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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">4Xqrt3Vkf3tdx9NQHrLLdXk</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021001301038</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190757</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190757</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Tireotoxicose Induzida pela Amiodarona - Revis&#227;o de Literatura e Atualiza&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9746-0892</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana Vergara Ferraz de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campagnolo</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Thereza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Claudio Behrmann</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scanavacca</surname>
            <given-names>Maur&#237;cio Ibrahim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina de Jundia&#237;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jundia&#237;</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Jundia&#237;, Jundia&#237;, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio Lusiada</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Santos</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Santos</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio Lusiada Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Santos, Santos, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Arrritmia e Marcapasso</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Arrritmia e Marcapasso, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Luciana Vergara Ferraz de Souza &#8226;</bold> Faculdade de Medicina de Jundia&#237; - R. Francisco Teles, 250. CEP <postal-code>13202-550</postal-code>, Vila Arens, II Jundia&#237;, SP &#8211; Brasil, E-mail: <email>luciv.f@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Souza LVF, Campagnolo MT, Martins LCB, Scanavacca MI; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Souza LVF, Campagnolo MT, Martins LCB.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>22</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>117</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>1038</fpage>
      <lpage>1044</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A amiodarona &#233; amplamente utilizada no tratamento de arritmias atriais e ventriculares, por&#233;m devido sua alta concentra&#231;&#227;o de iodo, o uso cr&#244;nico da droga pode induzir dist&#250;rbios tireoidianos. A tireotoxicose induzida pela amiodarona (TIA) pode descompensar e exacerbar anormalidades card&#237;acas subjacentes, provocando aumento da morbidade e mortalidade, principalmente em pacientes com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo &lt;30%.</p>
        <p>Os casos de TIA s&#227;o classificados em dois subtipos que direcionam a conduta terap&#234;utica. Os riscos e benef&#237;cios de manter a amiodarona devem ser avaliados de maneira individualizada, e a decis&#227;o de continuar ou suspender a droga deve ser tomada conjuntamente por cardiologistas e endocrinologistas.</p>
        <p>O tratamento de TIA tipo 1 &#233; semelhante ao do hipertireoidismo espont&#226;neo, sendo indicado o uso de drogas antitireoidianas (metimazol e propiltiouracil) em doses elevadas. A TIA tipo 1 mostra-se mais complicada, pois apresenta proporcionalmente maiores n&#250;meros de recorr&#234;ncias ou at&#233; mesmo a n&#227;o remiss&#227;o do quadro, sendo recomendado o tratamento definitivo (tireoidectomia total ou radioiodo).</p>
        <p>TIA tipo 2 &#233; geralmente autolimitada, mas devido a elevada mortalidade associada a tireotoxicose em pacientes cardiopatas, o tratamento deve ser institu&#237;do para que o eutireoidismo seja atingido mais rapidamente. Em casos bem definidos de TIA tipo 2, o tratamento com corticosteroides &#233; mais efetivo do que o tratamento com drogas antitireoidianas.</p>
        <p>Em casos graves, independentemente do subtipo, a restaura&#231;&#227;o imediata do eutiroidismo por meio da tireoidectomia total deve ser considerada antes que o paciente evolua com piora cl&#237;nica excessiva, pois a demora na indica&#231;&#227;o da cirurgia est&#225; associada ao aumento da mortalidade.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Amiodarona/uso terap&#234;utico</kwd>
        <kwd>Arritmias Card&#237;acas</kwd>
        <kwd>Iodo</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertireoidismo</kwd>
        <kwd>Tireotoxicose</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipotireoidismo</kwd>
        <kwd>Tireotoxicose</kwd>
        <kwd>Tireoidite</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="44"/>
        <page-count count="7"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Amiodarona &#233; uma droga antiarr&#237;tmica classe III frequentemente utilizada no tratamento de arritmias atriais e ventriculares,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> principalmente quando s&#227;o refrat&#225;rias a outras drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> &#201; tamb&#233;m utilizada na profilaxia da morte s&#250;bita de causa card&#237;aca em pacientes de alto risco, sobretudo em pacientes sem acesso ao cardioversor desfibrilador implant&#225;vel, apresentando redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade quando comparada a placebo e outros antiarr&#237;tmicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Devido &#224; sua alta concentra&#231;&#227;o de iodo, a amiodarona pode induzir disfun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana (hipertireoidismo ou hipotireoidismo) em at&#233; 36% dos pacientes que fazem uso cr&#244;nico desta medica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A incid&#234;ncia de hipertireoidismo varia de 2% a 