001">
        <label>29</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (FMUSP),S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff30001">
        <label>30</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">DASA-ALTA, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff31001">
        <label>31</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital DF Star, Rede D&#8217;Or, 31 Bras&#237;lia, DF Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Correspondence: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil &#8211; CEP: 20020-907. E-mail: diretrizes@cardiol.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="deceased" id="fna31">
          <label>&#8224;</label>
          <p>In memoriam.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <table-wrap>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2">Joint Guideline on Venous Thromboembolism &#8211; 2022</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th colspan="2">The report below lists declarations of interest as reported to the SBC by the experts during the period of the development of these statement, 2021/2022.</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Expert</th>
                <th align="left">Type of relationship with industry</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Adriano Jos&#233; de Souza</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Alair Augusto Sarmet Moreira Damas dos Santos</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Alexandre Dias Man&#231;ano</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ana Cl&#225;udia Gomes Pereira Petisco</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ana Cristina Lopes Albricker</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Bayer: course on cardiovascular risk at INCOR.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Armando Luis Cantisano</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Artur Martins Novaes Coutinho</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Bruno de Lima Naves</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Bayer: Xarelto.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Bayer: Xarelto; Apsen: Dobeven; Servier: Daflon.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carlos Eduardo Rochitte</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carlos Gustavo Yuji Verrastro</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Carmen Lucia Lascasas Porto</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Bayer: Xarelto; Pfizer: Eliquis; Boehringer Ingelhem: Pradaxa Phase III Studies.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Bayer: Xarelto; Pfizer: Eliquis; Boehringer Ingelhem: Pradaxa Phase III Studies.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Bayer: research.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cl&#225;udia Maria Vilas Freire</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cristina Sebasti&#227;o Matushita</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- GE HealthCare: aula PET-CT PSMA e Aplication m&#233;dica da CZT; R2/IBF: aula PET-CT 18-PSMA/1007; AMB: aula sobre Medicina Nuclear.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Diego Bromfman Pianta</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- GE Healthcare: PET-CT PSMA class in prostate cancer; R2/IBF: 18F-PSMA PET-CT class in prostate cancer.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Domingos de Morais</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fanilda Souto Barros</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Jos&#233; Aldo Ribeiro Teodoro</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcelo Luiz Campos Vieira</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>M&#225;rcio Vin&#237;cius Lins de Barros</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Marcone Lima Sobreira</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Sanofi:Enoxaparina and VTE; Bayer: Rivaroxabana and VTE; Pfizer: Apixabana and VTE.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Pfizer: Apixaban and Peripheral arterial disease; Venosan: Ready Wrap is chronic venous disease; Bayer:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Rivaroxaban and VTE.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Sanofi: VTE.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Mohamed Hassan Saleh</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Monica Luiza de Alcantara</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Orlando Carlos Gloria Veloso</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rafael Willain Lopes</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Robson Barbosa de Miranda</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Mindray Brasil: Diagnostic equipment.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Other relationships</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Any economically relevant equity interest in companies in the healthcare or education industry or in any companies competing with or supplying to SBC:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Teaching Area: Vascular Ultrasound Course with Doppler.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Ronaldo de Souza Le&#227;o Lima</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salomon Israel do Amaral</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Simone Nascimento dos Santos</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Financial declaration</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. From the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>- Jonhson and Abbott: Intracardiac echo.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Valdair Francisco Muglia</td>
                <td>
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Nothing to be declared</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Content</p>
      <p>Introduction 801</p>
      <p>1. Pathophysiology and Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis of Venous Thromboembolism 802</p>
      <p>1.1. Introduction 802</p>
      <p>1.2. Pathophysiology 802</p>
      <p>1.3. Clinical and laboratory diagnosis 802</p>
      <p><bold>1.3.1. Measurement of D-dimer</bold> 803</p>
      <p>2. Echocardiographic Changes in Pulmonary Embolism 805</p>
      <p>2.1. Introduction 805</p>
      <p>2.2. Echocardiography in Low-risk Pulmonary Embolism (PE) 805</p>
      <p>2.3. Echocardiography in High-risk Pulmonary Embolism (PE) 805</p>
      <p>2.4. Recommendations 815</p>
      <p>3. Intravascular Ultrasound in Deep Vein Thrombosis Diagnosis 815</p>
      <p>3.1. Ultrasound Signs of Vein Thrombosis: B-mode and Doppler 815</p>
      <p><bold>3.1.1. Imaging Methodology &#8211; Technical Aspects</bold> 815</p>
      <p>3.2. IVUS Protocols in DVT 815</p>
      <p>3.3. Test Protocols 815</p>
      <p><bold>3.3.1. Complete DuplexVUS</bold> 815</p>
      <p><bold>3.3.2. Complete Lower Extremity Venous Compression US</bold> 823</p>
      <p><bold>3.3.3. Extended Compression US (Three-point)</bold> 823</p>
      <p><bold>3.3.4. Two-point Compression US</bold> 823</p>
      <p>3.4. Differential Diagnosis 826</p>
      <p>3.5. Recommendations 826</p>
      <p>3.6. How to Write Imaging Test Reports 828</p>
      <p>4. Vascular ultrasound in the diagnosis of recurrent deep vein thrombosis and post-thrombotic syndrome 828</p>
      <p>4.1. Recurrent venous thrombosis 828</p>
      <p>4.2. Ultrasonic Diagnosis of Recurrent Thrombosis 829</p>
      <p>4.3. Post-thrombotic Syndrome 829</p>
      <p><bold>4.3.1. Pathophysiology</bold> 830</p>
      <p><bold>4.3.2. Clinical Manifestations</bold> 830</p>
      <p><bold>4.3.3. Diagnosis</bold> 830</p>
      <p>5. Follow-up Protocols with Intravascular Ultrasound after Deep Vein Thrombosis 833</p>
      <p>5.1. Introduction 833</p>
      <p>5.2. Recanalization 833</p>
      <p>5.3. Recurrent Thrombosis 833</p>
      <p>5.4. Valve Insufficiency 833</p>
      <p>5.5. Discussion 833</p>
      <p><bold>5.5.1. Initial Negative VUS</bold> 833</p>
      <p><bold>5.5.2. Proximal vs. Distal Thrombosis</bold> 833</p>
      <p><bold>5.5.3. Recurrent Deep Vein Thrombosis</bold> 835</p>
      <p>5.4. Recommendations 835</p>
      <p>6.1. CT angiography 835</p>
      <p><bold>6.1.1. Imaging Technique and Protocols</bold> 836</p>
      <p>6.2. Dual-energy computed tomography 837</p>
      <p>6.3. Older Generations of CT Scanners 837</p>
      <p>6.4. Diagnostic Criteria 837</p>
      <p>6.5. Prognostic Criteria 837</p>
      <p>6.6. Contraindications and Special Situations 837</p>
      <p>6.7. MR Angiography 840</p>
      <p>6.8. Digital Subtraction Angiography 840</p>
      <p>6.9. Recommendations 840</p>
      <p>7. Lung scintigraphy 841</p>
      <p>7.1. Evidence 841</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.1. Introduction</bold> 841</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.2. Evidence Regarding Imaging Interpretation Criteria</bold> 841</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.3. Diagnostic Accuracy</bold> 842</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.4. Indications for Lung Scintigraphy Due to Limitations of CT Pulmonary Angiography</bold> 843</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.5. Protocol</bold> 843</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.6. Image Reconstruction</bold> 844</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.7. Interpretation</bold> 844</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.8. Chronic Pulmonary Embolism</bold> 845</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.9. Additional Diagnostic Findings</bold> 845</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.10. Pitfalls in the Interpretation of V/Q Studies</bold> 845</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.11. The future of Nuclear Medicine Evaluation of PE</bold> 845</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.12. Clinical Algorithm for the Investigation of Patients with Suspected PE</bold> 846</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.13. Diagnostic Algorithm</bold> 847</p>
      <p><bold>7.1.14. Conclusions</bold> 848</p>
      <p>References 848</p>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Venous thromboembolism (VTE) manifests as pulmonary embolism (PE) and/or deep vein thrombosis (DVT), being part of the same disease spectrum and presenting the same risk factors. It is the third most common cause of acute cardiovascular syndrome worldwide, being potentially life-threatening.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref> , <xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>In Brazil, according to data from the Ministry of Health collected between 2010 and 2021, the number of hospitalizations for VTE exceeded 520,000, with a total of more than 67,000 deaths from 2010 to 2019.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>It has a high mortality rate. Approximately 34% of affected patients die suddenly or within a few hours of the first manifestation, that is, even before receiving any type of treatment.</p>
        <p>Almost two-thirds of the cases of VTE manifest as DVT alone, mostly as proximal DVT of the lower extremities, and one-third as PE.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In the literature, several studies have associated the presence of VTE with climate variation. In Brazil, Ohki et al.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup>reported a higher incidence of VTE in the southern states, where temperatures are lower. These states have a mean incidence of VTE of 2.86 cases per 100,000 population.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>This clinical syndrome exponentially increases with age, even with the implementation of prevention strategies.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup>Women are most commonly affected in their youth, especially in the postpartum period. During pregnancy, tobacco use, thrombophilia and/or a history of VTE increase the risk in this group of patients. Other conditions, such as prolonged immobility, obesity, cancer, major surgery with prolonged anesthesia, multiple trauma, lower-extremity varicose veins, hormone replacement therapy, and cardiovascular diseases, are considered at risk for VTE, although it has been recognized that there is variation in risk prediction between these causes.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Ethnicity is considered a risk factor for VTE. The incidence of VTE is significantly higher among White and African American people and lower among Hispanic and Asian people. Overall, approximately 25%-50% of patients presenting with a first episode of VTE have an idiopathic condition, without an easily identifiable risk factor. Early mortality in VTE is strongly associated with pulmonary involvement, in the form of PE, in addition to advanced age, cancer and underlying cardiovascular disease.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The recurrence rate is relevant, and non-fatal VTE may have sequelae such as pulmonary hypertension in cases of chronic PE and post-thrombotic syndrome in DVT. Notably, there has been a reduction in deaths due to better diagnostic and therapeutic management after the publication of international position statements and guidelines on the topic.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Diagnosis of VTE may not be straightforward. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on the diagnostic approach to PE and DVT, as failure to correctly diagnose the condition can be fatal or lead to permanent comorbidities.</p>
        <p>In this context, the Department of Cardiovascular Imaging (DIC/SBC), the Brazilian College of Radiology (CBR), the Brazilian Society of Angiology and Vascular Surgery (SBACV), and the Brazilian Society of Nuclear Medicine (SBMN) jointly developed this document. The purpose is to address clinical and diagnostic aspects aiming to create a single recommendation for the 4 societies, which should serve as a source of information for Brazilian physicians and as a standard for the clinical, laboratory, and imaging diagnosis of VTE. The prophylactic and therapeutic approach to VTE is not within the scope of this document.</p>
        <p>This recommendation was developed based on guidelines, on population-based studies and case reports published in the literature, and on the expertise of the participating members. Each work group compiled the data, drafted the writings, and then submitted the revised text for final adjustments. The most controversial issues were discussed at a meeting attended by the majority of the members. Corrections were made to the original text if necessary.</p>
        <p>This recommendation is aimed at clinicians or surgeons and intends to provide the best information on the diagnostic approach to VTE, offering data on the accuracy of diagnostic tools used in daily practice. For imaging physicians, a detailed description of the imaging protocols can help them make a more accurate diagnosis, thus contributing to a better clinical management of suspected or confirmed cases.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1. Pathophysiology and Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis of Venous Thromboembolism</title>
        <sec>
          <title>1.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>The spectrum of venous thromboembolism (VTE) comprises deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). Thromboembolic disease is the third most common acute cardiovascular disease, after ischemic heart syndromes and stroke. There is a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations for these diseases, from clinically silent to massive embolism, leading to death.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup>About one-third of all cases of PE are fatal, and cancer is one of the many disease states associated with an increased risk of thromboembolic disease. Approximately two-thirds of the cases of VTE are DVT, 85%-90% occurring in the lower extremities, and one-third are PE.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref> , <xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> </sup>In this context, we must always remember that VTE is a serious but preventable disease.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2. Pathophysiology</title>
          <sec>
            <title>A) Deep vein thrombosis (DVT):</title>
            <p>DVT is a common and potentially fatal condition, with PE as the main complication. It can be considered the first cause of avoidable in-hospital morbidity and mortality. In addition, it can also lead to post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS) as a chronic complication, which has an important socioeconomic impact. These complications can occur despite proper diagnosis and therapy, but early diagnosis and prompt initiation of the correct treatment can reduce their potential deleterious effects.</p>
            <p>DVT can occur in both inpatients and outpatients. The symptoms are nonspecific, varying from a completely asymptomatic to a catastrophic condition, such as in phlegmasia cerulea dolens (PCD). PCD is characterized by complete occlusion or massive subocclusion of the limb draining veins (iliofemoral system) and collaterals, which may extend to the microcirculation. Venous hypertension reaches a level that can obstruct arterial inflow.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref> , <xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> </sup>The high hydrostatic pressure and interstitial fluid sequestration leads to the formation of hardened edema in the entire limb, which can accumulate 3 to 5 liters in volume and lead to the collapse of arterioles, skin blisters due to tissue ischemia, purpura/ecchymosis, cyanosis, loss of distal pulses, circulatory collapse, and hypovolemic shock.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Importantly, the diagnosis of DVT begins with the clinical history. Attention should be paid to any past medical history that may potentiate or predispose the patient to an increased risk of developing venous thromboembolic phenomena, as postulated by Virchow:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>- BLOOD FLOW CHANGES (stasis):</bold> age, immobility &#8805;3 days or physical inactivity such as in the postoperative period, stroke, knee or hip fracture, major general surgery (&gt;45 min, the risk rises with increasing procedure duration), major trauma, spinal cord injury with limb paresis, immobilization of extremities with casts or orthoses, long-haul travel in a confined space, pregnancy, congestive heart failure, varicose veins, COPD, and burns, among others.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>- ENDOTHELIAL DAMAGE (trauma):</bold> advanced age (after 40 years of age, the risk doubles with each decade), smoking, known thromboembolic history, trauma, surgery, and central venous catheters, among others.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> , <xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>- HYPERCOAGULABILITY:</bold> cancer and/or their treatment, inherited or acquired thrombophilia, obesity, use of estrogen-containing oral contraceptives and hormone replacement therapy, pregnancy, smoking, acute infectious diseases, nephrotic syndrome, and inflammatory bowel disease, among others.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref> , <xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref> , <xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref> , <xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.3. Clinical and laboratory diagnosis</title>
        <p>Once the epidemiological risk for DVT has been identified, and it is mandatory, physical examination should be performed. The clinical diagnosis of DVT has low sensitivity and specificity, as only 20%-40% of patients with suggestive clinical features have the disease confirmed. The most common signs and symptoms of DVT are pain and edema. Despite the low accuracy of clinical diagnosis, it is important to note that, at first, any asymmetric swelling in the lower extremities should be considered until the diagnostic evaluation is completed.</p>
        <p>However, it should be also taken into account that, in a considerable number of cases (20%-50%), the patient may present with extensive DVT (even proximal) without any suggestive symptoms. Clinical suspicion is essential for the diagnosis in these cases, but one should keep in mind that the clinical diagnosis does not have satisfactory sensitivity/specificity. Therefore, the final diagnosis must be confirmed by complementary tests. Vascular Doppler ultrasound is the method of choice to confirm DVT due to its high accuracy, being easy to perform and harmless with good reproducibility. However, the availability of this diagnostic modality is limited in smaller medical centers and outpatient clinics as well as during night and weekend shifts.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>DVT is classified as proximal when it involves the femoral and/or popliteal veins, with or without the involvement of other leg veins, and as distal when it involves the deep infrapatellar veins.<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> , <xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref> </sup>Proximal DVT has the greatest potential for embolism. Other classifications that can determine the severity of DVT are based on the degree of thrombus extension. More extensive thrombi usually have greater consequences because they carry venous hypertension and the degree of partial and complete luminal obstruction. The degree of luminal narrowing, as well as its location and extension, will determine the clinical severity and prognosis of venous thrombosis.</p>
        <p>In 1997, in an attempt to simplify the diagnostic approach to these patients, Wells et al.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup>developed a clinical prediction model to classify patients for DVT risk. The method proved to be feasible and useful in several studies when combined with complementary noninvasive tests. The same group implemented modifications in 2003, facilitating understanding for clinicians.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup>Several specialty and consensus societies recommend the use of clinical prediction models to estimate the probability of a DVT diagnosis before performing a vascular ultrasound (VUS) examination.<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup>Among these tools, the most used one is the combination of Wells score and serum D-dimer levels.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup>( <xref rid="t2001" ref-type="table">Chart 1</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Chart 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Wells clinical model for predicting deep vein thrombosis (DVT) 6</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Clinical Findings</th>
                  <th>Score</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Active cancer OR cancer treated within the previous 6 months.</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Paresis, paralysis, or recent immobilization of the lower extremities.</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Recently bedridden for 3 days OR major surgery within the previous 4 weeks.</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Localized tenderness along the distribution of the deep venous system.</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Entire leg swollen.</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Calf swelling at least 3 cm larger than that on the contralateral side (measured 10 cm below the tibial tuberosity).</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pitting edema (positive Godet sign) confined to the symptomatic leg.</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Collateral superficial veins (nonvaricose).</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Previously documented DVT.</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Presence of more likely differential diagnosis: lymphedema, cellulitis, joint changes, superficial thrombophlebitis, muscle rupture, Baker&#8217;s cyst.</td>
                  <td align="center">-2</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>- Simplified score: &#8805; 2 DVT likely; &#8804;1 DVT unlikely</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- The diagnostic accuracy of Wells score depends on the population assessed (outpatient x inpatient), extent of DVT (proximal x distal), and degree of probability (low x moderate x high), being more accurate in outpatients with proximal DVT who have a high probability score (&gt;2). Silveira et al., in a population-based study, obtained an overall diagnostic accuracy of 0.56 (AUC &#8211; area under the curve) for inpatients. In outpatients, the effectiveness of the score can range from 11.9% to 79.5%.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref> , <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> , <xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref> </sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <sec>
          <title>1.3.1. Measurement of D-dimer</title>
          <p>Measurement of D-dimer (a degradation product of cross-linked fibrin clot) is widely used in the investigation of patients with suspected VTE.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> </sup>The quantitative D-dimer assay, based on a rapid ELISA test, has high diagnostic sensitivity (close to 95%). However, the assay has low specificity (40%) because D-dimer levels may be increased in several conditions other than VTE, such as in acute myocardial infarction, stroke, inflammation, active cancer, and pregnancy. Specificity also decreases with age, and it can be as low as 10% in older adults. In a systematic review, the use of an adjusted cutoff value for patients over 50 years of age in order to rule out the presence of DVT (patient age in years [above 50] x 10 in &#181;g/L) appeared to be as safe as the standard cutoff value, which was pointed out as a recommendation in the latest 2019 European guideline.<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref> , <xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Consequently, a negative quantitative D-dimer test has a high negative predictive value for VTE. The results of the studies reveal that the risk of development of PE in patients with low clinical probability who are not treated after a negative D-dimer test is &lt;1% within 3 months of the initial evaluation. However, because of its low predictive value, a positive quantitative D-dimer test does not modify the pretest (clinical) probability and is therefore clinically useless. A highly sensitive negative D-dimer test combined with a low pretest probability can exclude DVT.<sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>D-dimer levels can also vary depending on the number of veins involved, thrombus extension and volume. More extensive proximal thromboses have higher D-dimer levels than those confined to the calf veins, which may be an important factor when assessing the burden of thromboembolic disease.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref> - <xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref> </sup>Recent evidence also suggests that very high D-dimer levels are associated with a 4-fold increase in the probability of PE.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref> </sup>However, when the clinical probability is high, regardless of D-dimer levels, VUS is mandatory to confirm or rule out the presence of DVT<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup>( <xref rid="gt01-en" ref-type="fig">Chart 2</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="gt01-en">
              <label>Chart 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Diagnostic flowChart for the study of deep vein thrombosis (DVT)</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>B) Pulmonary embolism (PE):</title>
          <p>PE is defined as the obstruction of one or more pulmonary arteries. In most cases, it is caused by blood clots that, most often, arise from DVT of the lower extremities and reach the pulmonary arteries.</p>
