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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">yMTqSCkTxhnkK3nZ43wCWKK</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="previous-pid" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021005018204</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021001401191</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200855</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200855</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Rela&#231;&#245;es entre a Redu&#231;&#227;o de Estrog&#234;nio, Obesidade e Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca com Fra&#231;&#227;o de Eje&#231;&#227;o Preservada</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3072-6270</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alencar</surname>
            <given-names>Allan Kardec Nogueira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1537-661X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Wang</surname>
            <given-names>Hao</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sun</surname>
            <given-names>Xuming</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9066-5027</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Zapata-Sudo</surname>
            <given-names>Gisele</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Groban</surname>
            <given-names>Leanne</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina de Petr&#243;polis</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Petr&#243;polis</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Petr&#243;polis, Petr&#243;polis, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Wake Forest School of Medicine</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departments of Anesthesiology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Winston-Salem</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">North Carolina</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">Estados Unidos da Am&#233;rica</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Wake Forest School of Medicine - Departments of Anesthesiology, Winston-Salem, North Carolina - Estados Unidos da Am&#233;rica</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica, Faculdade de Medicina, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Ci&#234;ncias Biom&#233;dicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - Instituto de Ci&#234;ncias Biom&#233;dicas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto de Cardiologia Edson Saad</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - Instituto de Cardiologia Edson Saad, Faculdade de Medicina, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Wake Forest School of Medicine</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Winston-Salem</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">North Carolina</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="US">Estados Unidos da Am&#233;rica</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Wake Forest School of Medicine - Internal Medicine-Section of Molecular Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina - Estados Unidos da Am&#233;rica</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Allan Kardec Nogueira de Alencar &#8226; Faculdade de Medicina de Petr&#243;polis, <italic>School Clinic</italic> , Av. Bar&#227;o do Rio Branco, Centro. CEP 25680-120, Petr&#243;polis, RJ, Brasil. E-mail: <email>allankdc@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Alencar AKN, Wang H, Sun X, Groban L; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Alencar AKN, Wang H, Oliveira GMM, Sun X, Groban L; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados, Alencar AKN, Wang H, Oliveira GMM, Sun X, Zapata-Sudo G, Groban L; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Alencar AKN, Zapata-Sudo G, Groban L; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Alencar AKN, Oliveira GMM, Groban L.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>08</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>117</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>1191</fpage>
      <lpage>1201</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>31</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2021</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia de obesidade e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada (ICFEP) aumenta significativamente em mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa. Embora a obesidade seja um fator de risco para disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DDFVE), o mecanismo que liga a interrup&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de horm&#244;nios ovarianos, especialmente o estrog&#234;nio, ao desenvolvimento da obesidade, DDFVE, e ICFEP em mulheres em processo de envelhecimento n&#227;o &#233; claro. Estudos cl&#237;nicos e epidemiol&#243;gicos demonstram que mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa com obesidade abdominal (definida pela circunfer&#234;ncia de cintura) t&#234;m risco maior de desenvolver a ICFEP do que homens ou mulheres sem obesidade abdominal. Este estudo analisa dados cl&#237;nicos que corroboram a exist&#234;ncia de uma liga&#231;&#227;o de mecanismo entre a perda de estrog&#234;nio mais obesidade e o remodelamento ventricular esquerdo com ICFEP. Ele tamb&#233;m discute os poss&#237;veis mecanismos celulares e moleculares para a prote&#231;&#227;o mediada por estrog&#234;nio contra tipos de c&#233;lulas, dep&#243;sitos de tecidos, fun&#231;&#227;o e metabolismo de adip&#243;citos negativos que podem contribuir para a DDFVE e a ICFEP.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Estrog&#234;nio</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Volume Sist&#243;lico, Menopausa</kwd>
        <kwd>Adiposidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Sobrepeso</kwd>
        <kwd>Ecocardiografia/m&#233;todos</kwd>
        <kwd>&#205;ndice de Massa Corporal</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>National Institute of Health to Leanne Groban</funding-source>
          <award-id>AG033727</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>National Institute of Health to Leanne Groban</funding-source>
          <award-id>AG061588</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo foi financiado por National Institute on Aging of the National Institute of Health to Leanne Groban (AG033727; AG061588) e parcialmente financiado pelo Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient&#237;fico e Tecnol&#243;gico (CNPq), Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior (CAPES), and Funda&#231;&#227;o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) to Gisele Zapata-Sudo and Allan Kardec Nogueira de Alencar.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="147"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia da obesidade est&#225; aumentando constantemente em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Como a obesidade est&#225; associada &#224; mortalidade alta e ao desenvolvimento de comorbidades, incluindo diabetes mellitus e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV), ela &#233; um dos problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica mais dif&#237;ceis enfrentados por nossa sociedade. Esse grupo de comorbidades relacionadas &#224; obesidade, direta ou indiretamente (por exemplo, efeito colateral de quimioterapia com antraciclinas)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> frequentemente culmina em insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Apesar de a obesidade, definida como um &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) &gt;30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, &#233; um preditor independente de IC incidente na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que o pr&#243;prio sobrepeso (IMC 25-29 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) representa um aumento no risco de IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>V&#225;rios estudos mostram que medidas de adiposidade, tais como circunfer&#234;ncia de cintura (CC), s&#227;o melhores que medidas de adiposidade global, tais como peso e IMC, para se estimar o risco de DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> A CC &#233; independentemente associada &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DDFVE), definida por par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Tanto a DDFVE quanto a obesidade s&#227;o fatores comuns que contribuem para o aparecimento de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fen&#243;tipo de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada (ICFEP), e parecem ter uma liga&#231;&#227;o causal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Em um breve resumo, pacientes com IC pode ter fen&#243;tipos diferentes, de acordo com as caracter&#237;sticas morfofuncionais da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Em resumo, os pacientes de IC s&#227;o classificados de acordo com a fun&#231;&#227;o VE; aqueles com fra&#231;&#245;es de eje&#231;&#227;o VE menor ou igual a 40% se encaixam na categoria de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (ICFER), enquanto os pacientes com fra&#231;&#245;es de eje&#231;&#227;o maiores ou iguais a 50% s&#227;o considerados portadores de ICFEP. De acordo com diretrizes do <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic> (Col&#233;gio Americano de Cardiologia) e da <italic>American Heart Association</italic> (Associa&#231;&#227;o Americana do Cora&#231;&#227;o)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m existe um grupo de pacientes intermedi&#225;rios ou lim&#237;trofes, que t&#234;m fra&#231;&#245;es de eje&#231;&#227;o entre 41 e 49%, &#224;s vezes chamados de ICFEI. Al&#233;m disso, um subconjunto de pacientes com fra&#231;&#245;es de eje&#231;&#227;o acima de 40%, com ICFEP que tiverem ICFER anteriormente &#233; considerado clinicamente diferente daqueles com fra&#231;&#245;es de eje&#231;&#227;o persistentemente preservadas ou reduzidas. Esta an&#225;lise concentrou-se apenas na ICFEP, e, especificamente, as caracter&#237;sticas do fen&#243;tipo do portador de ICFEP &#8220;obeso, do sexo feminino e fadigado&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Uma revis&#227;o da literatura de todos os fen&#243;tipos cl&#237;nicos de ICFEP de refer&#234;ncia para o leitor &#233; a realizada por Silverman.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Independentemente do fen&#243;tipo biol&#243;gico, a ICFEP &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica heterog&#234;nea, que inclui mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos de cardiomi&#243;citos, de matriz extracelular, vasculares e relacionados a comorbidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Ela &#233; caracterizadas pela redu&#231;&#227;o do volume diast&#243;lico final, hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, e aumento do volume atrial esquerdo e da press&#227;o de enchimento do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Essas anormalidades fisiopatol&#243;gicas est&#227;o associadas ao aumento da rigidez do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o do relaxamento do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, &#224; hipertrofia de cardiomi&#243;citos, &#224; fibrose mioc&#225;rdica intersticial, e &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de capilares intramioc&#225;rdicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outro fator importante envolvido no fen&#243;tipo de ICFEP &#233; o sexo. A ICFEP afeta desproporcionalmente mais mulheres (raz&#227;o de sexos de aproximadamente 2:1) que homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> A preval&#234;ncia mais alta de ICFEP em mulheres idosas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> parece estar relacionada &#224; perda de horm&#244;nios ovarianos, principalmente estrog&#234;nios, que ocorre ap&#243;s a menopausa.</p>
      <p>Portanto, esta revis&#227;o explora dados pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos e cl&#237;nicos sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o entre sexo, &#8220;gordura&#8221;, incluindo mecanismos de disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca causada por obesidade, especificamente a DDFVE e a ICFEP, e os efeitos cardioprotetores do estrog&#234;nio no metabolismo de gordura nas mulheres.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o entre &#8220;gordura&#8221;, sexo e ICFEP: evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas</title>
