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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">QpbKrSjbN6H3c6xs7hGYKjs</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022000400768</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20201165</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20201165</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Ceramidas Plasm&#225;ticas na Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de Risco das Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4526-4766</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Junqueira</surname>
            <given-names>D&#233;bora L. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7184-1251</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stach</surname>
            <given-names>Alline</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Caixeta</surname>
            <given-names>Adriano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7206-4447</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sallum</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yasaki</surname>
            <given-names>Erika</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tsutsui</surname>
            <given-names>Jeane</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rizatti</surname>
            <given-names>Edgar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos E.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ching-Jianhong</surname>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kovalik</surname>
            <given-names>Jean-Paul</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5464-1792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; E.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Richards</surname>
            <given-names>A. Mark</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chan</surname>
            <given-names>Mark Y.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo P. de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola Paulista de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Escola Paulista de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (HCor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Grupo Fleury</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo Fleury, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto Nacional do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; InCor, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">DUKE-NUS Medical School</institution>
        <country country="SG">Singapore</country>
        <institution content-type="original">DUKE-NUS Medical School, Singapore &#8211; Singapore</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Yong Loo-Lin School of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">National University of Singapore</institution>
        <country country="SG">Singapore</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Yong Loo-Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore &#8211; Singapore</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Leonardo P. de Carvalho &#8226; Departamento de Cardiologia &#8211; Universidade Federal do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Rua Napole&#227;o de Barros, 715. CEP 04023-062, Vila Clementino, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>l.carvalho@huhsp.org.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Junqueira DLM; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Stach A, Caixeta A, Sallum J, Yasaki E, Tsutsui J, Rizatti E, Rochitte CE, Ching-Jianhong, Jean-Paul K, Krieger JE, Richards AM, Chan MY, Carvalho LP.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>118</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>768</fpage>
      <lpage>777</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A produ&#231;&#227;o de ceramida ocorre em todo o corpo e desempenha um papel importante na manuten&#231;&#227;o da fisiologia normal. No entanto, os n&#237;veis de ceramidas s&#227;o alterados em estados de doen&#231;a, principalmente durante o desenvolvimento de diabetes e dislipidemia. A produ&#231;&#227;o de ceramidas tamb&#233;m est&#225; associada &#224; instabilidade das placas ateroscler&#243;ticas. Estudos recentes revelam que pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana inst&#225;vel apresentam n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos aumentados de ceramidas (principalmente C16, C18 e C24:1). Atualmente, s&#227;o consideradas biomarcadores emergentes nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, sendo utilizadas na predi&#231;&#227;o de instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica e eventos cardiovasculares adversos de forma independente aos fatores de risco tradicionais. Com o objetivo de descrever e discutir o papel das ceramidas na estratifica&#231;&#227;o das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, o desenvolvimento desta revis&#227;o narrativa contextualiza a import&#226;ncia desse biomarcador no cen&#225;rio atual da cardiologia.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a da Arterial Coronariana</kwd>
        <kwd>Ceramidas/uso terap&#234;utico</kwd>
        <kwd>Glicoesfingolipideos Neutros/uso terap&#234;utico</kwd>
        <kwd>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o das Doen&#231;as</kwd>
        <kwd>Diabetes Mellitus</kwd>
        <kwd>Dislipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarcadores</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="37"/>
        <page-count count="10"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Dados da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) demonstram que as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) foram respons&#225;veis por uma grande porcentagem dos 50 milh&#245;es de &#243;bitos ocorridos na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada: cerca de 17 milh&#245;es de pessoas.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> Essa mortalidade &#233; especialmente alta na fase aguda ap&#243;s um infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), com 10-15% de recorr&#234;ncia de eventos isqu&#234;micos em 1 ano e taxas cumulativas de at&#233; 50% ap&#243;s 10 anos.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Aproximadamente 50% dos pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea prim&#225;ria (ICP) possuem doen&#231;a multivascular que, de forma geral, apresenta-se como uma doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica progressiva e com altas taxas de mortalidade. Atualmente, n&#227;o podemos prevenir com precis&#227;o a recorr&#234;ncia de eventos isqu&#234;micos agudos, claramente demonstrando a grande necessidade de biomarcadores que possam prever a instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica coronariana.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Estudos recentes t&#234;m destacado o papel fisiopatol&#243;gico de outras classes lip&#237;dicas al&#233;m do colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (<italic>low density lipoprotein</italic>, LDL) na aterosclerose e no IAM, incluindo ceramidas, esfingomielina, fosfatidilcolinas e &#233;steres de colesterol.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>,<xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> As ceramidas participam de m&#250;ltiplas vias envolvidas na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de danos celulares, causando a libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias que modulam diretamente a apoptose por meio da express&#227;o g&#234;nica de prote&#237;nas pr&#243;-apopt&#243;ticas.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nosso grupo tem trabalhado no desenvolvimento de biomarcadores lip&#237;dicos por meio de espectrometria de massa, entre outras t&#233;cnicas de biologia molecular, para o desenvolvimento de um biomarcador plasm&#225;tico capaz de diagnosticar a instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica e prever reinfartos card&#237;acos e a progress&#227;o para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA).</p>
      <p>A ceramida &#233; um biomarcador lip&#237;dico com papel emergente no diagn&#243;stico precoce e na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, atuando como biomarcador de eventos cardiovasculares (CVs) prim&#225;rios e secund&#225;rios em pacientes com aterosclerose cl&#237;nica e subcl&#237;nica suscet&#237;veis ao desenvolvimento de eventos isqu&#234;micos agudos.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>,<xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Ceramida: uma breve revis&#227;o da fisiologia desse novo biomarcador lip&#237;dico.</title>
        <p>As ceramidas e o colesterol LDL s&#227;o lip&#237;dios estruturais da membrana que mant&#234;m sua fluidez e integridade por meio da forma&#231;&#227;o de poros seletivos, modulando a movimenta&#231;&#227;o de compostos entre os espa&#231;os intra e extracelulares. A ceramida &#233; um esfingolip&#237;dio formado pela associa&#231;&#227;o de uma esfingosina com um &#225;cido graxo, sendo um componente-chave na forma&#231;&#227;o das membranas celulares8 e atuando como um importante intermedi&#225;rio na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de processos que regulam a homeostase celular, tais como inflama&#231;&#227;o, apoptose e a resposta celular ao estresse.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As ceramidas se acumulam na placa de ateroma coronariana<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup> e em suas formas glicosiladas: as glicosilceramidas e as lactosilceramidas (<xref rid="f01" ref-type="fig">Figura 1</xref>), que s&#227;o abundantes na placa em desenvolvimento.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, dados do nosso grupo mostraram que o pr&#243;prio tecido mioc&#225;rdico pode produzir ceramidas diretamente em resposta &#224; isquemia e reperfus&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Vias do metabolismo de esfingolip&#237;dios.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0768-01165-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A ceramidase &#233; uma enzima que quebra os &#225;cidos graxos da ceramida para produzir esfingosina, a qual, por sua vez, &#233; fosforilada pela esfingosina-1-fosfatase para formar esfingosina-1-fosfato. A s&#237;ntese das ceramidas pode ocorrer atrav&#233;s da hidr&#243;lise da esfingomielina (degrada&#231;&#227;o), atrav&#233;s da via de recupera&#231;&#227;o (reciclagem) na qual a esfingosina &#233; fosforilada ou atrav&#233;s de uma via de novo, na qual as diidroceramidas s&#227;o dessaturadas.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ceramidas: uma liga&#231;&#227;o entre aterosclerose, diabetes e dislipidemia</title>