          <p>Clinical signs of PE are nonspecific, such as dyspnea, chest pain, hemoptysis, and syncope or presyncope. In some cases, it may be asymptomatic and discovered incidentally. Syncope appears to be present in approximately 17% of cases and is associated with a high prevalence of hemodynamic instability and right ventricular failure. PE with hemodynamic instability is infrequent, but it may be suggestive of massive impairment of the pulmonary circulation.</p>
          <p>If PE is suspected, it must be confirmed or ruled out to avoid the risk of overtreatment or undertreatment. The Wells or Geneva clinical risk scores are often used to classify the pretest probability.</p>
          <p>The diagnostic accuracy of Wells scores for the diagnosis of PE was established by a meta-analysis of 11 studies, in which sensitivity ranged from 63.8% to 79.3% and specificity, from 48.8% to 90%, with an AUC of 0.778. For the Geneva score, however, sensitivity ranged from 55.3% to 73.6% and specificity, from 48.8% to 90.0%, with an AUC of 0.693.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>These scores, when combined with the measurement of D-dimer, as described earlier, have important implications for the diagnostic workup and for the indication of imaging tests ( <xref rid="t4001" ref-type="table">Charts 3</xref> and <xref rid="t5001" ref-type="table">4</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t4001">
              <label>Chart 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Wells clinical model for predicting pulmonary embolism 33</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">VARIABLES</th>
                    <th>SIMPLIFIED SCORE</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Clinical signs of DVT</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Heart rate &gt; 100 bpm</td>
                    <td align="center">1.5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Immobilization or recent surgery</td>
                    <td align="center">1.5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Previous DVT or PE</td>
                    <td align="center">1.5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hemoptysis</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cancer</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Alternative diagnosis less likely than PE</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>PE likely &gt; 4 and PE unlikely &#8804; 4</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t5001">
              <label>Chart 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Revised Geneva clinical model for predicting pulmonary embolism (PE). Adapted from Le Gal et al. 34</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" rowspan="2">VARIABLES</th>
                    <th colspan="2">CLINICAL POINTS EVALUATED</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>ORIGINAL</th>
                    <th>SIMPLIFIED</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Previous PE or DVT</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HEART RATE</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>75 &#8211; 94 bpm</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8805; 95 bpm</td>
                    <td align="center">5</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Surgery or fracture &#8804; 1 month</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hemoptysis</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Active cancer</td>
                    <td align="center">2</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Unilateral lower-limb pain</td>
                    <td align="center">3</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pain on lower-limb deep venous palpation and unilateral edema</td>
                    <td align="center">4</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age &gt; 65 years</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                    <td align="center">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>CLINICAL PROBABILITY</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>3-level score</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Low</td>
                    <td align="center">0 - 3</td>
                    <td align="center">0 - 1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Intermediate</td>
                    <td align="center">4 - 10</td>
                    <td align="center">2 - 4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>High</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 11</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>2-level score</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Unlikely</td>
                    <td align="center">0 - 5</td>
                    <td align="center">0 - 2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Likely</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 6</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 3</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>In the assessment of the clinical probability of PE, diagnostic strategies will depend on the patient&#8217;s hemodynamic stability. In addition to clinical features and D-dimer, complementary techniques recommended for the diagnosis of PE include computed tomography (CT) pulmonary angiography, V/Q SPECT scintigraphy, and echocardiography ( <xref rid="gt02-en" ref-type="fig">Charts 5</xref> and <xref rid="gt03-en" ref-type="fig">6</xref> ). Each of these techniques and the role of echocardiography in the diagnostic flowchart, when PE has hemodynamic repercussions, hypotension, or shock, will be discussed later.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="gt02-en">
              <label>Chart 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Diagnostic flowChart for the assessment of suspected pulmonary embolism (PE) without hemodynamic repercussions</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="gt03-en">
              <label>Chart 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Diagnostic algorithm for acute pulmonary embolism (PE) in hemodynamically unstable patients</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. Echocardiographic Changes in Pulmonary Embolism</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>The usefulness of echocardiography (transthoracic and/or transesophageal) in acute pulmonary embolism (PE) lies in the investigation of right ventricular (RV) pressure overload (due to increased pulmonary vascular resistance, with consequent increase in RV afterload) and in functional assessment of the RV. In most cases, patients with thromboembolic episodes without hemodynamic repercussions have normal test results. In hemodynamically unstable patients, echocardiography plays an important supporting role in the stages of diagnosis and noninvasive monitoring of treatment response.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2. Echocardiography in Low-risk Pulmonary Embolism (PE)</title>
          <p>Echocardiography is not a mandatory test in the diagnostic routine for hemodynamically stable patients with suspected PE in diagnostic algorithms.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup>The negative predictive value of echocardiography ranges from 40%-50%, and a normal result does not exclude PE.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> - <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref> </sup>Despite not contributing to the diagnosis, it represents an important tool for prognostic discrimination: the absence of changes in RV size or function indicate a good prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> - <xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref> </sup>The test is also important to define differential diagnoses of acute dyspnea.</p>
          <p>In the study of the RV, with its unique crescent shape, there are technical difficulties inherent in the asymmetric geometry of the cavity. However, the technique for a comprehensive examination was standardized in 2015 in an updated joint document from the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging.<sup><xref rid="B42" ref-type="bibr">42</xref></sup>The general recommendations define the essential windows and views that provide the images required to obtain all the necessary data for quantification:</p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Left parasternal, long- and short-axis;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Apical 4-chamber;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>RV-focused apical 4-chamber;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Left parasternal RV inflow;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Subcostal.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p><xref rid="t8001" ref-type="table">Chart 7</xref> provides the recommendations for measurement of right cavity dimensions and the parameters for RV systolic function.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t8001">
              <label>Chart 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Recommendations for measurement of right cavity dimensions and the parameters for right ventricular (RV) systolic function.</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" colspan="2" scope="col">LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE RIGHT VENTRICULAR (RV) INFLOW TRACT</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b6d6ca0833a052c1359972897de30c9deb08127b.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/083b6d1e5885215ec3fe275bc37dab677944c9a4.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left">
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p><bold>RVd1 =</bold> basal RV linear diameter (maximal transversal dimension in the basal one-third of RV inflow at end-diastole in the RV-focused view).</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 33 &#177; 4 mm25-41</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p><bold>RVd2 =</bold> mid-cavity RV linear diameter (transversal RV dimension in the middle third of RV inflow, approximately halfway between the maximal basal diameter and the apex, at the level of papillary muscles at end-diastole.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 27 &#177; 4 mm<sup>19-35</sup></p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF THE RIGHT VENTRICULAR (RV) OUTFLOW TRACT</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>
                        <alternatives>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/dcb9ae4da47bc359a323f3a640ab3c8f6cf6fdce.tif"/>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/6528d64d84f9ca430c0fba5fb063946a06decbcf.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                        </alternatives>
                      </bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p><bold>A)</bold> Proximal RV outflow diameter (parasternal long-axis view) = linear dimension measured from the anterior RV wall to the interventricular septal-aortic junction at end-diastole.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 25 &#177; 2.5 mm<sup>20-30</sup></p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>
                        <alternatives>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/e13e45d055e9ae8f97dbc635f152e9bf341b6d3e.tif"/>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/6280dce709b2d4f7ab16b0ee024abf291b6b3b94.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                        </alternatives>
                      </bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p><bold>B)</bold> Proximal RV outflow diameter (parasternal short-axis view) = linear dimension measured from the anterior RV wall to the aortic valve at end-diastole.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 28 &#177; 3.5 mm<sup>21-35</sup></p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>
                        <alternatives>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/dda5cf9abe8a03e33014c19d28a2db766055a4c4.tif"/>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/fe4a12ef5d46f6e028c3376875288570bcada968.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                        </alternatives>
                      </bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p><bold>C)</bold> Distal RV outflow diameter (parasternal short-axis view) = linear transversal dimension measured just proximal to the pulmonary valve at end-diastole.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 22 &#177; 2.5 mm<sup>17-27</sup></p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF RV WALL THICKNESS</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>
                        <alternatives>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/680bbc9ea6e890df7ccffcf37f4b575119256964.tif"/>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/4741b8b8289bcf744a1f821fe6ffb4ba775d6cfe.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                        </alternatives>
                      </bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Linear measurement of RV wall thickness (either by one-dimensional or 2D echocardiography) is performed at end-diastole, below the tricuspid annulus at a distance approximating the length of anterior tricuspid leaflet (fully open and parallel to the RV free wall).</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 3 &#177; 1 mm<sup>1-5</sup></p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>MEASUREMENTS OF RV VOLUME BY 3D ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>
                        <alternatives>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/1a9460e873325f7849f0b6868f0f179d4f6002db.tif"/>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/9f4a7c0e691dcd733c8b6d647ee4f876ec7ba7a5.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                        </alternatives>
                      </bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RV size should be measured by conventional 2D echocardiography using multiple acoustic windows. However, in laboratories with experience in 3D echocardiography, 3D measurement of RV volumes is recommended.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV for RV EDV: <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Men 61 &#177; 13 mL/m<sup>235-87</sup></p></list-item><list-item><p>Women 53 &#177; 10.5 mL/m<sup>232-74</sup></p></list-item></list> </p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV for RV ESV: <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Men 27 &#177; 8.5 mL/m<sup>210-44</sup></p></list-item><list-item><p>Women 22 &#177; 7 mL/m<sup>28-36</sup></p></list-item></list> </p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>RV GLOBAL SYSTOLIC FUNCTION ASSESSED BY FRACTIONAL AREA CHANGE (FAC)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/d2506c68f45bea1c931fc7868fee2c4b933d8fc1.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/14a1d1bc5819b814677255fe14ab37f87b7d97be.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RV FAC (%) = 100 X (EDA &#8211; ESA)/EDA</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RV-focused apical 4-chamber view. Manual tracing of RV endocardial border from the lateral tricuspid annulus along the free wall to the apex and back to medial tricuspid annulus, along the interventricular septum at end-systole (ESA) and at end-diastole (EDA). Trabeculations, papillary muscles, and moderator band are included in the cavity area measurement.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 49 &#177; 7% (&gt;35%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>RV GLOBAL SYSTOLIC FUNCTION ASSESSED BY 3D ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY EJECTION FRACTION</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>
                        <alternatives>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/a755310507022d686080a81128f08587d922ddb5.tif"/>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/5698f2068765cc21642ccbb2893014c838652dad.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                        </alternatives>
                      </bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Fractional RV volume change by 3D echocardiography [RV EF (%) = 100 X (EDV-ESV)/EDV]. When performed correctly,</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>it correlates with ejection fraction calculated by cardiac magnetic resonance. In experienced laboratories, 3D measurement of</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RV ejection fraction is recommended.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 58 &#177; 6.5% (&gt;45%)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>RV LONGITUDINAL SYSTOLIC FUNCTION ASSESSED BY TAPSE</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>
                        <alternatives>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b3267c25f65e04fad742c01ff14260b0ea25bfa3.tif"/>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/8284ac338d71b4feccf08720d9ea600f487b0993.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                        </alternatives>
                      </bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Tricuspid annular longitudinal excursion measured by M-mode between end-diastole and peak systole. RV-focused apical 4-chamber view for proper alignment of M-mode cursor with the direction of RV longitudinal excursion (lateral tricuspid annulus).</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 24 &#177; 3.5 mm (&gt;17mm)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>RV LONGITUDINAL SYSTOLIC FUNCTION ASSESSED BY PULSED TISSUE DOPPLER S WAVE</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>
                        <alternatives>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/fcc3ac2b235538a811ddbfe456dabd02ce4e13b8.tif"/>
                          <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/092179ab41830fabc6534ead9afb0ceeaafe6ae2.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                        </alternatives>
                      </bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Peak systolic velocity of tricuspid annulus assessed by pulsed-wave tissue Doppler imaging (cm/s), obtained from the RV-focused apical 4-chamber view. It is important to keep the basal segment and the annulus aligned with the Doppler cursor to avoid velocity underestimation.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV = 14.1 &#177; 2.3 cm/s (&gt;9.5 cm/s)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>RV LONGITUDINAL SYSTOLIC FUNCTION ASSESSED BY GLOBAL LONGITUDINAL STRAIN</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/c096e565208e68b254d986ef6d6923761f744ca5.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/908f30456c3e9314c44e37f973cb0f3fff7d0a18.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RV longitudinal strain should be measured in the RV-focused apical 4-chamber view. The panel demonstrates RV global longitudinal strain of the 6 segments (3 free wall and 3 septal segments); the values are averaged. RV longitudinal strain is often measured by software not dedicated to that chamber. Currently, there are software versions dedicated to the RV, which should be preferred as they provide data on RV free wall strain and on the strain that incorporates the interventricular septum.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV: 29 &#177; 4.5 (20% in absolute value)</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>RIGHT ATRIAL (RA) 2D VOLUMETRIC MEASUREMENTS</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/c7206ff6d677715bd7e49f4c9276c04977536830.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/f19da23898bd799480dfdd579bc4a5003e575776.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>The recommended parameter to assess RA size is RA volume, calculated using single-plane disk summation (2D) techniques in a dedicated apical 4-chamber view.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>NV: <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Men 25 &#177; 7 mL/cm<sup>2 18-32</sup></p></list-item><list-item><p>Women 21 &#177; 6 mL/cm<sup>2 15-27</sup></p></list-item></list> </p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2">
                      <bold>MEASUREMENT OF THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA (IVC) DIMENSIONS</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/67a67d118186633b9e494d0f8ce961eaf7f48ad7.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/5927d5e1f0478a1d21d8ac8920a1cafef1d836d0.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                    <td>
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>In the subcostal view with the patient in the supine position at 1-2 cm from the junction with the RA (perpendicular to the long axis).</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>The &#8220;collapsibility index (CI)&#8221; (% decrease in IVC diameter during inspiration) correlates with RA pressure.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>IVC &#8804; 21 mm and CI &gt; 50% = normal RA pressure (3 mm Hg, ranging from 0-5 mm Hg).</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>IVC &#8804; 21mm and CI &lt; 50% = intermediate RA pressure (8 mm Hg, ranging from 5-10 mm Hg).</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>zIVC &gt; 21 mm and CI &lt; 50% = high RA pressure (15 mm Hg, ranging from 10-20 mm Hg).</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td colspan="2"> </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>TSVD: trato de sa&#237;da do VD; ASC: &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie corporal; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; AD: &#225;trio direito; VCI: veia cava inferior; VN: valor de normalidade.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3. Echocardiography in High-risk Pulmonary Embolism (PE)</title>
          <p>Echocardiography is mandatory for all hemodynamically unstable patients with clinically suspected PE, as it can reliably detect changes in the right cavities that reflect a sudden and severe increase in pulmonary vascular resistance (RV afterload), responsible for dysfunction and hypotension. In these patients, normal test results definitively rule out the hypothesis of massive PE.<sup><xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref> , <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref> </sup>Conversely, the detection of changes corresponding to RV pressure overload and dysfunction (in the absence of other obvious causes of differential diagnosis) allows the diagnosis of massive PE and emergency reperfusion therapy, even if chest CT angiography or ventilation and perfusion scintigraphy cannot be performed.<sup><xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The only pathognomonic echocardiographic finding of PE is the presence of mobile thrombi in the right cavities and/or pulmonary trunk or branch arteries ( <xref rid="f01001" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref> ). This finding is associated with high early mortality<sup><xref rid="B45" ref-type="bibr">45</xref> - <xref rid="B49" ref-type="bibr">49</xref> </sup>and occurs in only 4% of overall cases of PE, reaching an 18% prevalence in patients with PE in intensive care units.<sup><xref rid="B50" ref-type="bibr">50</xref> , <xref rid="B51" ref-type="bibr">51</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; A-C: direct visualization of thrombus in the right cavities and left pulmonary artery. Thr: thrombus; Ao: aorta; LP: left pulmonary artery; RP: right pulmonary artery.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Key changes related to severe acute PE<sup><xref rid="B52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref></sup>are:</p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>RV dilatation;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>RV dysfunction;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Pulmonary pressure overload. It occurs in 30%-40% of patients with PE and indicates worse prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B53" ref-type="bibr">53</xref> - <xref rid="B55" ref-type="bibr">55</xref> </sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>When ventricular dilatation ( <xref rid="f02001" ref-type="fig">Figure 2</xref> ) is associated with the 60/60 sign &#8211; combination of pulmonary ejection acceleration time of &lt;60 ms and tricuspid valve peak systolic gradient &lt;60 mm Hg &#8211;, or with McConnell sign &#8211; hypokinesia of basal and mid segments of the RV free wall and normokinesia of the apical segment ( <xref rid="f03001" ref-type="fig">Figure 3</xref> ) &#8211;, the positive predictive value for massive PE is high.<sup><xref rid="B56" ref-type="bibr">56</xref></sup>However, the 60/60 sign is present in only 12%, and McConnell sign in 20% of unselected patients. Another sign of increased RV afterload is reduced pulmonary acceleration time and the presence of mid-systolic deceleration ( <xref rid="f04001" ref-type="fig">Figure 4</xref> ). Signs of RV pressure overload help to differentiate hypokinesia or akinesia of the free wall due to PE from that caused by acute right ventricular infarction (which may mimic McConnell sign).<sup><xref rid="B52" ref-type="bibr">52</xref> , <xref rid="B57" ref-type="bibr">57</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Right ventricular (RV) pressure overload and/or dysfunction A: straightening of the interventricular septum with RV dilatation in the parasternal cross-sectional view; B: RV dilatation assessed in the apical view by the RV:LV ratio at end-diastole (&gt;0.6 mild; 1-2 important; &gt;2 severe); C: equivalent to RV:LV ratio assessed by CT angiography. RV: right ventricle; LV: left ventricle; RA: right atrium; LA: left atrium.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; McConnell sign. Presence of right ventricular dilatation, free-wall hypokinesia, and preserved apical contractility. A: diastole; B: systole; C: longitudinal strain of the right ventricle (RV); left ventricle (LV); right atrium (RA); and left atrium (LA).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Hemodynamic profile of right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) caused by increased RV afterload: reduction in acceleration time and presence of mid-systolic deceleration (notch &#8211; white arrow).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf07-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Patients with PE may also have reduced tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE).<sup><xref rid="B58" ref-type="bibr">58</xref> , <xref rid="B59" ref-type="bibr">59</xref> </sup>Tissue Doppler and parietal strain of the RV have low sensitivity as isolated findings in patients with acute PE.<sup><xref rid="B60" ref-type="bibr">60</xref> , <xref rid="B61" ref-type="bibr">61</xref> </sup>In patients with suspected acute PE but with increased RV free wall thickness or tricuspid valve regurgitant jet velocities above &gt;3.8 m/s or tricuspid valve peak systolic gradient &gt;60 mm Hg, we should include differential diagnosis with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> , <xref rid="B62" ref-type="bibr">62</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>The 3D echocardiography can be used in laboratories with experience in the technique for an evolutionary analysis of patients with massive PE treated with thrombolysis. <xref rid="f05001" ref-type="fig">Figures 5</xref> and <xref rid="f06001" ref-type="fig">6</xref> illustrate a case of massive PE, with significant hemodynamic repercussions, treated with a thrombolytic agent, progressing to an improvement in RV ejection fraction and a significant reduction in right cavity volumes.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Follow-up3D echocardiographic analysis of the right ventricle (RV), with measurement of RV end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV), and ejection fraction (EF). Patient with submassive pulmonary embolism at 3 time points: A: pre-thrombolysis (RV EDV = 165 mL, RV ESV = 115 mL, RV EF = 30%); B: day 2 after thrombolysis (RV EDV = 137 mL, RV ESV = 82 mL, RV EF = 40%); C: day 5 after thrombolysis (RV EDV = 113 mL, RV ESV = 62 mL, RV EF = 47.8%).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf08-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f06001">