        <p>A IC &#233; um problema grave cujo escopo tem aumentado. Apesar dos avan&#231;os terap&#234;uticos recentes, a morbidade e a mortalidade ap&#243;s o aparecimento da IC ainda continuam significativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Consequentemente, a preven&#231;&#227;o da IC pela identifica&#231;&#227;o das fases pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicas da doen&#231;a e gest&#227;o dos fatores de risco &#233; uma prioridade. Considerando-se que 50 por cento de todos os pacientes com IC t&#234;m ICFEP,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> a fisiopatologia complexa dessa doen&#231;a ainda n&#227;o &#233; completamente entendida, sem terapia espec&#237;fica dispon&#237;vel para melhorar os resultados para o paciente. Nesse contexto, v&#225;rios estudos avaliaram a obesidade como um fator de risco para remodelamento do VE e ICFEP subsequente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Nesses estudos, a obesidade foi consistentemente associada &#224; rigidez do VE e &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, especialmente em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um estudo comunit&#225;rio cl&#237;nico de 377 participantes, acima de 16 anos de idade, selecionados aleatoriamente avaliou a contribui&#231;&#227;o independente dos &#237;ndices de adiposidade para as varia&#231;&#245;es na velocidade transmitral (atrial) de inicial a final (E/A), conforme determinada pelo ecocardiograma. O principal objetivo foi esclarecer por que alguns estudo n&#227;o conseguiram estabelecer uma contribui&#231;&#227;o da obesidade para a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE, enquanto outros demonstraram uma contribui&#231;&#227;o relativamente pequena. Para cada participante do estudo, foi determinada a rela&#231;&#227;o independente entre adiposidade e fun&#231;&#245;es das c&#226;maras diast&#243;lica (E/A) ou sist&#243;lica (fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE, FEVE), utilizando-se an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear multivariada, com padroniza&#231;&#227;o para idade, g&#234;nero, aferi&#231;&#245;es convencionais de press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica ou sist&#243;lica, e ou o &#237;ndice de massa do VE ou a espessura relativa da parede (calculada por ecocardiograma). A adiposidade central (CC) excessiva, mas o IMC n&#227;o elevado, foi independentemente e inversamente correlacionada &#224; E/A; os pesquisadores enfatizaram que a CC pode representar uma condi&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica progressiva que contribui para a IC diast&#243;lica causada por obesidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A CC s&#243; foi superada pela idade e se igualou &#224; press&#227;o arterial em magnitude do efeito sobre a E/A. Achados deste estudo tamb&#233;m sugerem que, no n&#237;vel populacional, a massa e a geometria do VE tem pouca ou nenhuma influ&#234;ncia na patog&#234;nese das anormalidades diast&#243;licas do VE causadas por obesidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> &#201; interessante observar que n&#227;o h&#225; rela&#231;&#227;o entre CC e FEVE (disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica), confirmando os achados de outros pesquisadores que identificaram a CC como fator de risco para ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Por &#250;ltimo, &#233; relevante observar que os dados relatados por esses autores foram restritos a mulheres, j&#225; que foi recrutada uma propor&#231;&#227;o limitada de participantes do sexo masculino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Dados adicionais do estudo cl&#237;nico realizado por Canepa et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> em que a amostra, para ambos os sexos, &#233; parte do <italic>Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging</italic> (BLSA - Estudo Longitudinal de Envelhecimento de Baltimore) prop&#245;em que uma poss&#237;vel explica&#231;&#227;o fisiopatol&#243;gica para a associa&#231;&#227;o entre adiposidade e resultados cardiovasculares piores &#233; sua rela&#231;&#227;o com a DDFVE. Eles identificaram que a adiposidade central estava fortemente associada &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE, particularmente com defici&#234;ncia do relaxamento do VE. Os pesquisadores tamb&#233;m identificaram que o efeito da adiposidade central sobre a DDFVE foi independente da adiposidade geral e, surpreendentemente, isso era mais pronunciado em homens que em mulheres. O efeito espec&#237;fico do g&#234;nero do ac&#250;mulo central de gordura na DDFVE foi classificado de acordo com par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos. O estudo confirmou que os relat&#243;rios anteriores demonstrando correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre os &#237;ndices de adiposidade e a rela&#231;&#227;o E/A; entretanto, os autores tamb&#233;m identificaram que a E/A sozinha n&#227;o era suficiente para diferenciar entre sujeitos com fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica normal ou anormal, e as velocidades de fluxo mitral tamb&#233;m foram significativamente afetados pelo aumento de pr&#233;-carga, uma condi&#231;&#227;o frequentemente encontrada em sujeitos obesos. Quando esses tecidos foram padronizados pela combina&#231;&#227;o de medidas histol&#243;gicas por Doppler da velocidade do anel mitral, ou par&#226;metros e&#8217; ou din&#226;micos (E/A), identificou-se que a rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; estava correlacionada positivamente &#224; CC. Portanto, esse estudo epidemiol&#243;gico ofereceu mais evid&#234;ncias da liga&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade central (CC) e a preval&#234;ncia e o desenvolvimento de DDFVE, e de que essa liga&#231;&#227;o &#233; influenciada pelo sexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Uma limita&#231;&#227;o de estudos transversais &#233; que eles apresentam um instant&#226;neo de um momento &#250;nico no tempo e, portanto, n&#227;o conseguem capturar mudan&#231;as que ocorrem ao longo do tempo. As rela&#231;&#245;es complexas entre envelhecimento, sexo, adiposidade, e mecanismos ventriculares foram avaliadas em um grande estudo longitudinal realizado em um per&#237;odo de 4 anos, em 1.402 sujeitos, com 45 anos de idade ou mais, que foram selecionados aleatoriamente de uma popula&#231;&#227;o de uma comunidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Identificou-se que o ganho de peso durante o per&#237;odo de 4 anos estava associado a aumentos significativos da rigidez diast&#243;lica do VE, em homens e mulheres, por&#233;m era mais pronunciado em mulheres, indicando que h&#225; uma diferen&#231;a entre os sexos em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; biologia da rigidez ventricular relacionada &#224; idade. Al&#233;m disso, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da obesidade central em mulheres pode ajudar a identificar um grupo em risco mais alto da incid&#234;ncia de ICFEP, que pode se beneficiar de tratamento preventivo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Finalmente, os resultados deste estudo longitudinal confirmaram os achados das investiga&#231;&#245;es transversais relacionadas &#224; rela&#231;&#227;o positiva entre CC e medidas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica (por exemplo, rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217;).</p>
        <p>&#201; importante considerar como as altera&#231;&#245;es do dep&#243;sito de tecido adiposo podem influenciar a liga&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade e defici&#234;ncias da fun&#231;&#227;o e remodelamento card&#237;aca, especialmente entre mulheres. Apesar de se acreditar que os horm&#244;nios sexuais femininos causam o ac&#250;mulo de gordura nas n&#225;degas, coxas e quadris de mulheres, o que pode ser essencial para fins de reprodu&#231;&#227;o normal, as mudan&#231;as na distribui&#231;&#227;o da gordura corporal relacionadas &#224; menopausa pode explicar parcialmente o aumento do risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e metab&#243;licas durante os anos p&#243;s-menopausa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Em 2011, Wehr et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> publicaram os resultados de um estudo longitudinal das diferen&#231;as espec&#237;ficas associadas ao sexo na rela&#231;&#227;o entre o produto de acumula&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica, que &#233; calculado a partir da CC, e a mortalidade cardiovascular, bem como a presen&#231;a de diabetes tipo 2. O estudo incluiu 2.279 homens e 875 mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa, com um acompanhamento m&#233;dio aos 77 anos. Os n&#237;veis de produto de acumula&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica foram associados &#224; mortalidade por IC congestiva em todas as mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa, e com a mortalidade global em mulheres diab&#233;ticas na p&#243;s-menopausa, mas n&#227;o em homens. Esses dados n&#227;o s&#243; corroboram o conceito de que a redistribui&#231;&#227;o da gordura ap&#243;s a perda de estrog&#234;nio pode contribuir para o avan&#231;o de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, mas tamb&#233;m identifica um biomarcador de risco simples e acess&#237;vel, o produto de acumula&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica, que poderia identificar mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa com risco cardiovascular mais alto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Modalidades de tratamento para perda de peso: uma abordagem baseada em evid&#234;ncias para medir resultados em pacientes com ICFEP</title>
        <p>Considerando a evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica de interfer&#234;ncia entre cora&#231;&#227;o e &#8220;gordura&#8221;, em rela&#231;&#227;o a ICFEP espec&#237;fica do sexo feminino, a redu&#231;&#227;o do peso, ou a manuten&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal ideal &#233; uma abordagem preventiva para mitigar altera&#231;&#245;es na estrutura e na fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular relacionadas &#224; idade e &#224; perda de estrog&#234;nio. Tratamentos essenciais para redu&#231;&#227;o de peso incluem altera&#231;&#245;es nos h&#225;bitos alimentares passando para dietas com redu&#231;&#227;o de caloria e gordura, aumento da atividade f&#237;sica ou exerc&#237;cio, e outras estrat&#233;gias de modifica&#231;&#227;o comportamental, tais como o automonitoramento (por exemplo, registro di&#225;rio do consumo alimentar e da atividade f&#237;sica), e solu&#231;&#227;o de problemas (por exemplo, identifica&#231;&#227;o de barreiras e maneiras de super&#225;-las). Al&#233;m disso, a cirurgia bari&#225;trica &#233; outra estrat&#233;gia eficiente para tratar pacientes gravemente obesos. Portanto, &#233; importante fazer a revis&#227;o da literatura que aborda os efeitos de v&#225;rias estrat&#233;gias de perda de peso sobre os efeitos cardiovasculares em pacientes com DDFVE e ICFEP.</p>
        <p>Estudos observacionais sugerem que pacientes com ICFEP que t&#234;m sobrepeso ou com obesidade de leve a moderada t&#234;m uma sobrevida mais longa do que os que t&#234;m peso normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Entretanto, Kitzman et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> relataram recentemente que 20 semanas de restri&#231;&#227;o cal&#243;rica combinada com exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos entre pacientes obesos mais velhos com ICFEP reduziram seu peso corporal e resultaram em melhorias na capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, definida pelo VO2pico. Al&#233;m disso, a restri&#231;&#227;o cal&#243;rica sozinha levou &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da massa do VE e da espessura relativa da parede do VE, bem como deu um ind&#237;cio de melhorias na fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, conforme o aumento de E/A observado nesse bra&#231;o do tratamento, sem afetar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em repouso, ilustrado pela fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ou pelo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco derivado de Doppler.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Relatou-se posteriormente que n&#227;o foram observadas altera&#231;&#245;es em medidas de imagens por resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica (IRM) da gordura epic&#225;rdica ou peric&#225;rdica durante o tratamento, mas houve redu&#231;&#245;es significativas nos dep&#243;sitos de gordura subcut&#226;nea das coxas e abdominal e gordura visceral, apenas no grupo que fez a dieta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Apesar de esses achados identificarem serem favor&#225;veis &#224; ado&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias de redu&#231;&#227;o de peso, juntamente com exerc&#237;cios, para melhorar os preju&#237;zos &#224; capacidade de exerc&#237;cio e o consumo m&#225;ximo de oxig&#234;nio associado &#224; ICFEP entre pacientes obesos, eles tamb&#233;m corroboram o conceito de que mecanismos extracard&#237;acos est&#227;o envolvidos de maneira exclusiva na patog&#234;nese da ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outra estrat&#233;gia de redu&#231;&#227;o de peso que leva &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o da liga&#231;&#227;o entre &#8220;gordura&#8221;, DDFVE e ICFEP &#233; a cirurgia bari&#225;trica. Na realidade, pacientes com obesidade m&#243;rbida normalmente apresentam caracter&#237;sticas hemodin&#226;micas e morfom&#233;tricas card&#237;acas, tais como, eleva&#231;&#227;o da pr&#233;-carga e da p&#243;s-carga card&#237;aca e aumento da c&#226;mara do VE e dimens&#245;es da parede do VE, que contribuem para a rigidez mioc&#225;rdica e defici&#234;ncias no relaxamento mioc&#225;rdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> V&#225;rios estudos cl&#237;nicos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> e uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com meta-an&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> relataram os benef&#237;cios da cirurgia bari&#225;trica com perda de peso subsequente nas medidas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas e de IRM da estrutura do VE, incluindo redu&#231;&#245;es significativas da espessura da parede e da massa do VE, e da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. Junto com as melhorias da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, outros estudos identificaram que a grande perda de peso ap&#243;s a cirurgia bari&#225;trica tamb&#233;m resultou em mudan&#231;as favor&#225;veis do metabolismo muscular<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> e das caracter&#237;sticas da elasticidade arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Liga&#231;&#227;o entre adiposidade regional espec&#237;fica card&#237;aca, DDFVE e ICFEP</title>