18%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> e a de hipotireoidismo de 5%-22% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A influ&#234;ncia do iodo no desenvolvimento desses dist&#250;rbios tireoidianos &#233; tamanha que, de acordo com seu consumo alimentar regional, percebe-se uma mudan&#231;a na forma como a amiodarona altera o comportamento da tireoide. Proporcionalmente, nas &#225;reas onde o consumo de iodo &#233; elevado predominam os casos de hipotireoidismo induzido pela amiodarona, enquanto em locais de baixa ingest&#227;o a incid&#234;ncia de tireotoxicose induzida pela amiodarona (TIA) &#233; maior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Tabela 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Estudos demonstrando incid&#234;ncia dos dist&#250;rbios tireoidianos induzidos pelo uso da amiodarona</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="16%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Primeiro autor, Ano</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Pa&#237;s</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#250;mero de pacientes</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Hipotireoidismo induzido pela amiodarona</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Tireotoxicose induzida pela amiodarona</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Tipo de estudo</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Martino E,8 1984</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">It&#225;lia E.U.A.</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">It&#225;lia: 188 E.U.A.: 41</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">It&#225;lia 10 (5%) E.U.A.: 9 (22%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">It&#225;lia: 18 (9.6%) E.U.A.: 1 (2%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o descrito</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Trip MD,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> 1991</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Pa&#237;ses Baixos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">58</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">10 (17,2%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">11 (18,9%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Prospectivo</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Yiu KH,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> 2009</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Hong Kong</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">354</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">73 (20.6%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">57 (16.1%)<break/>TIA 1: 5/57<break/>TIA 2: 13/57 Mista/incerta: 35/57</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Prospectivo<break/>2000-2005</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Stan MN,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> 2013</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">E.U.A.</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">169</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o estudado</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">23 (13,6%)<break/>TIA 1: 7/23<break/>TIA 2: 13/23<break/>TIA mista/incerta: 3/23</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospectivo <break/>1987-2009<break/>Adultos com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca cong&#234;nita</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Huang C-J,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> 2014</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Taiwan</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">527</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">69 (13.1%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">21 (4%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospectivo <break/>2008-2009</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Uchida T,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> 2014</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Jap&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">225</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o estudado</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">13 (5.8%) TIA 2</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospectivo <break/>2008-2012</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Lee KF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> 2010</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Hong Kong</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">390</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">87 (22%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">24 (6%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospectivo <break/>2005-2007</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Benjamens S,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> 2017</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Pa&#237;ses Baixos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">303</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">33 (10,8%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">44 (15,5%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospectivo <break/>1984-2007</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Barrett B,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> 2019</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">E.U.A.