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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">pMfSDDBBMFnvzg6vFQPgRDr</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2022000400667</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20220186</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20220186</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>O Ano de 2021 na Pesquisa B&#225;sica: a Procura por Modelos Translacionais</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3115-0795</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gatto</surname>
            <given-names>Mariana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8103-3338</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mota</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Augusto Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7728-4505</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Marina Politi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Universidade Estadual Paulista, UNESP, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Marina Politi Okoshi &#8226; Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Rubi&#227;o Junior, S/N. CEP 18618-687, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>mpoliti@fmb.unesp.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2022</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>118</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>667</fpage>
      <lpage>668</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Pesquisa Experimental</kwd>
        <kwd>Projetos de Pesquisa</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodela&#231;&#227;o Ventricular</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Exerc&#237;cio</kwd>
        <kwd>Pesquisa M&#233;dica Translacional</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="22"/>
        <page-count count="2"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Anualmente, as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por aproximadamente 19 milh&#245;es de mortes globalmente.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup> No Brasil, s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por cerca de um ter&#231;o das mortes.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> Nos &#250;ltimos anos, houve significativo avan&#231;o na medicina cardiovascular. Entretanto, a via final comum das agress&#245;es sobre o cora&#231;&#227;o, a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, permanece com elevada incid&#234;ncia, preval&#234;ncia, e mortalidade.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup> Portanto, h&#225; necessidade de melhor entendimento das DCV e o desenvolvimento de novas abordagens farmacol&#243;gicas e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas para seu tratamento. Em 2021, os Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia publicaram artigos na &#225;rea de ci&#234;ncias b&#225;sicas que estiveram, em sua maioria, relacionados a modelos experimentais com elos para futura abordagem translacional para ampliar a compreens&#227;o do tratamento das DCV. Neste Editorial, apresentamos uma vis&#227;o geral de artigos publicados recentemente com &#234;nfase em modelos experimentais para futura abordagem translacional.</p>
    <p>Os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos no desenvolvimento da remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ainda s&#227;o amplamente investigados.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> Os micro-RNAs (miRNA) participam do controle das principais fun&#231;&#245;es celulares, como prolifera&#231;&#227;o, diferencia&#231;&#227;o, apoptose, resposta ao estresse e regula&#231;&#227;o transcricional. Em elegante estudo, Xu e Fang<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> observaram que a express&#227;o do miR-34a e miR-125b &#233; reduzida no cora&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com cardiomiopatia diab&#233;tica no momento do transplante. Adicionalmente, os autores mostraram, em cultura prim&#225;ria, que aumento da express&#227;o destes miRNAs previne a morte de cardiomi&#243;citos induzida por hiperglicemia.</p>
    <p>Apoptose mediada por hipoxemia &#233; importante causa de perda de mi&#243;citos e inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica. O fator de crescimento endotelial vascular (VEGF) tem sido testado para melhorar a perfus&#227;o tecidual. Apesar do interesse na terapia g&#234;nica com o VEGF, seus efeitos n&#227;o est&#227;o completamente esclarecidos. Zhang et al.,<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> mostraram que aumento da express&#227;o do VEGF121 melhora a resposta &#224; hipoxemia de cardiomi&#243;citos de ratos rec&#233;m nascidos em cultura celular. Condicionamento isqu&#234;mico &#233; o processo pelo qual repetidas aplica&#231;&#245;es de curtos per&#237;odos de isquemia alternados com reperfus&#227;o induz prote&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica contra insultos isqu&#234;micos de maior dura&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> Apesar de intensa investiga&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o h&#225; f&#225;rmacos dispon&#237;veis para prevenir ou atenuar a les&#227;o induzida por isquemia/reperfus&#227;o. Chen et al.,<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> observaram que a dexmedetomidina, agonista do receptor &#945;2-adren&#233;rgico principalmente utilizada em analgesia e seda&#231;&#227;o, atenua a les&#227;o induzida por isquemia/reperfus&#227;o. O efeito foi caracterizado por melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e redu&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea infartada. A melhora foi associada a diminui&#231;&#227;o da apoptose miocit&#225;ria e inibi&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas da via apopt&#243;tica PERK/eIF2&#945;/TCF-4/CHOP. Redu&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na GRP78, importante marcador de estresse do ret&#237;culo endoplasm&#225;tico, foi tamb&#233;m observada.</p>