        <p>Al&#233;m da gordura perif&#233;rica e da gordura total que est&#227;o ligadas &#224; DDFVE, o poss&#237;vel papel da adiposidade espec&#237;fica da regi&#227;o card&#237;aca (por exemplo, dep&#243;sitos de gordura peric&#225;rdica e epic&#225;rdica) n&#227;o deve ser ignorado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> As gorduras peric&#225;rdica e epic&#225;rdica, geralmente encontrada em pacientes obesos e com sobrepeso, s&#227;o consideradas dep&#243;sitos adiposos ect&#243;picos que levam a um estado lipot&#243;xico em proximidade ao m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco e &#224;s art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, sabe-se que a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, uma doen&#231;a comum entre paciente obesos e com sobrepeso,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> est&#225; associada ao aumento do volume de tecido adiposo pr&#243;ximo ao cora&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> especialmente o ac&#250;mulo de gordura epic&#225;rdica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> e isso est&#225; significativamente ligado a eventos cardiovasculares adversos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> incluindo a ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> A correla&#231;&#227;o direta entre esses dep&#243;sitos locais de gordura e a DDFVE pode ser explicada, em parte, por processos par&#225;crinos, pelos quais as citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e outros mediadores prejudiciais (por exemplo, TNF-&#945; e IL-6),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> chamados coletivamente de adipocinas, s&#227;o liberados dos reposit&#243;rios adiposos locais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A distin&#231;&#227;o entre os dois dep&#243;sitos de gordura e sua respectiva liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; DDFVE pode ser importante anat&#244;mica e bioquimicamente. Por exemplo, a gordura epic&#225;rdica est&#225; localizada entre a parede externa do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco e a camada visceral do peric&#225;rdio,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> e sua proximidade ao mioc&#225;rdio &#233; significativa, pois ambas as camadas de tecido compartilham da mesma microcircula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es podem ser elicitadas quando adip&#243;citos disfuncionais de dep&#243;sitos de gordura card&#237;aca liberam adipocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias para a microcircula&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> que, por sua vez, interagem com cardiomi&#243;citos e fibroblastos card&#237;acos. Essas c&#233;lulas respondem independentemente &#224;s adipocinas que contribuem para o processo patol&#243;gico da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> levando portanto &#224; remodelamento mioc&#225;rdica, por processos fibr&#243;ticos e inflama&#231;&#227;o de baixo grau, que podem intensificar a hipertrofia do VE, rigidez da parede, e avan&#231;o da DDFVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> A gordura peric&#225;rdica, que pode ser chamada mais especificamente de gordura parac&#225;rdica ou gordura intrator&#225;cica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> &#233; a gordura depositada fora do peric&#225;rdio parietal. Esse dep&#243;sito de gordura de origina do mes&#234;nquima tor&#225;cico primitivo e &#233; alimentado por fontes n&#227;o coron&#225;rias. Embora j&#225; se tenha relatado que os aumentos no volume de gordura parac&#225;rdica na ICFEP levem &#224; uma carga mec&#226;nica do tipo compressiva no mioc&#225;rdio, o que afeta o enchimento do VE,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m se observaram processos par&#225;crinos tamb&#233;m foram observados. A adiposidade peric&#225;rdica excessiva cont&#233;m altos n&#237;veis de mediadores pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios que, quando liberados dos adip&#243;citos, promovem uma rota&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno, levando &#224; rigidez mioc&#225;rdica, lusitropismo prejudicado e subsequente DDFVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> Realmente, Konishi et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> relataram que um volume alto de gordura peric&#225;rdica estava relativamente correlacionado a aumentos derivados de Doppler na press&#227;o de enchimento, ou E/e&#8217;, em pacientes com ICFEP. Al&#233;m disso, estudos documentaram um forte potencial de a adiposidade epic&#225;rdica estar associada com o mau progn&#243;stico em pacientes com DDFVE e ICFEP obesos e com sobrepeso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Considerando a liga&#231;&#227;o entre dep&#243;sitos de gordura card&#237;aca local e a sa&#250;de cardiovascular adversa, as estrat&#233;gias de redu&#231;&#227;o de peso devem ser fortemente consideradas no arsenal terap&#234;utico para a gest&#227;o de pacientes com DDFVE obesos. &#201; interessante observar que em mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa com ICFEP, Brinkley et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> demonstraram que a restri&#231;&#227;o cal&#243;rica, os exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos ou uma combina&#231;&#227;o de tratamentos reduziram significativamente o peso corporal e a gordura peric&#225;rdica, e que as mudan&#231;as na gordura peric&#225;rdica estavam inversamente correlacionadas ao condicionamento cardiorrespirat&#243;rio definido por VO<sub>2</sub>max. Com certeza, terapias futuras que t&#234;m como alvo processos inflamat&#243;rios de baixo grau resultantes de dep&#243;sitos de gordura epic&#225;rdica e peric&#225;rdica tamb&#233;m poderiam limitar o avan&#231;o da DDFVE.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Liga&#231;&#227;o entre estrog&#234;nio - risco cardiovascular induzido por gordura</title>
        <p>A alta preval&#234;ncia da ICFEP entre mulheres mais velhas em compara&#231;&#227;o a homens mais velhos com IC &#233; bem aceita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> O papel que as diferen&#231;as na distribui&#231;&#227;o de adip&#243;citos entre homens e mulheres pode ter em rela&#231;&#227;o a esses diferenciais espec&#237;ficos do sexo na preval&#234;ncia da IC &#233; novo e ainda em avalia&#231;&#227;o. Realmente, as mulheres t&#234;m mais gordura corporal que os homens, mas, diferentemente das consequ&#234;ncias metab&#243;licas adversas da obesidade central que &#233; t&#237;pica de homens, a distribui&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea da gordura corporal gluteofemoral ou em formato de pera de muitas mulheres est&#225; associada a um risco cardiometab&#243;lico mais baixo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> Entretanto, com o avan&#231;o da idade, h&#225; uma mudan&#231;a geral e expans&#227;o da gordura, do compartimento subcut&#226;neo para o visceral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> Em homens idosos, isso significa o aumento da adiposidade visceral abdominal, enquanto em mulheres idosas isso envolve uma redistribui&#231;&#227;o de gordura do compartimento subcut&#226;neo gluteofemoral para o compartimento visceral-abdominal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> Em ambos os casos, o risco de doen&#231;a cardiovascular aumenta com a expans&#227;o de gordura visceral do compartimento abdominal relacionado &#224; idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Como apontado na introdu&#231;&#227;o, a perda de horm&#244;nios gonadais em mulheres mais velhas parece representar um componente associado ao aumento do risco de desenvolvimento de ICFEP. Como as mulheres t&#234;m menor possibilidade de desenvolver DCV antes da menopausa,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> a produ&#231;&#227;o de estrog&#234;nio ovariano parece proteger contra a IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> De forma consistente, h&#225; v&#225;rios relat&#243;rios que confirma os efeitos ben&#233;ficos do estrog&#234;nio no sistema cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Para entender o papel espec&#237;fico dos horm&#244;nios gonadais na expans&#227;o da gordura visceral relacionada &#224; idade em mulheres, e, ao mesmo tempo, sua poss&#237;vel influ&#234;ncia na fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, &#233; necess&#225;rio realizar uma an&#225;lise breve dos horm&#244;nios gonadais, particularmente os estrog&#234;nios e seus receptores primeiramente. Os tr&#234;s estrog&#234;nios que ocorrem naturalmente em mulheres s&#227;o a estrona (E1), o estradiol (E2), e o estriol (E3). Uma quarta forma de estrog&#234;nio, o estetrol (E4), &#233; produzida apenas durante a gravidez. Todas essas formas diferentes de estrog&#234;nio s&#227;o sintetizadas a partir de andr&#243;genos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> Para simplificar, ser&#225; utilizado o termo estrog&#234;nio incluindo todas as formas.</p>
        <p>O estrog&#234;nio se liga a v&#225;rios receptores, incluindo os receptores de estrog&#234;nio nuclear cl&#225;ssicos (RE), RE&#945;, e RE&#946;, e um receptor acoplado &#224; prote&#237;na G, RAPG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup> Os RE sinalizam n&#227;o s&#243; por meio da regula&#231;&#227;o de transcri&#231;&#227;o g&#234;nica &#8220;cl&#225;ssica&#8221;, com tamb&#233;m pela ativa&#231;&#227;o de um caminho de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o &#8220;n&#227;o nuclear&#8221;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> O ac&#250;mulo de achados j&#225; foi bem descrito e analisado na literatura relacionada aos pap&#233;is desencadeados pelos RE na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase do sistema cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O estrog&#234;nio regula diretamente as distribui&#231;&#245;es de adiposidade por meio de receptores de estrog&#234;nio. No estado pr&#233;-menopausa, a gordura subcut&#226;nea tem relativamente mais receptores de estrog&#234;nio e progesterona que receptores de andr&#243;genos, enquanto a gordura visceral tem n&#237;veis mais altos de receptores de andr&#243;genos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> Com a menopausa, a queda do estrog&#234;nio faz com que os receptores de estrog&#234;nio na gordura subcut&#226;nea sejam inativados, enquanto os receptores de andr&#243;genos na gordura visceral se torna relativamente ativada, contribuindo, portanto para a rela&#231;&#227;o inversa entre n&#237;veis de estrog&#234;nio e gordura visceral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, em modelos de roedores com d&#233;ficit de estrog&#234;nio induzido por ovariectomia, o aumento do peso corporal se deve principalmente pelo aumento de gordura visceral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup> A prote&#231;&#227;o estrog&#234;nica pode ser vista na administra&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica de estrog&#234;nio em modelos ovariectomizados em que a distribui&#231;&#227;o de gordura corporal reflete &#224; das contrapartidas com g&#244;nadas intactas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os pap&#233;is espec&#237;ficos podem compensar os receptores de esteroides RE&#945; e RE&#946; no contexto da gordura um ao outro. Em um estudo recente de Zidon et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> identificou-se que ratos KO com&#945; RE de g&#244;nadas intactas s&#227;o 25% mais pesados, com redu&#231;&#227;o do gasto energ&#233;tico em compara&#231;&#227;o com o tipo selvagem com g&#244;nadas intactas e os ratos KO com ER&#946;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, ap&#243;s a ovariectomia, os ratos &#945;KO n&#227;o apresentaram aumento de peso corporal ou apresentaram resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina mais pronunciada, enquanto os do tipo selvagem e os &#946;KO apresentaram, sugerido que a perda de sinal por RE&#945; facilita a disfun&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica induzida por ovariectomia. Esses novos dados sugerem ainda que ap&#243;s a defici&#234;ncia de estrog&#234;nio, os RE&#946; podem mediar benef&#237;cios metab&#243;licos de prote&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> Isso contradiz relat&#243;rios pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos anteriores demonstrando que dois RE cl&#225;ssicos no tecido adiposo regulam a gordura reciprocamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup> Apesar dessa discrep&#226;ncia, a liga&#231;&#227;o entre os polimorfismos na estrutura dos RE cl&#225;ssicos e no aumento de risco em mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa corroboram o papel importante de isoformas de ER na regula&#231;&#227;o da adiposidade, na disfun&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica, e no risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Adipocinas derivadas da gordura e fun&#231;&#245;es no risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</title>