        <p>As ceramidas constituem aproximadamente 30% do colesterol LDL circulante. O aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de ceramida altera a permeabilidade da membrana celular, facilitando o ac&#250;mulo de colesterol LDL na parede do vaso. Esse ac&#250;mulo amplifica o processo inflamat&#243;rio da parede do vaso e promove a apoptose das c&#233;lulas musculares lisas vasculares e a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, ocasionando a instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica e sua ruptura<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> (<xref rid="f02" ref-type="fig">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Ceramidas plasm&#225;ticas e ruptura de placa. ECAM = eventos cardiovasculares adversos maiores. Fonte: cole&#231;&#227;o do autor.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0768-01165-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, o ac&#250;mulo de colesterol tamb&#233;m ocorre na musculatura lisa esquel&#233;tica, interferindo na express&#227;o do transportador de glicose tipo 4, o que ocasiona defeito no transporte muscular de glicose e prejudica sua capacidade de s&#237;ntese de glicog&#234;nio.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> As ceramidas tamb&#233;m estimulam a apoptose das c&#233;lulas &#946; pancre&#225;ticas, reduzindo diretamente a produ&#231;&#227;o de insulina.<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup> Major et al.,<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> demonstraram que as ceramidas podem mimetizar os efeitos citot&#243;xicos do fator de necrose tumoral, da interleucina 1 beta e do interferon-gama nas c&#233;lulas &#946; pancre&#225;ticas, desencadeando inflama&#231;&#227;o e apoptose.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> O ac&#250;mulo de ceramida nos tecidos resulta na disfun&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os e no desenvolvimento de complica&#231;&#245;es do diabetes. A <xref rid="f03" ref-type="fig">Figura 3</xref> demonstra os principais tecidos afetados pelas ceramidas.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>,<xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; A&#231;&#227;o das ceramidas em diferentes &#243;rg&#227;os.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0768-01165-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Portanto, al&#233;m de determinar o grau de dislipidemia e o risco de aterosclerose atrav&#233;s do valor do colesterol LDL, a dosagem da ceramida tamb&#233;m auxilia o m&#233;dico a determinar a resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e a apoptose de c&#233;lulas beta pancre&#225;ticas.</p>
        <p>A implica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da ceramida levou &#224; patente desse biomarcador nos EUA e na Europa, estando atualmente dispon&#237;vel para uso cl&#237;nico em hospitais de refer&#234;ncia, como a Mayo Clinic.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Os exames de rastreamento s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para o acompanhamento da aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica?</title>
        <p>H&#225; uma lacuna significativa na detec&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica subcl&#237;nica e na triagem e no acompanhamento custo-efetivos dessa condi&#231;&#227;o, com muitos testes n&#227;o invasivos sendo solicitados rotineiramente em popula&#231;&#245;es com diferentes n&#237;veis de risco CV. Isso ocorre em todo o mundo e, apesar do avan&#231;o crescente dos testes n&#227;o invasivos para a detec&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco permanece imperfeita.<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup> Considerando os custos crescentes com os cuidados de sa&#250;de, essa pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica estereotipada deve, portanto, ser reavaliada.</p>
        <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o de dados cl&#237;nicos e de imagem no apoio ao desenvolvimento de protocolos que incorporem escores de risco cl&#225;ssicos, como os escores de Framingham e INTERHEART, tem sido testada com o intuito de aprimorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco CV. No entanto, esses m&#233;todos, quando aplicados &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o em geral sem uma etapa de triagem, t&#234;m capacidade limitada na avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco CV por raz&#245;es log&#237;sticas e de custo.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O <italic>Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis</italic> (MESA), um dos estudos mais relevantes na &#225;rea, trouxe contribui&#231;&#245;es importantes para a compreens&#227;o do desenvolvimento e da progress&#227;o da DCV do est&#225;gio subcl&#237;nico ao cl&#237;nico. Em uma suban&#225;lise do MESA, um grande painel de biomarcadores de prote&#237;nas foi avaliado para encontrar marcadores preditivos de progress&#227;o de DCV. Em compara&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de risco CV cl&#225;ssicos, biomarcadores de prote&#237;na com v&#225;rios pain&#233;is espec&#237;ficos de inflama&#231;&#227;o, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, lip&#237;dios, hemostasia, fibrin&#243;lise, dano oxidativo, estresse endotelial, entre outros, foram testados e apresentaram apenas um valor preditivo incremental lim&#237;trofe para eventos adversos CVs em longo prazo (AUC: 0,768 vs. 0,776, p = 0,003) e n&#227;o apresentaram valor incremental na predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos CVs adversos em m&#233;dio prazo (AUC: 0,795 vs. 0,796, p = 0,627). Portanto, devido aos valores semelhantes da curva caracter&#237;stica de opera&#231;&#227;o do receptor (<italic>receiver operating characteristic</italic>, ROC), novos m&#233;todos de rastreamento e estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para melhorar a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce da instabilidade da placa.<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O desenvolvimento desse biomarcador possibilitaria a interven&#231;&#227;o na progress&#227;o inicial da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, sendo, portanto, essencial para evitar o enorme custo adicional imposto pela fase sintom&#225;tica da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica. Essas considera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o importantes e devem ser avaliadas no desenvolvimento de plataformas de rastreamento de sa&#250;de populacional, objetivando uma boa rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Devemos dosar as ceramidas e o colesterol LDL?</title>
        <p>A aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica antecede a maioria dos eventos CVs e sua detec&#231;&#227;o pode melhorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco CV.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> No entanto, uma incompatibilidade tem sido relatada entre perfis de fatores de risco convencionais aparentemente benignos e a presen&#231;a de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica detectada por calcifica&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria ou medi&#231;&#227;o da espessura da &#237;ntima no ultrassom de car&#243;tidas.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>,<xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Estudos identificaram a presen&#231;a de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica em quase 60% dos indiv&#237;duos de meia-idade classificados como de baixo risco CV de acordo com os escores de risco tradicionais; em 41% desses indiv&#237;duos, observaram-se m&#250;ltiplos locais vasculares afetados.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Esses achados sugerem que outras vari&#225;veis al&#233;m dos fatores de risco CV convencionais podem desempenhar um papel relevante na aterog&#234;nese.</p>
        <p>Os pacientes com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica s&#227;o uma popula&#231;&#227;o muito heterog&#234;nea, com estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco complexa, sendo err&#244;neo considerar todos esses pacientes com risco semelhante de eventos agudos. Atualmente, o uso de escores de risco CV &#233; indicado pelas diretrizes como uma ferramenta de estratifica&#231;&#227;o; no entanto, devido &#224;s limita&#231;&#245;es na precis&#227;o preditiva, principalmente em pacientes com alto risco CV, a otimiza&#231;&#227;o das ferramentas de risco por meio da recalibra&#231;&#227;o de escores ou da associa&#231;&#227;o com biomarcadores &#233; frequentemente necess&#225;ria para uma maior acur&#225;cia preditiva em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>O colesterol LDL &#233; um fator de risco diretamente envolvido no desenvolvimento da placa ateroscler&#243;tica e, portanto, um importante alvo terap&#234;utico na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Dieta, mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida e medicamentos podem resultar em redu&#231;&#245;es significativas e sustentadas do colesterol LDL plasm&#225;tico. No entanto, apesar disso, as DCVs continuam sendo uma das principais causas de morte em todo o mundo,<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref></sup> sugerindo que o controle convencional do colesterol LDL n&#227;o &#233; suficiente. A detec&#231;&#227;o e a preven&#231;&#227;o precoces da instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica podem abrir caminhos para reduzir significativamente a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>As diretrizes atuais endossam o controle do colesterol LDL e a medi&#231;&#227;o de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios inespec&#237;ficos, como a prote&#237;na C reativa, para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco CV. No entanto, a fisiopatologia da aterosclerose envolve a interse&#231;&#227;o complexa de dislipidemia, inflama&#231;&#227;o, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, entre outros fatores.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> Dados recentes demonstram poss&#237;veis associa&#231;&#245;es entre cada uma dessas vias com os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos das ceramidas, indicando associa&#231;&#227;o e causalidade plaus&#237;veis desse biomarcador em DCV aguda e instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, o colesterol LDL plasm&#225;tico n&#227;o prediz com precis&#227;o eventos card&#237;acos adversos maiores e eventos cerebrovasculares (<italic>major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events</italic>, MACCE), exigindo, na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, avalia&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica criteriosa e uma s&#233;rie de testes n&#227;o invasivos para acompanhar a progress&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica.26 Por outro lado, as concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de ceramidas s&#227;o elevadas em v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224;s doen&#231;as card&#237;acas, al&#233;m do papel bioqu&#237;mico na progress&#227;o da aterosclerose, tamb&#233;m estudado por nosso grupo anteriormente. Observamos em estudos preliminares a libera&#231;&#227;o incremental de ceramidas na fase aguda do IAM e em placas humanas inst&#225;veis, correlacionando esses achados com dados pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos que mostraram a suprarregula&#231;&#227;o de enzimas produtoras de ceramidas no mioc&#225;rdio, com aumento dos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos nas primeiras 24 horas ap&#243;s um evento isqu&#234;mico agudo.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As ceramidas tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associadas a um maior risco de evolu&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com IC. Em 423 pacientes com IC aguda, as concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de ceramidas foram independentemente associadas &#224; morte e &#224; piora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A busca por evid&#234;ncias: ceramidas e predi&#231;&#227;o de risco CV</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria:</title>