              <label>Figure 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Figure 6 &#8211; Follow-up images analysis of the right ventricular (RV) free-wall longitudinal strain in absolute values and at 3 time points: A: pre-thrombolysis; B: day 2 after thrombolysis; C: day 5 after thrombolysis with normalized strain values.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf09-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>In the beginning of 2020, the new coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) added a crucial new role for echocardiography. So far, findings reported in the literature indicate that the virus causes a significant increase in the risk of venous thrombosis (translated by increased D-dimer) and, consequently, in the occurrence of PE. Conversely, it seems to cause local thrombosis in pulmonary microcirculation vessels, leading to RV pressure overload. Both factors can result in RV dilatation and dysfunction, measured by various parameters, as described in <xref rid="t9001" ref-type="table">Chart 8</xref> . These patients develop acute respiratory failure requiring invasive positive pressure ventilation, which also contributes to increased RV afterload. In these patients, echocardiographic changes are very similar (RV dilatation and dysfunction with pulmonary hypertension), and it is not always possible to differentiate the predominant cause. In a recent multicenter study of 870 patients hospitalized for COVID-19, RV free-wall strain was an independent prognostic marker of mortality without the analysis of other parameters such as TAPSE and S&#8217; of the tricuspid annulus.<sup><xref rid="B63" ref-type="bibr">63</xref></sup>In addition to RV strain, RV dilatation was a prognostic marker of patients with the severe form of the disease.<sup><xref rid="B64" ref-type="bibr">64</xref></sup>In conclusion, echocardiography plays a key role in this scenario, not only the comprehensive but also the problem-focused echocardiogram (point of care), as recently addressed by the position statement of the Department of Cardiovascular Imaging of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (DIC/SBC).<sup><xref rid="B65" ref-type="bibr">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t9001">
              <label>Chart 8</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Summary of echocardiographic changes in acute pulmonary embolism (PE)</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>PARAMETERS</th>
                    <th>ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC CHANGE</th>
                    <th>IMAGE</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dimensions of the right ventricular cavity</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>2DE: basal linear diameter &gt; 4.2 cm and longitudinal, &gt; 8.1 cm. 3DE: end-diastolic volume &gt; 87 mL/m2 in men and 74 mL/m2 in women; end-systolic volume &gt; 44 mL/m2 in men and 36 mL/m2 in women.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>RV/LV dimension ratio &gt; 1.0</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/5576fe0a50c246a31b63f7139c4b360f8680b50f.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/c51729ab9980b60b98b98cbfb7b805b2b8faf032.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>RV systolic function</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <list list-type="bullet">
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Free-wall hypokinesia or akinesia.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>FAC &lt; 35%.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>TAPSE &lt; 17 mm.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Tissue Doppler: S&#8217; wave &lt; 9.5 cm/s.</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>Free-wall longitudinal strain above -20% (&lt;20% in absolute values).</p>
                        </list-item>
                        <list-item>
                          <p>3DE: ejection fraction &lt; 45%.</p>
                        </list-item>
                      </list>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/dc8a74e7a7f703b97dbfed1262c9a3f1748d443b.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/e1121b2d358d9bc2f2d21c08b1797eef9ee00c4e.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Interventricular septum</td>
                    <td align="center">Straightening or leftward shift due to RV pressure overload.</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/fa285fffa91a9e367f04c070a917de3e7317f25f.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/8796bbe274de74834ce4a55d3a2faf6a840f697d.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pulmonary trunk diameter</td>
                    <td align="center">Dilatation (above 3.0 cm diameter).</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/a2ab5d1515ce7196b5124ab3746ac1567d470c7f.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/cdc2d1328c743e2812a720a10aed9d2856d3e3c8.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Tricuspid regurgitation</td>
                    <td align="center">Increased tricuspid regurgitation due to increased pulmonary artery systolic pressure.</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/9155d098db13c510a9dee82d92fd1abe672259f2.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b76262ea36bdb53b35057e7ebd9c57cd9427b41d.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8220;60/60 sign&#8221;</td>
                    <td align="center">Pulmonary ejection acceleration time &lt; 60 ms with mid-systolic notch + tricuspid valve peak systolic gradient &lt; 60 mm Hg.</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b4b7fcd7f1c35a95fa71ba803a6bb0b69c3b489d.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/47417d028ccee2be93b886505e8546667b8ef557.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8220;McConnell sign&#8221;</td>
                    <td align="center">Hypokinesia or akinesia of basal and mid segments of the RV free wall and preserved apical contractility.</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/b886095907387e710e93b9ff52abdf55fc464b99.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/796cb5207cac83b26b0b53b90e899de378549dbc.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Inferior vena cava</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8220;Collapsibility index&#8221; &lt;50% during inspiration.</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/5adfe88d17c59c46ab657f4359eff8997c788652.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/721f0449680b70cf1460ae6742cbf17e546aa30f.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Intracavitary thrombus</td>
                    <td align="center">Single pathognomonic finding (present in right cavities and/or pulmonary trunk or branch arteries in only 4% of cases).</td>
                    <td align="center">
                      <alternatives>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/d2e224a4ba6b7352dfc100f6faac591be619cf04.tif"/>
                        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/3gPSskJ5XBTPcKTf6sQvCqv/1ba7335847b3fdbe66581c3c8fc3cf507407df96.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
                      </alternatives>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4. Recommendations</title>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Bedside echocardiography is a mandatory test for all hemodynamically unstable patients with clinically suspected PE.<sup><xref rid="B39" ref-type="bibr">39</xref> , <xref rid="B43" ref-type="bibr">43</xref> , <xref rid="B44" ref-type="bibr">44</xref> </sup>(grade of recommendation: I/level of evidence: C).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Echocardiography is not mandatory in the diagnostic routine for hemodynamically stable patients with suspected PE in diagnostic algorithms.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref> , <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> - <xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref> </sup>However, it represents an important tool for discriminating and defining differential diagnoses.<sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> - <xref rid="B41" ref-type="bibr">41</xref> </sup>(grade of recommendation: IIa/level of evidence: B).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Intravascular Ultrasound in Deep Vein Thrombosis Diagnosis</title>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1. Ultrasound Signs of Vein Thrombosis: B-mode and Doppler</title>
          <p>If not properly diagnosed and treated, deep vein thrombosis (DVT) can lead to pulmonary embolism (PE), a potentially fatal condition.<sup><xref rid="B66" ref-type="bibr">66</xref></sup>Thrombus formation often occurs in regions of slow flow within the venous system, such as the cusp of a valve, spreading along the vein lumen, which is completely or partially filled by the thrombus. During the acute phase, the thrombi induce an inflammatory response on the adjacent venous wall. This is known as thrombophlebitis, and symptoms include cramp and local pain.<sup><xref rid="B67" ref-type="bibr">67</xref></sup>Many factors can trigger venous thrombosis. In the case of venous catheters, wall trauma induces the inflammatory response that leads to thrombosis within the vein lumen.<sup><xref rid="B68" ref-type="bibr">68</xref> , <xref rid="B69" ref-type="bibr">69</xref> </sup>However, clinical signs of DVT can often be nonspecific; therefore, medical history, physical examination, and awareness of the main factors associated with the thrombotic process are essential.<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> , <xref rid="B70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Risk factors for venous thrombosis can be grouped in clinical prediction models. The Wells score is a well-established method used to assess the clinical probability of a DVT diagnosis. Considering that only 50% of clinical DVT diagnoses may be correct, supplementary imaging is required to confirm or rule out diagnosis.<sup><xref rid="B70" ref-type="bibr">70</xref></sup>The evaluation of patients with suspected DVT usually involves stratification, clinical score, D-dimer measurement, and intravascular ultrasound (VUS).<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.1.1. Imaging Methodology &#8211; Technical Aspects</title>
            <p>VUS is the method of choice for suspected DVT, providing information on venous anatomy and function. In addition, it is noninvasive, does not use nephrotoxic contrast, and is reproducible and inexpensive, although it is operator- and device-dependent.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup>Therefore, real-time B-mode ultrasound (US) images of the vein wall and lumen are obtained with transducer compression maneuvers and color flow Doppler (CFD), pulsed Doppler, or power Doppler.<sup><xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref></sup></p>
            <p>As recently stated by the Department of Cardiovascular Imaging,<sup><xref rid="B73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref></sup>the imaging technique to study DVT includes the following items:</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>a) Patient&#8217;s position:</title>
            <p>For imaging of the lower extremities, the patient should be placed in a comfortable supine position with the torso and head elevated up to 30&#176;, lying close to the edge of the bed, on the same side of the operator, with the hip slightly abducted and the knee slightly flexed. For the common and superficial femoral veins and the posterior tibial vein, the patient should keep the leg externally rotated and the knee slightly flexed. For the popliteal vein and peroneal veins, the patient should be placed in a prone or lateral decubitus position, resting on the contralateral limb with the knee slightly flexed. In case of any clinical condition, the patient may remain seated at the edge of the bed with the legs hanging down.<sup><xref rid="B74" ref-type="bibr">74</xref></sup>For the peroneal, muscular, and posterior tibial veins of the calf, the patient may sometimes be placed in the supine position, with the leg bent and the foot resting on the bed. Conversely, imaging study of iliac veins and the vena cava is conducted with the patient in the supine position. Prior preparation is required to reduce intestinal gases. In case of suspected post-thrombotic syndrome, if possible, the patient should also be examined in the upright position. For imaging of the upper extremities, the patient should be placed in the supine position, with the limb stretched alongside and slightly away from the body.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>b) US equipment adjustment</title>
            <p>Devices that produce high-quality images in B-mode and that are equipped with spectral Doppler and color Doppler should be used. The choice of transducer is primarily based on the relationship between the transducer&#8217;s frequency and the location of the object to be studied. High-frequency transducers produce high-quality images but have low tissue penetration. On the other hand, low-frequency transducers penetrate deeper, but produce lower quality images. Linear transducers with frequencies between 4 and 10 MHz are often used to investigate upper- or lower-extremity deep veins, whereas linear transducers with frequencies between 7 and 13 MHz are used to investigate upper- or lower-extremity superficial veins. For evaluation of swollen lower limbs and patients with obesity (ie, with greatly increased diameters), iliac veins, and the inferior vena cava, a multi-frequency convex transducer (between 1 and 5 MHz) may be necessary, as it has lower wave frequencies and deeper US wave penetration. Presets should be properly calibrated for imaging of the deep and superficial venous systems, with adjusted focal zone and gray scale, so that the lumen is dark in the absence of stasis or thrombosis. Spectral or color Doppler gain should be adjusted to a low velocity scale suitable for evaluating venous flow. For deep vein evaluation, VUS devices must be adjusted with proper focus and line density for two-dimensional imaging. The structures are evaluated in cross-sectional and longitudinal views.<sup><xref rid="B73" ref-type="bibr">73</xref></sup>In general, veins are easily compressible by the transducer.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>c) Imaging sequence:</title>
            <p><bold>B-mode:</bold> the transducer is initially positioned below the inguinal ligament, allowing visualization of the saphenofemoral junction. Longitudinal and cross-sectional scanning of the entire lower-extremity venous system is then performed. In the cross-sectional view, transducer compression must be applied especially along the common femoral, femoral, and popliteal veins with a distance of approximately 2 to 3 cm between each compression. The use ofVUS as a diagnostic technique for DVT was first described by Talbot in 1982, and the method has been improved over the years.<sup><xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">75</xref></sup>A normal vein without thrombosis shows complete lumen collapse during transducer compression of the walls ( <xref rid="f07001" ref-type="fig">Figures 7</xref> and <xref rid="f08001" ref-type="fig">8</xref> ).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f07001">
                <label>Figure 7</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; A-E: Venous compressibility evaluation by the ultrasound transducer in the investigation of venous thrombosis.</title>
                  <p>A: artery and vein without transducer compression. B: normal vein with maximum compression. C: dilated and noncompressible vein with acute/fresh thrombus. D: normal- to small-caliber vein, slightly compressible by transducer maneuvers and consistent with findings of chronic/old venous thrombosis. E: recurrent thrombosis.</p>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf10-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f08001">
                <label>Figure 8</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Cross-sectional view of the common femoral artery and vein for venous compressibility evaluation.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf11-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>The figures show maximum common femoral vein compressibility in B-mode (top) and color flow Doppler (bottom). A = artery, V = vein.</p>
            <p><bold>Doppler:</bold> This technique is intended for recording venous flow velocities, which are low under normal pulsed Doppler conditions. In the presence of venous thrombosis, velocities may be further reduced, requiring scale adjustment. Lower-extremity venous flow is spontaneous and phasic in response to breathing and variations in intra-abdominal pressure ( <xref rid="f09001" ref-type="fig">Figure 9</xref> ). During inspiration, velocities decrease due to increases in intra-abdominal pressure; conversely, distal compression maneuver (eg, calf compression) shows a flow peak in the patent interrogated vein. In some cases, proper flow detection is only possible by power Doppler, which can detect very low velocity flows despite not showing flow direction.</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f09001">
                <label>Figure 9</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Pulsed Doppler of the common femoral vein showing normal phasic flow in response to breathing movements, consistent with the absence of occlusive thrombosis.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf12-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>d) Changes in B-mode, spectral Doppler, and color Doppler in the diagnosis of recent/acute DVT:</title>
            <p>US diagnosis of recent/acute DVT is based on total or partial changes in the affected vein under transducer compression, whereas vein dilation is based on the presence of intraluminal thrombotic material. Changes in vein compressibility, even if a very recent episode of DVT has occurred, may be the most important finding for venous thrombosis diagnosis. The presence of a thrombus can only be ruled out if the vein lumen is obliterated after compression. Otherwise, the lumen may be partially filled with thrombi. During the compression procedure, the adjacent artery should be observed.</p>
            <p>In most cases, recently thrombosed veins are distended and have larger diameters than the adjacent arteries. This distension is also important in the differentiation between acute and chronic thrombi. Occlusive thrombus is characterized by vein dilation and absence of detectable flow by pulsed Doppler, CFD, and power Doppler ( <xref rid="f10001" ref-type="fig">Figure 10 A</xref> and <xref rid="f10001" ref-type="fig">B</xref> ). Vein dilation has been described as an accurate parameter for identifying acute DVT.<sup><xref rid="B76" ref-type="bibr">76</xref></sup>An acute thrombus is composed primarily of a dense fibrin mesh that persists for approximately 5 to 7 days. During this phase, the thrombus is more echolucent or has intermediate echogenicity, appearing less bright than adjacent tissues. Diagnosing acute/fresh thrombus is important, given that anticoagulation and fibrinolytic therapies are more effective during this phase. Venous thrombosis is generally considered acute within the first 2 weeks of onset.<sup><xref rid="B77" ref-type="bibr">77</xref></sup>A fresh clot often forms at the end of an acute thrombus and floats freely inside the vein. Caution is needed during manipulation to prevent it from moving ( <xref rid="f10001" ref-type="fig">Figure 10 A-C</xref> ). Besides venous compressibility, venous wall appearance (DVT is often characterized by thin and smooth walls), vein lumen size, valve functionality, and the presence of collateral circulation should also be evaluated.</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f10001">
                <label>Figura 10</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Trombose oclusiva e n&#227;o oclusiva de aspecto agudo ao ultrassom. A: corte transversal da veia femoral comum; B: veias fibulares evidenciando dilata&#231;&#227;o e incompressibilidade sem evid&#234;ncias de fluxo ao mapeamento de fluxo em cores e ao Power Doppler; C: corte longitudinal da veia femoral comum com e sem mapeamento de fluxo em cores evidenciando trombo flutuante de aspecto recente e n&#227;o oclusivo.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf13-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>Regarding flow, it may be reduced or absent depending on the degree of partial or complete obstruction of the lumen, with absence of respiratory variation. However, a partially obstructed lumen may not cause changes in Doppler&#8217;s flow signs.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>e) Changes in B-mode and color Doppler in the diagnosis of clinically subacute and chronic/old DVT<sup>11</sup>:</title>
            <p>In general, clinical evaluation of DVT considers the thrombus to be acute within the first 2 weeks of onset, subacute between 2 weeks and 6 months, and chronic after 6 months of onset.<sup><xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B78" ref-type="bibr">78</xref> </sup>Although the thrombus becomes more echogenic as DVT progresses, this change is variable and, most often, the age of the thrombus cannot be accurately estimated solely by echogenicity. For this reason, recently formed hypoechoic or anechoic thrombi are consistent with a diagnosis of acute thrombosis. Isoechoic or hyperechoic intraluminal images, however, make it more difficult to accurately estimate the age of the thrombus. During this period, retraction or thrombolysis may occur with a less distended vein; hence the importance of serial imaging. After retraction or thrombolysis, flow may not be necessarily restored to normal, and the vein walls become thick ( <xref rid="f11001" ref-type="fig">Figure 11</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref> </sup>Thus, VUS cannot always determine the age of a thrombus solely by its appearance or echogenicity.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref> , <xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref> , <xref rid="B79" ref-type="bibr">79</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f11001">
                <label>Figure 11</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Chronic post-thrombotic changes. A: B-mode image showing no dilation of the femoral vein. Echogenic luminal image consistent with chronic post-thrombotic changes; B: power Doppler image showing reduced luminal flow; C: B-mode image showing posterior tibial veins with thick walls; D: power Doppler image showing partial luminal narrowing of posterior tibial veins.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf14-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>If the thrombus does not heal completely after acute thrombosis, it will become infiltrated with fibroblasts, organize, and reendothelialize. Fibrosis produces scarring, wall thickening, and synechiae that can cause partial vessel obstruction and persist for years. This residual material is no longer called thrombus. Thickening of the venous wall is a common finding, the caliber may be reduced and, depending on the venous caliber, the flow can be altered. In some cases, post-thrombotic fibrotic scars appear as the condition progresses. They are echogenic and sometimes have calcifications that produce acoustic shadows, causing plaque-like images along the venous wall. The Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound recommends that the term &#8220;chronic post-thrombotic changes&#8221; should be used to describe the changes that persist on US after acute DVT. Therefore, US abnormalities associated with DVT should be classified into &#8220;acute venous thrombosis, chronic post-thrombotic changes, or indeterminate changes.&#8221; The last one should be used when findings are uncertain and the age of the thrombus cannot be determined only by VUS, as with clinically subacute DVT. According to these recommendations, exceptionally, some cases may be classified as subacute thrombosis on the US report if:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>There is a previous US showing acute DVT;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>There is a new study showing that the appearance of the thrombus has changed.<sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>These classifications are supported by a recent SBACV publication.<sup><xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref></sup>However, in an effort to prevent the term &#8220;indeterminate changes&#8221; from creating confusion as to whether clinicians should start treatment or not, the publication recommends that the vascular sonographer should report image features in detail, analyze the clinical information regarding time of occurrence, and preferably refer to these changes as &#8220;predominance of acute or recent changes&#8221; or &#8220;predominance of chronic or old changes.&#8221; Thus, the term &#8220;indeterminate changes&#8221; would only be used when the time of the event cannot be determined.</p>
            <p>DVT can affect several venous segments alone or together, as in plantar vein thrombosis, an uncommon diagnosis. It should be suspected in the presence of acute pain and/or edema of the foot. Recently observed US features of plantar DVT are venous dilation and luminal thrombus with reduced vein compressibility ( <xref rid="f12001" ref-type="fig">Figure 12</xref> ).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f12001">
                <label>Figure 12</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Color flow Doppler image showing venous thrombosis of noncompressible plantar veins without flow.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf15-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>US features that may be present in acute/recent and chronic/old DVT are shown in <xref rid="t15001" ref-type="table">Chart 9</xref> , adapted from Gornik HL and Sharma AM.<sup><xref rid="B72" ref-type="bibr">72</xref></sup>In some cases, there is overlap of features, which should be reported as of &#8220;indeterminate age.&#8221;</p>
            <p>
              <table-wrap id="t15001">
                <label>Chart 9</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Ultrasound features of deep vein thrombosis</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th align="left">Feature</th>
                      <th>Acute/recent</th>
                      <th>Predominance of acute thrombus or chronic thrombus</th>
                      <th>Chronic/old post-thrombotic changes</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Thrombus echogenicity</td>
                      <td align="center">Hypoechoic or isoechoic</td>
                      <td align="center">Variable (more echoic than acute DVT)</td>
                      <td align="center">Hypoechoic</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Presence of mobile thrombus</td>
                      <td align="center">May be present</td>
                      <td align="center">Generally absent</td>
                      <td align="center">Absent</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Attachment of thrombus to vein wall</td>
                      <td align="center">Loosely attached</td>
                      <td align="center">Firmly attached</td>
                      <td align="center">Hyperechoic fibrous tissue attached to the vein wall or lumen</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Venous wall appearance</td>
                      <td align="center">Variable</td>
                      <td align="center">Variable</td>
                      <td align="center">Venous wall thickening and scarring Calcium deposits may be seen</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Vein lumen</td>