        <p>A principal fun&#231;&#227;o da gordura marrom, localizada principalmente ao redor do pesco&#231;o e grandes vasos sangu&#237;neos do t&#243;rax, &#233; gerar calor &#8220;desacoplando&#8221; a cadeia de fosforila&#231;&#227;o oxidativa dentro das mitoc&#244;ndrias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> A gordura visceral branca (gordura abdominal) est&#225; envolvida principalmente em uma rede multidirecional de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o aut&#243;crina, par&#225;crina e end&#243;crina que interconecta &#243;rg&#227;os e tecidos. &#201; a gordura branca que participa principalmente da patog&#234;nese de doen&#231;as metab&#243;licas, tais como o diabetes mellitus tipo 2, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, hipertens&#227;o, doen&#231;a card&#237;aca coron&#225;ria, acidente vascular cerebral, e IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> Atualmente, est&#225; bem estabelecido que o tecido adiposo &#233; um &#243;rg&#227;o end&#243;crino ativo que secreta fatores bioativos heterog&#234;neos chamados adipocinas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup> incluindo citocinas e quimiocinas, fatores vasoativos e de coagula&#231;&#227;o, reguladores do metabolismo lipoproteico, e prote&#237;nas como adiponectina e leptina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na obesidade, o aumento da massa de tecido adiposo tem sido associada a uma desregula&#231;&#227;o da secre&#231;&#227;o de adipocinas e &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o de tecido relacionada, o que representa uma liga&#231;&#227;o patog&#234;nica entre obesidade e o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiometab&#243;licas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup> Em indiv&#237;duos obesos, o tecido adiposo &#233; infiltrado por macr&#243;fagos ativados e v&#225;rios outros tipos de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias, levando ao aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de adipocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, tais como TNF-&#945;, IL-6, prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos (MCP-1), resistina, leptina, lipocalina-2, prote&#237;na transportadora de &#225;cidos graxos de adip&#243;citos (A-FABP), inibidor do ativador de plasminog&#234;nio tipo 1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> Esses fatores inflamat&#243;rios s&#227;o componentes-chave do &#8220;eixo adipo-cardiovascular&#8221;, que media as interfer&#234;ncias entre tecido adiposo e o sistema cardiovascular.</p>
        <p>Entre os v&#225;rios dep&#243;sitos adiposos, o tecido adiposo perivascular tem uma contribui&#231;&#227;o importante na inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular, devido &#224; sua proximidade &#224; parede do vaso sangu&#237;neo e suas propriedades pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias pronunciadas. Citocinas/adipocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias liberadas de outros dep&#243;sitos de tecido adiposo, tais como a gordura abdominal subcut&#226;nea, podem contribuir ainda mais para a inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular, por meio de suas a&#231;&#245;es end&#243;crinas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> Esses achados explicam, em parte, porque a CC pode ser considerada um biomarcador substituto do risco de DCV.</p>
        <p>A adiponectina &#233; uma das adipocinas mais abundante secretadas pelos adip&#243;citos, representando 0,01% do teor de prote&#237;na plasm&#225;tica em seres humanos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> A produ&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina a partir de adip&#243;citos brancos, que tem efeitos ben&#233;ficos na sensibilidade &#224; insulina e na fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, &#233; notadamente reduzida em indiv&#237;duos obesos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos demonstram que n&#237;veis de adiponectina circulante baixos, especialmente a forma com alto peso molecular, &#233; um fator de risco de diabetes tipo 2, hipertens&#227;o, aterosclerose e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Adiponectina e receptores de adiponectina</title>
          <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade e DDFVE pode estar relacionada &#224; adiponectina e aos receptores de adiponectina. A adiponectina &#233; composta de 247 res&#237;duos de amino&#225;cidos, organizados em uma regi&#227;o hipervari&#225;vel N-terminal seguidos de um dom&#237;nio colagenoso conservado de 22 repeti&#231;&#245;es de Gly-Xaa-Yaa e um dom&#237;nio globular <italic>C</italic> -terminal tipo C1q.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup> A adiponectina est&#225; presente no plasma humano e de ratos nas tr&#234;s principais formas oligom&#233;ricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup> A forma monom&#233;rica nunca foi detectada em condi&#231;&#245;es nativas. A unidade b&#225;sica de adiponectina oligom&#233;rica &#233; um homotr&#237;mero chamado adiponectina de baixo peso molecular (LMW).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup> Duas subunidades do tr&#237;mero de adiponectina est&#227;o conectadas por uma liga&#231;&#227;o dissulfeto via res&#237;duos de ciste&#237;na do dom&#237;nio do tipo col&#225;geno, que forma um hex&#226;mero chamado adiponectina de m&#233;dio peso molecular (MMW). O hex&#226;mero fornece a base para a forma&#231;&#227;o da adiponectina de alto peso molecular (HMW) em forma de buqu&#234;, composta de 12-18 hex&#226;meros.</p>
          <p>&#201; necess&#225;rio realizar modifica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-transla&#231;&#227;o na prote&#237;na adiponectina para a organiza&#231;&#227;o intracelular do complexo oligom&#233;rico de HMW nos adip&#243;citos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup> V&#225;rias formas de adiponectina agem em alvos diferentes e t&#234;m fun&#231;&#245;es biol&#243;gicas distintas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os dois principais receptores de adiponectina (AdipoRs), AdipoR1 e AdipoR2, s&#227;o estruturalmente e funcionalmente diferentes dos receptores acoplados &#224; prote&#237;na G cl&#225;ssicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup> O AdipoR1 &#233; expresso em todos os locais, enquanto o AdipoR2 &#233; expresso mais abundantemente no f&#237;gado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup> Tanto o AdipoR1 quanto o AdipoR2 s&#227;o expressos em c&#233;lulas card&#237;acas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> mas a fun&#231;&#227;o exata desses dois receptores no stress antioxidativo/nitrativo e nas a&#231;&#245;es anti-inflamat&#243;rias nos cardiomi&#243;citos ainda n&#227;o est&#225; clara.</p>
          <p>Embora os adip&#243;citos tenham a principal contribui&#231;&#227;o para a adiponectina plasm&#225;tica, a adiponectina tamb&#233;m &#233; expressa em cardiomi&#243;citos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> e a adiponectina derivada de cardiomi&#243;citos &#233; biologicamente ativa na prote&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas contra les&#245;es isqu&#234;micas via ativa&#231;&#227;o par&#225;crina/aut&#243;crina dos AdipoRs em ratos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref></sup> Em pacientes com cardiomiopatia dilatada, a express&#227;o da adiponectina card&#237;aca &#233; diminu&#237;da.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Adiponectina e DDFVE</title>
          <p>Al&#233;m dos AdipoRs, sugere-se tamb&#233;m que a T-caderina tamb&#233;m seja um receptor poss&#237;vel para a adiponectina<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup> e ele &#233; altamente expresso no cora&#231;&#227;o, no m&#250;sculo liso, e no endot&#233;lio, representando o principal alvo da adiponectina no sistema cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup> A T-caderina &#233; ancorada na superf&#237;cie da c&#233;lula pelo glicosilfosfatidilinositol e desempenha um papel essencial na prote&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida por adiponectina em ratos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup> agindo como um receptor de liga&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina fisiol&#243;gico que permite a associa&#231;&#227;o dessa adipocina ao tecido card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Como baixos n&#237;veis de adiponectina foram associados a complica&#231;&#245;es cardiometab&#243;licas relacionadas &#224; obesidade, sua fun&#231;&#227;o na manuten&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de card&#237;aca n&#227;o deve ser ignorada<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup> Dados pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos mostram que a adiponectina pode atenuar ou evitar o avan&#231;o da DDFVE para ICFEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> Em um modelo com ratos de ICFEP induzida por aldosterona, Sam et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> demonstraram que a falta de adiponectina estava associada ao aumento da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, remodelamento do VE, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, e congest&#227;o pulmonar. J&#225; a hiperadiponectinemia em ratos transg&#234;nicos com superexpress&#227;o de adiponectina, relatada Tanaka et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> amenizou a hipertrofia do VE induzida por aldosterona, a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, e a congest&#227;o pulmonar, independentemente das mudan&#231;as na press&#227;o arterial. A rela&#231;&#227;o de enchimento inicial e descida inicial do anel mitral, ou E/e&#8217;, que foi aumentada nos ratos com ICFEP induzida por aldosterona e indica press&#245;es de enchimento elevadas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> foi significativamente atenuada em ratos transg&#234;nicos por adiponectina. Tanaka et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m detectaram que a superexpress&#227;o de adiponectina diminuiu o stress oxidativo e o manejo de c&#225;lcio, preservando a fosforila&#231;&#227;o de fosfolambano dependente da prote&#237;na quinase A (PKA). Al&#233;m disso, a reposi&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina em ratos knockout atenuou os &#237;ndices de pseudonormaliza&#231;&#227;o transmitral de Doppler, que indicam conformidade com VE deficiente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> Considerados em conjunto, esses achados pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos sugerem que a adiponectina possa ter um potencial terap&#234;utico no controle da DDFVE e da ICFEP, por meio de a&#231;&#227;o direta no cora&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>A observa&#231;&#227;o deste estudo de que a adiponectina circulante n&#227;o estava associada ao encurtamento fracional do VE &#233; consistente com a literatura existente que sugere que a adiponectina age principalmente como um inibidor de hipertrofia card&#237;aca.</p>