          <p>O estudo FINRISK incluiu pacientes sem eventos cardiovasculares pr&#233;vios e mostrou que os n&#237;veis circulantes de ceramidas espec&#237;ficas (16:0, 18:0 e 24:1) est&#227;o significativamente associados a eventos cardiovasculares maiores subsequentes quando comparados a indiv&#237;duos que permaneceram assintom&#225;ticos. As associa&#231;&#245;es univariadas significativas entre ceramidas e eventos fatais sugerem que elas desempenham um papel fundamental na ruptura das placas ateroscler&#243;ticas nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Al&#233;m disso, Petterson et al.,<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup> demonstraram, ainda no contexto da preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, que a propor&#231;&#227;o de ceramidas C24:0/C16:0 e a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de ceramida C24:0 est&#227;o inversamente associadas a fatores de risco coronariano, como idade e tabagismo, e inversamente associadas ao desenvolvimento de DAC e IC.<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria:</title>
          <p>Em uma an&#225;lise post-hoc do <italic>Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial</italic> (N = 9.631), Nguyen et al.,<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup> demonstraram que os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de colesterol LDL n&#227;o estavam associados ao desfecho composto prim&#225;rio (infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular cerebral, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada aguda e morte por causas CVs).<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, avaliando os pacientes em preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de eventos CVs (N = 1.562), observou-se que o colesterol LDL foi apenas marginalmente associado &#224; incid&#234;ncia de eventos CVs: taxa de risco ajustada: 1,005 (intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% [IC95%] = 1,002-1,009; p = 0,005 [aumento de 1 mg/dL]), com baixa capacidade de discrimina&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares adversos maiores (MACE) (&#225;rea ROC de 0,54; p = 0,087).<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Embora estudos com inibidores de PCSK9, como o <italic>Odyssey Outcomes e Fourier</italic>,<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup> reforcem o princ&#237;pio &#8220;quanto menor, melhor&#8221;, significando que h&#225; uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre n&#237;veis baixos de colesterol LDL e baixo risco de aterosclerose cl&#237;nica, n&#227;o h&#225; uma correla&#231;&#227;o de risco perfeita. Para preencher essa lacuna, o uso de m&#233;todos de medi&#231;&#227;o de metab&#243;litos por t&#233;cnicas metabol&#244;micas tem sido cada vez mais utilizado, pois esses m&#233;todos apresentam vantagens sobre os m&#233;todos cl&#225;ssicos devido &#224; an&#225;lise mais abrangente dos metab&#243;litos e &#224; capacidade de obten&#231;&#227;o do perfil metab&#243;lico do tecido-alvo da doen&#231;a de interesse.</p>
          <p>Uma an&#225;lise metabol&#244;mica n&#227;o direcionada identificou tr&#234;s ceramidas plasm&#225;ticas significativamente associadas &#224; mortalidade cardiovascular em uma coorte com DAC confirmada por angiografia. As ceramidas associadas &#224; alta mortalidade cardiovascular nesse estudo foram: C16:0, C18:0 e C24:1. A associa&#231;&#227;o ocorreu independentemente de idade, &#237;ndice de massa corporal, tabagismo, uso de estatinas, triglicer&#237;deos, LDL e colesterol total.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Kaasenbrood et al.,<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup> tentaram melhorar a predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos agudos nesse grupo de pacientes atrav&#233;s do escore de risco SMART (manifesta&#231;&#245;es secund&#225;rias de doen&#231;a arterial).<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup> Esse escore de risco compreende vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais (colesterol total, colesterol HDL, taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular estimada, prote&#237;na C reativa) e foi testado em v&#225;rias coortes. Com base nos resultados obtidos, os autores sugeriram novos algoritmos de estimativa de risco CV para estratificar essa popula&#231;&#227;o individualmente e com maior precis&#227;o, demonstrando a capacidade de aprimoramento dos escores de risco pela incorpora&#231;&#227;o de biomarcadores.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>No <italic>Mediterranean Diet Prevention</italic> (PREDIMED), um estudo de coorte prospectivo em pacientes com alto risco CV, ceramidas C24:0, C22:0 e C16:0 foram associadas a DCV.4 A raz&#227;o de chance (odds ratio, OR) comparando os quartis extremos das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de ceramidas C16: 0, C22: 0, C24: 0 e C24: 1 foram de 2,39 (1,49-3,83; p &lt; 0,001), 1,91 (1,21-3,01; p = 0,003), 1,97 (1,21-3,01; p = 0,004) e 1,73 (1,09-2,74; p = 0,011), respectivamente. Em um estudo prospectivo de aproximadamente 500 pacientes submetidos a angiografia coron&#225;ria eletiva, Meeusen et al. relataram que os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de C16:0, C18:0 e C24:1 foram independentemente associados a um risco aumentado de MACCE em um acompanhamento m&#233;dio de 4 anos.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup> O risco associado &#224;s ceramidas foi novamente independente dos fatores de risco tradicionais, incluindo idade, sexo, &#237;ndice de massa corporal, tabagismo e colesterol. Al&#233;m disso, o valor preditivo permaneceu significativo ap&#243;s ajustes adicionais para glicose s&#233;rica e hist&#243;ria familiar de DAC. Esses resultados sugerem que, quando as ceramidas plasm&#225;ticas est&#227;o altas em pacientes com ou sem estenose significativa da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria, o risco de morte &#233; alto em ambos os grupos.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Outro escore de risco envolvendo ceramidas &#233; o CERT2, que foi desenvolvido no estudo <italic>The Western Norway Coronary Angiography Cohort</italic> (WECAC) e validado nos estudos Interven&#231;&#227;o a Longo Prazo com Pravastatina em Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica (LIPID) e Langzeiterfolge der KARdiOLogischen Anschlussheilbehandlung (KAROLA).<sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref></sup> Os resultados mostraram que a ferramenta de estimativa de risco CV desenvolvida com a incorpora&#231;&#227;o da medi&#231;&#227;o de ceramidas pode estratificar os MACE de forma confi&#225;vel em pacientes com DAC est&#225;vel. Evid&#234;ncias adicionais obtidas nos estudos WECAC e LIPID demonstraram que esses biomarcadores isoladamente estratificam de forma acurada o risco CV prim&#225;rio em pacientes com e sem diabetes; em indiv&#237;duos com diabetes, os &#250;nicos preditores com valor significativo no estudo WECAC foram o escore CERT2 e a troponina altamente sens&#237;vel.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>SCA</title>
          <p>No estudo <italic>European Collaborative Project on Inflammation and Vascular Wall Remodeling in Atherosclerosis &#8211; Intravascular Ultrasound</italic> (N = 600 pacientes), Cheng et al. demonstraram que os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de C16:0, C18:0 e C24:1 foram significativamente associados &#224; morfologia vulner&#225;vel da placa coron&#225;ria em indiv&#237;duos com SCA. Al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos mais elevados dessas ceramidas tamb&#233;m foram significativamente associados a uma maior gravidade angiogr&#225;fica de estenose coronariana,<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref></sup> bem como a uma menor perfus&#227;o da parede mioc&#225;rdica p&#243;s-estresse em pacientes com DAC estabelecida ou suspeita que realizaram cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>,<xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">36</xref></sup> Esses achados sugerem causalidade entre a eleva&#231;&#227;o das ceramidas na placa ateroscler&#243;tica e sua instabilidade ou gravidade.</p>
          <p>Recentemente, Pan, Dong, Sun et al. utilizando tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica (optical coherence tomography, OCT) em pacientes com STEMI e ruptura de placa, observaram n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos elevados de C16:0, C18:0 e C24:0 em compara&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos sem doen&#231;a coronariana e pacientes com DAC est&#225;vel (p &lt; 0,001, p &lt; 0,001, p &lt; 0,001, p &lt; 0,001, respectivamente). Esse foi o primeiro estudo utilizando OCT que provou uma associa&#231;&#227;o positiva e independente entre as concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de ceramidas e a presen&#231;a de ruptura de placa, sugerindo que as concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de ceramidas podem atuar como potenciais biomarcadores para a ruptura de placa.<sup><xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Mais evid&#234;ncias dessa associa&#231;&#227;o foram obtidas no estudo de Laaksonen et al.,<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> Em uma coorte prospectiva de pacientes com DAC est&#225;vel, 81 dos 1.580 pacientes (<xref rid="t1" ref-type="table">Tabela 1</xref>) apresentaram eleva&#231;&#227;o de ceramida s&#233;rica e, posteriormente, apresentaram MACE ao longo de 4,6 anos de acompanhamento. Essa propor&#231;&#227;o foi mantida mesmo ap&#243;s o ajuste para o tratamento com estatinas. As ceramidas foram preditivas em ambos os casos, com OR praticamente igual em pacientes com ou sem estatinas: 1,68 (1,31-2,15) vs. 1,7 (1,33-2,17), respectivamente. Nesse estudo, o n&#237;vel plasm&#225;tico de colesterol LDL n&#227;o foi significativamente preditivo de MACE.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1">
              <label>Tabela 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Escore de risco relativo envolvendo ceramidas em diferentes coortes</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" rowspan="3">Escore</th>
                    <th rowspan="3">Categoria</th>
                    <th colspan="3">BECAC (Risco 5 anos)<sup>5</sup></th>
                    <th colspan="3">SPUM-ACS (Risco 1 ano)<sup>5</sup></th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th colspan="6" rowspan="1">
                      <hr/>
                    </th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Morte (n)</th>
                    <th>%</th>
                    <th>Risco Relativo</th>
                    <th>Morte (n)</th>
                    <th>%</th>
                    <th>Risco Relativo</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>0-2</td>
                    <td align="center">Baixo</td>
                    <td align="center">15/549</td>
                    <td align="center">2,7%</td>
                    <td align="center">1,0</td>
                    <td align="center">9/575</td>
                    <td align="center">1,6%</td>
                    <td align="center">1,0</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>3-6</td>
                    <td align="center">Moderado</td>
                    <td align="center">29/601</td>
                    <td align="center">4,8%</td>
                    <td align="center">1,8</td>
                    <td align="center">16/611</td>
                    <td align="center">2,6%</td>
                    <td align="center">1,7</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>7-9</td>
                    <td align="center">Alto</td>
                    <td align="center">20/288</td>
                    <td align="center">6,9%</td>