    <p>Entre as terapias n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas, o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico se destaca na preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento das DCV. A pesquisa b&#225;sica e translacional tem focado nos mecanismos envolvidos nos efeitos ben&#233;ficos do exerc&#237;cio.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>-<xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup> V&#225;rios estudos mostraram que o exerc&#237;cio melhora a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida por infarto do mioc&#225;rdio extenso.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Souza et al.,<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup> observaram que, tamb&#233;m em situa&#231;&#227;o de agress&#227;o card&#237;aca menos grave como no infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pequeno, o exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bio em esteira, por 12 semanas, melhora a capacidade funcional e preserva a geometria ventricular esquerda. Da mesma maneira, o exerc&#237;cio resultou em efeitos ben&#233;ficos em ratos com hipertens&#227;o renovascular.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup> Exerc&#237;cio resistido por 12 semanas aumentou a atividade de enzimas antioxidantes e reduziu o dano oxidativo card&#237;aco e renal, caracterizado por diminui&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio e preserva&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de grupos sulfidr&#237;licos.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup></p>
    <p>A suplementa&#231;&#227;o com compostos naturais nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares vem ocupando espa&#231;o no meio cient&#237;fico, devido &#224; f&#225;cil aquisi&#231;&#227;o e baixo custo e toxicidade. A L-carnitina atua no deslocamento de &#225;cidos graxos para s&#237;tios de oxida&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial. A suplementa&#231;&#227;o de L-carnitina reduziu a express&#227;o de genes envolvidos na inflama&#231;&#227;o, tanto no cora&#231;&#227;o como no tecido adiposo de camundongos diab&#233;ticos.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> Resultados inovadores foram observados com extrato bruto da planta <italic>Sauromatum guttatum</italic> em ratos Sprague-Dawley com hipertens&#227;o arterial induzida por ingest&#227;o excessiva de sal. A administra&#231;&#227;o do extrato reduziu a press&#227;o arterial e preservou a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial; em aorta isolada de ratos normotensos, o extrato promoveu o relaxamento vascular.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> A ingest&#227;o de &#243;leo de copa&#237;ba por ratos com hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar foi acompanhada por efeito antioxidante sist&#234;mico, redu&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular, e melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Embora os efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios e antioxidantes do suco de laranja sejam conhecidos h&#225; longo tempo, n&#227;o havia estudo sobre seu efeito na remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida por infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. Oliveira et al.,<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup> observaram que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com suco de laranja aumenta a express&#227;o da heme-oxygenase-1, enzima crucial na homeostasia celular com efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios, antioxidante e anti-apopt&#243;tico.</p>
    <p>A defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D est&#225; associada a maior risco de desenvolver DCV, doen&#231;as imunes cr&#244;nicas, e c&#226;ncer. Entretanto, sua suplementa&#231;&#227;o para preven&#231;&#227;o e controle de doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas e DCV n&#227;o tem mostrado benef&#237;cios.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>,<xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> Santos et al.,<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup> observaram que a administra&#231;&#227;o de doses n&#227;o hipercalc&#234;micas de vitamina D para ratos normais foi associada a altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e aumento do estresse oxidativo card&#237;aco.</p>