                      <td align="center">Dilated</td>
                      <td align="center">Retracting to normal size</td>
                      <td align="center">Smaller than normal size</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Compressibility</td>
                      <td align="center">Slightly compressible or deformable</td>
                      <td align="center">More compressible than acute DVT</td>
                      <td align="center">Partially compressible</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Compressibility</td>
                      <td align="center">Generally absent</td>
                      <td align="center">May be present</td>
                      <td align="center">May be present</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Venous valve function</td>
                      <td align="center">Generally competent</td>
                      <td align="center">May be incompetent</td>
                      <td align="center">Generally incompetent</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>Impaired respiratory phasicity and reduced flow velocity in a venous vessel of normal appearance, with a present and compressible flow, may be associated with the thrombotic involvement of a venous segment proximal to the vessel being evaluated ( <xref rid="f13001" ref-type="fig">Figure 13</xref> ).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f13001">
                <label>Figure 13</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Left external iliac vein thrombosis: flow comparison between the left and right common femoral veins. A: color Doppler image showing no flow in the dilated left external iliac vein, with lumen filled with a thrombus of recent appearance; B: spectral Doppler image showing continuous flow in the common left femoral vein secondary to thrombosis of the ipsilateral external iliac vein; C: normal phasic flow in the contralateral common femoral vein.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf16-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.2. IVUS Protocols in DVT</title>
        <p>IVUS has been used since the 1960s for the diagnosis of venous thrombosis, and the method has been improved over the years by the results of imaging studies of venous blood flow measurement and venous compressibility. As previously stated, venous compressibility evaluation combined with color and spectral Doppler of flow is the recommended approach for the detection of venous clots. This is partly due to availability, ease of implementation in a variety of clinical settings, and accuracy.</p>
        <p>IVUS has been the reference method for diagnosis since the first accuracy studies of symptomatic and asymptomatic patients with suspected above- and below-knee DVT.<sup><xref rid="B82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref></sup>Lower extremity venous compression US has largely replaced venography in DVT diagnosis, as it has a sensitivity above 90% and a specificity of approximately 95% for the diagnosis of proximal thrombosis. For distal thrombosis, the specificity is the same (above 90%), but the sensitivity is reduced to approximately 65%. Conversely, duplex US (a combination of B-mode and Doppler of all veins) is the first-line imaging test for DVT diagnosis, with a sensitivity of 96% and a specificity of 98% to 100%. However, duplex US is time-consuming, requires patient transport to a diagnostic imaging center, and the immediate availability of an imaging specialist.<sup><xref rid="B38" ref-type="bibr">38</xref> , <xref rid="B83" ref-type="bibr">83</xref> , <xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr">84</xref> </sup>In addition, to obtain an accurate diagnosis, the operator must be familiar with the method&#8217;s indications and limitations. Only 20% to 30% of imaging tests of suspected DVT show abnormal findings, and 90% of patients with fatal PE are asymptomatic for DVT.<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> , <xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref> </sup>Test limitations and, therefore, accuracy are associated with obesity, mobility restrictions, major edema, and/or presence of wounds, orthopedic devices, bandages/plasters, etc. Relevant clinical information and focused physical examination are essential to assist in the interpretation of IVUS results during DVT investigation, and adequate protocol training is imperative. Despite these limitations, the easy handling, harmless nature, and wide availability of portable devices make this tool extremely applicable in daily practice. In addition, advances in electronic miniaturization have resulted in the creation of pocket-sized US scanning devices equipped with linear array transducers, further disseminating the use of compression VUS for DVT diagnosis.<sup><xref rid="B85" ref-type="bibr">85</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Regardless of the test protocol of choice, the examination room should be comfortably warm to prevent venospasm. To evaluate the inferior vena cava (IVC), the patient should be placed in a reverse Trendelenburg position.<sup><xref rid="B71" ref-type="bibr">71</xref></sup>The Society for Vascular Ultrasound recommends an examination time of approximately 75 minutes for a complete bilateral examination: 40 to 60 minutes for the actual imaging test and 15 minutes for clinical data analysis, consultation of previous imaging tests, and patient and room preparation.<sup><xref rid="B86" ref-type="bibr">86</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3. Test Protocols</title>
        <p>With increased availability of VUS devices, which usually have excellent resolution, the training of nonexperts has become very frequent and gained increased acceptance, especially in the emergency and urgent care departments and in distant locations. Thus, imaging tests for suspected DVT performed by critical care and emergency physicians and last-year radiology/US/VUS residents is a current reality. The accuracy of emergency physician-performed US was assessed in a systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 studies with 2,379 patients. The prevalence of DVT was 23% (7.4%-47.3%), with a mean sensitivity of 96.1% (95%CI: 90.6%-98.5%) and a specificity of 96.8% (95%CI: 94.6%-98.1%). However, the studies included were very heterogeneous, the training process of emergency physicians was poorly described, and most of the studies had short follow-up periods. These data were not reproduced in a prospective study published in same year with a much smaller sample size, indicating the need for strict training protocols for these professionals, given that only the first three tests performed by nonexperts were supervised.<sup><xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr">84</xref> , <xref rid="B87" ref-type="bibr">87</xref> </sup>Many of the protocols performed by nonexperts have been developed for settings where experts are not available or to reduce the number of VUS performed after normal laboratory working hours. Thus, a single simple imaging protocol is not enough to definitively rule out DVT. In addition to proper supervised training, pretest DVT probability analysis is essential, that is, the use of clinical PE/DVT probability scores and awareness of the lower accuracy of VUS in the diagnosis of asymptomatic below-knee DVT. Studies on the topic did not report any major disadvantage for patients, and well-structured protocols with Wells&#8217; clinical probability criteria helped improve test accuracy and proper referral of patients without easy access to imaging experts.<sup><xref rid="B82" ref-type="bibr">82</xref> , <xref rid="B88" ref-type="bibr">88</xref> - <xref rid="B90" ref-type="bibr">90</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>During VUS investigation of venous thrombosis, the parameters previously described should be analyzed, ie, the combination of grayscale components (B-mode) with compression transducer maneuvers and CFD and spectral Doppler evaluation. Imaging test protocols use the following parameters to reach diagnosis: vein compressibility (the most important), vein caliber (diameter), US features of vein wall and lumen, and CFD and spectral Doppler evaluation.</p>
        <p>There are some well-established complete and focused (point-of-care) DVT imaging protocols. They are chosen according to device availability at the facility where the patient is being examined, time of patient arrival, and whether there is an expert available to perform VUS.</p>
        <p>DVT imaging protocols ( <xref rid="f14001" ref-type="fig">Figures 14</xref> and <xref rid="f15001" ref-type="fig">15</xref> ):</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f14001">
            <label>Figure 14</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Whole-leg vascular ultrasound protocol for deep vein thrombosis diagnosis. A: schematic representation of compression points throughout the above-knee venous system and color flow Doppler and spectral Doppler of the femoral segment; B: schematic representation of compression and color flow Doppler and pulsed Doppler of the popliteal segment; C: schematic representation of compression and color flow Doppler of the distal segment.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf17-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f15001">
            <label>Figure 15</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; A: complete lower extremity venous compression ultrasound protocol; B: three-point extended compression ultrasound protocol; C: two-point extended compression ultrasound protocol.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf18-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Whole-leg VUS &#8211; <xref rid="f14001" ref-type="fig">Figure 14A-C</xref> .</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Complete lower extremity venous compression US &#8211; <xref rid="f15001" ref-type="fig">Figure 15A</xref> .</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Three-point extended compression US &#8211; <xref rid="f15001" ref-type="fig">Figure 15B</xref> .</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Two-point extended compression US &#8211; <xref rid="f15001" ref-type="fig">Figure 15C</xref> .</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.1. Complete DuplexVUS</title>
          <p>The Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound and the Brazilian Society of Angiology and Vascular Surgery currently recommend (grade of recommendation: I; level of evidence: A) complete duplex US for the diagnosis of acute DVT. In addition to being a more complete patient approach, examining the infrapopliteal segment allows the diagnosis of other musculoskeletal diseases that are part of the differential diagnosis of DVT, such as Baker&#8217;s cyst, hematomas, and muscle diseases.<sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref> , <xref rid="B81" ref-type="bibr">81</xref> </sup>The complete protocol involves using all US resources to diagnose thrombosis: evaluation of compressibility, caliber, vein wall and lumen appearance on US, and color and spectral Doppler of all veins from below the inguinal ligament to ankle in all segments (femoral, popliteal, posterior tibial, and peroneal veins) ( <xref rid="f14001" ref-type="fig">Figure 14A-C</xref> ). In general, the investigation of venous thrombosis in the anterior tibial veins is not included in this protocol due to the rarity of the condition. It is only investigated when there are signs/symptoms. Evaluation of the superficial and muscular venous systems should be conducted especially in symptomatic regions.</p>
          <p>Duplex ultrasound includes compression at 2-cm intervals, CFD analysis of vessel filling (using necessary scale adjustments), observation of flow phasicity, and spectral Doppler analysis of femoral and popliteal veins morphology. If complete testing is performed only in the symptomatic limb, spectral Doppler evaluation should be performed in both common femoral veins to assess symmetry. In case of asymmetric flow pattern, the intra-abdominal veins should be investigated (grade of recommendation: I; level of evidence: A).<sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref> - <xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.2. Complete Lower Extremity Venous Compression US</title>
          <p>In 1982, Steve Talbot described the compression technique that would become the standard diagnostic method for DVT.<sup><xref rid="B75" ref-type="bibr">75</xref></sup>This protocol involves only the evaluation of compressibility in all veins below the inguinal segment to the ankle in all segments ( <xref rid="f15001" ref-type="fig">Figure 15A</xref> ). As previously stated, loss of vein compressibility is the most reliable indicator of thrombus.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.3. Extended Compression US (Three-point)</title>
          <p>This protocol involves only the evaluation of compressibility from the common femoral vein to the popliteal vein, where all leg veins converge. It is also called the three-point protocol, as it assesses the compressibility of all proximal veins of the investigated lower extremity ( <xref rid="f15001" ref-type="fig">Figure 15B</xref> ). The sensitivity found in this protocol was significantly higher than that in the two-point compression protocol (90.57% vs. 82.76%), although specificity was the same (98.52%).<sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref></sup>A diagnostic accuracy study of the three-point protocol performed by emergency physicians found very similar results (91.7% accuracy; 95% CI, 85%-95.6%).<sup><xref rid="B96" ref-type="bibr">96</xref></sup>A recent meta-analysis of 17 studies from 16 original articles compared three-point vs. two-point point-of-care US (POCUS) protocols. Overall, the two-point POCUS had similar pooled sensitivity (0.91; 95% CI, 0.68-0.98; P = 0.86) and specificity (0.98; 95% CI, 0.96-0.99; P = 0,60) to the three-point POCUS (sensitivity 0.90; 95% CI, 0.83-0.95 and specificity 0.95; 95% CI, 0.83-0.99). The false-negative rates of two-point (4.0%) and three-point POCUS (4.1%) were almost similar. Meta-regression analysis showed that high sensitivity and specificity tended to be associated with the initial POCUS performer and separate POCUS training for DVT<sup><xref rid="B97" ref-type="bibr">97</xref></sup>(grade of recommendation: II; level of evidence: A).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.4. Two-point Compression US</title>
          <p>In this protocol, compressibility is evaluated at only two sites: the common femoral vein, 1-2 cm above and below the saphenofemoral junction (groin); and the popliteal vein, up to where the leg veins converge ( <xref rid="f15001" ref-type="fig">Figure 15C</xref> ).</p>
          <p>In general, emergency physicians are able to perform this protocol after training, with good reproducibility. There are several methods for performing this imaging protocol in the emergency setting. Most training programs include theoretical lectures on imaging technique, mock training, and observation of a number of different tests. However, some studies mention training programs that last only 10 minutes or less than 2 hours. This significant difference between protocols hinders comparisons between studies and, consequently, affects accuracy.<sup><xref rid="B95" ref-type="bibr">95</xref> - <xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">100</xref> </sup>Emergency physicians can achieve a level of competence equivalent to that of experts, but substantial training and practice are required to achieve and maintain this performance. To reach this level of excellence, they need regular training in US imaging.</p>
          <p>A study comparing complete two-point procedures performed by experienced emergency physicians showed that 362 of 2,451 patients had DVT. Two-point US would not have been able to diagnose 23 patients with proximal DVT (6.2%).<sup><xref rid="B100" ref-type="bibr">100</xref></sup>A randomized controlled trial with more than 2,000 patients comparing whole-leg vs. serial two-point US plus D-dimer measurement showed that the two strategies are equivalent for the management of symptomatic outpatients with DVT. However, in the latter, the physicians were VUS experts, which indicates that this testing protocol should be performed by well-trained physicians and follow clinical probability scores to be accurate. In most cases, if symptoms persist or if D-dimer is elevated, compression US must be repeated.<sup><xref rid="B101" ref-type="bibr">101</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Finally, the recommended complete imaging protocol is the one intended for DVT investigation because it scans the entire deep vein leg system, and it should be performed by experts. In addition, it requires dedicated high-grade devices and patient transport from the emergency department/ward to the imaging center.</p>
          <p>Conversely, two- and three-point compression US protocols are simple, fast, do not require experts or sophisticated devices, and can be performed at the bedside. These protocols are suitable for emergency departments and hospital wards, especially after working hours and on weekends. Together with pretest probability evaluation, they should be able to provide an initial assessment of patients with suspected DVT.</p>
          <p>Two-point compression US protocols are an extremely important tool for critically ill patients in certain settings, such as the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. There is a relationship between COVID-19 and a prothrombotic state, which favors the occurrence of thromboembolic phenomena. Thus, in case of a clinical possibility of DVT, performing a quick, focused US of the suspected limb should be considered when the diagnosis has an impact on patient management.<sup><xref rid="B102" ref-type="bibr">102</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.4. Differential Diagnosis</title>
        <p>The symptoms triggered by a thrombotic event are common to several other acute or chronic conditions, such as ruptured synovial cysts, chronic venous insufficiency, hematomas, and muscle tears.<sup><xref rid="B103" ref-type="bibr">103</xref></sup>In other cases, venous thrombosis may occur due to extrinsic compression by vascular abnormalities, such as aneurysms and pseudoaneurysms, or extravascular conditions, such as hematomas, abscesses, synovial cysts, lymphadenomegaly, and neural and hematological tumors.<sup><xref rid="B104" ref-type="bibr">104</xref></sup>Complete US imaging of the limb provides the ability to identify associated clinical conditions and differentiate them from nonthrombotic abnormalities. Conversely, a swollen limb associated with stasis or decreased respiratory variability in the femoral vein may indicate extrinsic compression in the pelvic region. Lymphadenomegaly, uterine fibroids, retroperitoneal tumors, and May-Thurner syndrome are among possible causes.<sup><xref rid="B105" ref-type="bibr">105</xref></sup>In this case, the sonographer should draw attention to these findings and suggest them as possible causes on the report.</p>
        <p>Lymphadenomegaly, especially in the inguinal region due to lymphoproliferative disease, may lead to clinical manifestations of marked limb edema due to a possible compressive venous component or insufficient regional lymphatic drainage. Although easy to identify, occasionally the tumor mass can be so large that it hides the vein, making it difficult to characterize the flow or even the presence or absence of thrombus.<sup><xref rid="B106" ref-type="bibr">106</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pseudoaneurysms, despite having well-defined color VUS features, can develop variable echogenicity in B-mode when thrombosed, depending on the volume and time of occlusion. When massive, they can also lead to venous compression and be associated with other conditions, such as blunt trauma or bone tumors, hindering vein identification.<sup><xref rid="B107" ref-type="bibr">107</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A common differential diagnosis of DVT on US is muscle hematoma, especially when located in the calf muscles. Clinical presentation is very similar to venous occlusion and is not always clear. Trauma or sudden pain are often mentioned in medical history. Su et al.<sup><xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref></sup>have described features suggestive of hematoma: mixed echogenicity, absence of anechoic regions, perilesional hyperechogenicity (especially enhancement in the underlying tissue), and a relationship between the longitudinal and transverse axis of lesions &gt; 2.</p>
        <p>One of the most common additional nonvascular findings on venous imaging is the popliteal synovial cyst, or Baker&#8217;s cyst. It is most commonly located in the posteromedial surface of the popliteal fossa and most often does not trigger symptoms in the vascular system. However, in rare conditions, an intact cyst can present posterolaterally, with varying degrees of venous, arterial, and nervous compression, thus triggering neurovascular symptoms in the affected limb. In case of rupture towards the calf, Baker&#8217;s cyst may mimic the main features of acute venous thrombosis. Despite clinical similarity, differentiation between articular and vascular cysts must be made because each condition requires a completely different treatment approach. Some cyst features may help differentiate it from thrombotic events. Baker&#8217;s cyst communicates with the joint cavity close to the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle, which is a key diagnostic feature ( <xref rid="f16001" ref-type="fig">Figure 16</xref> ). Despite its liquid content (therefore anechoic), it may have clots inside. Baker&#8217;s cysts are usually single and multilocular.<sup><xref rid="B109" ref-type="bibr">109</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f16001">
            <label>Figure 16</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Baker&#8217;s cyst in the posteromedial region of the knee (differential diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf19-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Soft tissue tumors, benign tumors (schwannomas, fibrous histiocytoma, neuromas), or malignancies (sarcomas, osteosarcoma) may mimic the clinical features of venous thrombosis or present as a compressive condition ( <xref rid="f17001" ref-type="fig">Figure 17</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B110" ref-type="bibr">110</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f17001">
            <label>Figure 17</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Venous hemangioendothelioma. A: clinical appearance; B: hypoechoic image surrounding a superficial vein on color flow Doppler; C: histopathologic examination.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf20-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>VUS is a very accessible and widely available tool for the initial investigation of venous thrombosis; however, nonthrombotic conditions should be considered in the differential diagnosis. In experienced hands, IVUS allows alternative diagnoses of conditions that often occur in cases of suspected venous obstruction.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.5. Recommendations</title>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Complete duplex US should be used for the diagnosis of acute DVT (grade of recommendation: I; level of evidence: A).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Spectral Doppler of both common femoral veins should be performed to evaluate symmetry. In case of asymmetric flow pattern, the intra-abdominal veins should be investigated<sup><xref rid="B91" ref-type="bibr">91</xref> - <xref rid="B94" ref-type="bibr">94</xref> </sup>(grade of recommendation: I; level of evidence: A).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Based on the consensus, the following terminology should be used to describe US abnormalities associated with DVT: <list list-type="order"><list-item><p>Acute/recent;</p></list-item><list-item><p>Chronic/old;</p></list-item><list-item><p>Predominance of acute changes;</p></list-item><list-item><p>Predominance of chronic changes.</p></list-item></list> </p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>The term &#8220;indeterminate&#8221; might be used only in the few occasions that the time of the event cannot be determined.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.6. How to Write Imaging Test Reports</title>
        <p><bold>Findings:</bold> first, it is fundamental to describe technical quality, the conditions in which the test was performed (if urgent or not), whether the patient was able to stay in the proper position, and if any major edema or other factors that could prevent proper technical quality were detected.</p>
        <p>Vein evaluation should be described separately, especially if there is venous thrombosis. All imaging features must be described: B-mode and Doppler (which can lead to the conclusion on the presence or absence of thrombosis), time of clinical onset, and whether the thrombus is acute, indeterminate, or has chronic post-thrombotic changes.</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Vein features to be included in the findings:</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Vein caliber (compare with the contralateral vein and/or with the diameter of the adjacent artery) and wall appearance in all evaluated segments;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Total or partial compressibility and specification of the affected segment;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Presence or absence of intraluminal material. If present, evaluate echogenicity, complete or partial luminal obstruction, and presence or absence of a mobile component;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Presence or absence of collaterals; <list list-type="bullet"><list-item><p>Regarding flow:</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Color Doppler: describe if present or absent and if it causes partial or complete luminal obstruction;</p></list-item><list-item><p>- Spectral imaging: flow may be absent. If present, describe whether the flow is continuous or phasic in response to breathing and whether it increases (or not) distal compression and/or associated reflux.</p></list-item></list> </p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>If applicable, include possible differential diagnoses: Baker&#8217;s cyst, tumors, signs suggestive of lymphedema, and images suggestive of hematoma.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p><bold>Conclusions:</bold> Report if there are signs of thrombosis or not. If so, specify whether it is totally or partially occlusive and whether the vein(s) and venous segments are affected. Specify whether it is acute/recent or there are chronic/old post-thrombotic changes. In cases of clinically subacute thrombosis (between 2 weeks and 6 months), the following terminology should be used: predominant signs of acute thrombosis or predominant signs of chronic thrombosis. In cases of nonocclusive thrombosis, specify whether there is associated flow or not. Features that should be reported to support the conclusions are summarized in <xref rid="t16001" ref-type="table">Chart 10</xref> .</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t16001">
            <label>Chart 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Ultrasound features to be reported that support the conclusions</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">ULTRASOUND SIGNS</th>
                  <th>TIME OF CLINICAL ONSET</th>
                  <th>DEGREE OF COMPRESSIBILITY</th>
                  <th>THROMBUS ECHOGENICITY</th>
                  <th>VEIN DIAMETER</th>
                  <th>TYPE OF FLOW</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Acute/recent thrombosis</td>
                  <td align="center">Less than 15 days</td>
                  <td align="center">Total or partial noncompressibility</td>