                    <td align="center">2,5</td>
                    <td align="center">9/270</td>
                    <td align="center">3,3%</td>
                    <td align="center">2,1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>10-12</td>
                    <td align="center">Muito alto</td>
                    <td align="center">17/149</td>
                    <td align="center">11,4%</td>
                    <td align="center">4,2</td>
                    <td align="center">17/181</td>
                    <td align="center">9,4%</td>
                    <td align="center">6,0</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Fonte: adaptado da Mayo Clinic. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/">https://www.mayoclinic.org/</ext-link></italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Laaksonen et al.,<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m analisaram o estudo SPUM-SCA (N = 1.637), realizado em pacientes com SCA, em que as ceramidas foram novamente preditoras de MACE independentemente do risco CV. Em 51 pacientes que morreram em at&#233; um ano ap&#243;s um evento card&#237;aco, as ceramidas plasm&#225;ticas mensuradas apresentaram n&#237;veis significativamente maiores em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes que sobreviveram durante o acompanhamento.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Finalmente, De Carvalho et al.,<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> avaliaram pacientes com IAM em duas coortes de pacientes submetidos a estratifica&#231;&#227;o invasiva, comparando as taxas de sobrevida livre de MACCE em pacientes de alto risco definidas pelo escore <italic>Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events </italic>(GRACE) ajustado para a popula&#231;&#227;o local. Nesse estudo, evidenciou-se que o escore GRACE apresentou menor capacidade de predi&#231;&#227;o de sobrevida livre de eventos quando comparado ao desempenho preditivo de uma associa&#231;&#227;o de 12 ceramidas plasm&#225;ticas medidas na fase aguda do IAM.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> Esse estudo incluiu chineses, malaios e indianos, etnias que representam uma grande propor&#231;&#227;o da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial. Ainda, foi realizada revalida&#231;&#227;o externa do valor preditivo desses biomarcadores em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de caucasianos da Nova Zel&#226;ndia, demonstrando o desenvolvimento de um biomarcador com potencial uso universal. Esses dados foram ainda corroborados com an&#225;lise de biologia molecular de bi&#243;psias de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas de pacientes submetidos a cirurgia card&#237;aca com e sem infarto recentes, confirmando o aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de ceramidas em pacientes com placa ateroscler&#243;tica inst&#225;vel.</p>
          <p>Os principais estudos que avaliaram a associa&#231;&#227;o entre as ceramidas e o risco de eventos CV agudos est&#227;o demonstrados na <xref rid="t2" ref-type="table">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2">
              <label>Tabela 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Principais estudos que avaliaram a associa&#231;&#227;o entre as ceramidas e o risco de eventos cardiovasculares agudos (publica&#231;&#227;o ordenada por ano)</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Autor/refer&#234;ncia</th>
                    <th>Caracter&#237;stica do estudo</th>
                    <th>Desfecho prim&#225;rio</th>
                    <th>Ajuste</th>
                    <th>Resultado principal</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Laaksonen et al.<sup>5</sup> European Heart Journal 2016;37, 1967-1976</td>
                    <td align="center">Estudo de coorte prospectivo com N = 1580 adultos (62 anos; 59% homem; IMC 25 kg/m2; LDL 2,8 mmol/L, triglicer&#237;deos 1,4 mmol/L; 62,6% utilizando estatina) submetidos a angiografia coron&#225;ria eletiva devido a DAC est&#225;vel e recrutados no Hospital da Universidade de Haukeland, em Bergen (estudo BECAC). Seguimento de 4,6 anos em associa&#231;&#227;o a 1.637 pacientes (63 anos; 78% sexo masculino, IMC 26 kg/m2, LDL 2,6 mmol/L, triglicer&#237;deos 1 mmol/L, 27,2% em uso de estatina) com diagn&#243;stico de SCA submetidos a tratamento invasivo em quatro hospitais universit&#225;rios su&#237;&#231;os (estudo SPUM-ACS), com seguimento de 1 ano.</td>
                    <td align="center">Morte cardiovascular</td>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol total, triglicer&#237;deos, colesterol HDL, colesterol LDL, idade, sexo, tabagismo, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio, diabetes, hipertens&#227;o e acidente vascular cerebral pr&#233;vio.</td>
                    <td align="center">Cer (d18: 1/16: 0) e Cer (d18: 1/24: 1) foram associadas a um risco aumentado de morte cardiovascular em todas as coortes. OR Cer (d18:1/16:0)/Cer(d18:1/24:0) foi de 4,49 (IC95%, 2,24-8,98), 1,64 (1,29-2,08) e 1,77 (1,41-2,23) para Corogene, SPUM-ACS e estudo BECAC, respectivamente.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Havulinna et al.<sup>7</sup> Arteriosclerer Thromb Vasc Biol 2016;36: 2424-2430</td>
                    <td align="center">Estudo de coorte populacional com N = 8.101 pacientes saud&#225;veis (idade 48 anos; 47% homens, IMC 26 kg/m2, colesterol LDL 3,3 mmol/L, triglicer&#237;deos 1,3 mmol/L) do FINRISK 2002.</td>
                    <td align="center">MACCE</td>
                    <td align="center">Colesterol total, colesterol HDL, press&#227;o arterial, diabetes melito e tabagismo.</td>
                    <td align="center">Cer (d18: 1/16: 0), Cer (d18: 1/18: 0) e Cer (d18: 1/24: 1) foram significativamente maiores em pacientes com evolu&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular adversa quando comparados a indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos. As concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas das ceramidas de alto risco que previam morte cardiovascular em pacientes com DAC tamb&#233;m foram maiores nos casos do FINRISK MACE em compara&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos da seguinte forma: Cer (d18: 1/16: 0), Cer (d18: 1/18: 0) e Cer (d18: 1/24: 1) 11,4%, 21,3% e 17,0% (p &lt; 0,001 para todos).</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Wang et al.<sup>4</sup> Circulation 2017; 135: 2028-2040</td>
                    <td align="center">Estudo de coorte aninhado no estudo randomizado Mediterranean Diet Prevention, com N = 980 participantes (68 anos; 45% homens, IMC 30 kg/m2, colesterol LDL 3,4 mmol/L, triglicer&#237;deos 1,6 mmol/L), incluindo 230 casos de DCV e 787 participantes selecionados aleatoriamente. A subcoorte incluiu 37 casos sobrepostos de DCV. Foram exclu&#237;dos dois participantes com concentra&#231;&#245;es indetect&#225;veis de ceramida no plasma. Acompanhamento: 4,5 anos.</td>
                    <td align="center">MACE</td>
                    <td align="center">Idade, sexo, IMC, hist&#243;rico familiar de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana precoce, tabagismo, hist&#243;ria de hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia e diabetes tipo II.</td>
                    <td align="center">Entre as ceramidas de alto risco identificadas, os &#250;ltimos quartis dos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de Cer (d18: 1/16: 0), Cer (d18: 1/22: 0), Cer (d18: 1/24: 0) e Cer (d18: 1/24: 1) foram associados a um desfecho cardiovascular adverso. A RR multivari&#225;vel comparando os quartis extremos das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de C:16, C22:0, C24:0 e C24:1 foi de 2,39 (1,49-3,83, p &lt; 0,001), 1,91 (1,21-3,01, p = 0,003), 1,97 (1,21-3,01, p = 0,004), e 1,73 (1,09-2,74, p = 0,011), respectivamente.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>De Carvalho et al.<sup>13</sup> JACC Basic Transl Sci 2018;3:163-175</td>
                    <td align="center">Estudo prospectivo e longitudinal com N = 327 pacientes de coorte prim&#225;ria (57 anos; 90% sexo masculino; IMC 26 kg/m2; colesterol LDL 3,1 mmol/L; triglicer&#237;deos 1,2 mmol/L) e 119 pacientes na coorte de valida&#231;&#227;o (66 anos; 72% sexo masculino; IMC 29 kg/m2; colesterol LDL 3,2 mmol/L) com SCA submetidos a estratifica&#231;&#227;o invasiva com mensura&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas realizadas em dois momentos (antes e ap&#243;s a estratifica&#231;&#227;o invasiva) com seguimento de 1 ano.</td>
                    <td align="center">MACCE</td>
                    <td align="center">GRACE</td>
                    <td align="center">Entre as ceramidas de alto risco previamente identificadas, os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de Cer (d18: 1/16: 0), Cer (d18: 1/18: 0) e Cer (d18: 1/24: 1) foram associados a eventos cardiovasculares adversos.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Meeusen et al.<sup>32</sup> Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2018; 38: 1933-1939</td>
                    <td align="center">Estudo transversal: 495 participantes (60 anos; 62% sexo masculino; IMC 28 kg/m2; colesterol LDL 3,1 mmol/L; triglicer&#237;deos 1,7 mmol/L; uso de estatina 28,5%) antes da angiografia coron&#225;ria n&#227;o urgente. Acompanhamento: 4 anos.</td>
                    <td align="center">MACE (infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea, cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, acidente vascular cerebral ou morte)</td>
                    <td align="center">Idade, sexo, IMC, hipertens&#227;o, tabagismo, colesterol LDL, colesterol HDL, triglicer&#237;deos, glicemia, hist&#243;rico familiar de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</td>
                    <td align="center">Entre as ceramidas de alto risco identificadas anteriormente, os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de Cer (d18: 1/16: 0), Cer (d18: 1/18: 0) e Cer (d18: 1/24: 1) foram associados a eventos cardiovasculares adversos. As RRs ajustadas para o desvio padr&#227;o (IC95%) foram 1,50 (1,16-1,93) para Cer (16: 0), 1,42 (1,11-1,83) para Cer (18: 0) e 1,43 (1,08-1,89) para Cer (24: 1)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Peterson et al.<sup>28</sup> J Am Heart Assoc. 2018;7: e007931</td>
                    <td align="center">Estudo baseado na comunidade: 2.642 participantes do Framingham Heart Study (66 anos; 46% homens; IMC 28 kg/m2, colesterol LDL 2,7 mmol/L, triglicer&#237;deos 1,3 mmol/L, 42,7% estatina) e 3.134 participantes do Estudo de Sa&#250;de na Pomer&#226;nia (idade 54 anos; 48% homens; IMC 28 kg/m2; colesterol LDL 5,5 mmol/L; triglicer&#237;deos 1,8 mmol/L; 14,5% em uso de estatina) foram seguidos por 6 e 8 anos, respectivamente.</td>
                    <td align="center">MACE (i.e., eventos cardiovasculares fatais e n&#227;o fatais).</td>
                    <td align="center">Idade, sexo, &#237;ndice de massa corporal, hipertens&#227;o, diabetes melito, tabagismo, anti-hipertensivos, propor&#231;&#227;o de colesterol total/HDL, triglicer&#237;deos e medicamentos hipolipemiantes.</td>
                    <td align="center">Entre as ceramidas de alto risco identificadas previamente, apenas as Cer (d18: 1/24: 0) foram associadas a desfechos cardiovasculares adversos. Na metan&#225;lise das duas coortes e ap&#243;s o ajuste dos fatores de risco para DAC, as propor&#231;&#245;es de ceramida C24: 0/C16: 0 foram inversamente associadas a DAC (RR por incremento m&#233;dio do DP: 0,79; IC95%, 0,71-0,89; P &lt; 0,0001) e inversamente associado a IC (RR: 0,78; IC95%, 0,61-1,00; P = 0,046).</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hilvo et al.<sup>33</sup> European Heart Journal 2019, in press</td>