          <p>Estudos cl&#237;nicos tamb&#233;m corroboram a hip&#243;tese de associa&#231;&#227;o entre adiponectina e fun&#231;&#227;o e estrutura card&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> Em um estudo coorte em uma comunidade, McMannus et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> demonstraram que n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos relativamente mais altos de adiponectina associados &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da massa do VE, sugerindo um efeito de prote&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Existem dados cl&#237;nicos adicionais que tratam das fun&#231;&#245;es de prote&#231;&#227;o card&#237;acas da adiponectina no cora&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup> Por exemplo, Francisco et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> realizou uma revis&#227;o abrangente da relev&#226;ncia da sinaliza&#231;&#227;o por adiponectina na preven&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica relacionada &#224; obesidade com &#234;nfase em sua fun&#231;&#227;o de limitar a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, a fibrose card&#237;aca, o stress oxidativo e nitrativo, a aterosclerose, e a inflama&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Como existem v&#225;rios estudos mostrando o papel modulador da adiponectina na manuten&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, vale mencionar que outros pesquisadores n&#227;o relataram nenhuma rela&#231;&#227;o com DDFVE associada &#224; gordura. Sawada et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> identificaram que, enquanto os n&#237;veis de adiponectina diminu&#237;ram significativamente com o aumento de adiposidade visceral na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre adiponectina e fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica n&#227;o se deu independentemente da gordura. Em outras palavras, a diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de adiponectina circulante n&#227;o parece ter tido um papel central na associa&#231;&#227;o entre adiposidade visceral e DDFVE. Como esse estudo foi realizado em uma popula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o portadora ou com grau 1 de DDFVE, os sujeitos com DDFVE mais moderada n&#227;o foram inclu&#237;dos. Esses autores sugeriram que um estudo de larga escala, incluindo pacientes com DDFVE moderada ou grave &#233; necess&#225;rio, para confirmar os achados.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Diferen&#231;as de sexo, adiponectina e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca</title>
      <p>N&#227;o est&#225; claro se h&#225; diferen&#231;as entre os sexos nos efeitos da adiponectina na fun&#231;&#227;o e na estrutura card&#237;aca. Fontes-Carvalho et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> relataram dados de um estudo populacional envolvendo indiv&#237;duos com 45 anos de idade ou mais sobre as associa&#231;&#245;es dos n&#237;veis de leptina e adiponectina e a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE. Esses pesquisadores encontraram diferen&#231;as significativas entre os sexos para os n&#237;veis de leptina e adiponectina, e suas rela&#231;&#245;es com a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. N&#237;veis relativamente mais altos de leptina, associados a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica piorada, foram relatados, especialmente entre mulheres, independentemente de idade ou hipertens&#227;o. &#201; interessante notar que a adiponectina foi correlacionada a par&#226;metros da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> Ainda assim, &#233; plaus&#237;vel postular um efeito espec&#237;fico do sexo para altera&#231;&#245;es de adiponectina na estrutura e na fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, j&#225; que as mulheres t&#234;m n&#237;veis de adiponectina sist&#234;mica significativamente mais altos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup> Em dois estudos pequenos envolvendo pacientes que passam por angiografia coron&#225;ria<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> ou com IC,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup> a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de adiponectina foi associada &#224; piora da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref> resume os principais mecanismos envolvidos na perda de estrog&#234;nio e na obesidade no desenvolvimento de DDFVE e ICFEP.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; <italic>Diagrama esquem&#225;tico mostrando o envolvimento de perda de estrog&#234;nio e obesidade na ICFEP. Uma expans&#227;o e mudan&#231;a de gordura subcut&#226;nea para visceral ocorre em mulheres ap&#243;s a menopausa. A obesidade abdominal, definida pelo aumento da circunfer&#234;ncia de cintura, &#233; um grande fator de risco de desenvolvimento de ICFEP, que pode envolver uma tend&#234;ncia de aumento na s&#237;ntese e na libera&#231;&#227;o de adipocinas, incluindo TNF-&#945;, IL-6, MCP-1, resistina, leptina, lipocalina-2, e inibidor do ativador de plasminog&#234;nio-1. Essas adipocinas t&#234;m fun&#231;&#245;es cr&#237;ticas em inflama&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, stress oxidativo, e disfun&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica. Por outro lado, a produ&#231;&#227;o de adiponectina de adip&#243;citos brancos, que tem efeitos ben&#233;ficos na sensibilidade &#224; insulina e fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, &#233; notadamente reduzida em indiv&#237;duos obesos. Anormalidades em adipocinas, al&#233;m da perda de estrog&#234;nio, podem participar do desenvolvimento de ICFEP, induzindo a inflama&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e o stress oxidativo, e levando &#224; hipertrofia card&#237;aca conc&#234;ntrica, Remodelamento, rigidez, e disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. ICFEP, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada; TNF-&#945;, fator de necrose tumoral alfa; IL-6, interleucina 6; MCP-1, prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos; A-FABP, prote&#237;na transportadora de &#225;cidos graxos de adip&#243;citos.</italic></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-06-1191-00855-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em resumo, o estrog&#234;nio desempenha um papel essencial na regula&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal e da gordura corporal, e esse papel tamb&#233;m pode ser a prote&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-menopausa da disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE. Em compara&#231;&#227;o com homens da mesma idade, as mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa apresentaram aumento da rigidez ventricular e arterial, e t&#234;m mais probabilidade de desenvolver DDFVE e ICFEP subsequentes. Os n&#237;veis mais baixos de estrog&#234;nio depois da menopausa est&#227;o envolvidos nas mudan&#231;as da distribui&#231;&#227;o e no teor de gordura corporal, um fator que aumenta a incid&#234;ncia de DCV. Esta an&#225;lise coletou as evid&#234;ncias recentes e esclareceu as rotas moleculares pelas quais o estrog&#234;nio desencadeia esses efeitos, e apresentou novas dire&#231;&#245;es para pesquisa futura nessa &#225;rea interessante do envelhecimento card&#237;aco espec&#237;fico dos sexos e da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, que &#233; um pren&#250;ncio de ICFEP.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</p>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>Fontes de financiamento: O presente estudo foi financiado por National Institute on Aging of the National Institute of Health to Leanne Groban (AG033727; AG061588) e parcialmente financiado pelo Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient&#237;fico e Tecnol&#243;gico (CNPq), Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior (CAPES), and Funda&#231;&#227;o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) to Gisele Zapata-Sudo and Allan Kardec Nogueira de Alencar.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Crossroads between Estrogen Loss, Obesity, and Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3072-6270</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alencar</surname>
            <given-names>Allan Kardec Nogueira de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1537-661X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Wang</surname>
            <given-names>Hao</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0737-6188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sun</surname>
            <given-names>Xuming</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9066-5027</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Zapata-Sudo</surname>
            <given-names>Gisele</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Groban</surname>
            <given-names>Leanne</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Petr&#243;polis, Petr&#243;polis, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="US">United States of America</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Wake Forest School of Medicine - Departments of Anesthesiology, Winston-Salem, North Carolina &#8211; United States of America</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica, Faculdade de Medicina, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - Instituto de Ci&#234;ncias Biom&#233;dicas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - Instituto de Cardiologia Edson Saad, Faculdade de Medicina, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="US">United States of America</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Wake Forest School of Medicine - Internal Medicine-Section of Molecular Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina - United States of America</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001">Mailing Address: Allan Kardec Nogueira de Alencar &#8226; Faculdade de Medicina de Petr&#243;polis, School Clinic, Av. Bar&#227;o do Rio Branco, Centro. Postal Code 25680-120, Petr&#243;polis, RJ, Brazil. E-mail: allankdc@gmail.com</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Alencar AKN, Wang H, Sun X, Groban L; Acquisition of dat and Writing of the manuscript: Alencar AKN, Wang H, Oliveira GMM, Sun X, Groban L; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Alencar AKN, Wang H, Oliveira GMM, Sun X, Zapata-Sudo G, Groban L; Obtaining financing: Alencar AKN, Zapata-Sudo G, Groban L; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Alencar AKN, Oliveira GMM, Groban L.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>The prevalence of obesity and heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) increases significantly in postmenopausal women. Although obesity is a risk factor for left ventricular diastolic dysfunction (LVDD), the mechanisms that link the cessation of ovarian hormone production, and particularly estrogens, to the development of obesity, LVDD, and HFpEF in aging females are unclear. Clinical, and epidemiologic studies show that postmenopausal women with abdominal obesity (defined by waist circumference) are at greater risk for developing HFpEF than men or women without abdominal obesity. The study presents a review of clinical data that support a mechanistic link between estrogen loss plus obesity and left ventricular remodeling with LVDD. It also seeks to discuss potential cell and molecular mechanisms for estrogen-mediated protection against adverse adipocyte cell types, tissue depots, function, and metabolism that may contribute to LVDD and HFpEF.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Estrogens</kwd>
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Stroke Volume</kwd>
        <kwd>Menopause</kwd>
        <kwd>Adiposity</kwd>
        <kwd>Overweight</kwd>
        <kwd>Echocardiography/methods</kwd>
        <kwd>Body Mass Index</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The prevalence of obesity is steadily increasing worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Because obesity is associated with high mortality and the development of comorbid conditions, including diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease (CVD), it is one of the most difficult public health issues facing our society. This cluster of obesity-related comorbidities, whether directly or indirectly (e.g., side effect from anthracycline-formulated chemotherapy)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> often culminates in heart failure (HF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>While obesity, defined as having a body mass index (BMI) &gt; 30 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> , is an independent predictor of incident HF in the general population, evidence shows that even being overweight (BMI 25-29 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> ) carries an increased risk of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Several studies show that measures of central adiposity, such as waist circumference (WC), are superior to measures of global adiposity, such as weight and BMI, in estimating the risk of CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> WC is independently associated with left ventricular diastolic dysfunction (LVDD), defined by echocardiographic parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Both LVDD and obesity are common factors that contribute to a heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) phenotype, and appear to be causally linked.