                  <td align="center">Hypoechoic or echolucent</td>
                  <td align="center">Increased</td>
                  <td align="center">Absent/continuous or reduced phasicity</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chronic/old thrombosis</td>
                  <td align="center">More than 6 months</td>
                  <td align="center">Total or partial noncompressibility</td>
                  <td align="center">Hyperechoic/residual fibrotic trabeculations</td>
                  <td align="center">Reduced or normal</td>
                  <td align="center">Continuous/absent/with residual changes</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Predominant signs of acute thrombosis, predominant signs of chronic thrombosis or, as an exception, indeterminate</td>
                  <td align="center">Clinically subacute: Between 2 weeks and 6 months</td>
                  <td align="center">Total or partial noncompressibility</td>
                  <td align="center">Isoechoic/mixed echogenicity/mostly hypoechoic/mostly hyperechoic</td>
                  <td align="center">Normal or slightly changed</td>
                  <td align="center">Reduced/continuous/absent phasicity</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Vascular ultrasound in the diagnosis of recurrent deep vein thrombosis and post-thrombotic syndrome</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1. Recurrent venous thrombosis</title>
          <p>This refers to a new episode of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in an individual with a previous history of this type of event. In cases of lower-extremity thrombosis, recurrence may manifest as a thrombus in a new location (propagation into a segment proximal or distal to the initial event, different segment of the same extremity, different extremity) or in a previously affected segment.<sup><xref rid="B111" ref-type="bibr">111</xref></sup>In current medical practice, the recommendation is that a patient diagnosed with a first episode of DVT be treated with an anticoagulant for 3 to 6 months,<sup><xref rid="B112" ref-type="bibr">112</xref></sup>which most often results in resolution of symptoms due to recanalization of the vein or emergence of collateral circulation.</p>
          <p>Recurrent thrombosis is a common event. After anticoagulant discontinuation, the recurrence rate is estimated to progressively increase over time, reaching 40% among all patients within 10 years (cumulative incidence: 7.2% within 6 months, 11% within 1 year, 19.6% within 3 years, 29.1% within 5 years, 34.3% within 8 years, and 39.9% within 10 years).<sup><xref rid="B113" ref-type="bibr">113</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The most important risk factor for recurrence is the cause of the first episode of DVT. In patients with DVT caused by a transient risk factor (eg, after major surgery), the annual risk is only 1%, and a 3-month treatment may be considered depending on other risk factors.<sup><xref rid="B114" ref-type="bibr">114</xref></sup>When there is no identifiable main causal factor, or when there is only a transient minimal cause (&#8220;unprovoked&#8221;/idiopathic thrombosis), which occurs in approximately half of DVT cases, the prevalence of recurrence increases to 5%-10% at 1 year and up to 30% at 5 years,<sup><xref rid="B115" ref-type="bibr">115</xref></sup>which warrants treatment continuation with vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) or non-vitamin K oral anticoagulants (NOACS) for 6 months or over, as these significantly reduce the risk of recurrence by 80%-90%.<sup><xref rid="B116" ref-type="bibr">116</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Recurrence after stopping anticoagulation primarily depends on two factors: first, whether acute DVT has been effectively treated, including minimum duration of anticoagulant treatment; and second, the presence of intrinsic risk factors that increase recurrence, notably malignant disease and thrombophilias.<sup><xref rid="B117" ref-type="bibr">117</xref></sup>Optimal duration of anticoagulant treatment remains under discussion and is based on the extent of thrombosis (proximal or distal veins) and on the cause of the thrombotic event, when related to a main predisposing factor. We follow the recommendations of the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP).<sup><xref rid="B112" ref-type="bibr">112</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition to the precipitating cause of DVT, other factors should be considered to determine the risk of recurrence. The sonographer should be attentive to clinical factors that are associated with recurrent thrombosis, such as: unprovoked DVT (RR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.8-2.9), obesity (RR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.1-2.4), male sex (RR, 2.8; 95% CI, 1.4-5.7), positive D-dimer test (RR, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.9-3.5), residual thrombosis (RR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.1-2.0), hereditary thrombophilia (RR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.1-1.9), inflammatory bowel disease (RR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.4-4.2), antiphospholipid antibody (RR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.3-4.1), and malignancy.<sup><xref rid="B117" ref-type="bibr">117</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Malignant disease is a major risk factor for both thrombosis and recurrent DVT. The risk for recurrent DVT is 2- to 4-fold higher in patients with cancer, reaching 4.2-fold in those undergoing chemotherapy.<sup><xref rid="B118" ref-type="bibr">118</xref></sup>This treatment affects the vascular endothelium and the coagulation cascade, thereby releasing prothrombotic substances during tumor lysis.</p>
          <p>Knowing the natural history of DVT is important to choose the appropriate therapy and, in the case of vascular ultrasound, to conduct patient follow-up. Recanalization is a dynamic process that depends on lytic or procoagulant forces; it starts in the first week after an episode of DVT and continues for months, with most of the thrombotic mass being reduced in the first 3 months.<sup><xref rid="B119" ref-type="bibr">119</xref></sup>Complete resolution has been demonstrated in 56% of patients undergoing ultrasound scanning during follow-up,<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup>and this rate is different for proximal and distal thromboses. In distal thrombosis, complete recanalization is more frequent and there are no sequelae such as significant reflux or obstruction. Conversely, the prevalence of reflux or obstruction in proximal thrombosis or thrombosis involving the two segments is much more significant.<sup><xref rid="B121" ref-type="bibr">121</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The recanalization rate is related to the prevalence of reflux in the venous system. The faster the recanalization, the greater the association with competent valves.<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref> , <xref rid="B122" ref-type="bibr">122</xref> </sup>Reflux, associated or not with venous obstruction due to incomplete recanalization, may cause persistent venous hypertension, leading to the appearance of signs of chronic venous hypertension. These are known as post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS).</p>
          <p>Although several studies have highlighted the importance of residual venous thrombosis, which is usually diagnosed by VUS examinations in the follow-up of patients with DVT,<sup><xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref> - <xref rid="B125" ref-type="bibr">125</xref> </sup>a recent meta-analysis of 14 studies showed only a mild increase in the risk of recurrence (HR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.1-2.0) in patients with residual venous thrombosis.<sup><xref rid="B126" ref-type="bibr">126</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Ultrasonic Diagnosis of Recurrent Thrombosis</title>
          <p>There are no isolated VUS parameters that characterize recurrent thrombosis, or validated clinical models that allow its diagnosis. The diagnosis is based on reappearance of symptoms and clinical findings of DVT, considering the probability associated with risk factors and the presence of ultrasound findings suggestive of recurrent thrombosis.</p>
          <p>Comparative findings of an examination of currently suspected recurrence versus a baseline examination at the end of treatment are the only validated method for the diagnosis of recurrent DVT. Therefore, the existence of previous examinations that clearly and accurately describe the extent of involvement and the degree of recanalization of the previous thrombosis is key.</p>
          <p>Ultrasound findings are similar to those described for the diagnosis of the first thrombosis, and the presence of an old thrombotic mass may hinder the diagnosis of recurrence. Such findings are listed in <xref rid="t15001" ref-type="table">Chart 9</xref> of this document.</p>
          <p>The diagnosis may be easier when recurrent thrombosis occurs in the contralateral extremity or in a new segment that was clearly not involved in the previous venous thrombosis. When it occurs in a previously involved segment, an increase in vein diameter by 2 mm under compression of the previously thrombosed segment has been reported as a criterion for the diagnosis of recurrent DVT.<sup><xref rid="B127" ref-type="bibr">127</xref> , <xref rid="B128" ref-type="bibr">128</xref> </sup>Because an increase of 2 mm at maximum compression has a low positive predictive value, other authors have proposed the use of an increase in vein diameter &#8805;4 mm for the diagnosis of recurrent DVT.<sup><xref rid="B129" ref-type="bibr">129</xref></sup>A recent study that reviewed 36 published articles demonstrated that a new noncompressible vein or an increase in the diameter of a previously thrombosed vein segment &#8805;4 mm is sufficient to confirm the diagnosis of recurrent DVT. An increase in vein diameter of less than 2 mm allows recurrence to be ruled out, and an increase between 2 and 4 mm is considered unclear.<sup><xref rid="B130" ref-type="bibr">130</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Thrombus echogenicity, even when correlated with in vitro thrombus organization, makes the in vivo evaluation subjective. Importantly, even acute thrombi may have different stages of organization.<sup><xref rid="B131" ref-type="bibr">131</xref></sup></p>
          <p>La Gal et al.<sup><xref rid="B132" ref-type="bibr">132</xref></sup>demonstrated that a diagnostic strategy comparing an examination of currently suspected recurrence with a baseline examination at the end of treatment can be safely used to rule out recurrent DVT.</p>
          <p>Such considerations reinforce the need for a thorough examination at the end of treatment to be used for comparison with subsequent procedures. All findings should be described, including residual diameter after maximum compression and site of measurement (it should be performed at the site of greatest residual thrombotic mass).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3. Post-thrombotic Syndrome</title>
          <p>Post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS) is a chronic condition characterized by signs and symptoms that develop as a consequence of previous DVT. The most common complication appears in the long term and affects 20%-40% of cases of lower-extremity DVT, even in the presence of adequate anticoagulation.<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup></p>
          <p>PTS has a significant impact on the quality of life of patients, compromising and limiting their daily activities and productivity. This impact can be compared to that of cancer and heart disease, in addition to causing a significant cost increase to the health care system. Data from Swedish studies showed costs about 75% higher than those of primary DVT.<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1. Pathophysiology</title>
            <p>The pathophysiology of PTS is a combination of obstructive phenomena and venous reflux due to valve insufficiency, which result in venous hypertension. Increased venous pressure in subcutaneous capillaries and microcirculation culminates in valve incompetence in perforating veins. In most cases, the obstructive process is characterized by recanalization occurring within 6-12 months of the acute event, which leads to a combination of partial obstruction and varying degrees of reflux in the affected segments. All changes ultimately result in destruction of venous valves, development of collateral valves in sites where a greater degree of obstruction persists, and a greater tendency to recurrence of acute episodes.<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref> , <xref rid="B134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>A system of competent saphenous veins may act favorably in venous drainage when there is a significant obstructive component. Conversely, when there is insufficiency of preexisting saphenous veins, venous return will be even more compromised, and the clinical status of these patients may deteriorate more quickly.</p>
            <p>The inflammatory process is the main factor in PTS, being present in the resolution of thrombosis. Fibrinolysis, thrombus organization, and neovascularization involve interleukin-6 and intercellular adhesion molecule-1, which causes valve damage within the first months of the acute phase of DVT. Prandoni and Kahn suggest that the absence of recanalization in this period is an important predictor of PTS.<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref> , <xref rid="B135" ref-type="bibr">135</xref> , <xref rid="B136" ref-type="bibr">136</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2. Clinical Manifestations</title>
            <p>PTS includes a wide spectrum of manifestations ranging from mild clinical signs to severe symptoms such as chronic pain in the affected limb (limiting daily activities), intractable edema, and ulcers. Other signs may appear, such as hyperemia, hyperpigmentation, venous dilations, and lipodermatosclerosis, in addition to symptoms such as pain, heaviness, paresthesia, pruritus, and cramps. In more advanced cases, cutaneous, subcutaneous, and lymphatic infections may occur.</p>
            <p>The degree of residual luminal obstruction is directly related to the severity of repercussion of these clinical manifestations, leading to severe pain and venous claudication.</p>
            <p>The following risk factors may contribute to the development of PTS:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>- Obesity;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Varicose veins;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Proximal thrombosis and recurrence;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Inadequate use of oral anticoagulant;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Time: the slower the resolution of DVT, the greater the probability of PTS;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Age and gender (there are contradictory studies);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Other potential but not yet proven factors: malignancy, immobilization, surgery, pregnancy, and thrombophilia.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.3. Diagnosis</title>
            <p>This condition should be diagnosed after the end of treatment of the DVT episode, ie, PTS cannot be characterized before the first three months.<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The diagnostic strategy for PTS should consist of clinical examination, laboratory tests, imaging studies, and air plethysmography. There is no reference laboratory, imaging, or functional test for the diagnosis of PTS. However, the presence of venous obstruction and reflux must be recorded by an imaging test, and an attempt should be made to inform which of the two pathophysiological components predominates, even if nonquantitatively.</p>
            <p>The clinical, etiological, anatomical, and pathological (CEAP) classification and the venous clinical severity score (VCSS) used for chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) can be appropriately applied to quantify PTS with different measures.<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref> , <xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref> - <xref rid="B139" ref-type="bibr">139</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>The Brandjes scale, the Ginsberg measure, and the Villalta scale were specifically developed to assist in the diagnosis of PTS, but unfortunately they have not been adopted comparatively in other studies. At the 2008 meeting of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis, held in Vienna, the Villalta scale was recommended for defining the presence of PTS, with a score &gt;5 indicating the diagnosis. The presence of ulcer makes the score even more severe ( <xref rid="t17001" ref-type="table">Chart 11</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B140" ref-type="bibr">140</xref> , <xref rid="B141" ref-type="bibr">141</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>
              <table-wrap id="t17001">
                <label>Chart 11</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Villalta scale for post-thrombotic syndrome 141</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th align="left">SYMPTOMS</th>
                      <th>NONE</th>
                      <th>MILD</th>
                      <th>MODERATE</th>
                      <th>SEVERE</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Pain</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Cramps</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Heaviness</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Paresthesia</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Pruritus</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Signs</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Pretibial hematoma</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Skin induration</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Hyperpigmentation</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Redness</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Venous ectasia</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Pain on calf compresssion</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Venous ulcer</td>
                      <td align="center">0</td>
                      <td align="center">1</td>
                      <td align="center">2</td>
                      <td align="center">3</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>VUS is the imaging method of choice because of its low cost, availability in small centers, and high accuracy. In patients with a clinical presentation suggestive of PTS but no history of DVT, ultrasound is indicated to screen for evidence of previous DVT.</p>
            <p>VUS provides the location, the measurement of vein diameters after the compression maneuver ( <xref rid="f18001" ref-type="fig">Figure 18</xref> ), and, more subjectively, the degree of luminal obstruction in the affected veins, valve damage, and reflux characterization ( <xref rid="f19001" ref-type="fig">Figures 19</xref> and <xref rid="f20001" ref-type="fig">20</xref> ). Although rarely used and infrequently available, air plethysmography is effective in quantifying venous reflux and is useful for the control of recanalization and diagnosis of rethrombosis.</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f18001">
                <label>Figure 18</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Two-dimensional ultrasound image with measurement of popliteal vein diameter after a compression maneuver.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf21-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f19001">
                <label>Figure 19</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; A: two-dimensional longitudinal image of the common femoral vein with parietal thickening and trabeculations/fibrous tissue inside the vessel. B: color flow Doppler showing flow around the trabeculation. C: similar findings in the popliteal vein.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf22-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f20001">
                <label>Figure 20</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Reflux in the popliteal vein on color flow Doppler (red) and pulsed Doppler.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf23-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>In addition to defining the diagnosis,VUS can be used for therapeutic planning. The test is important in the evaluation of the involvement of the iliocaval segment for endovascular approach and restoration of patency as well as in post-treatment follow-up, having a key role in the diagnosis of recurrent thrombosis.<sup><xref rid="B137" ref-type="bibr">137</xref> , <xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">142</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>When there are barriers to the use of VUS, such as the presence of severe edema and lipodermatosclerosis, which often includes focal fibrocalcific nodules, some strategies should be adopted for improving image acquisition.</p>
            <p>Modification of transducer position and angle of insonation of the ultrasound beam, reduction in transducer frequency, and use of trapezoid mode with linear transducers are recommended; if necessary, the transducer should be replaced with lower-frequency devices that enable greater penetration, such as convex, sector, and endocavitary transducers.</p>
            <p>Patients with PTS should be examined in the supine and upright positions, which allows a better visualization of luminal changes, such as thickening and trabeculae, and promotes a more effective investigation of reflux ( <xref rid="f19001" ref-type="fig">Figures 19A-C</xref> and <xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref> ). Below-knee veins can also be evaluated with the patient seated, feet resting lightly on a platform, and muscles more relaxed, which facilitates the insonation of deeper veins.</p>
            <p>In the iliocaval segment, not only should the physician assess patency but also look for signs of extrinsic compression, especially compression of the left common iliac vein between the direct common iliac artery and the adjacent vertebral body, usually L5.</p>
            <p>The main ultrasound findings are reduced vein diameters and chronic luminal changes, such as parietal thickening and hyperechoic trabeculae, in addition to valve insufficiency. A less frequent finding is the presence of flow with an arteriovenous fistula pattern in focal points of venous segments affected by thrombosis, without repercussions in adjacent axial veins and arteries and of unknown clinical significance.<sup><xref rid="B142" ref-type="bibr">142</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. Follow-up Protocols with Intravascular Ultrasound after Deep Vein Thrombosis</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>DVT is a dynamic process with periods of recanalization, progression, and recurrence, and VUS is an important tool for the diagnosis and follow-up of DVT. Ultrasound findings play an important role in the outcome of this disease and are useful at different stages, which will be described below.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. Recanalization</title>
          <p>Recanalization of venous thrombosis is complex and involves mechanisms of intrinsic and extrinsic fibrinolysis, peripheral fragmentation, neovascularization, and thrombus retraction.<sup><xref rid="B134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref> , <xref rid="B143" ref-type="bibr">143</xref> , <xref rid="B144" ref-type="bibr">144</xref> </sup>Such data have been confirmed by studies using VUS, which demonstrated thrombus regression within the first three months and complete recanalization in approximately half of patients within 6 to 9 months of the episode of DVT.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref> , <xref rid="B145" ref-type="bibr">145</xref> </sup>Partial recanalization and persistently occluded segments occur in approximately 20% and 5% of cases, respectively<sup><xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">146</xref></sup>( <xref rid="f21001" ref-type="fig">Figure 21A</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f21001">
              <label>Figure 21</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Process of neovascularization in recanalized thrombosis. A: cross-sectional view of a vein with echogenic images corresponding to the thrombus inside the vessel. Color Doppler demonstrates the presence of flow within the thrombus. B: Pulsed wave Doppler revealing the presence of flow within the thrombus.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf24-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Images of small tortuous vessels inside the thrombus and adjacent to the venous wall, detected on color flow Doppler and pulsed wave Doppler, suggest the presence of neovascularization in the complex process of recanalization<sup><xref rid="B134" ref-type="bibr">134</xref> , <xref rid="B143" ref-type="bibr">143</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="f21001" ref-type="fig">Figure 21B</xref> ).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.3. Recurrent Thrombosis</title>
          <p>Although recanalization is an important step in the process, recurrent thrombotic events are not uncommon. The recurrence rate of symptomatic thromboembolism ranges from 5% to 13%, depending on the duration of patient follow-up with VUS. However, VUS-detected thrombotic events without clinical manifestations tend to be greater.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The diagnosis of recurrent thrombosis is highly dependent on the ultrasound examination performed during the first episode. The following criteria are suggestive of recurrence:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Identification of new sites of thrombosis;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Occlusion of partially recanalized venous segments recorded in a previous examination;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>An increase greater than 4 mm in the diameter of partially recanalized venous segments recorded in previous examinations<sup><xref rid="B111" ref-type="bibr">111</xref> , <xref rid="B130" ref-type="bibr">130</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="f22001" ref-type="fig">Figure 22</xref> ).</p>
              <p>
                <fig id="f22001">
                  <label>Figure 22</label>
                  <caption>
                    <title>&#8211; Ultrasound changes that may be found in the follow-up of patients with deep vein thrombosis. A: longitudinal view of the femoral artery (red) and femoral vein (blue). Presence of partial recanalization of the venous segment surrounding residual fibrosis. B: longitudinal view of the femoral vein. Normal ascending venous flow is detected in blue by color flow Doppler, and reflux is shown in red after distal compression maneuver. C: cross-sectional view of the calf muscle vein, with increased diameters and reduced compressibility. In 1, an echogenic image refers to a previous DVT, and in 2, a hypoechoic image refers to a current recurrence.</title>
                  </caption>
                  <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf25-en.tif"/></fig>
              </p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.4. Valve Insufficiency</title>