                    <td align="center">Estudo longitudinal: tr&#234;s grandes estudos de coorte com 3.789 pacientes (62 anos; 72% sexo masculino; colesterol LDL 2,9 mmol/L; triglicer&#237;deos 1,5 mmol/L; 72,6% uso de estatina) da WECAC; 5.991 pacientes (65 anos; 83% homens; colesterol LDL 3,9 mmol/L; triglicer&#237;deos 1,6 mmol/L; 49,9% em uso de estatina) do estudo LIPID; e 1.023 pacientes (idade 62 anos; homens 84%; colesterol LDL 3 mmol/L; triglicer&#237;deos 1,6 mmol/L; uso de estatina 75,6%) do KAROLA. Acompanhamento: 6 anos.</td>
                    <td align="center">MACE (por exemplo, desfecho composto de morte por CV, IM e acidente vascular cerebral)</td>
                    <td align="center">Idade, sexo, tratamento com estatinas (WECAC, KAROLA), diabetes melito, hipertens&#227;o, tabagismo atual, IM pr&#233;vio, acidente vascular cerebral pr&#233;vio, estratificado por interven&#231;&#227;o com vitamina B (WECAC) e grupo de tratamento (LIPID).</td>
                    <td align="center">Um escore de risco simples, com base nas ceramidas e fosfatidilcolinas que apresentam as melhores caracter&#237;sticas progn&#243;sticas, foi desenvolvido no estudo WECAC e validado nas outras duas coortes. Essa pontua&#231;&#227;o foi altamente significativa na previs&#227;o da mortalidade por DCV [As RRs multiajustadas (IC95%) pelo DP foram 1,44 (1,28-1,63) no WECAC, 1,47 (1,34-1,61) no estudo LIPID e 1,69 (1,31- 2,17) no KAROLA. Al&#233;m disso, uma combina&#231;&#227;o do escore de risco com a troponina T de alta sensibilidade aumentou as RRs para 1,63 (1,44-1,85) e 2,04 (1,57-2,64) nas coortes WECAC e KAROLA, respectivamente.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2">
                  <p>
                    <italic>BECAC: Bergen Coronary Angiography Cohort; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; FINRISK: population-based risk factor survey ; IC95%: intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%; KAROLA: Langzeiterfolge der KARdiOLogischen Anschlussheilbehandlung; LIPID: Interven&#231;&#227;o a Longo Prazo com Pravastatina em Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica; MACCE: eventos adversos card&#237;acos e cerebrovasculares maiores; MACE: eventos adversos card&#237;acos maiores; RR: raz&#227;o de risco; SPUM-ACS: Special Program University Medicine-Inflammation in Acute Coronary Syndromes ; WECAC: The Western Norway Coronary Angiography Cohort.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>As ceramidas plasm&#225;ticas s&#227;o elevadas em pacientes com MACCE, e estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos e cl&#237;nicos demonstram uma associa&#231;&#227;o desses lip&#237;dios com o processo de instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica.</p>
      <p>A aferi&#231;&#227;o das ceramidas possui valor incremental para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, al&#233;m dos fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos, tanto na preven&#231;&#227;o CV prim&#225;ria quanto na secund&#225;ria. Medi&#231;&#245;es consecutivas podem apresentar um valor preditivo incremental maior do que outros biomarcadores para a previs&#227;o de eventos adversos futuros. No entanto, precisamos de mais evid&#234;ncias obtidas atrav&#233;s de estudos randomizados para avaliar o impacto progn&#243;stico e do escalonamento terap&#234;utico guiado pelos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de ceramidas.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p><bold>Fontes de financiamento: </bold>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Plasma Ceramides in Cardiovascular Disease Risk Stratification</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4526-4766</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Junqueira</surname>
            <given-names>D&#233;bora L. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7184-1251</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Stach</surname>
            <given-names>Alline</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Caixeta</surname>
            <given-names>Adriano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7206-4447</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sallum</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yasaki</surname>
            <given-names>Erika</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tsutsui</surname>
            <given-names>Jeane</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rizatti</surname>
            <given-names>Edgar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos E.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ching-Jianhong</surname>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kovalik</surname>
            <given-names>Jean-Paul</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5464-1792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; E.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Richards</surname>
            <given-names>A. Mark</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chan</surname>
            <given-names>Mark Y.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo P. de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Escola Paulista de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (HCor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Grupo Fleury, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional do Cora&#231;&#227;o &#8211; InCor, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="SG">Singapore</country>
        <institution content-type="original">DUKE-NUS Medical School, Singapore - Singapore</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="SG">Singapore</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Yong Loo-Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore &#8211; Singapore</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: Leonardo P. de Carvalho &#8226; Departamento de Cardiologia &#8211; Universidade Federal do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Rua Napole&#227;o de Barros, 715. Postal Code 04023-062, Vila Clementino, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: l.carvalho@huhsp.org.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Writing of the manuscript: Junqueira DLM; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Stach A, Caixeta A, Sallum J, Yasaki E, Tsutsui J, Rizatti E, Rochitte CE, Ching-Jianhong, Jean-Paul K, Krieger JE, Richards AM, Chan MY, Carvalho LP.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Ceramide production takes place throughout the body and plays a key role in the maintenance of normal physiology. However, ceramide levels are altered during disease states, particularly considering the development of diabetes and dyslipidemia. Ceramide production is also associated with atherosclerotic plaque instability. Recent studies revealed that patients with unstable coronary artery disease (CAD) presented increased plasma ceramide levels (especially C16, C18, and C24:1). These molecules are currently considered emerging biomarkers of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), being used for predicting atherosclerotic plaque instability and adverse cardiovascular events independently from traditional risk factors. With the aim of describing and discussing the role of ceramides in the stratification of cardiovascular diseases, this narrative review contextualizes the importance of this biomarker in the present cardiology scenario.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Coronary Artery Disease</kwd>
        <kwd>Ceramides/therapeutic use</kwd>
        <kwd>Diseases Stratification</kwd>
        <kwd>Diabetes Mellitus Dyslipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarkers</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Data from the World Health Organization (WHO) show that, out of the 50 million deaths recorded in the last decade, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) were responsible for a significant percentage: around 17 million people.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> This mortality is particularly high in the acute phase following an acute myocardial infarction (AMI), with a</p>
        <p>10%&#8211;15% recurrence of ischemic events within a year and cumulative rates of up to 50% in 10 years.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Approximately 50% of the patients who undergo primary percutaneous coronary intervention have multivessel disease, usually manifested as a progressive chronic condition with high mortality rates. Currently, it is not possible to precisely prevent the recurrence of acute ischemic events, clearly demonstrating the need for biomarkers that may predict coronary atherosclerotic plaque instability.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recent studies have highlighted the pathophysiological role of classes of lipids other than LDL-cholesterol in atherosclerosis and AMI, including ceramides, sphingomyelin, phosphatidylcholines, and cholesterol esters.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref>,<xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> Ceramides participate in multiple pathways involved in cellular damage signaling, liberating proinflammatory cytokines that directly modulate apoptosis via the expression of proapoptotic proteins.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Our group has worked, throught mass spectometry, among other molecular techniques, for developing a plasma biomarker capable of diagnosing atherosclerotic plaque instability and predicting reinfartion and progression to Heart Failure (HF) in patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS).</p>
        <p>Ceramides are lipid biomarkers with an emerging role in early diagnosis and risk stratification, acting as marker of primary and secondary cardiovascular (CV) events in patients with clinical and subclinical atherosclerosis who are susceptible to acute ischemic events.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref>,<xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Ceramide: a brief review of the physiology of this new lipid biomarker</title>
          <p>Ceramides and LDL-cholesterol are structural lipids that maintain membrane fluidity and integrity through the formation of selective pores, modulating the movement of compounds between intra and extracellular spaces. Ceramides are sphingolipids formed by a sphingosine molecule and a fatty acid, being key components in the formation of cellular membranes<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> and acting as an</p>
          <p>important signaling intermediate in processes that regulate cell homeostasis, such as inflammation, apoptosis, and cellular stress response.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Ceramides accumulate in the coronary atheroma,<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup>and their glycosylated forms glucosylceramides and lactosylceramides (<xref rid="f01001" ref-type="fig">Figure 1</xref>) are abundant in the developing plaque.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Moreover, data from our group showed that the myocardial tissue itself may produce ceramides in a direct response to ischemia and reperfusion.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Sphingolipid metabolic pathways.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0768-01165-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Ceramidase is an enzyme that cleaves fatty acids from ceramide for producing sphingosine, which is in turn phosphorylated by sphingosine-1-phosphatase for producing sphingosine-1-phosphate. Ceramide synthesis may occur through the hydrolysis of sphingomyelin (degradation), the salvage (recycling) pathway where sphingosine is phosphorylated, or the de novo pathway where dihydroceramides are desaturated.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ceramides: a link between atherosclerosis, diabetes, and dyslipidemia</title>