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Indeed, HF patients can have different phenotypes according to the morpho-functional characteristics of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Briefly, HF patients are classified according to LV function; those with LV ejection fractions less than or equal to 40% fall into the category of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), and patients with LV ejection fractions equal to or greater than 50% are deemed to have HFpEF. According to the American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association guidelines,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> there is also an intermediate or borderline group of patients who have ejection fractions between 41% and 49%, sometimes referred to as HFmEF. Moreover, a subset of patients with ejection fractions greater than 40% with HFpEF who previously had HFrEF is considered to be clinically distinct from those with persistently preserved or reduced ejection fractions. For purposes of this review, we have focused only on HFpEF, and, specifically, features of the &#8220;fat, female, and fatigued&#8221; obese HFpEF phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>For a narrative of the literature of all the clinical phenotypes of HFpEF, we refer the reader to the review by Silverman.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Regardless of the biological phenotype, HFpEF is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome, including cardiomyocyte, extracellular matrix, vascular, and comorbidity-related pathophysiological mechanisms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> It is characterized by reduced end-diastolic volume, left ventricular hypertrophy, and increased left atrial volume and left ventricular filling pressure. These pathophysiological abnormalities are associated with increased left ventricular stiffness, decreased left ventricular relaxation, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, myocardial interstitial fibrosis, and reduced intramyocardial capillaries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Another important factor involved in the HFpEF phenotype is sex. HFpEF disproportionally affects more women (sex ratio of about 2:1) then men.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> The higher prevalence of HFpEF in elderly women<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> appears related to the loss of ovarian hormones, primarily estrogens, that occur after the menopause.</p>
        <p>Accordingly, in this review, we will explore pre-clinical and clinical data about the relationships between sex, &#8220;fatness&#8221;, including mechanisms of fat-induced cardiac impairment, specifically LVDD and HFpEF, and the cardioprotective effects of estrogen on fat metabolism in women.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Link between &#8220;fatness&#8221;, sex, and HFpEF: clinical evidence</title>
          <p>HF is a major problem that is increasing in scope. Despite recent therapeutic advances, morbidity and mortality after the onset of HF still remain substantial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Consequently, prevention of HF through the identification of the preclinical phases of the disease and the management of risk factors is a priority. Considering that 50 percent of all HF patients have HFpEF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> the complex pathophysiology of this disease is still not fully understood, with no specific therapy available to improve patient outcomes. In this context, several studies have evaluated obesity as a risk factor for LV remodeling and subsequent HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> In these studies, obesity has been consistently associated with LV stiffness and diastolic dysfunction, particularly in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A community-based clinical study of 377 randomly selected participants older than 16 years of age assessed the independent contribution of indices of adiposity to variations in early-to-late (atrial) transmitral velocity (E/A), as determined by echocardiography. The main goal was to clarify why some previous studies failed to establish a contribution of obesity to LV diastolic function, while others demonstrated a relatively minor contribution. For each study participant, the independent relationship between adiposity and diastolic (E/A) or systolic (LV ejection fraction; LVEF) chamber functions were determined using multivariate linear regression analysis with adjustments for age, gender, conventional systolic or diastolic blood pressure measurements, and either LV mass index or relative wall thickness (calculated from echocardiography). Excessive central adiposity (WC), but not elevated BMI, was independently and inversely correlated with E/A; the investigators emphasized that WC might represent a progressive preclinical condition that contributes to obesity-induced diastolic HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> WC was second only to age and equivalent to blood pressure in the magnitude of effect on E/A. Findings from this study also suggested that, at a population level, LV mass and geometry play little or no role in the pathogenesis of obesity-induced LV diastolic abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Interestingly, there was no relationship between WC and LVEF (systolic dysfunction), confirming the findings of other researchers that identified WC as a risk factor for HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Finally, it is relevant to comment that the data reported by these authors were restricted to women as they have recruited a limited proportion of male participants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Additional data from the clinical study performed by Canepa et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> in which the sample, from both genders, is part of the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA) propose that a possible pathophysiologic explanation for the association of central adiposity with worse cardiovascular outcomes is its relationship with LVDD. They found that central adiposity was strongly associated with LV dysfunction, particularly with impaired LV relaxation. The researchers also found that the effect of central adiposity on LVDD was independent of general adiposity and, surprisingly, this was more pronounced in women than in men. The gender-specific effect of central fat accumulation on LVDD was then graded using various echocardiographic parameters. The study confirmed their previous reports showing a negative correlation between the indices of adiposity and the E/A ratio; however, the authors also found that E/A alone was not enough to discriminate between subjects with normal or abnormal diastolic function and that mitral valve inflow velocities were also significantly influenced by the increase in preload, a condition frequently encountered in obese subjects. When these issues were normalized by combining tissue Doppler measures of mitral annular velocity, or e&#8217; and dynamic (E/A) parameters, it was found that the E/e&#8217; ratio was positively correlated with WC. Thus, this epidemiological study provided further evidence of the link between central obesity (WC) and the prevalence and development of LVDD, and that this link is influenced by sex.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>One limitation of cross-sectional studies is that they offer a snapshot of a single moment in time, and thus fail to capture changes that occur over time. The complex relationships between aging, sex, adiposity, and ventricular mechanisms were evaluated in a large longitudinal study conducted over a period of 4 years in 1,402 subjects, 45 years of age and older, who were randomly selected from a community-based population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> It was found that weight gain during a 4-year period was associated with significant increases in LV diastolic stiffness in both men and women, but that it was more pronounced in women, indicating a sex difference in the biology of age-related ventricular stiffening. Furthermore, evaluating central obesity in women may help to identify a group at higher risk for incident HFpEF who might benefit from preventive treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Finally, the results of this longitudinal study confirmed the findings of cross-sectional investigations regarding the positive relationship between WC and echocardiographic measures of diastolic dysfunction (e.g., E/e&#8217; ratio).</p>
          <p>How changes in fat tissue depot might influence the link between obesity and impairments in cardiac function and remodeling, particularly among women, are important to consider. While female sex hormones are believed to cause fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips of women, which may be essential for normal reproduction purposes, menopause-related changes in body fat distribution may partially explain the increased risk of cardiovascular and metabolic disease during the postmenopausal years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> In 2011, Wehr et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> published results from a longitudinal study of gender-specific differences in the relationship between the lipid accumulation product, which is calculated from WC, and cardiovascular mortality, as well as the presence of type 2 diabetes. The study included 2,279 men and 875 postmenopausal women, with a median follow-up of 77 years. Lipid accumulation product levels were independently associated with congestive HF mortality in all postmenopausal women and with all-cause mortality in diabetic postmenopausal women, but not in men. These data not only support the concept that fat redistribution after estrogen loss may contribute to cardiovascular disease progression, but also endorse an inexpensive and simple risk biomarker, namely, lipid accumulation product, which could identify postmenopausal women at higher cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment modalities for weight loss: an evidence-based approach to measure outcomes in patients with HFpEF</title>
          <p>Given clinical evidence for crosstalk between the heart and &#8220;fatness&#8221;, with respect to female sex-specific HFpEF, weight reduction or maintenance of ideal body weight is one preventive approach to mitigate age- and estrogen-loss related changes in ventricular structure and function. Essential treatments for weight reduction include changes in eating habits to reduced-calorie and low-fat diets, increased physical activity or exercise, and other behavioral modification strategies, such as self-monitoring (e.g., daily record keeping of food intake and exercise), stimulus control (e.g., avoiding triggers that prompt eating), and problem solving (e.g., identifying barriers and ways to overcome them). Additionally, bariatric surgery is another effective strategy to treat severely obese patients. Thus, it is important to review the literature addressing the effects of different weight loss strategies on the cardiovascular outcomes in patients with LVDD and HFpEF.</p>
          <p>Observational studies suggest that overweight or mildly-to-moderately obese patients with HFpEF survive longer than those who are normal-weight.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> However, Kitzman et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> recently reported that 20 weeks of caloric restriction combined with aerobic exercise training among obese older patients with HFpEF reduced their body weight with additive improvements in exercise capacity, defined by peak V0<sub>2</sub>. Even so, only caloric restriction resulted in decreases in LV mass and relative wall thickness, along with an inkling for improvements in diastolic function, as per the increase in E/A observed in this treatment arm, without effecting resting cardiac function, depicted by ejection fraction or Doppler-derived cardiac output.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> It was further reported that no changes in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measures of epicardial or pericardial fat were observed across treatments, but that there were significant reductions in thigh and abdominal subcutaneous and visceral fat depots in the diet only group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> While these findings favor a role for weight reduction strategies, along with exercise, to improve the detriments in exercise capacity and maximal oxygen consumption associated with HFpEF among obese patients, they also support the concept that extra-cardiac mechanisms are uniquely involved in the pathogenesis of HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Another weight reduction strategy that is conducive to evaluating the link between &#8220;fatness&#8221;, LVDD, and HFpEF is bariatric surgery. Indeed, morbidly obese patients who commonly present hemodynamic and cardiac morphometric characteristics, such as elevations in cardiac preload and afterload and increases in LV chamber and wall dimensions, which contribute to myocardial stiffness and impairments in myocardial relaxation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Multiple clinical studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> and one systemic review with a meta-analysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> reported the benefits of bariatric surgery with subsequent weight loss on echocardiographic and MRI measures of LV structure, including substantial reductions in LV wall thickness and mass and diastolic function. Along with upgrades in diastolic function, others found that extensive weight loss after bariatric surgery also led to favorable changes in muscle metabolism<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> and characteristics of arterial elasticity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Link between cardiac-specific regional adiposity, LVDD, and HFpEF</title>