</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">190</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">26 (13.7%)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">4 (2.1%) 25% resolu&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospectivo <break/>2007-2018<break/>Crian&#231;as e adultos jovens</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>O hipotireoidismo induzido pela amiodarona &#233; de menor gravidade que o hipertireoidismo e tem tratamento mais simples. Nos casos de hipotireoidismo n&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;ria a retirada da amiodarona, e o tratamento pode ser feito apenas com a introdu&#231;&#227;o da levotiroxina. Em alguns casos subcl&#237;nicos o ajuste (redu&#231;&#227;o) da dosagem da amiodarona pode ser suficiente para que ocorra a normaliza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana. Portanto, nos pacientes subcl&#237;nicos n&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;ria a reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal, apenas a an&#225;lise regular da fun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana para avaliar a progress&#227;o para hipotireoidismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Clinicamente, quadros de TIA oferecem riscos maiores de complica&#231;&#245;es, al&#233;m do diagn&#243;stico e tratamento serem muito mais complexos. A exposi&#231;&#227;o prolongada a altos n&#237;veis de horm&#244;nios tireoidianos pode levar ao aparecimento de arritmias e a uma r&#225;pida deteriora&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Um estudo observacional analisando 354 pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de amiodarona demonstrou um aumento significativo de eventos cardiovasculares maiores no grupo que desenvolveu TIA, comparado ao grupo que permaneceu eutireoideo (31,6% vs. 10,7%, p&lt;0.01), especialmente devido &#224; alta incid&#234;ncia de arritmias ventriculares com necessidade de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o (7% vs. 1,3%, p = 0.03).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Outro estudo relatou uma taxa de mortalidade de 10% antes do controle da tireotoxicose, associada a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) &lt;30%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Com base em estudos e diretrizes recentes, foram revisados e sintetizados de forma pr&#225;tica os principais aspectos diagn&#243;sticos e terap&#234;uticos da TIA. Tamb&#233;m, destaca-se a import&#226;ncia das decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas a serem tomadas em conjunto entre cardiologistas e endocrinologistas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Foi realizada uma revis&#227;o da literatura atrav&#233;s de busca na MEDLINE utilizando as combina&#231;&#245;es dos termos MeSH: &#8220;Amiodarone&#8221;, &#8220;Thyrotoxicosis&#8221; e &#8220;Thyroid&#8221;. Tamb&#233;m foram feitas buscas manuais e eletr&#244;nicas de refer&#234;ncias citadas nos estudos avaliados. Foram inclu&#237;dos estudos cl&#237;nicos que abordam altera&#231;&#245;es tireoidianas secund&#225;rias ao uso da amiodarona, com foco na incid&#234;ncia e no tratamento cl&#237;nico e cir&#250;rgico. Foram exclu&#237;dos os trabalhos que abordam transtornos causados pela amiodarona em outros &#243;rg&#227;os e relatos de caso com n&#250;mero inferior a dez pacientes. Nos dados compilados tamb&#233;m foram analisados os consensos mais atuais da Sociedade Brasileira de Endocrinologia e Metabologia (SBEM), Associa&#231;&#227;o Americana de Tireoide (ATA) e Associa&#231;&#227;o Europeia de Tireoide (ETA).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Amiodarona: mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o sobre a tireoide</title>
        <p>A amiodarona pode agir influenciando a gl&#226;ndula tireoide de diversas maneiras. Estruturalmente, a amiodarona &#233; uma medica&#231;&#227;o diiodinada, sendo 37% do seu peso molecular referente ao iodo, portanto a cada 200mg de amiodarona (dose di&#225;ria de manuten&#231;&#227;o) cerca de 7.5mg de iodo s&#227;o liberadas. A dose di&#225;ria de iodo recomendada pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial de Sa&#250;de &#233; de 0,15mg (adultos),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> e com o uso da amiodarona, cerca de 7,5mg de iodo &#233; liberado na forma livre no organismo diariamente, excedendo a dose recomendada em 50 vezes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A medica&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m possui extrema similaridade com os horm&#244;nios triiodotironina (T3) e tiroxina (T4),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> e sua longa meia-vida garante a perman&#234;ncia da subst&#226;ncia no organismo por at&#233; 100 dias, o que potencializa sua toxicidade e permite que os efeitos colaterais ocorram durante o uso e mesmo ap&#243;s a suspens&#227;o do medicamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar do reconhecimento de que a medica&#231;&#227;o influencia a tireoide propriamente dita e a metaboliza&#231;&#227;o de seus horm&#244;nios no organismo, ainda s&#227;o escassas informa&#231;&#245;es a respeito do seu mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o. A inibi&#231;&#227;o da enzima 5&#8217;-deiodinase &#233; uma das teorias sobre a forma pela qual a amiodarona age sobre o metabolismo dos horm&#244;nios tireoidianos. Essa intera&#231;&#227;o resulta em aumento s&#233;rico do T3 reverso e T4, substratos da enzima em quest&#227;o, concomitantemente com a diminui&#231;&#227;o do T3, produto da convers&#227;o realizada pela mol&#233;cula inibida. A sobrecarga de iodo e a citotoxicidade induzidas pelo medicamento tamb&#233;m corroboram a explica&#231;&#227;o do surgimento de dist&#250;rbios tireoidianos como efeitos colaterais do uso cr&#244;nico da medica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tireotoxicose induzida pela amiodarona (TIA)</title>