          <p>Ceramides constitute approximately 30% of circulating LDL-cholesterol. An increase in ceramide concentration alters cell membrane permeability, enabling the accumulation of LDL-cholesterol on blood vessel walls. This build-up amplifies the inflammatory process on vessel walls, promoting the apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells and endothelial dysfunction, which leads to atherosclerotic plaque instability and rupture<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> (<xref rid="f02001" ref-type="fig">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Plasma ceramides and plaque rupture. Source: author&#8217;s collection.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0768-01165-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>In addition to the atherosclerotic plaque, this build-up occurs in smooth and skeletal muscles, interfering with the expression of glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4); this causes a defect in muscle glucose uptake and hinders glycogen synthesis.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Ceramides also stimulate the</p>
          <p>apoptosis of pancreatic &#946; cells, directly reducing insulin production.<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup>Major et al.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> demonstrated that ceramides can mimic the cytotoxic effects of TNF-&#945;, IL-1&#946;, and IFN-&#947; in pancreatic &#946;-cells, triggering inflammation and apoptosis.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref></sup> Ceramide accumulation in tissues results in metabolic dysfunction in multiple organs and diabetes complications. <xref rid="f03001" ref-type="fig">Figure 3</xref> shows the main tissues affected by ceramides.<sup><xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref>,<xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Effect of ceramides on different organs.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-118-04-0768-01165-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Therefore, the measurement of these molecules helps the physician determine not only the degree of dyslipidemia and risk of atherosclerosis through LDL-cholesterol levels, but also insulin resistance and &#946;-cell apoptosis through ceramide levels.</p>
          <p>Clinical implications led to a patent of this biomarker in the United States and Europe, being currently available for clinical use at referral hospitals such as Mayo Clinic.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Are screening examinations necessary for the follow-up of subclinical atherosclerosis?</title>
          <p>There is a significant gap in the detection of subclinical atherosclerosis and the cost-effective triage and follow-up of this entity, with various noninvasive tests being routinely requested in populations at different levels of CV risk. This is a reality worldwide, and despite the increasing advances in noninvasive tests for detecting atherosclerosis, risk stratification remains imperfect.<sup><xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup> Considering the escalating costs of health care, this stereotyped medical practice should thus be reevaluated.</p>
          <p>The association of clinical and imaging data for supporting the development of protocols that incorporate classical risk scores such as Framingham and Interheart has been proposed for improving CV risk stratification.</p>
          <p>However, these methods, when applied to the general population without a triage step, have limited capacity for assessing CV risk due to aspects related to logistics and costs.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) study, one of the most relevant in this area, brought important contributions for comprehending the development and progression of CVD from subclinical to clinical stage. In a sub analysis of the MESA study, a large protein biomarker panel was evaluated in the search for predictive markers of CVD progression. When compared to classical CV risk factors, protein biomarkers with various specific panels for inflammation, insulin resistance, lipids, hemostasia, fibrinolysis, oxidative damage, and endothelial stress, among others, had incremental predictive values for long-term adverse CV events that were only borderline (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUC]: 0.768 vs 0.776, p = 0.003) and did not reach an incremental predictive value in the prediction of medium-term adverse CV events (AUC: 0.795 vs 0.796, p = 0.627). Considering these similar ROC curve values, new screening and risk stratification methods are thus required to improve early detection of plaque instability.<sup><xref rid="B23" ref-type="bibr">23</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Once developed, such a biomarker would enable interventions at the beginning of atherosclerotic plaque progression, being essential for avoiding the large additional costs of atherosclerosis&#8217; symptomatic stage. These considerations are important and should be evaluated when developing platforms for population health screening and seeking adequate cost-effectiveness.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Should we measure ceramides and LDL-cholesterol?</title>
          <p>Subclinical atherosclerosis precedes most CV events, and its detection may improve CV risk stratification.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref>,<xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> However, an incompatibility has been reported between apparently benign conventional risk factor profiles and subclinical atherosclerosis detected by coronary artery calcification (CAC) or intima thickness measured at the carotid ultrasound.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref>,<xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Studies have identified subclinical atherosclerosis in almost 60% of middle-aged individuals at low CV risk according to traditional risk scores, and multiple affected vessel sites were found in 41% of these individuals.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> These findings suggest that variables other than conventional CV risk factors may play relevant roles in atherogenesis.</p>
          <p>Patients with atherosclerosis consist in a very heterogeneous population, with complex risk stratification, and should not be all considered as being at similar risk for acute events. The use of CV risk scores is currently recommended by guidelines as a stratification tool; however, due to limitations in predictive precision especially in patients at high CV risk, the optimization of risk tools by recalibrating scores or their association with biomarkers is frequently needed for a higher predictive accuracy in different populations.</p>
          <p>LDL-cholesterol is a risk factor directly involved in the development of atherosclerotic plaque, therefore being an important therapeutic target in clinical practice. Dieting, lifestyle changes, and use of medications can result in significant and sustained reductions in plasma LDL-cholesterol levels. However, CVD are still one of the main causes of death worldwide,<sup><xref rid="B24" ref-type="bibr">24</xref></sup> suggesting that conventional LDL-cholesterol control is not enough; the early detection and prevention of atherosclerotic plaque instability may thus open the way for significantly reducing disease progression.</p>
          <p>Current guidelines endorse LDL-cholesterol control and the measurement of nonspecific inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) in CV risk stratification. However, the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis involves the complex intersection of dyslipidemia, inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, platelet activation, and other factors.<sup><xref rid="B25" ref-type="bibr">25</xref></sup> Recent data demonstrate possible associations between each of these pathways and plasma ceramide levels, indicating an association and plausible causality of this biomarker in acute CVD and atherosclerotic plaque instability.</p>
          <p>Moreover, plasma LDL-cholesterol does not precisely predict major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events (MACCE), requiring a thorough medical assessment and a series of noninvasive tests in clinical practice for following up on the progression of atherosclerotic plaques.<sup><xref rid="B26" ref-type="bibr">26</xref></sup> On the other hand, plasma ceramide concentrations are increased in various conditions related to cardiac diseases, in addition to their biochemical role in the progression of atherosclerosis, which has also been studied by our group. Preliminary studies have showed an increase in ceramides in the acute phase of AMI and in vulnerable plaques in humans, correlating these findings with pre-clinical data that showed the upregulation of ceramide-producing enzymes in the myocardium, with an increase in plasma ceramide levels within the first 24 hours of an acute ischemic event.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Ceramides are also associated with a higher risk of disease progression in patients with HF. Among 423 patients with acute HF, plasma ceramide concentrations were independently associated with death and worsening of left ventricular function during hospitalization.<sup><xref rid="B27" ref-type="bibr">27</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Searching for evidence: ceramides and CV risk prediction</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Primary prevention:</title>
            <p>The FINRISK study was performed in patients with no previous history of CV events and showed that circulating levels of specific ceramides (16:0, 18:0, and 24:1) were significantly associated with subsequent major CV events when compared to individuals who remained asymptomatic. Significant univariate associations between ceramides and fatal events suggest they play a fundamental role in atherosclerotic plaque rupture in this population.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Still considering primary prevention, Petterson et al.<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup>demonstrated that the proportion of ceramides C24:0/C16:0 and the plasma concentration of ceramide C24:0 were inversely associated with coronary risk factors such as age and smoking habits, in addition to the development of CAD and HF.<sup><xref rid="B28" ref-type="bibr">28</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>CAD:</title>