          <p>In addition to peripheral and total body fat linked to LVDD, the potential role of cardiac-specific regional adiposity (e.g. pericardial and epicardial fat depots) in the disease process should not be ignored.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> Pericardial and epicardial fat, commonly found in obese and overweight patients, are considered ectopic adipose depots that can induce a lipotoxic state in close proximity to cardiac muscle and coronary arteries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Moreover, we know that metabolic syndrome, a common condition among obese and overweight patient,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> is associated with increased adipose tissue volume around the heart,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> particularly the accumulation of epicardial fat,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> which is significantly linked to adverse cardiovascular events,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup> including HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> The direct correlation between these local fat depots and LVDD can be explained, in part, by paracrine processes, whereby proinflammatory cytokines and other damaging mediators (e.g. TNF-&#945; and IL-6),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> collectively called adipokines, are released from the local adipose repositories.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Distinguishing between the two fat depots and their respective link to LVDD may be important both anatomically and biochemically. For instance, epicardial fat is located between the outer wall of the heart muscle and the visceral layer of pericardium,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> and its proximity to the myocardium is significant in that both tissue layers share the same blood microcirculation, the coronary arteries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup> Potential interactions can be elicited when dysfunctional adipocytes from cardiac fat depots release proinflammatory adipokines into the microcirculation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> which in turn can interact with cardiomyocytes and cardiac fibroblasts. These cells independently respond to adipokines, which contribute to the pathologic process of myocardial fibrosis,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> thereby leading to myocardial remodeling, via low grade inflammation and fibrotic processes, which can intensify LV hypertrophy, wall stiffness, and LVDD progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> Pericardial fat, which can be more specifically referred to as <italic>para</italic> -cardial fat or intrathoracic fat,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> is that fat which is deposited outside the parietal pericardium. This fat depot originates from primitive thoracic mesenchyme and is supplied by noncoronary sources. While increases in paracardial fat volume in HFpEF have been reported to induce a mechanical compressive-like load on the myocardium, which impairs LV filling,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup> paracrine processes have also been noted. Excessive pericardial adiposity contains high levels of proinflammatory mediators that, when released from adipocytes, promote a collagen turnover, thus leading to myocardial stiffness, impaired lusitropism and subsequent LVDD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> Indeed, Konishi et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> reported that a high volume of pericardial fat was significantly correlated with Doppler-derived increases in filling pressure, or E/e&#8217;, in HFpEF patients. Moreover, studies have documented a strong potential for epicardial adiposity to be associated with poor prognosis in obese or overweight patients with LVDD and HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Given the link between local cardiac fat depots and adverse cardiovascular health, weight reduction strategies should be strongly considered among the armamentarium in the management of the obese LVDD patient. Interestingly, in obese postmenopausal women with HFpEF, Brinkley et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> showed that caloric restriction, aerobic exercise, or combination therapy significantly reduced body weight and pericardial fat, and the changes in pericardial fat were inversely correlated with cardiorespiratory fitness defined by VO<sub>2</sub>max. Certainly, future therapies targeting low-grade inflammatory processes arising from epi- and pericardial fat depots could also limit the progression of LVDD.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Link between estrogen and fat-induced cardiovascular risk</title>
          <p>The high predilection of HFpEF among older women compared to older men with HF is well accepted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> The role that differences in adipocyte distribution among men and woman might have with respect to this sex-specific differential in HF prevalence is new and still coming together. Indeed, women have more body fat than men, but in contrast to the adverse metabolic consequences of central obesity that is typical of men, the pear-shaped, or gluteal-femoral body fat subcutaneous distribution of many women is associated with lower cardiometabolic risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> However, with advancing age there is a general shift and expansion of fat from the subcutaneous to visceral compartment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> In aging males this means expansion of abdominal visceral adiposity, while in aging females this involves a redistribution of fat from the subcutaneous gluteal-femoral compartment to the visceral-abdominal compartment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> In both cases, cardiovascular disease risk increases with age-related abdominal compartment expansion of visceral fat.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref></sup></p>
          <p>As outlined in the introduction, loss of gonadal hormones in older women seems to represent a component associated with increased risk for developing HFpEF. Since women are less likely to develop CVD before menopause,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> the production of ovarian estrogen appears to protect against HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> Consistently, there are several reports confirming the beneficial effects of estrogen in the cardiovascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup></p>
          <p>To understand the specific role of gonadal hormones in the expansion of age-related visceral fatness in women and, in turn, its potential influence on diastolic function, a brief review of gonadal hormones, particularly the estrogens and their receptors, is first warranted. The three naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3). A fourth form of estrogen, estetrol (E4), is produced only during pregnancy. All these different estrogen forms are synthesized from androgens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref></sup> For simplicity, we will use the term estrogen, to include all forms.</p>
          <p>Estrogen binds to multiple receptors, including classical nuclear estrogen receptors (ERs), ER&#945;, and ER&#946;, and a G protein-coupled receptor, GPER.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">98</xref></sup> The ERs signal not only through a &#8220;classical&#8221; regulation of gene transcription, but also by activating a &#8220;non-nuclear&#8221; signaling pathway.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref></sup> Accumulating findings have been well described and reviewed in the literature, concerning the roles triggered by ERs in maintaining the homeostasis of the cardiovascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">99</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Estrogen directly regulates adiposity distributions through estrogen receptors. In the premenopausal state, subcutaneous fat has relatively more estrogen and progesterone receptors than androgen receptors, whereas visceral fat has higher levels of androgen receptors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> With menopause, the fall of estrogen leads to estrogen receptors on subcutaneous fat to be inactivated, while the androgen receptors on visceral fat become relatively activated, thereby contributing to the inverse relationship between estrogen levels and visceral fat.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> Likewise, in estrogen deficient rodent models induced by ovariectomy, the observed increase in body weight is mainly due to gains in visceral fat.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup> Estrogenic protection can further be seen upon the systemic administration of estrogen in OVX models whereby the body fat distribution mirrors that of gonad-intact counterparts.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The specific roles may offset the classical steroid receptors ER&#945; and ER&#946; in the context of fat one to another. In a recent study by Zidon et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> gonad intact ER&#945; KO mice were found to be 25% heavier with reduced energy expenditure compared to age-matched gonad intact wild-type and ER&#946; KO mice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> Furthermore, following OVX, &#945;KO mice did not increase body weight or exhibit more pronounced insulin resistance, whereas WT and &#946;KO mice did, suggesting that the loss of signaling through ER&#945; facilitates OVX-induced metabolic dysfunction. These new data further suggest that following estrogen deficiency, ER&#946; may mediate protective metabolic benefits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup> This contradicts previous preclinical reports showing that the two classical ERs on adipose tissue regulate fat reciprocally.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup> Despite this discrepancy, the linkage between polymorphisms in the structure of both classical ERs and increased CV risk among postmenopausal women corroborate the important role of ER isoforms in the regulation of adiposity, metabolic derangement, and cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fat-derived adipokines and roles in cardiovascular disease risk</title>
          <p>The main role of brown fat, mainly located around the neck and large blood vessels of the thorax, is to generate heat by &#8220;uncoupling&#8221; the respiratory chain of oxidative phosphorylation within mitochondria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> White visceral fat (abdominal fat) is mainly involved in a complex and multidirectional network of autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine signaling that crosstalk between organs and tissues. It is the white fat that mainly participates in the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance, hypertension, coronary heart disease, stroke, and HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> It is currently well accepted that adipose tissue is an active endocrine organ that secretes heterogeneous bioactive factors called adipokines,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup> including cytokines and chemokines, vasoactive and coagulation factors, regulators of lipoprotein metabolism, and proteins, such as adiponectin and leptin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In obesity, enlargement of adipose tissue mass has been linked to a dysregulation of adipokine secretion and the related tissue inflammation, which represents a critical pathogenic link between obesity and the development of cardiometabolic diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup> In obese individuals, adipose tissue is infiltrated with activated macrophages and several other types of inflammatory cells, leading to an augmented production of proinflammatory adipokines, such as TNF-&#945;, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, resistin, leptin, lipocalin-2, adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (A-FABP), and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> These inflammatory factors are key components of the &#8220;adipo-cardiovascular axis&#8221; that mediates crosstalk between adipose tissue and the CV system.</p>