    <p>A doxorubicina &#233; um potente agente antitumoral da fam&#237;lia das antraciclinas, amplamente utilizada na terapia antineopl&#225;sica. No entanto, seu uso pode resultar em efeitos cardiot&#243;xicos como modula&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas heme, danos ao DNA, e cardiomiopatia.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>,<xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup> Consequentemente, h&#225; grande interesse na descoberta de agentes que possam reduzir a toxicidade da doxorubicina. Brito et al.,<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> avaliaram o efeito do resveratrol, um componente polifen&#243;lico, em cardiomi&#243;citos de ratos rec&#233;m nascidos tratados com doxorubicina. Os pesquisadores observaram que cardiomi&#243;citos de neonatos cujas m&#227;es haviam sido suplementadas na gesta&#231;&#227;o com resveratrol tiveram aumento da viabilidade, da atividade antioxidante e da prote&#231;&#227;o contra danos g&#234;nicos ap&#243;s a adi&#231;&#227;o de doxorubicina.</p>
    <p>A pesquisa b&#225;sica experimental permite grande avan&#231;o na compreens&#227;o de mecanismos moleculares e celulares envolvidos na performance card&#237;aca em situa&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas e patol&#243;gicas. Entretanto, ainda h&#225; um longo caminho at&#233; que tratamentos farmacol&#243;gicos e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicos promissores possam chegar a estudos cl&#237;nicos e, finalmente, incorporar o arsenal terap&#234;utico para o tratamento das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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      <title-group>
        <article-title>The Year in Basic Research 2021: the Search for Translational Models</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3115-0795</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gatto</surname>
            <given-names>Mariana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8103-3338</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mota</surname>
            <given-names>Gustavo Augusto Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7728-4505</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Marina Politi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Universidade Estadual Paulista, UNESP, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"> Mailing Address: Marina Politi Okoshi &#8226; Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Rubi&#227;o Junior, S/N. Postal Code 18618-687, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: mpoliti@fmb.unesp.br </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Experimental Research</kwd>
        <kwd>Research Design</kwd>
        <kwd>Ventricular Remodeling</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Exercise</kwd>
        <kwd>Translacional Medical Research</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are responsible for approximately 19 million deaths annually in the world.<sup><xref rid="B1" ref-type="bibr">1</xref></sup>In Brazil, they are involved in one third of deaths.<sup><xref rid="B2" ref-type="bibr">2</xref></sup> A significant improvement in cardiovascular medicine has been observed in the last decades. However, cardiac failure, which is the final common pathway following heart injury, remains with a high incidence, prevalence, and mortality.<sup><xref rid="B3" ref-type="bibr">3</xref></sup> A better understanding of CVD may allow the development of new pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches to their treatment. In 2021, the Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia published articles in the area of basic sciences that were mostly related to experimental models. These studies can provide the basis for a translational approach to expand the understanding of CVD treatment. In this Editorial, we present an overview of recently published articles with emphasis on experimental models for a future translational approach.</p>
      <p>The molecular mechanisms involved in the cardiac remodeling development are still widely investigated.<sup><xref rid="B4" ref-type="bibr">4</xref></sup> Micro-RNAs (miRNA) participate in the control of major cellular functions, such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, stress response, and transcriptional regulation. In an elegant study, Xu e Fang<sup><xref rid="B5" ref-type="bibr">5</xref></sup> observed that miR-34a and miR-125b are downregulated in the heart from patients with diabetic cardiomyopathy at the time of transplant. Additionally, <italic>in vitro</italic> data from rat cardiomyocytes showed that miR-125b and miR-34a overexpression prevents hyperglycemia-induced cardiomyocyte death.</p>
      <p>Hypoxemia-mediated apoptosis in cardiomyocytes is a major cause of myocardial injury. Treatment with the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been tested to improve tissue perfusion. Despite the interest in VEGF-based gene therapy, its effects are not completely understood. By using transfection of VEGF121 into primary rat cardiomyocytes culture subjected to hypoxia, Zhang et al.<sup><xref rid="B6" ref-type="bibr">6</xref></sup> showed that VEGF121 positively affects cardiomyocyte proliferation. Ischemic conditioning is a process whereby repeated application of short periods of ischemia alternating with reperfusion protects the myocardium from longer ischemic insults.<sup><xref rid="B7" ref-type="bibr">7</xref></sup> Despite extensive investigation, no drugs are available to prevent or attenuate ischemia/reperfusion injury. The &#945;2-adrenergic receptor agonist dexmedetomidine, mainly used in analgesia and sedation, attenuated ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats by improving cardiac function and reducing infarcted area.<sup><xref rid="B8" ref-type="bibr">8</xref></sup> The improvement was associated with decreased myocyte apoptosis and inhibited expression of proteins of the apoptotic pathway PERK/eIF2&#945;/TCF-4/CHOP. A reduction in GRP78 protein, a marker of endoplasmic reticulum stress, was also observed.</p>