            <p>In a post-hoc analysis of the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial (SPRINT) study (N = 9631), Nguyen et al. demonstrated that plasma LDL-cholesterol levels were not associated with the primary composite outcome (myocardial infarction, stroke, acute decompensated HF, and CV death).<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup> In addition, when evaluating patients in secondary prevention of CV events (N = 1562), they observed that LDL-cholesterol was only marginally associated with the incidence of CV events (adjusted hazard ratio 1.005 [95% confidence interval, CI = 1.002&#8211;1.009], p = 0.005 [1 mg/dl increase], with poor discrimination for MACE [AUC = 0.54, p = 0.087]).<sup><xref rid="B29" ref-type="bibr">29</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Although studies with PCSK9 inhibitors such as Odyssey Outcomes and Fourier<sup><xref rid="B30" ref-type="bibr">30</xref></sup> reinforce the &#8220;the lower, the better&#8221; principle, meaning there is an association between low LDL-cholesterol levels and a low risk of clinical atherosclerosis, no perfect risk correlation is observed. In order to fill this gap, the measurement of metabolites with metabolomic techniques has been increasingly employed since it presents advantages over classical methods such as a more comprehensive analysis and the acquisition of a metabolic profile of the target tissue considering the disease of interest.</p>
            <p>An undirected metabolomic analysis identified 3 plasma ceramides that were significantly associated with CV mortality in a cohort with angiography-confirmed CAD. Ceramides associated with high CV mortality in this study were C16:0, C18:0, and C24:1, and their association was independent from age, body mass index (BMI), smoking habits, use of statins, triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, and total cholesterol.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Kaasenbrood et al.,31 using the Secondary Manifestations of Arterial Disease (SMART) risk score, attempted to improve the prediction of acute events in this group of patients.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup> This risk score comprehends clinical and laboratory variables (total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR], CRP) and was tested in various cohorts; based on the obtained results, the authors suggested new algorithms for estimating CV risk in order to individually and more precisely stratify this population, demonstrating the possibility of improving risk scores by incorporating biomarkers.<sup><xref rid="B31" ref-type="bibr">31</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In the Prevenci&#243;n con Dieta Mediterr&#225;nea (Mediterranean Diet Prevention, PREDIMED) study, a prospective cohort study with patients at high CV risk, ceramides C24:0, C22:0, and C16:0 were associated with CVD.4 The odds radios comparing the extreme quartiles of plasma ceramides C16:0, C22:0, C24:0, and C24:1 were 2.39 (1.49&#8211;3,83; p &lt; 0.001), 1.91 (1.21&#8211;3.01; p = 0.003), 1.97 (1.21&#8211;3.01; p = 0.004), and 1.73 (1.09&#8211;2.74; p = 0.011), respectively. In another prospective study with approximately 500 patients who underwent elective coronary angiography, Meeusen et al. reported that plasma C16:0, C18:0, and C24:1 levels were independently associated with increased risk of MACCE in a mean follow-up of 4 years.32 The risk associated with ceramides was also independent from traditional risk factors, including age, sex, BMI, smoking habits, and cholesterol. Moreover, the predictive value remained significant after additional adjustments for serum glucose and family history of CAD. These results suggest that, when plasma ceramide levels are high in patients with or without significant stenosis of the coronary artery, the risk of death is high in both groups.<sup><xref rid="B32" ref-type="bibr">32</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Another risk score involving ceramides is the Coronary Event Risk Test (CERT2), which was developed in the Western Norway Coronary Angiography Cohort (WECAC) study and validated by the Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) and Langzeiterfolge der Kardiologischen Anschlussheilbehandlung (KAROLA) studies.<sup><xref rid="B33" ref-type="bibr">33</xref></sup> Results showed that the CV risk estimation tool incorporating ceramide measurement could reliably stratify MACE in patients with stable CAD. Additional evidence obtained by the WECAC and LIPID studies demonstrated that these biomarkers alone were able to accurately stratify primary CV risk in patients with and without diabetes; in individuals with diabetes, the only significant predictors in this study were the CERT2 score and high-sensitivity troponin.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>ACS</title>
            <p>In the European Collaborative Project on Inflammation and Vascular Wall Remodeling in Atherosclerosis - Intravascular Ultrasound (favor verificar se est&#225; correto.) (ATHEROREMO-IVUS) study (N = 600 patients), Cheng et al. demonstrated that plasma C16:0, C18:0, and C24:1 levels were significantly associated with vulnerable coronary plaque in individuals with ACS. Increased plasma levels of these ceramides were also significantly associated with higher angiographic severity of coronary stenosis,<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref>,<xref rid="B34" ref-type="bibr">34</xref></sup> as well as a lower perfusion of the myocardial wall after stress in patients with established or suspected CAD who underwent myocardial perfusion scintigraphy.<sup><xref rid="B35" ref-type="bibr">35</xref>,<xref rid="B36" ref-type="bibr">36</xref></sup> These findings suggest causality between increased ceramides in the atherosclerotic plaque and its instability or severity.</p>
            <p>Using optical coherence tomography (OCT) in patients with ST&#8208;segment&#8211;elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), Bo Yu et al. recently observed increased plasma C16:0, C18:0, and C24:0 levels when compared to individuals with no coronary disease or with stable CAD (p &lt; 0.001, p &lt; 0.001, p &lt; 0.001, p &lt; 0.001, respectively). This was the first study using OCT that proved a positive independent association between plasma ceramide concentrations and plaque rupture, suggesting that plasma ceramide concentrations may act as potential biomarkers of plaque rupture.<sup><xref rid="B37" ref-type="bibr">37</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Additional evidence of this association was obtained by Laasksonen et al.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> in a prospective cohort of patients with stable CAD; increased serum ceramide levels were observed in 81 out of 1580 patients (<xref rid="t1001" ref-type="table">Table 1</xref>), who later presented MACE in 4.6 years of follow-up. This proportion was maintained even after adjustment for treatment with statins. Ceramides were predictive in both cases, with comparable odds ratios (OR) in patients using statins or not: 1.68 (1.31&#8211;2.15) vs 1.7 (1.33&#8211;2.17). In this study, plasma LDL-cholesterol was not significantly predictive of MACE.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
            <p>
              <table-wrap id="t1001">
                <label>Table 1</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Relative risk scores involving ceramides in different cohorts</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th align="left" rowspan="3">Score</th>
                      <th rowspan="3">Category</th>
                      <th colspan="3">BECAC (5-year risk)<sup>5</sup></th>
                      <th colspan="3">SPUM-ACS (1-year risk)<sup>5</sup></th>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <th colspan="6" rowspan="1">
                        <hr/>
                      </th>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <th>Deaths (n)</th>
                      <th>%</th>
                      <th>Relative Risk</th>
                      <th>Morte (n)</th>
                      <th>%</th>
                      <th>Relative Risk</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>0-2</td>
                      <td align="center">Low</td>
                      <td align="center">15/549</td>
                      <td align="center">2.7%</td>
                      <td align="center">1.0</td>
                      <td align="center">9/575</td>
                      <td align="center">1.6%</td>
                      <td align="center">1.0</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>3-6</td>
                      <td align="center">Moderate</td>
                      <td align="center">29/601</td>
                      <td align="center">4.8%</td>
                      <td align="center">1.8</td>
                      <td align="center">16/611</td>
                      <td align="center">2.6%</td>
                      <td align="center">1.7</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>7-9</td>
                      <td align="center">Increased</td>
                      <td align="center">20/288</td>
                      <td align="center">6.9%</td>
                      <td align="center">2.5</td>
                      <td align="center">9/270</td>
                      <td align="center">3.3%</td>
                      <td align="center">2.1</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>10-12</td>
                      <td align="center">Higher</td>
                      <td align="center">17/149</td>
                      <td align="center">11.4%</td>
                      <td align="center">4.2</td>
                      <td align="center">17/181</td>
                      <td align="center">9.4%</td>
                      <td align="center">6.0</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN1001">
                    <p>
                      <italic>Source: adapted from Mayo Clinic. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/">https://www.mayoclinic.org/</ext-link></italic>
                    </p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </p>
            <p>Laasksonen et al.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> analyzed the Special Program University Medicine-Inflammation in Acute Coronary Syndromes (SPUM-ACS) study (N = 1637), performed with patients with ACS, where ceramides were also predictors of MACE regardless of CV risk. In 51 patients who died within a year of a cardiac event, plasma ceramides were found at significantly higher levels when compared to patients who survived during follow-up.<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Finally, De Carvalho et al.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> assessed patients with AMI in 2 cohorts of patients subjected to invasive stratification, comparing MACCE-free survival rates in high-risk patients as defined by the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (GRACE) score adjusted to the local population. In this study, the GRACE score was less capable of predicting event-free survival when compared to an association of 12 plasma ceramides measured in the acute phase of AMI.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> This study included Chinese, Malay, and Indian people, ethnicities that represent a considerable proportion of the global population; external revalidation of the predictive value of these biomarkers was performed in a Caucasian population in New Zealand, demonstrating the development of a potentially universal biomarker. These data were also corroborated by the molecular biology analysis of atherosclerotic plaque biopsies obtained from patients subjected to heart surgery who had experienced or not recent infarctions, confirming the increase in ceramide production in patients with vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque.</p>
            <p>The main studies evaluating the association between ceramides and risk of acute CV events are demonstrated on <xref rid="t2001" ref-type="table">Table 2</xref>.</p>
            <p>
              <table-wrap id="t2001">