          <p>Among the various adipose depots, perivascular adipose tissue is an important contributor to vascular inflammation because of its proximity to the blood vessel wall and its pronounced proinflammatory properties. Proinflammatory cytokines/adipokines released from other major adipose tissue depots, such as subcutaneous and abdominal fat, may further contribute to vascular inflammation by virtue of their endocrine actions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup> These findings explain, in part, why WC may be considered a surrogate biomarker of CVD risk.</p>
          <p>Adiponectin is one of the most abundant adipokines secreted by adipocytes, accounting for 0.01% of the total plasma protein content in humans.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> The production of adiponectin from white adipocytes, which exerts beneficial effects on insulin sensitivity and cardiovascular function, is markedly reduced in obese individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> Epidemiological studies show that low circulating adiponectin levels, particularly the high molecular weight form, is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and myocardial infarction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors</title>
            <p>The relationship between obesity and LVDD may be linked to adiponectin and adiponectin receptors. The full-length adiponectin consists of 247 amino acid residues, assembled into an <italic>N</italic> -terminal hypervariable region followed by a conserved collagenous domain of 22 Gly-Xaa-Yaa repeats and a <italic>C</italic> -terminal C1q-like globular domain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup> In human and mouse plasma, adiponectin is present in three major oligomeric forms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup> The monomeric form has never been detected under native conditions. The basic unit of oligomeric adiponectin is a homotrimer called low-molecular-weight (LMW) adiponectin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref></sup> Two subunits of the adiponectin trimer are linked by a disulfide bond via cysteine residues in the collagen-like domain, which forms a hexamer termed middle-molecular-weight (MMW) adiponectin. This hexamer provides the building block for the formation of the bouquet-like high-molecular-weight (HMW) adiponectin comprised of 12-18 hexamers.</p>
            <p>Post-translational modifications to the adiponectin protein are required for the intracellular assembly of the HMW oligomeric complex in adipocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref></sup> Different oligomeric forms of adiponectin act on different targets and possess distinct biological functions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The two main adiponectin receptors (AdipoRs), AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, are structurally and functionally distinct from classic G-protein-coupled receptors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup> AdipoR1 is expressed ubiquitously, whereas AdipoR2 is expressed most abundantly in the liver.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup> Both AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 are expressed in cardiac cells,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> but the exact roles of these two receptors in the antioxidative/nitrative stress and anti-inflammatory actions in cardiomyocytes remain unclear.</p>
            <p>Although adipocytes are the major contributors to plasma adiponectin, adiponectin is also expressed in cardiomyocytes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> and cardiomyocyte-derived adiponectin is biologically active in protecting cells against ischemic injury via paracrine/autocrine activation of cardiac AdipoRs in mice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref></sup> In patients with dilated cardiomyopathy, cardiac adiponectin expression is downregulated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Adiponectin and LVDD</title>
            <p>In addition to AdipoRs, T-cadherin has also been suggested as a potential receptor for adiponectin,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup> and it is highly expressed in the heart, smooth muscle, and endothelium, representing the main target of adiponectin in the cardiovascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B132">132</xref></sup> T-cadherin is anchored at the cell surface by glycosyl phosphatidylinositol, and it plays an indispensable role in adiponectin-induced cardioprotection in mice,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup> acting as a physiological adiponectin-binding receptor that enables the association of this adipokine with cardiac tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup></p>
            <p>As low levels of adiponectin have been linked to obesity-related cardiometabolic complications, its role in the maintenance of cardiac health should not be ignored.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup> Preclinical data show that adiponectin can attenuate or prevent the progression of LVDD to HFpEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> In a mouse model of aldosterone-induced HFpEF, Sam et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> showed that a lack of adiponectin was associated with increased systolic blood pressure, LV remodeling, diastolic dysfunction, and pulmonary congestion, while the chronic hyperadiponectinemia in transgenic mice overexpressing adiponectin, reported by Tanaka et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> ameliorated aldosterone-induced LV hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction, and lung congestion, regardless of changes in blood pressure. The early filling-to-early mitral annular descent ratio, or E/e&#8217;, which was increased in the aldosterone-induced HFpEF mice and indicative of elevated filling pressures,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> which was significantly attenuated in adiponectin transgenic mice. Tanaka et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> also found that adiponectin overexpression decreased myocardial oxidative stress and calcium handling by preserving protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent phosphorylation of phospholamban. Moreover, adiponectin replacement in adiponectin knock-out mice, attenuated transmitral Doppler indices of pseudonormalization, indicative of impaired LV compliance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup> Taken together, these preclinical findings suggest that adiponectin may have a therapeutic potential in the management of LVDD and HFpEF, via direct actions on the heart.</p>
            <p>Our observation that circulating adiponectin was not associated with LV fractional shortening is consistent with existing literature, which suggests that adiponectin acts primarily as an inhibitor of cardiac hypertrophy.</p>
            <p>Clinical studies also support an association between adiponectin and cardiac function and structure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B138">138</xref></sup> In a community-based cohort study, McMannus et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> showed that relatively higher plasma levels of adiponectin associated with reduced LV mass, suggesting a cardioprotective effect. There are additional clinical data addressing the cardioprotective roles of adiponectin on the heart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup> For instance, Francisco et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> comprehensively reviewed the relevance of adiponectin signaling for the prevention of obesity related diastolic dysfunction with an emphasis on its role in limiting myocardial hypertrophy, cardiac fibrosis, nitrative and oxidative stress, atherosclerosis, and inflammation.</p>
            <p>As there are several studies showing adiponectin&#8217;s modulatory role in the maintenance of diastolic function, it is worth mentioning that other investigators report no relationship to fat-associated LVDD. Sawada et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> found that while plasma adiponectin levels significantly decreased with increased visceral adiposity in the general population, the association between adiponectin and diastolic function was not independent of fat. In other words, decreased circulating levels of adiponectin did not appear to have a central role in the association between visceral adiposity and LVDD. As this work was performed in a population with normal or grade 1 LVDD, subjects with more than moderate LVDD were not included. These authors suggested that a larger-scale study, including patients with moderate or severe LVDD are needed to confirm findings.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Sex differences, adiponectin, and cardiac function</title>
            <p>Whether there are sex differences in the effects of adiponectin on cardiac function and structure is not clear. Fontes-Carvalho et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> reported data from a population-base study involving individuals aged 45 years and older on associations of leptin and adiponectin levels and LV diastolic function. These investigators found significant sex differences for both leptin and adiponectin levels and their relationships with diastolic function. Relatively higher levels of leptin were associated with worse diastolic function, particularly among women, and this was regardless of age and hypertension. Interestingly, adiponectin did not correlate with diastolic function parameters.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup> Even so, it is plausible to postulate a sex-specific effect for adiponectin on changes in myocardial structure and function, as women have significantly higher systemic adiponectin levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup> In two small studies involving patients undergoing coronary angiography<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> or with HF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup> decreased adiponectin levels were associated with worse diastolic function. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1</xref> summarizes the main mechanisms involved in estrogen loss and obesity in the development of LVDD and HFpEF.</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f01001">
                <label>Figure 1</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; <italic>A schematic diagram showing the involvement of estrogen loss and obesity in HFpEF. An expansion and a shift of subcutaneous to visceral fat occurs in women after menopause. Abdominal obesity, defined by increased waist circumference, is a major risk factor for the development of HFpEF, which may involve an uptick in the synthesis and release of adipokines, including TNF-&#945;, IL-6, MCP-1, resistin, leptin, lipocalin-2, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. These adipokines play critical roles in cardiac inflammation, oxidative stress, and impaired metabolism. On the other hand, the production of adiponectin from white adipocytes, which exerts beneficial effects on insulin sensitivity and cardiovascular function, is markedly reduced in obese individuals. Abnormalities in adipokines, in addition to estrogen loss, might participate in the development of HFpEF by inducing cardiac inflammation and oxidative stress, and finally leading to concentric cardiac hypertrophy, remodeling, stiffness, and diastolic dysfunction. HFpEF, heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; TNF-&#945;, tumor necrosis factor alpha; IL-6, interleukin 6; MCP- 1, monocyte chemoattractant protein; A-FABP, adipocyte fatty acid binding protein</italic> .</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-06-1191-00855-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>In summary, estrogen plays a major role in the regulation of body weight and body fat, and that role may also protect the premenopausal heart from LV dysfunction. Compared with age-matched men, postmenopausal women display increased ventricular and arterial stiffness, and are more likely to develop LVDD and subsequent HFpEF. The lower estrogen levels after menopause are involved in changes in body fat distribution and content, a factor that increases the incidence of CVD. This review collected the recent evidence and clarified the molecular routes by which estrogen triggers these effects and provides new directions for future research in this exciting area of sex-specific cardiac aging and diastolic dysfunction, which is a harbinger for HFpEF.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>Sources of Funding: This study was funded by National Institute on Aging of the National Institute of Health to Leanne Groban (AG033727; AG061588) and partially funded by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient&#237;fico e Tecnol&#243;gico (CNPq), Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior (CAPES), and Funda&#231;&#227;o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) to Gisele Zapata-Sudo and Allan Kardec Nogueira de Alencar.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