          <p>Reflux secondary to DVT, resulting from valve damage, is described in approximately 33% to 59% of the affected venous segments ( <xref rid="f22001" ref-type="fig">Figure 22B</xref> ). The popliteal vein is known to be the most frequently affected vein, followed by the femoral vein.<sup><xref rid="B146" ref-type="bibr">146</xref></sup>Reflux evaluation with distal compression maneuvers is considered abnormal when time is greater than 1000 ms in the common femoral, femoral, and popliteal veins, and equal to or greater than 500 ms in other veins.<sup><xref rid="B147" ref-type="bibr">147</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A: longitudinal view of the femoral artery (red) and femoral vein (blue). Presence of partial recanalization of the venous segment surrounding residual fibrosis. B: longitudinal view of the femoral vein. Normal ascending venous flow is detected in blue by color flow Doppler, and reflux is shown in red after distal compression maneuver. C: cross-sectional view of the calf muscle vein, with increased diameters and reduced compressibility. In 1, an echogenic image refers to a previous DVT, and in 2, a hypoechoic image refers to a current recurrence.</p>
          <p>Some factors associated with persistent post-thrombotic changes, such as the presence of residual thrombi and/or post-phlebitic valve insufficiency, were considered predictors of PTS. However, whether such findings can be used to change a therapeutic plan remains a controversial topic in the literature.<sup><xref rid="B148" ref-type="bibr">148</xref> , <xref rid="B149" ref-type="bibr">149</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.5. Discussion</title>
          <sec>
            <title>5.5.1. Initial Negative VUS</title>
            <p>The US Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound has recently recommended full compliance with the VUS protocol for diagnosing DVT.<sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref></sup>They also recommend that a comprehensive ultrasound examination be performed within 5 days to 1 week of an initial negative comprehensive or point-of-care ultrasound in the following situations:</p>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>Persistent or worsening symptoms;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Patients at high risk for DVT whose etiology of symptoms has not been elucidated;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Technically compromised previous examinations.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.5.2. Proximal vs. Distal Thrombosis</title>
            <p>There has been a debate regarding follow-up protocols with VUS for patients undergoing treatment for proximal DVT, ie, in the iliac, femoral, and popliteal territories. It is not clear whether patients on adequate anticoagulant medication would benefit from VUS during treatment, or whether the conclusions of a repeated examination would change the established treatment strategy. However, VUS performed at the end of treatment has been shown to be an important basis for future evaluations, being crucial for detecting which veins were recanalized and which veins still have post-thrombotic changes.<sup><xref rid="B80" ref-type="bibr">80</xref> , <xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref> , <xref rid="B150" ref-type="bibr">150</xref> - <xref rid="B152" ref-type="bibr">152</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Regarding isolated leg vein thrombosis, classified as axial when it involves the tibial and/or peroneal veins, and as muscular when it involves the muscular veins only, some centers do not include its study in the investigation of DVT with VUS. With this initial approach, patients should undergo a second examination on the seventh day after the onset of symptoms. The second procedure is indicated for assessing the possibility of involvement of the proximal segment, if there has been propagation of distal DVT not diagnosed in the acute phase. When the results of the second examination are normal, the possibility of thrombosis is ruled out and the patient is not anticoagulated. In such centers, the estimated risk of pulmonary embolism (PE) at the end of 3 months is 0.5% (95% CI, 0.4%-0.9%).<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref> , <xref rid="B153" ref-type="bibr">153</xref> , <xref rid="B154" ref-type="bibr">154</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>A serial follow-up protocol with VUS is recommended given the low rate of proximal propagation of popliteal vein thrombosis, which ranges from 3 to 15%,<sup><xref rid="B155" ref-type="bibr">155</xref> - <xref rid="B158" ref-type="bibr">158</xref> </sup>with limited benefits from anticoagulation. A meta-analysis conducted by Masuda et al.<sup><xref rid="B159" ref-type="bibr">159</xref></sup>reinforced the low rate of propagation. In a randomized study, Schwartz et al.<sup><xref rid="B160" ref-type="bibr">160</xref></sup>demonstrated no statistically significant differences between patients treated with anticoagulation for 10 days and individuals without treatment (3.7% vs. 3.8%). The propagation rate described by the authors for the popliteal vein was 1.9%.</p>
            <p>Few studies have addressed recurrence in distal DVT. Masuda et al.<sup><xref rid="B159" ref-type="bibr">159</xref></sup>found no robust publications to compare patients treated with anticoagulation or followed-up with VUS. Lagerstedt et al.<sup><xref rid="B161" ref-type="bibr">161</xref></sup>studied patients with symptomatic distal DVT and treated with warfarin for 5 days. Patients were then allocated to warfarin maintenance for 3 months or treatment discontinuation. After 3 months, the recurrence rate of DVT was 29% and 0% in the &#8220;treated&#8221; versus &#8220;untreated&#8221; groups, respectively.</p>
            <p>Anticoagulation treatment is chosen for cases of symptomatic distal DVT. Most authors suggest a short duration, up to 6 weeks, in low-risk patients.<sup><xref rid="B160" ref-type="bibr">160</xref> , <xref rid="B162" ref-type="bibr">162</xref> </sup>In high-risk cases (cancer, previous DVT, involvement of two or more veins, age over 50 years, and thrombophilia), they recommend a 12-week treatment.<sup><xref rid="B163" ref-type="bibr">163</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Centers using a comprehensive VUS protocol choose to treat patients regardless of venous thrombosis being proximal or distal. The estimated risk of PE with this approach, at the end of 3 months, is also low (0.6%; 95% CI, 0.3%-0.9%).<sup><xref rid="B101" ref-type="bibr">101</xref> , <xref rid="B164" ref-type="bibr">164</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Evidence regarding post-thrombotic changes used as a parameter to guide the duration of anticoagulation is not robust. Additional research is needed in this field.<sup><xref rid="B123" ref-type="bibr">123</xref> , <xref rid="B165" ref-type="bibr">165</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>A study on patients with proximal DVT treated with rivaroxaban evaluated ultrasound changes found at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months as well as recanalization rates in the affected veins.<sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref></sup>Other authors<sup><xref rid="B167" ref-type="bibr">167</xref></sup>have highlighted the link between the presence of reflux in the popliteal vein, the permanence of fibrotic tissue, and the development of PTS. Sartori et al.<sup><xref rid="B168" ref-type="bibr">168</xref></sup>followed-up 172 patients with isolated leg vein thrombosis treated with enoxaparin for 6 weeks and assessed the degree of recanalization with IVUS. The examination was performed during diagnosis and at the end of treatment. Approximately half of patients (49.5%) had recanalized veins, and there was no statistical significance between recanalization and thrombus size or anatomical site involved (axial vs. muscular veins).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.5.3. Recurrent Deep Vein Thrombosis</title>
            <p>After an initial episode of DVT, recurrence may occur in approximately 25% of patients within 5 years and account for an increased risk of PE and PTS.<sup><xref rid="B169" ref-type="bibr">169</xref></sup>The diagnosis of recurrent DVT is more complex because, different from the approach to the initial episode of DVT, which includes validated algorithms of pretest probability combined with the use of D-dimer and VUS,<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup>such criteria are not validated for recurrence.<sup><xref rid="B170" ref-type="bibr">170</xref></sup>An VUS finding of non-compressibility of a previously unaffected segment can be considered diagnostic.<sup><xref rid="B152" ref-type="bibr">152</xref></sup></p>
            <p>At times, an initial thrombus will not resolve completely, which results in chronic post-thrombotic changes and may hamper the diagnosis. In this case, the diagnosis of recurrent DVT in a previously affected venous segment can be made by detecting an increase in thrombus diameter of at least 4 mm compared with a previous study. However, the accuracy of this finding is controversial,<sup><xref rid="B171" ref-type="bibr">171</xref></sup>and the diagnosis depends on a previous good-quality examination with an adequate number of images for comparison, together with caliber measurements in the different affected venous segments; however, this is not observed in daily clinical practice. Also, this criterion is not used in previous episodes of calf vein thrombosis, which makes patient approach even more difficult.</p>
            <p>The follow-up of patients with recurrent DVT should follow the criteria used during the initial episode, as there is a lack of studies addressing the follow-up of this specific group. We also highlight the importance of a comprehensive study at the end of treatment, or a follow-up examination after 6 months in cases of prolonged anticoagulation, including the investigation of chronic post-thrombotic changes with an assessment of venous insufficiency with the patient in the upright position.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.4. Recommendations</title>
        <p>Based on medical literature data and guideline expert discussions, we suggest the following:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Negative initial VUS:</bold> perform a comprehensive ultrasound examination within 5 days to 1 week of an initial negative comprehensive or point-of-care ultrasound in the following situations: (a) persistent or worsening symptoms, (b) patients at high risk for DVT whose etiology of symptoms has not been elucidated, and (c) technically compromised previous examinations.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Initial VUS with diagnosis of proximal DVT (iliac, femoral, and popliteal territories):</bold> repeat comprehensive ultrasound examination towards the end of treatment to assess the degree of recanalization and presence of post-thrombotic changes. Or, at any time the patient presents with symptoms during treatment, for evaluation of recurrence or extent of the initial thrombosis.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Initial VUS with diagnosis of distal DVT (tibial, peroneal, or muscular veins):</bold> repeat ultrasound examination within 6 weeks or 12 weeks of the onset of clinical manifestations, according to the established therapeutic plan.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Patients with recurrent DVT:</bold> repeat ultrasound examination at the end of treatment, or a follow-up examination after 6 months in cases of prolonged anticoagulation, or at any time in the presence of symptoms.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism by CT Angiography, MR Angiography, and Pulmonary Angiography</title>
        <sec>
          <title>6.1. CT angiography</title>
          <p>The PIOPED II study<sup><xref rid="B172" ref-type="bibr">172</xref></sup>evaluated the role of CT pulmonary angiography combined with lower-extremity CT venography in the diagnosis of PE. Patients were clinically classified according to the probability of PE using the Wells score,<sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref></sup>and pretest results were compared with posttest results. The authors demonstrated that CT angiography combined with CT venography has a positive predictive value (PPV) of 96% in patients with high clinical probability of PE, and a negative predictive value (NPV) of 97% in patients with low clinical probability. In patients with moderate clinical probability, both NPV and PPV were 92%, demonstrating an excellent case-solving capacity.</p>
          <p>CT angiography also allows the assessment of the aorta, lung parenchyma, chest wall, and pleural space, with excellent spatial resolution, and the making of alternative diagnoses in cases of suspected PE, which may occur in up to 2/3, such as aortic dissection, pneumothorax, pneumonia, and lung cancer. Thus, the treatment for each of these conditions can be properly initiated.<sup><xref rid="B173" ref-type="bibr">173</xref></sup></p>
          <p>CT angiography is currently the method of choice for evaluating patients with suspected PE after clinical risk stratification. A negative CT angiogram in patients with low clinical probability is sufficient to rule out this diagnosis. A positive CT angiogram in patients with high clinical probability confirms the diagnosis of PE.</p>
          <p>As CT angiography is the gold standard for the diagnosis of PE, studies that attempt to characterize prognostic factors using CT for evaluation of the RV have emerged.<sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> - <xref rid="B177" ref-type="bibr">177</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>In a retrospective study, Schoepf et al.<sup><xref rid="B177" ref-type="bibr">177</xref></sup>demonstrated that an increased RV, assessed by CT angiography using the ratio between the dimensions of the RV and the LV (abnormal when &gt; 0.9), is an independent mortality factor (OR = 5.17; 95% CI),<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref> , <xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref> , <xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref> , <xref rid="B63" ref-type="bibr">63</xref> </sup>which confirms the potential use of this tool in the risk stratification of patients with acute PE.</p>
          <p>Araoz et al.<sup><xref rid="B175" ref-type="bibr">175</xref></sup>selected three types of CT angiography findings (ventricular septal bowing, embolic burden, and RV/LV ratio) to assess the risk of short-term death, defined as in-hospital death or death within 30 days of CT angiography due to PE ( <xref rid="f23001" ref-type="fig">Figure 23</xref> ). They concluded that ventricular septal bowing may have some clinical value as a predictor of short-term death, with high specificity (87%-88%) and low sensitivity (18%-21%). The other factors did not increase the risk of short-term death in the study sample.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f23001">
              <label>Figure 23</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Positive CT angiography for acute PE. Signs of RV dysfunction; note increased RV dimensions (RV/LV ratio &gt;1) and ventricular septum bowing leftward.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf26-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <sec>
            <title>6.1.1. Imaging Technique and Protocols</title>
            <p>In CT pulmonary angiography, the aim is to achieve maximum pulmonary arterial opacification while keeping venous contamination and motion artifacts at a minimum, in addition to reducing radiation and contrast doses.</p>
            <p>The main parameters to be observed are:</p>
            <p><bold>a) Imaging protocols:</bold> depend on available equipment and information such as patient&#8217;s height and weight. Ideally, they should include:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>- Acquisition performed with the patient holding the breath (apnea) without exercising a Valsalva maneuver or respiratory pause;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Use of test bolus or bolus tracking with an ROI on the pulmonary trunk to monitor the arrival of the contrast material in the pulmonary arterial circulation and to perform the examination at the appropriate time;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Imaging from the lung base to the apex, which minimizes motion artifacts in the most important regions and reduces the artifact resulting from concentrated contrast in the superior vena cava;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Acquisition and reconstruction of images with thin slice thickness (1 mm or less) and without gaps between images to allow multiplanar reconstructions with no loss of spatial resolution;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Comprehensive study of all thoracic structures, which allows the assessment of possible differential diagnoses for the patient&#8217;s complaint;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Use of lower kV, which significantly attenuates iodine and substantially reduces the radiation dose. This reduction causes an increase in image noise: the use of 100 kV instead of traditional 120 kV should be preferred, as long as the signal-to-noise ratio is kept at acceptable levels. Obese patients may need higher kV;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Use of iterative reconstruction, which reduces radiation doses and keeps image noise at acceptable levels.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p><bold>b) Contrast material injection protocols:</bold> depend on the available type of contrast material and venous access. Ideally, they should include:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>- Large-bore antecubital vein access that allows the injection of contrast material with an injection pump at a minimum speed of 4 mL/s;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>- Use of more concentrated contrast materials, such as 350 mg I/mL.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2. Dual-energy computed tomography</title>
        <p>Dual-energy CT is able to acquire images simultaneously (or nearly) at two different energy levels.<sup><xref rid="B178" ref-type="bibr">178</xref></sup>The main advantages of this method for evaluation of PE are the following ( <xref rid="f24001" ref-type="fig">Figure 24</xref> ):</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f24001">
            <label>Figure 24</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Dual-energy computed tomography pulmonary angiography. A: iodine-enhanced map reflecting the homogeneous distribution of contrast material within the lung parenchyma; B: MIP reconstruction in CT angiography. Dual-energy CT combines functional information with anatomical angiographic images. C: iodine-enhanced map of dual-energy CT in another patient, showing wedge-shaped perfusion defects in the left upper and lower lobes, compatible with pulmonary infarctions. Angiographic images (not shown) confirmed the diagnosis of acute PE.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf27-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p>It generates an iodine-enhanced map as a by-product, which reflects at that time the distribution of contrast material across the lung parenchyma. A joint evaluation of the iodine-enhanced map with angiographic images can sensitize the detection of small thrombi in distal pulmonary branch arteries,<sup><xref rid="B179" ref-type="bibr">179</xref> , <xref rid="B180" ref-type="bibr">180</xref> </sup>allowing monoenergetic reconstructions.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Conversely, monoenergetic reconstructions at low energy levels (eg, 50 keV) increase iodine attenuation, but they also increase image noise. This type of reconstruction improves angiographic images in cases of suboptimal vascular opacification or allows reductions in contrast dose, eg, in patients with renal dysfunction.<sup><xref rid="B179" ref-type="bibr">179</xref> , <xref rid="B180" ref-type="bibr">180</xref> </sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3. Older Generations of CT Scanners</title>
        <p>Performing CT pulmonary angiography using older scanners can be a major challenge. However, after adjustments to imaging parameters and optimization of contrast use, using larger volumes or adjusting the injection rate may be required to compensate for a slower acquisition and to obtain good-quality diagnostic images.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4. Diagnostic Criteria</title>
        <p>The diagnosis of acute PE with CT angiography is based on the identification of occlusive or nonocclusive thrombi within the pulmonary branch arteries. The diagnostic criteria for acute PE on CT angiography are<sup><xref rid="B181" ref-type="bibr">181</xref></sup>:</p>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p>Occlusive filling defect causing an increase in caliber of the affected vessel ( <xref rid="f25001" ref-type="fig">Figure 25A</xref> );</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f25001">
                <label>Figure 25</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; A: occlusive filling defect causing an increase in vessel caliber; B: contrast-edged, central filling defect; C: filling defect adhering to the vessel wall and forming an acute angle with it.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf28-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Contrast-edged, central, nonocclusive filling defect ( <xref rid="f25001" ref-type="fig">Figure 25B</xref> );</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Nonocclusive filling defect adhering to the vessel wall and forming an acute angle with it ( <xref rid="f25001" ref-type="fig">Figure 25C</xref> ).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Acute PE is the main cause of filling defects in pulmonary branch arteries. Possible pitfalls and differential diagnoses include:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>- Flow and/or motion artifacts;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Incorrect anatomical interpretation;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Reflex vasoconstriction;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Chronic PE;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Nonthrombotic emboli;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Congenital anomalies (pulmonary artery agenesis and/or hypoplasia);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Inflammatory diseases (vasculitis, fibrosing mediastinitis);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>- Neoplasms (thrombi and/or tumor invasion or primary neoplasms of the pulmonary arteries).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>An indirect sign of acute PE on CT is pulmonary infarction ( <xref rid="f26001" ref-type="fig">Figure 26</xref> ), which can be identified even on noncontrast studies. In this situation, the study should be complemented with an angiogram to confirm the diagnosis. The typical image of pulmonary infarction is a peripheral opacity with a pleural base and central foci of attenuation that are better characterized with mediastinal window settings (vessel sign) and without air bronchograms.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref> , <xref rid="B182" ref-type="bibr">182</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f26001">
            <label>Figure 26</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Pulmonary infarction. A and B: peripheral opacity with central foci of attenuation and no air bronchograms. C: acute thrombus in the basal segmental pulmonary artery to the right lower lobe.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf29-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.5. Prognostic Criteria</title>
        <p>The changes with prognostic value that can be characterized on CT angiography are related to an acute overload of the right heart chambers. Although dilations in the superior vena cava and azygos veins and in the pulmonary trunk as well as objective measurements of RV function have been cited as prognostic markers, the most important sign of RV dysfunction is an increase in RV dimensions with an RV/LV ratio greater than 1.0 in an axial CT plane ( <xref rid="f27001" ref-type="fig">Figure 27</xref> ).<sup><xref rid="B181" ref-type="bibr">181</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f27001">
            <label>Figure 27</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; CT pulmonary angiography. A: typical signs of acute PE; B: signs of overload of the right heart chambers. Note RV/LV ratio &gt;1.0 and straightening of the interventricular septum.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf30-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.6. Contraindications and Special Situations</title>
        <p>As CT angiography is an important tool in the diagnosis of acute PE, the only absolute contraindication is a history of severe allergy to iodinated contrast material. In such cases, alternative diagnostic methods include V/Q scintigraphy, MR angiography, gadolinium-enhanced CT angiography, or serial Doppler ultrasound of the lower extremities. A history of mild-to-moderate allergic reactions can be approached with the use of premedication for desensitization.</p>
        <p>There are other special situations that may require adaptation of the protocol or replacement of CT angiography with other diagnostic methods:</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Situation 1: young women of reproductive age or pregnant women</title>
          <p>To avoid exposing the breast tissue to ionizing radiation, especially in patients with a normal chest radiograph, V/Q scintigraphy (or the perfusion-only study) or serial Doppler ultrasound of the lower extremities can be alternatives.</p>
          <p>When CT angiography is used, the protocol should be optimized by ensuring adequate venous access and injection rates to achieve high diagnostic quality and avoid repetitions.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Situation 2: chronic renal insufficiency under conservative treatment</title>
          <p>This is not an absolute contraindication. The patient should preferably be hydrated before the examination, but cautiously to avoid congestion. In urgent cases, CT angiography can be performed even without prior preparation. V/Q scintigraphy and serial Doppler ultrasound of the lower extremities remain as alternatives.</p>
          <p>If available, dual-energy CT scanners and monoenergetic reconstructions can be used to reduce the dose of iodinated contrast material and still ensure adequate vascular opacification.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Situation 3: ICU patients who cannot be transported</title>
          <p>This case requires examinations that can be performed at the bedside, such as echocardiography and Doppler ultrasound of the lower extremities.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.7. MR Angiography</title>
        <p>MR angiography is an alternative to CT angiography, allowing a direct study of the pulmonary arteries.<sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> , <xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> </sup>This diagnostic method was evaluated in the PIOPED III study,<sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref></sup>which combined MR pulmonary angiography with lower-extremity MR venography for diagnosis.</p>