                <label>Table 2</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Main studies evaluating the association between ceramides and risk of acute cardiovascular events (by year of publication)</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th align="left">Author/reference</th>
                      <th>Study characteristics</th>
                      <th>Primary outcome</th>
                      <th>Adjustment</th>
                      <th>Main result</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Laaksonen et al.<sup>5</sup> European Heart Journal 2016;37, 1967-1976</td>
                      <td align="center">Prospective cohort study with N = 1580 adults (62 years old; 59% male; BMI 25 kg/m2; LDL-cholesterol 2.8 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.4mmol/l; statin use 62.6%) who underwent elective coronary angiography due to stable CAD and were recruited at the Haukeland University Hospital in Bergen (BECAC study) with 4.6 years of follow-up, in addition to 1637 patients (63 years old; 78% male, BMI 26 kg/m2, LDL-cholesterol 2.6 mmol/l, triglycerides 1 mmol/l, statin use 27.2%) with an ACS diagnosis who underwent invasive treatment in 4 Swiss university hospitals (SPUM-ACS study), with 1-year follow-up</td>
                      <td align="center">Cardiovascular death</td>
                      <td align="center">Total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, age, sex, smoking habits, previous acute myocardial infarction, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, previous stroke</td>
                      <td align="center">Cer (d18:1/16:0) and Cer (d18:1/24:1) were associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular death in all cohorts. OR Cer (d18:1/16:0)/Cer(d18:1/24:0) was 4.49 (95% CI, 2.24&#8211;8.98), 1.64 (1.29&#8211;2.08), and 1.77 (1.41&#8211;2.23) for Corogene, SPUM-ACS, and BECAC studies, respectively</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Havulinna et al.<sup>7</sup> Arteriosclerer Thromb Vasc Biol 2016;36: 2424-2430</td>
                      <td align="center">Populational cohort study with N = 8101 healthy patients (48 years old; 47% male, BMI 26 kg/m2, LDL-cholesterol 3.3 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.3 mmol/l) from FINRISK 2002</td>
                      <td align="center">Major cardiac and cerebrovascular adverse events</td>
                      <td align="center">Total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, arterial pressure, diabetes mellitus, and smoking habits</td>
                      <td align="center">Cer (d18:1/16:0), Cer (d18:1/18:0), and Cer (d18:1/24:1) levels were significantly higher in patients with adverse cardiovascular progression when compared to asymptomatic individuals. Serum concentrations of high-risk ceramides predicting cardiovascular death in patients with CAD were also higher in FINRISK MACE cases when compared to asymptomatic individuals, as follows: Cer (d18:1/16:0), Cer (d18:1/18:0), and Cer (d18:1/24:1) 11.4%, 21.3%, and 17.0%, respectively (p &lt; 0.001 for all)</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Wang et al.<sup>4</sup> Circulation 2017; 135: 2028-2040</td>
                      <td align="center">Cohort study nested in the PREDIMED randomized study with N = 980 participants (68 years old; 45% male, BMI 30 kg/m2, LDL-cholesterol 3.4 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.6 mmol/l), including 230 cases of CVD and 767 randomly selected participants. The sub cohort included 37 overlapping CVD cases. Two participants with undetectable plasma ceramide concentrations were excluded. Follow-up: 4.5 years</td>
                      <td align="center">MACE</td>
                      <td align="center">IAge, sex, BMI, family history of premature CAD, smoking habits, history of hypertension, dyslipidemia, and type 2 diabetes.</td>
                      <td align="center">Among the high-risk ceramides identified, the upper quartiles of plasma Cer (d18:1/16:0), Cer (d18:1/22:0), Cer (d18:1/24:0), and Cer (d18:1/24:1) levels were associated with an adverse cardiovascular outcome. The multivariable hazard ratios comparing the extreme quartiles of plasma C:16, C22:0, C24:0, and C24:1 concentrations were 2.39 (1.49&#8211;3.83, p &lt; 0.001), 1.91 (1.21&#8211;3.01, p = 0.003), 1.97 (1.21&#8211;3.01, p = 0.004), and 1.73 (1.09&#8211;2.74, p = 0.011), respectively.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>De Carvalho et al.<sup>13</sup> JACC Basic Transl Sci 2018;3:163-175</td>
                      <td align="center">Prospective longitudinal study with N = 327 patients from a primary cohort (57 years old; 90% male, BMI 26 kg/m2, LDL-cholesterol 3.1 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.2 mmol/l) and 119 patients in the validation cohort (66 years old; 72% male, BMI 29 kg/m2, LDL-cholesterol 3.2 mmol/l) with ACS who underwent invasive stratification with plasma measurements performed before and after stratification; 1-year follow-up.</td>
                      <td align="center">Major cardiac and cerebrovascular adverse events</td>
                      <td align="center">GRACE</td>
                      <td align="center">Among the high-risk ceramides previously identified, the plasma Cer (d18:1/16:0), Cer (d18:1/18:0), and Cer (d18:1/24:1) levels were associated with adverse cardiovascular events</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Meeusen et al.<sup>32</sup> Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2018; 38: 1933-1939</td>
                      <td align="center">Cross-sectional study: 495 participants (60 years old; 62% male, BMI 28kg/m2, LDL-cholesterol 3.1 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.7 mmol/l, statin use 28.5%) before nonurgent coronary angiography. Follow-up: 4 years</td>
                      <td align="center">MACE (myocardial infarction, percutaneous intervention, myocardial revascularization surgery, stroke, or death).</td>
                      <td align="center">Age, sex, BMI, hypertension, smoking habits, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, glycemia, family history of CAD</td>
                      <td align="center">Among the high-risk ceramides previously identified, plasma Cer (d18:1/16:0), Cer (d18:1/18:0), and Cer (d18:1/24:1) levels were associated with adverse cardiovascular events. Adjusted hazard ratios per standard deviation (95% CI) were 1.50 (1.16&#8211;1.93) for Cer (16:0), 1.42 (1.11&#8211;1.83) for Cer (18:0), and 1.43 (1.08&#8211;1.89) for Cer (24:1)</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Peterson et al.<sup>28</sup> J Am Heart Assoc. 2018;7: e007931</td>
                      <td align="center">Community-based study: 2642 participants from the Framingham Heart Study (FHS; 66 years old; 46% male, BMI 28 kg/m2, LDL-cholesterol 2.7 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.3 mmol/l, statin use 42.7%) and 3134 participants from the Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP; 54 years old, 48% male, BMI 28 kg/m2, LDL-cholesterol 5.5 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.8 mmol/l, statin use 14.5%) were followed up for 6 and 8 years, respectively</td>
                      <td align="center">MACE (fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events)</td>
                      <td align="center">Age, sex, BMI, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking habits, anti-hypertensives, total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio, triglycerides, and lipid-lowering drugs</td>
                      <td align="center">Among the high-risk ceramides previously identified, only Cer (d18:1/24:0) were associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes. In the meta-analysis of both cohorts and after adjusting risk factors for CAD, C24:0/C16:0 ratios were inversely associated with CAD (hazard ratio per mean standard deviation increase, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.71&#8211;0.89; p &lt; 0.0001) and inversely associated with HF (hazard ratio, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.61&#8211;1,00; p = 0.046).</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Hilvo et al.<sup>33</sup> European Heart Journal 2019, in press</td>
                      <td align="center">Longitudinal study; 3 large cohort studies: 3789 patients (62 years old; 72% male, LDL-cholesterol 2.9 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.5 mmol/l, statin use 72.6%) from the Western Norway Coronary Angiography Cohort (WECAC); 5991 patients (65 years old; 83% male, LDL-cholesterol 3.9 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.6 mmol/l, statin use 49.9%) from the Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) study; and 1023 patients (62 years old; 84% male, LDL-cholesterol 3 mmol/l, triglycerides 1.6 mmol/l, statin use 75.6%) from the Langzeiterfolge der Kardiologischen Anschlussheilbehandlung (KAROLA) study. Follow-up: 6 years</td>
                      <td align="center">MACE (composite endpoint including death due to CV events, MI, and stroke )</td>
                      <td align="center">IAge, sex, treatment with statins (WECAC, KAROLA), diabetes mellitus, hypertension, current smoking habit, previous MI, previous stroke, stratified according to vitamin B intervention (WECAC) and treatment group (LIPID).</td>
                      <td align="center">A simple risk score, based on ceramides and phosphatidylcholines with the best prognostic characteristics, was developed by the WECAC study and validated in the other 2 cohorts. This score was highly significant for predicting mortality due to CVD (multi-adjusted hazard ratios [95% CI] per standard deviation were 1.44 [1.28&#8211;1.63] at the WECAC, 1.47 [1.34&#8211;1.61] at the LIPID study, and 1.69 [1.31&#8211; 2.17] at the KAROLA study). Moreover, a combination of the risk score with high-sensitivity troponin T increased hazard ratios to 1.63 (1.44&#8211;1.85) and 2.04 (1.57&#8211;2.64) in the WECAC and KAROLA cohorts, respectively.</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN2001">
                    <p>
                      <italic>BECAC: Bergen Coronary Angiography Cohort; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; FINRISK: population-based risk factor survey ; IC95%: intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%; KAROLA: Langzeiterfolge der KARdiOLogischen Anschlussheilbehandlung; LIPID: Interven&#231;&#227;o a Longo Prazo com Pravastatina em Doen&#231;a Isqu&#234;mica; MACCE: eventos adversos card&#237;acos e cerebrovasculares maiores; MACE: eventos adversos card&#237;acos maiores; RR: raz&#227;o de risco; SPUM-ACS: Special Program University Medicine-Inflammation in Acute Coronary Syndromes ; WECAC: The Western Norway Coronary Angiography Cohort.</italic>
                    </p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Plasma ceramides are elevated in patients with MACCE, and pre-clinical and clinical studies demonstrate an association between these lipids and atherosclerotic plaque instability.</p>
        <p>Their measurement has incremental value for risk stratification, in addition to the classic risk factors both in primary and secondary CV prevention; consecutive measurements may have higher incremental predictive value than other biomarkers considering future adverse events. However, we still need further evidence from randomized studies to assess the impact of this marker on prognosis and of treatment escalation guided by plasma ceramide levels.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p><bold>Sources of Funding: </bold>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