      <p>Physical exercise is the most important non-pharmacological tool to prevent and treat CVD. Basic and translational research has focused on the mechanisms involved in the benefits of exercise.<sup><xref rid="B9" ref-type="bibr">9</xref>-<xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup> Several studies have shown that exercise improves cardiac remodeling induced by extensive myocardial infarction.<sup><xref rid="B12" ref-type="bibr">12</xref></sup> Souza et al.<sup><xref rid="B10" ref-type="bibr">10</xref></sup>observed that, also in a condition of slight cardiac aggression, such as in small size infarction, aerobic exercise on a treadmill for 12 weeks improves functional capacity and preserves left ventricular geometry. Likewise, physical exercise had positive effects in rats with renovascular hypertension.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup> Resistance exercise for 12 weeks increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes and reduced cardiac and renal oxidative damage, characterized by decreased hydrogen peroxide concentration and preserved sulfhydryl groups levels.<sup><xref rid="B11" ref-type="bibr">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The role of natural compounds on the pathophysiology of CVD has attracted the interest of scientists due to its large availability, and low cost and toxicity. L-carnitine is essential to displace fatty acids to mitochondrial oxidation sites. L-carnitine supplementation was shown to reduce the expression of genes involved in inflammation, both in the heart and adipose tissue in diabetic mice.<sup><xref rid="B13" ref-type="bibr">13</xref></sup> Innovative results were observed with a crude extract of the plant <italic>Sauromatum guttatum</italic> in Sprague-Dawley rats with arterial hypertension induced by excessive salt intake. The administration of the crude extract reduced blood pressure and preserved endothelial function; in aorta isolated from normotensive rats, the extract promoted vascular relaxation.<sup><xref rid="B14" ref-type="bibr">14</xref></sup> Copaiba oil intake by rats with pulmonary arterial hypertension was accompanied by a systemic antioxidant effect, reduced vascular resistance, and improved right ventricular function.<sup><xref rid="B15" ref-type="bibr">15</xref></sup> Although the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of orange juice have been known for a long time, there was no study on its effect on infarction-induced cardiac remodeling. Oliveira et al.<sup><xref rid="B16" ref-type="bibr">16</xref></sup> observed that dietary supplementation with orange juice increases the expression of heme-oxygenase-1, a crucial enzyme in cellular homeostasis with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects.</p>
      <p>Vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased risk of developing CVD, chronic immune disease, and cancer. However, its supplementation for prevention and control of chronic diseases and CVD has not shown benefits.<sup><xref rid="B17" ref-type="bibr">17</xref>,<xref rid="B18" ref-type="bibr">18</xref></sup> Santos et al.<sup><xref rid="B19" ref-type="bibr">19</xref></sup> observed that administration of non-hypercalcemic doses of vitamin D to normal rats was followed by metabolic changes and increased cardiac oxidative stress.</p>
      <p>Doxorubicin is a potent antitumor agent of the anthracycline family, widely used in anticancer therapy. However, its use can result in cardiotoxic effects such as modulation of heme proteins and DNA damage, and cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref rid="B20" ref-type="bibr">20</xref>,<xref rid="B21" ref-type="bibr">21</xref></sup> Currently, there is great interest in agents that can reduce the doxorubicin toxicity. Brito et al.<sup><xref rid="B22" ref-type="bibr">22</xref></sup> evaluated the effects of resveratrol, a polyphenolic component, on cardiomyocytes from newborn rats treated with doxorubicin. Myocytes from neonates whose mothers had been supplemented during pregnancy with resveratrol had increased viability, antioxidant activity, and protection against gene damage after the addition of doxorubicin.</p>
      <p>Basic experimental research allows great advances in the understanding of molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in cardiac performance in physiological and pathological conditions. However, there is still a long way before promising pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments can be tested in clinical studies and finally incorporated into the therapeutic arsenal currently available for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.</p>
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