        <p>MR angiography has some advantages over CT angiography. The main benefits are the absence of radiation and the employment of a contrast material (gadolinium) that can be used in patients with iodinated contrast allergy.<sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref></sup>Also, MR angiography allows the performance of other techniques, such as lung perfusion, great vessel flow quantification, and cardiac function assessment.<sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> , <xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>Currently, the indication of MR imaging for patients with renal insufficiency, especially those receiving dialysis, has been revised because of the occurrence of progressive systemic fibrosis related to the use of gadolinium.<sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The main disadvantages of MR angiography are lower spatial resolution, higher cost, greater complexity, longer examination, reduced availability, and difficulty monitoring critically ill patients inside the machine due to the high magnetic field.<sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> , <xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>The results of the PIOPED III study(183) showed that MR angiography was technically inadequate in 25% of patients. With these technically inadequate tests included, the method diagnosed PE in 57% of patients. When the technically adequate tests were analyzed separately, MR angiography had a sensitivity of 78% and a specificity of 99% for the diagnosis of PE. When MR angiography was combined with MR venography, the combination showed a sensitivity of 92%, superior to MR angiography alone, and a specificity of 96% for the diagnosis. However, the tests were technically inadequate in 52% of patients, which caused a major problem.</p>
        <p>The PIOPED III study<sup><xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref></sup>concluded that MR angiography should only be used for the diagnosis of PE at centers of excellence in MR imaging and when other methods are contraindicated. Currently, the main indication for MR imaging is as an alternative method to CT scanning in patients with iodinated contrast allergy.<sup><xref rid="B174" ref-type="bibr">174</xref> , <xref rid="B183" ref-type="bibr">183</xref> </sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.8. Digital Subtraction Angiography</title>
        <p>For a long time, digital angiography was considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of PE. Invasive nature, greater exposure to ionizing radiation, and complications of up to 0.5% of mortality, 1% of severe complications, and 5% of minor complications,<sup><xref rid="B184" ref-type="bibr">184</xref></sup>together with the advances of CT angiography (similar accuracy with a less invasive procedure), are determining factors for digital subtraction angiography to have virtually fallen into disuse for the diagnosis of acute PE. However, the method remains an important diagnostic tool in the evaluation of chronic PE, especially in candidates for balloon angioplasty.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.9. Recommendations</title>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p>The indication of imaging methods for the diagnosis of acute PE should be based on hemodynamic status and clinical assessment of pretest probability, with the application of validated rules (Wells score, Geneva score, PERC criteria) combined with D-dimer. The aim is to avoid unnecessary use of imaging methods (grade of recommendation: I; level of evidence: A);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>CT angiography is the imaging method of choice for diagnosing acute PE. It can be replaced with V/Q scintigraphy in cases of severe iodine allergy or in special situations such as pregnant women or patients with severe renal insufficiency. MR angiography is reserved for centers of excellence in the method or for when CT angiography and V/Q scintigraphy are inappropriate or unavailable;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>The diagnosis of acute PE should be rejected in patients with low or moderate probability and negative CT angiography (grade of recommendation: I; level of evidence: A);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>The diagnosis of acute PE should be accepted in patients with moderate or high probability and CT angiography demonstrating thrombi in segmental or proximal branches (grade of recommendation: I; level of evidence: B);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Lower-extremity CT venography is not recommended because of high exposure to ionizing radiation and should be replaced with IVUS for the evaluation of DVT (grade of recommendation: III; level of evidence: B);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>In pregnant patients, both CT angiography and V/Q scintigraphy can be used. With modern techniques, both tests cause little maternal and fetal exposure to ionizing radiation.<sup><xref rid="B78" ref-type="bibr">78</xref> , <xref rid="B185" ref-type="bibr">185</xref> </sup>In normal radiograph cases, both CT angiography and V/Q scintigraphy can be used; however, in abnormal radiograph cases, the recommendation is to proceed with CT angiography (grade of recommendation: IIa; level of evidence: C);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Increased dimensions of the right heart chambers, with RV/LV ratio &gt; 1.0, are linked to 5-fold higher mortality rates due to acute PE.<sup><xref rid="B186" ref-type="bibr">186</xref></sup>This should be considered a tomographic criterion of RV dysfunction and a marker of poor prognosis, even in patients at clinically low risk (grade of recommendation: IIa; level of evidence: B).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Diagnostic flowcharts in hemodynamically stable and unstable patients, according to the clinical probability of PE, are shown in <xref rid="gt02-en" ref-type="fig">Charts 5</xref> and <xref rid="gt03-en" ref-type="fig">6</xref> . <xref rid="t18001" ref-type="table">Chart 12</xref> shows the advantages and disadvantages of using CT pulmonary angiography in the diagnosis of PE.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t18001">
            <label>Chart 12</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Advantages and disadvantages of CT angiography for the diagnosis of PE</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th colspan="2">CT PULMONARY ANGIOGRAPHY</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>ADVANTAGES</th>
                  <th>DISADVANTAGES</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Widespread availability</td>
                  <td align="center">Ionizing radiation exposure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Excellent accuracy</td>
                  <td align="center">Need for iodinated contrast material</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Small number of inconclusive studies</td>
                  <td align="center">Tendency to indiscriminate use because of easy access</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Quick procedural time</td>
                  <td align="center">Overdiagnosis &#8211; able to identify subsegmental thrombi, whose clinical significance is uncertain</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Possibility of investigating alternative diagnoses</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7. Lung scintigraphy</title>
        <sec>
          <title>7.1. Evidence</title>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.1. Introduction</title>
            <p>For practical purposes, &#8220;lung scintigraphy&#8221; is defined in this section as a single test containing different combinations of lung ventilation/perfusion scans, or even a perfusion-only study. Based on international guidelines proposed by the US Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging (SNMMI), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM), and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), the main indications for lung scintigraphy are listed and discussed below.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref> </sup></p>
            <p><bold>Primary indication:</bold> determine the probability of PE.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B196" ref-type="bibr">196</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>
              <bold>Secondary indications:</bold>
            </p>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>Record the degree of PE resolution in the follow-up of chronic PE;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Quantify differential lung function before surgical resection of lung cancer;<sup><xref rid="B197" ref-type="bibr">197</xref> - <xref rid="B199" ref-type="bibr">199</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Assess lung transplants;<sup><xref rid="B200" ref-type="bibr">200</xref> , <xref rid="B201" ref-type="bibr">201</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Assess congenital heart or lung disease, or conditions such as cardiac shunting, pulmonary artery stenosis, and arteriovenous fistula, including their treatment.<sup><xref rid="B202" ref-type="bibr">202</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Confirm the presence of a bronchopleural fistula.<sup><xref rid="B203" ref-type="bibr">203</xref> - <xref rid="B205" ref-type="bibr">205</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Assess chronic parenchymal lung disorders such as cystic fibrosis;<sup><xref rid="B206" ref-type="bibr">206</xref> , <xref rid="B207" ref-type="bibr">207</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Assess PE as a cause of pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref rid="B208" ref-type="bibr">208</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>The following findings are considered positive for PE:<sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref></sup></p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Disagreement between ventilation and perfusion studies in at least one segment or two subsegments, with hypouptake present only or more extensively in perfusion compared with normal ventilation (known as a mismatch), conforming to the pulmonary vascular anatomy (wedge-shaped hypoperfusion areas with the base projecting to the lung periphery).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>The following findings are considered negative for PE:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Normal perfusion pattern conforming to the anatomic boundaries of the lungs;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Matched pattern between ventilation and perfusion studies (defects of any size, shape, or number);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Mismatch between ventilation and perfusion that does not follow a lobar, segmental, or subsegmental pattern.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>The following findings are considered nondiagnostic for PE:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Widespread ventilation/perfusion abnormalities not typical of specific diseases.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.2 Evidence Regarding Imaging Interpretation Criteria</title>
            <p>In scintigraphic evaluation for the detection of PE, there is sufficient scientific evidence for the use of well-defined interpretive criteria, as proposed by the Prospective Investigation of Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis (PIOPED), PIOPED II, and PISAPED studies, as well as for interpretation based on the clinical experience of the nuclear medicine or imaging physician (clinical Gestalt).</p>
            <p>The revised PIOPED criteria proved to be more accurate than the original PIOPED criteria,<sup><xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> , <xref rid="B210" ref-type="bibr">210</xref> </sup>while the PIOPED II (which uses fewer scan categories) and PISAPED criteria resulted in a smaller number of indeterminate or inconclusive studies.<sup><xref rid="B211" ref-type="bibr">211</xref> , <xref rid="B212" ref-type="bibr">212</xref> </sup>Both PIOPED II and PISAPED criteria had equivalent performances in terms of interpretation when chest radiography was combined with lung ventilation scintigraphy.<sup><xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">213</xref></sup>There are, however, insufficient studies replicating these results, with no double-blind multicenter comparisons between the two strategies, which jeopardizes the finding that the methods have equivalent accuracy.</p>
            <p>Therefore, the combination of ventilation studies is recommended whenever possible, mainly because of the increased specificity of the combined study compared with radiography alone. In older adults, up to 60% of false-positive tests may result from absent ventilation, given the high prevalence of respiratory diseases.<sup><xref rid="B214" ref-type="bibr">214</xref></sup></p>
            <p>An analysis based on the experience of the nuclear medicine physician (clinical Gestalt) may provide a more accurate interpretation than studies using well-defined criteria alone. For the interpretation to be the best possible, the physician should provide an opinion based on detailed knowledge of the different objective criteria listed above.<sup><xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref></sup></p>
            <p>With regard to the imaging method of single-photon emission tomography (SPECT), there is a considerable body of literature supporting its use, including evidence regarding SPECT studies combined with low-dose CT, which seems to increase diagnostic accuracy.<sup><xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref></sup>The most recent EANM consensus (2019) suggests that tomographic imaging (SPECT or SPECT/CT) should always be performed routinely, leaving planar imaging for when the former is no longer possible.<sup><xref rid="B188" ref-type="bibr">188</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Although there are no robust multicenter studies comparing SPECT with planar scintigraphic imaging or even CT angiography,<sup><xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">216</xref></sup>or robust prospective studies evaluating patient outcomes with SPECT versus planar scintigraphy and CT angiography,<sup><xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref></sup>some reports have showed an increased diagnostic accuracy of SPECT and SPECT/CT. There remains some uncertainties about the interpretation of SPECT and SPECT/CT with the PIOPED and similar criteria, the best SPECT protocol for ventilation imaging, and the optimal imaging protocol (ventilation/perfusion SPECT, SPECT/CT with or without contrast enhancement, etc.).<sup><xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">213</xref> , <xref rid="B216" ref-type="bibr">216</xref> </sup>However, findings of a segmental ventilation/perfusion mismatch should be regarded as positive. Findings of a single subsegmental mismatch should not be regarded as suspects for PE.<sup><xref rid="B166" ref-type="bibr">166</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Additionally, it is worth noting that, regardless of the criteria adopted for interpretation, there is a consensus that patients with low probability of PE on lung scintigraphy have a favorable prognosis<sup><xref rid="B191" ref-type="bibr">191</xref> - <xref rid="B193" ref-type="bibr">193</xref> </sup>and that a normal perfusion study virtually excludes PE.<sup><xref rid="B194" ref-type="bibr">194</xref> - <xref rid="B196" ref-type="bibr">196</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.3. Diagnostic Accuracy</title>
            <p>There is a marked difference in the diagnostic accuracy of lung scintigraphy between older studies, performed in the 1980s and 1990s, and more recent studies using updated machines and tomographic methods.<sup><xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref></sup>Older studies had a significantly lower accuracy, in addition to a rate of nondiagnostic studies nearing 65% in the original PIOPED study. The rate currently ranges from 1% to 4%, which is significantly lower than that of other imaging methods.<sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref> , <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> , <xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Overall, the diagnostic accuracy of more recent studies, especially those of SPECT, is equal to or greater than those of CT angiography; in some studies, such as the PIOPED II, scintigraphy had a greater capacity to detect subsegmental PE. Therefore, there are no robust scientific data to support the superiority of CT angiography over scintigraphy.<sup><xref rid="B218" ref-type="bibr">218</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Lung scintigraphy performed as SPECT is the imaging test with the lowest rate of inconclusive results (&lt;3%).<sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref> , <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref> </sup>However, in practice, CT angiography remains the method of choice, mainly because of its quick procedural time and greater availability (24 hours) compared with nuclear medicine tests.<sup><xref rid="B176" ref-type="bibr">176</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The main differences in diagnostic accuracy between planar and SPECT studies are due to the greater detection of changes in subsegments and in medial segments close to the mediastinum; in the latter, SPECT can detect up to 53% more areas suggestive of PE than planar studies.<sup><xref rid="B219" ref-type="bibr">219</xref></sup>There was an important variability in sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) values in the initial studies: Se = 67% for planar imaging and Se = 93% for SPECT in an animal model (pigs);<sup><xref rid="B220" ref-type="bibr">220</xref></sup>Se = 80% and Sp = 78% for planar imaging; Se = 80% and Sp = 96% for SPECT;<sup><xref rid="B221" ref-type="bibr">221</xref></sup>and Se = 76% and Sp = 85% for planar imaging vs. Se = 97% and Sp = 91% for SPECT.<sup><xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">222</xref></sup>Therefore, diagnostic accuracy in the initial studies generally rose from 70%-80% with planar imaging to more than 90% with SPECT.</p>
            <p>More recent studies of over 5,000 SPECT tests have shown a negative predictive value = 97%-99%, Se = 96%-99%, and Sp = 96%-98%, which provides wide support for its use instead of planar imaging.<sup><xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">222</xref> - <xref rid="B229" ref-type="bibr">229</xref> </sup>Combining SPECT with low-dose CT improves the method even further by increasing its specificity and adding the capacity of low-dose CT. This is useful in the differential diagnosis for identifying emphysema, pneumonia, and/or other parenchymal changes that cause vascular compression and may therefore explain perfusion defects.<sup><xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref> , <xref rid="B230" ref-type="bibr">230</xref> </sup>( <xref rid="f28001" ref-type="fig">Figure 28</xref> )</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f28001">
                <label>Figure 28</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; A: series of images of planar V/Q scintigraphy with 99mTc-labeled DTPA/MAA, with the anterior, posterior, lateral, and oblique views showing normal ventilation and perfusion. B: series of images of V/Q SPECT combined with low-dose CT with 99mTc-labeled DTPA/MAA, from left to right: first column, ventilation SPECT; second column, perfusion SPECT; and third column, chest CT. The ventilation image is normal, while the perfusion image shows a perfusion defect in the lower segment of the left upper lobe (arrow) and normal CT, which characterizes PE.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf31-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>More recent articles have compared SPECT with CT angiography and provided new evidence, but there remains some controversy about which method performs better.<sup><xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref></sup>Apparently, SPECT and SPECT/CT provide a more accurate diagnosis of PE in cases of pulmonary diseases with comorbidities that may hamper the diagnosis by CT angiography.<sup><xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">223</xref> , <xref rid="B232" ref-type="bibr">232</xref> - <xref rid="B234" ref-type="bibr">234</xref> </sup>In a systematic review with meta-analysis, SPECT performed better than CT angiography,<sup><xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref></sup>and direct comparisons showed that SPECT is superior to CT angiography in a ROC curve analysis.<sup><xref rid="B235" ref-type="bibr">235</xref></sup>Importantly, SPECT has greater sensitivity in patients with chronic PE, thus being considered the reference test.<sup><xref rid="B236" ref-type="bibr">236</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In conclusion, both tests have advantages and disadvantages, with scintigraphy being superior to CT angiography in cases of concomitant diseases, chronic PE, and indeterminate CT angiography results.<sup><xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">223</xref> , <xref rid="B231" ref-type="bibr">231</xref> - <xref rid="B234" ref-type="bibr">234</xref> </sup>Thus, when both modalities are available, lung scintigraphy performed as SPECT (or SPECT/CT, preferably) should be recommended, as it has no contraindications, a lower rate of indeterminate test results, and reduced exposure of the female breast to radiation (see below).<sup><xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">237</xref> - <xref rid="B241" ref-type="bibr">241</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Comparisons of perfusion-only scintigraphy with CT pulmonary angiography as the gold standard demonstrated a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity of 93% for perfusion imaging. When the PISAPED criteria were applied to the PIOPED II study population, perfusion-only scintigraphy had a weighted sensitivity of 82% and a weighted specificity of 96%.<sup><xref rid="B213" ref-type="bibr">213</xref></sup>Perfusion-only studies are recommended in patients suspected of massive PE and pregnant patients, as discussed below. Using low-dose CT instead of a ventilation study increases sensitivity compared with perfusion-only studies; however, this strategy leads to a higher rate of false-positives<sup><xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref> , <xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> , <xref rid="B242" ref-type="bibr">242</xref> </sup>and increased radiation exposure in pregnant women.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.4. Indications for Lung Scintigraphy Due to Limitations of CT Pulmonary Angiography</title>
            <p>In addition to the previously discussed items, lung scintigraphy has been the preferred choice over other imaging methods in pregnant women because of reduced breast exposure to radiation and in some cases of limitation of contrast use on CT angiography. Such indications will be detailed below.</p>
            <p>
              <bold>a) Exposure to radiation and use during pregnancy:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>Since ventilation studies and chest radiographs are commonly normal in young individuals, a usual recommendation is skipping this portion of the study in those known to be at risk for the effects of radiation, such as women in the first trimester of pregnancy, because of the likely greater vulnerability of the fetus to the effects of radiation.<sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref> , <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>In pregnant women, a protocol including a perfusion-only study and reduced radioactivity is initially recommended (see section on imaging techniques). A normal perfusion study excludes PE, and the ventilation study should only be performed in exceptional cases or cases of uncertainty about a positive result the day after the perfusion scan.<sup><xref rid="B243" ref-type="bibr">243</xref></sup>This ensures reduced radiation exposure compared with CT angiography and no exposure to iodinated contrast material.<sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The critical maternal organ to be protected in this case is the breast, which absorbs radiation doses between 8.6 to 44 mSv on CT angiography<sup><xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">237</xref> , <xref rid="B238" ref-type="bibr">238</xref> , <xref rid="B244" ref-type="bibr">244</xref> </sup>and less than 1 mSv on perfusion-only scintigraphy when not combined with tomography or ventilation studies.<sup><xref rid="B237" ref-type="bibr">237</xref></sup>Fetal doses seem to be low and similar in both methods.</p>
            <p>
              <bold>b) Other clinical limitations of CT angiography:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>Because of the intravenous use of iodinated contrast material, CT angiography might not be performed in a large number of critically ill patients, such as those with renal insufficiency, those who have recently had a myocardial infarction, those requiring ventilatory support, and those with a history of iodinated contrast allergy/anaphylaxis. In such cases (in addition to those mentioned in item A and in the section on diagnostic accuracy) and in rare cases of inability to perform the test, lung scintigraphy should always be indicated, as it has no contraindications, no related complications, and a low rate of inconclusive test results.<sup><xref rid="B189" ref-type="bibr">189</xref> , <xref rid="B190" ref-type="bibr">190</xref> , <xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">223</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.5. Protocol</title>
            <p>
              <bold>1. Ventilation study</bold>
            </p>
            <p>
              <bold>a. Radiopharmaceuticals:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>
              <bold>i. Inert gases:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>
              <bold>1.</bold>
              <sup>
                <xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref>
              </sup>
              <bold>Xe:</bold>
            </p>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>This is historically the agent used in ventilation studies.<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B245" ref-type="bibr">245</xref> , <xref rid="B246" ref-type="bibr">246</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>It has a half-life of 5 days and a (low) energy of 81 keV.<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>In the PIOPED I study, the single-breath technique was the most used.<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B209" ref-type="bibr">209</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup>Xe is inhaled during the first 20 seconds, and one image should be obtained from the posterior view.<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B247" ref-type="bibr">247</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>This gas is not available in Brazil.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>
              <bold>2.</bold>
              <sup>81m</sup>
              <bold>Kr:</bold>
            </p>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>This is produced from a high-cost generator of rubidium (<sup>81</sup>Ru).<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B248" ref-type="bibr">248</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>It has the ideal gamma energy (193 keV) and a half-life of 13 seconds.<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B249" ref-type="bibr">249</xref> </sup>When a patient is breathing air with<sup>81m</sup>Kr at a normal respiratory rate, the regional alveolar concentration of this gas is at steady state, proportional to regional ventilation.<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref></sup>During steady-state<sup>81m</sup>Kr inhalation, multiple planar imaging or SPECT imaging are feasible. Very recently, the combination of SPECT with low-dose CT has been described.<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B215" ref-type="bibr">215</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><sup>81m</sup>Kr is a true gas that does not cause artifacts due to central airway deposition. An advantage is that ventilation and perfusion can be imaged simultaneously, as the gamma energy of<sup>81m</sup>Kr is greater than that of<sup>99m</sup>Tc (used as a perfusion marker).<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Low radiation exposure makes<sup>81m</sup>Kr the best choice for children.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>This gas is not available in Brazil.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>
              <bold>ii. Radiolabeled aerosols:</bold>
            </p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Given the unavailability of<sup><xref rid="B133" ref-type="bibr">133</xref></sup>Xe and<sup>81m</sup>Kr in Brazil for ventilation studies, radioaerosols are generally used.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>2. An aerosol is a relatively time-stable, two-phase system consisting of particles suspended in air. The radiolabeled particles may be liquid, solid, or a combination of the two. The percentage of particles remaining in the lung after inhalation (deposition fraction) depends on the aerodynamic properties of the particles, particularly on their size. The deposition fraction is up to 50%, with ultrafine nanoparticles (diameter, 0.02 ), which are deposited predominantly in the alveolar region by diffusion.<sup><xref rid="B187" ref-type="bibr">187</xref> , <xref rid="B250" ref-type="bibr">250</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>The most commonly used radiolabeled aerosol is<sup>99m</sup>Tc-DTPA, which is cleared from the alveolar region by transepithelial diffusion. It has a biological half-life of 80 minutes in healthy nonsmokers, 45 minutes in healthy passive smokers, and 24 minutes in healthy active smokers.<sup><xref rid="B251" ref-type="bibr">251</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Another radiolabeled aerosol available is Technegas, which consists of extremely small<sup>99m</sup>Tc-labeled solid graphite particles generated at high temperatures.<sup><xref rid="B252" ref-type="bibr">252</xref> , <xref rid="B253" ref-type="bibr">253</xref> </sup>These particles have a diameter of about 0.005 to 0.2 micrometers,<sup><xref rid="B254" ref-type="bibr">254</xref></sup>are hydrophobic, and tend to aggregate, which is why they should be used within 10 minutes of being generated. They are suspended in argon gas (therefore having the property of gas). Studies using<sup>99m</sup>Tc-Technegas and<sup>81m</sup>Kr have provided comparable results.<sup><xref rid="B255" ref-type="bibr">255</xref> - <xref rid="B259" ref-type="bibr">259</xref> </sup>However, the availability of Technegas equipment in Brazil is low, especially because of its high cost.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>
              <bold>b. Imaging protocols:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>i. As PE is a life-threatening condition, the recommendation is that the diagnosis be made as soon as possible, usually with 1-day ventilation/perfusion protocols. Lung ventilation studies, which will be used for comparison with the corresponding perfusion study, should be performed before perfusion imaging, requiring very low radioactivity. Sequential perfusion imaging with low-to-moderate radioactivity produces high-quality comparative images, with the diagnosis being made in a short time.</p>
            <p>ii. Whenever possible, tomographic imaging should be performed as follows:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Ventilation with the appropriate radiolabeled aerosol, patient in the supine position, using a 1 to 4 dose ratio between ventilation and perfusion, respectively (usually 25 to 30 MBq for ventilation studies).</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>A large field-of-view, dual- or triple-head gamma camera and a general-purpose collimator should be used. At least 128 images will be obtained in a 64 x 64 matrix and 10 seconds per image.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Perfusion images should be obtained immediately after ventilation images. To avoid patient movement, peripheral venous access for perfusion imaging should be placed before the start of the ventilation study.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>
              <bold>2. Perfusion study</bold>
            </p>
            <p>
              <bold>a. Radiopharmaceutical:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>i.<sup>99m</sup>Tc-labeled macroaggregated albumin (<sup>99m</sup>Tc-MAA) is used in perfusion studies.</p>
            <p>
              <bold>b. Imaging protocols:</bold>
            </p>
            <list list-type="roman-upper">
              <list-item>
                <p>Patient should be in the supine position, and venous access should have been previously obtained (prior to ventilation imaging, so that the patient does not move);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Venous access is used to administer activity between 100 and 120 MBq<sup>99m</sup>Tc-MAA (number of MAA particles is approximately 200,000 to 700,000 in specific clinical situations, such as pulmonary hypertension and right-to-left shunting. The number of particles should be reduced to 100,000 to 150,000).</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>In the same gamma camera used for ventilation imaging, without any patient movement, perfusion images should be obtained as follows:</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>128 tomographic images (SPECT) in a 64 x 64 matrix and 5 seconds per image.<sup><xref rid="B260" ref-type="bibr">260</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p><bold>3. Perfusion-only study:</bold> in pregnant patients and those suspected of massive PE, a perfusion-only study is indicated.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.6. Image Reconstruction</title>
            <p>Images should be iteratively reconstructed with ordered-subsets expectation maximization (OSEM), according to a suggested protocol with 8 subsets and 2 iterations.<sup><xref rid="B219" ref-type="bibr">219</xref> , <xref rid="B260" ref-type="bibr">260</xref> , <xref rid="B261" ref-type="bibr">261</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.7. Interpretation</title>
            <p><bold>a)</bold> In V/Q SPECT and planar V/Q scintigraphy, images should be interpreted based on:</p>
            <list list-type="roman-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>Basic criteria for evaluating imaging studies;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Knowledge and experience of the interpreting physician (clinical Gestalt);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Pretest probability according to holistic interpretation principles.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p><bold>b)</bold> For them to be clinically relevant, lung scintigrams should be described as positive or negative for the presence of PE (PE: YES or NO), not based on probability categories.<sup><xref rid="B84" ref-type="bibr">84</xref></sup></p>
            <p>
              <bold>c) Basic criteria for interpreting V/Q scintigrams:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>
              <bold>i. Reports of absence of PE are based on:</bold>
            </p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>i.1</bold> . Normal lung perfusion;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>i.2.</bold> Matched or reversed-mismatched V/Q defects (presence of ventilation change, no perfusion superposition) of any size, shape, or number, in the absence of true mismatch;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>i.3</bold> . Mismatch with no lobar, segmental, or subsegmental pattern.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>
              <bold>ii. Reports of presence of PE are based on:</bold>
            </p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>ii.1</bold> . V/P mismatch of at least 1 segment or 1 subsegment conforming to the lung perfusion anatomy.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>
                  <bold>iii. A study is nondiagnostic when:</bold>
                </p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>iii.1.</bold> Multiple V/P abnormalities not typical of specific diseases are observed.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.8. Chronic Pulmonary Embolism</title>
            <p>Chronic PE is a medical condition different from acute PE. It is an insidious, progressive disease that has no treatment and a poor prognosis.<sup><xref rid="B262" ref-type="bibr">262</xref> , <xref rid="B263" ref-type="bibr">263</xref> </sup>Mortality results from pulmonary hypertension, right heart failure, and arrhythmias. V/Q scintigraphy is generally used as an auxiliary tool in the diagnosis of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension,<sup><xref rid="B208" ref-type="bibr">208</xref> , <xref rid="B264" ref-type="bibr">264</xref> </sup>with greater sensitivity and specificity than multidetector CT.<sup><xref rid="B265" ref-type="bibr">265</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.9. Additional Diagnostic Findings</title>
            <p>Ventilation and perfusion scintigraphy with tomographic imaging (V/Q SPECT) has been able to demonstrate the presence of clinical situations other than PE, such as COPD, left heart failure, and pneumonia. In 39% of patients who undergo the diagnostic procedure and do not have PE, and in 22% of those with PE, some of the following additional findings will be present.<sup><xref rid="B223" ref-type="bibr">223</xref></sup></p>
            <p><bold>a) COPD:</bold> characterized by matched ventilation/perfusion defects. Ventilation defects are frequently more pronounced than perfusion defects, a phenomenon known as reverse mismatch.<sup><xref rid="B266" ref-type="bibr">266</xref> , <xref rid="B267" ref-type="bibr">267</xref> </sup>A significant correlation between the degree of ventilation abnormalities detected on scintigraphic studies and the results of pulmonary function tests has been described.<sup><xref rid="B268" ref-type="bibr">268</xref></sup>PE is frequent in patients with COPD,<sup><xref rid="B269" ref-type="bibr">269</xref></sup>accounting for about 10% of deaths in those with stable COPD.<sup><xref rid="B270" ref-type="bibr">270</xref></sup></p>
            <p><bold>b) Left heart failure:</bold> perfusion is redistributed to the upper lung regions.<sup><xref rid="B271" ref-type="bibr">271</xref> , <xref rid="B272" ref-type="bibr">272</xref> </sup>Ventilation redistribution is less extensive than perfusion redistribution. A mismatch can be observed in the dorsal regions, with a diffuse nonsegmental pattern, and should not be interpreted as PE.</p>
            <p><bold>c) Pneumonia:</bold> matched ventilation/perfusion defects are observed, and the former are usually larger, causing a reverse mismatch.<sup><xref rid="B273" ref-type="bibr">273</xref> , <xref rid="B274" ref-type="bibr">274</xref> </sup>A finding suggestive of pneumonia is the stripe sign, which refers to the maintenance of perfusion in the pleural surface adjacent to a central area of matched defect.<sup><xref rid="B275" ref-type="bibr">275</xref></sup>The stripe sign pattern is best detected on tomographic studies.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.10. Pitfalls in the Interpretation of V/Q Studies</title>
            <p>As is the case with any diagnostic method, V/Q scintigraphy requires the nuclear medicine physician reporting the study to be aware of possible errors inherent to the test, such as the following:</p>
            <p>a) Technical artifacts may arise from preinjection handling of<sup>99m</sup>Tc-MAA. Drawing blood from a patient into a syringe containing the<sup>99m</sup>Tc-MAA solution may cause aggregation of particles, creating the so-called hot spots. A similar defect may arise from failure to resuspend<sup>99m</sup>Tc-MAA particles prior to intravenous administration.</p>
            <p>b) Planar imaging may underestimate the presence and/or extent of perfusion abnormalities due to superposition of normally perfused areas. This artifact is eliminated by scintigraphic imaging with tomographic views (SPECT).</p>
            <p>c) Whenever possible, the use of Technegas is preferred over liquid aerosols in patients with COPD. In rare patients with emphysema, Technegas particles are trapped in bullae, leading to a pattern that may be mistaken for a mismatch.<sup><xref rid="B222" ref-type="bibr">222</xref></sup></p>
            <p>d) Mismatched perfusion defects with no clear segmental pattern may be seen in older patients in cases of partially resolved PE, but not in cases of acute PE. Also, mismatched perfusion defects are observed in other lung conditions, such as lung cancer, mediastinal lymphadenopathy, actinic sequelae, pneumonitis, fibrosis, and heart failure.</p>
            <p>e) Ventilation and perfusion scintigraphy may fail to detect thromboembolism that causes only partial vascular obstruction with few hemodynamic effects. This problem has low clinical significance. A possible explanation is that nonocclusive emboli are usually associated with other signs of PE in other regions, leading to a correct diagnosis. Nonetheless, when the presence of partial occlusion is identified (segmental perfusion defect found in the presence of normal ventilation), the study should be reported as positive for PE.</p>
            <p>f) Overall, the complete absence of unilateral perfusion in the presence of normal ipsilateral ventilation and without any other mismatch in the contralateral lung is not due to PE.<sup><xref rid="B276" ref-type="bibr">276</xref> , <xref rid="B277" ref-type="bibr">277</xref> </sup>In such cases, chest CT scans usually reveal the presence of other conditions, such as tumors or other mediastinal processes, congenital pulmonary vascular abnormalities, or aortic aneurysm.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.11. The future of Nuclear Medicine Evaluation of PE</title>
            <p>In the 1970s,<sup>68</sup>Ga, one of the first isotopes used in lung perfusion imaging, was introduced as the future of nuclear medicine pulmonary evaluation. As it is a positron-emitting isotope,<sup>68</sup>Ga requires a PET system and is used as<sup>68</sup>Ga-labeled microspheres to assess perfusion. Ventilation, in turn, is assessed with a similar technique to that of Technegas, using<sup>68</sup>Ga-labeled particles called Galligas<sup><xref rid="B278" ref-type="bibr">278</xref></sup>( <xref rid="f29001" ref-type="fig">Figure 29</xref> ).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f29001">
                <label>Figure 29</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; On the left, a series of images showing a normal V/Q SPECT/CT scintigram with 99m Tc-labeled Technegas/MAA; from top to bottom: low-dose CT; ventilation SPECT; fused ventilation/CT; perfusion SPECT; and fused perfusion/CT. On the right, a series of images showing a normal V/Q PET/CT scan with 68 Ga-labeled Galligas/MAA; from top to bottom: sagittal views of fused ventilation/CT (left) and perfusion/CT (right). Adapted from Le Roux PY et al. 279 and Bailey DL et al. 280</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf32-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>The advantages of transitioning from V/Q SPECT to PET/CT include superior imaging characteristics, such as higher sensitivity of the ring detector (covering 360 degrees simultaneously), better count statistics, higher spatial and temporal resolution, and reduced acquisition time (approximately 10 min, decreasing to 5 min with new digital PET/CT scans). Other advantages are the commercial availability of respiratory-gated acquisition systems that reduce artifacts, especially at lung bases; the possibility of multiple ventilation studies with or without bronchodilator on the same day owing to the short half-life of<sup>68</sup>Ga; and important characteristics such as being a simple and noninvasive test without contraindications or side effects related to the use of contrast material (eg, allergy and renal dysfunction). At the technical level, the transition does not imply major difficulties or investments because the radiopharmacy requirements remain relatively simple with the use of existing Technegas equipment. The only difference is the modified MAA synthesis and its consequent labeling with<sup>68</sup>Ga (whose generators are increasingly available, enabling widespread adoption) instead of<sup>99m</sup>Tc, with a radiation dose very similar to that of conventional V/Q SPECT/CT scans<sup><xref rid="B108" ref-type="bibr">108</xref></sup>( <xref rid="f30001" ref-type="fig">Figure 30</xref> ).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f30001">
                <label>Figure 30</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; On the left, a series of images showing a normal V/Q SPECT/CT scintigram with 99m Tc-labeled Technegas/MAA; from top to bottom: low-dose CT; ventilation SPECT; fused ventilation/CT; perfusion SPECT; and fused perfusion/CT. On the right, a series of images showing a V/Q PET/CT scan with 68 Ga-labeled Galligas/MAA; from top to bottom: sagittal views of fused ventilation/CT (left) and perfusion/CT (right); matched defect, fused PET/CT perfusion image showing a perfusion defect (arrow); and a CT image showing a tumor obstructing the bronchus, corresponding to the ventilation/perfusion defect on PET imaging.</title>
                </caption>
                <attrib>Adapted from Le Roux PY et al.<sup>279</sup>and Bailey DL et al.<sup>280</sup></attrib>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0797-20213-gf33-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>In 2018, Le Roux et al.<sup><xref rid="B281" ref-type="bibr">281</xref></sup>proposed a protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic accuracy and clinical outcome of patients evaluated with V/Q SPECT, whose results are still to be published and will certainly provide more evidence for the adoption of this technique.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.12. Clinical Algorithm for the Investigation of Patients with Suspected PE</title>
            <p>Assessing the clinical probability of PE helps physicians choose the most appropriate objective test to diagnose or exclude the diagnosis ( <xref rid="gt03-en" ref-type="fig">Chart 6</xref> ). Measurement of D-dimer (a degradation product of cross-linked fibrin clot) is widely used in the investigation of patients with suspected venous thromboembolism (VTE). The quantitative D-dimer assay, based on a rapid ELISA test, has high sensitivity (close to 95%) for VTE.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref> , <xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref> </sup>However, the assay has low specificity (40%) because D-dimer levels may be increased in several conditions other than VTE, such as in acute myocardial infarction, stroke, inflammation, active cancer, and pregnancy. Specificity also decreases with age, and it can be as low as 10% in older adults.<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref> , <xref rid="B214" ref-type="bibr">214</xref> </sup>Consequently, a negative quantitative D-dimer test has a high negative predictive value for VTE. The results of the studies reveal that the risk of development of PE in patients with low clinical probability who are not treated after a negative D-dimer test is &lt;1% within three months of the initial evaluation.<sup><xref rid="B282" ref-type="bibr">282</xref></sup>Conversely, because of its low predictive value, a positive quantitative D-dimer test does not modify the pretest (clinical) probability and is therefore clinically useless. Recent evidence, however, suggests that very high D-dimer levels are associated with a 4-fold increase in the probability of PE,<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup>which is important for assessing the burden of thromboembolic disease and may have prognostic significance.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref> , <xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Diagnostic strategies will depend on the patient&#8217;s hemodynamic stability, as follows:</p>
            <p>
              <bold>a) Stable patients:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>Based on these considerations, when the clinical probability of PE is low and the quantitative D-dimer test is negative, the diagnosis is unlikely and additional investigations are not needed ( <xref rid="gt02-en" ref-type="fig">Chart 5</xref> ). When the clinical probability of PE is low and the quantitative D-dimer test is positive, additional investigations may be needed for a range of diagnoses, including PE, especially when D-dimer levels are markedly high. When the clinical probability is other than low, it seems more reasonable to skip the D-dimer test and refer the patient directly to the appropriate imaging technique ( <xref rid="gt02-en" ref-type="fig">Chart 5</xref> ). It can be V/Q SPECT or CT angiography, depending on local availability, medical knowledge, and the patient&#8217;s clinical status. V/Q SPECT has virtually no contraindications and produces a substantially lower radiation burden than CT angiography.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup></p>
            <p>
              <bold>b) Hemodynamically unstable patients:</bold>
            </p>
            <p>When the patient presents with severe hypotension or cardiogenic shock ( <xref rid="gt03-en" ref-type="fig">Chart 6</xref> ), transthoracic echocardiography remains the first-line imaging technique, as it detects right heart dilatation and hypokinesia. Embolism is rarely seen within the right heart chambers or the main pulmonary artery. Lung perfusion scintigraphy is an alternative to CT angiography, as it quickly shows several segmental or lobar perfusion defects typical of acute PE.<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup>When acute thoracic aortic dissection is suspected due to chest pain, CT angiography allows this differential diagnosis to be evaluated.</p>
            <p>Given the need for expediting the diagnosis and treatment of these patients, the strategy employed in a specific health facility should be adapted to each clinical situation and local context. When the initial examination suggests a massive PE, other actions should be adapted to the clinical situation, and antithrombotic therapy may be administered.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.13. Diagnostic Algorithm</title>
            <p>When suspected, PE should be confirmed or refuted to avoid the risk of over- and undertreatment, which requires imaging tests. Only the optimal techniques, ie, CT angiography and V/Q SPECT, are recommended. The choice of imaging modality will depend on availability.<sup><xref rid="B120" ref-type="bibr">120</xref></sup>Although CT angiography is more readily available, it is contraindicated in a substantial number of patients, as shown in the PIOPED II study.<sup><xref rid="B217" ref-type="bibr">217</xref></sup>Currently, V/Q SPECT is rarely available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Consequently, the two tests should be ready for use at least in tertiary care centers, as both are crucial for appropriate diagnostic algorithms of PE. In each center, the diagnostic algorithm used for PE should be based on local conditions and particularly on the availability of V/Q SPECT and CT angiography.</p>
            <p>V/Q SPECT, when available, has considerable advantages over other imaging techniques for the diagnosis of PE, such as high sensitivity and specificity, lower predictable radiation burden, and suitability to the follow-up of patients with PE and its natural history.</p>
            <p>Diagnostic flowcharts for hemodynamically stable and unstable patients, according to the clinical probability of PE, are shown in <xref rid="gt02-en" ref-type="fig">Charts 5</xref> and <xref rid="gt03-en" ref-type="fig">6</xref> . <xref rid="t19001" ref-type="table">Chart 13</xref> shows the advantages and disadvantages of lung scintigraphy for the diagnosis of PE.</p>
            <p>
              <table-wrap id="t19001">
                <label>Chart 13</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Advantages and disadvantages of lung scintigraphy for the diagnosis of PE</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th colspan="2">LUNG SCINTIGRAPHY</th>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <th>ADVANTAGES</th>
                      <th>DISADVANTAGES</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center">Low radiation exposure</td>
                      <td align="center">Limited availability</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center">Can be used in pregnant women</td>
                      <td align="center">Does not detect the occluded artery with absolute certainty</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center">Radiopharmaceutical does not impair renal function</td>
                      <td> </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center">High accuracy</td>
                      <td> </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center">Procedure covered by SUS and by the ANS health procedure list</td>
                      <td> </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center">Allows the physician to assess chronic PE</td>
                      <td> </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="center">Allows the physician to assess resolution of acute PE</td>
                      <td> </td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.1.14. Conclusions</title>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>V/Q scintigraphy is strongly recommended for the diagnosis of PE, with high accuracy even in the presence of COPD and pneumonia;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Technegas is superior to DTPA in patients with COPD;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>When available,<sup>81m</sup>Kr is advantageous;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>The radiation dose should be reduced as much as possible, not affecting image quality (ALARA principle). Overall, 30 MBq<sup>99m</sup>Tc-labeled aerosol should be used for ventilation and 100-120 MBq<sup>99m</sup>Tc-labeled MAA for perfusion;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>In pregnant patients, the perfusion-only study is recommended;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>The interpretation should be holistic; the probabilistic interpretation is obsolete;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>A key criterion for the diagnosis of PE is the presence of mismatch in more than 1 subsegment.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>Development:</bold> Department of Cardiovascular Imaging of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (DIC/SBC), Brazilian College of Radiology (CBR), Brazilian Society of Angiology and Vascular Surgery (SBACV), and Brazilian Society of Nuclear Medicine (SBMN)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>Guideline Coordinators:</bold> Ana Cristina Lopes Albricker, Cl&#225;udia Maria Vilas Freire, Simone Nascimento dos Santos</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>Note:</bold> These guidelines are for information purposes and should not replace the clinical judgment of a physician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Erratum</label>
          <p>In the &#8220;Joint Guideline on Venous Thromboembolism - 2022&#8221;, with doi number: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20220213">https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20220213</ext-link>, published in the journal Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, 118(4): 797-857, the following corrections were made:</p>
          <p>Included the institution Hospital DF Star, Rede D&#8217;Or, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil, for the author Simone Nascimento dos Santos.</p>
          <p>At Angiolab Vit&#243;ria, Laborat&#243;rio Vascular, corrected the location &#8220;Rio de Janeiro, RJ&#8221; for &#8220;Vit&#243;ria, ES&#8221;.</p>
          <p>On page 804, Chart 2, an arrow from &#8220;Positive&#8221; to &#8220;VUS&#8221; was inserted.</p>
          <p>Only in the Portuguese version, page 806, Chart 5, right column, the position of &#8220;Positivo&#8221; and &#8220;Negativo&#8221; was changed.</p>
          <p>Only in the Portuguese version, page 822, Chart 9, line 7, corrected the spelling of &#8220; Compressibilidade&#8221;.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