        <p>A TIA est&#225; associada a altas taxas de eventos cardiovasculares maiores e ao aumento da mortalidade, principalmente da morte cardiovascular. O surgimento ou recorr&#234;ncia de arritmias ventriculares e a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda severa (FEVE &lt;30%) s&#227;o os principais fatores relacionados a este aumento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Portanto, a restaura&#231;&#227;o do eutireoidismo deve ser estabelecida o quanto antes, e em casos emergenciais a tireoidectomia pode ser indicada para uma resolu&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida da tireotoxicose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os casos de TIA s&#227;o divididos em dois subtipos devido a diferen&#231;as na fisiopatologia e a necessidade de tratamento direcionado. A TIA tipo 1 (TIA 1) tem lugar por meio da produ&#231;&#227;o aut&#244;noma de horm&#244;nios tireoidianas devido &#224; sobrecarga de iodo, particularmente concomitante &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es pr&#233;vias da tireoide (n&#243;dulos tireoidianos ou doen&#231;a de Graves latente). A TIA tipo 2 (TIA 2) &#233; a forma mais frequente e ocorre em pacientes com a tireoide previamente saud&#225;vel, correspondendo a uma tireoidite destrutiva devido a citotoxicidade direta da amiodarona nas c&#233;lulas foliculares, com consequente libera&#231;&#227;o das reservas hormonais pr&#233;-formadas e indu&#231;&#227;o da tireotoxicose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">figura 1</xref> ilustra as diferen&#231;as na fisiopatologia dos dois subtipos. Ocasionalmente essa distin&#231;&#227;o &#233; complicada essa distin&#231;&#227;o &#233; complicada e existe sobreposi&#231;&#227;o dos dois subtipos, e esses casos s&#227;o denominados como formas mistas ou indefinidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Fisiopatologia das principais formas de TIA. TIA: tireotoxicose induzida pela amiodarona.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-05-1038-90757-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>Os meios para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes sob maior risco de desenvolverem disfun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana secund&#225;ria ao uso da amiodarona ainda n&#227;o foram definidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> A Associa&#231;&#227;o Americana de Tireoide recomenda avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana por meio da dosagem s&#233;rica de tireotropina (TSH) e T4 livre. A fun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana deve ser avaliada antes de iniciar a amiodarona, dentro dos primeiros tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da droga, e posteriormente a cada tr&#234;s a seis meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Inicialmente, pacientes tratados com amiodarona apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es da fun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana, por&#233;m a maioria retorna &#224; normalidade sem a necessidade de tratamento ou descontinua&#231;&#227;o da droga. Nos tr&#234;s primeiros meses de tratamento com amiodarona, ocorre aumento dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de TSH, T4 e T3 reverso, e concomitante diminui&#231;&#227;o de T3. Posteriormente, ocorre normaliza&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de TSH, T4 e T3, podendo o T4 manter-se no limite superior de normalidade ou discretamente elevado, e o T3 reverso permanecer elevado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A dosagem de TSH &#233; o m&#233;todo mais sens&#237;vel e espec&#237;fico para o diagn&#243;stico de hipertireoidismo, pois pequenas altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de T4 livre provocam mudan&#231;as expressivas nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de TSH. No hipertireoidismo subcl&#237;nico, os n&#237;veis de TSH encontram-se baixos ou at&#233; indetect&#225;veis, e os valores de T4 livre e T3 apresentam-se normais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Na tireotoxicose, o TSH encontra-se muito baixo ou indetect&#225;vel, e os n&#237;veis de T4 livre e/ou T3 elevados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os pacientes com TIA podem ser assintom&#225;ticos ou apresentar um quadro cl&#237;nico t&#237;pico de hipertireoidismo, como sintomas de palpita&#231;&#245;es, tremores, sudorese, intoler&#226;ncia ao calor, nervosismo e perda de peso. O bloqueio beta adren&#233;rgico da amiodarona no cora&#231;&#227;o pode justificar a aus&#234;ncia de palpita&#231;&#245;es, o que torna a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de TIA ainda mais insidiosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico de tireotoxicose &#233; confirmado pelos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de TSH suprimidos e n&#237;veis elevados dos horm&#244;nios tireoidianos T3 e T4 livres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre os dois subtipos de TIA pode ser dif&#237;cil, no entanto, alguns par&#226;metros laboratoriais associados &#224; ultrassonografia de tireoide com Dopplerfluxometria podem ser usados para a distin&#231;&#227;o apropriada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> As caracter&#237;sticas dos subtipos de TIA est&#227;o sintetizadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Principais caracter&#237;sticas dos subtipos de TIA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">TIA tipo 1</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">TIA tipo 2</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Altera&#231;&#245;es tireoidianas pr&#233;vias</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Sim</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Usualmente n&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Doppler fluxometria</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Vascularidade aumentada</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Aus&#234;ncia de hipervascularidade</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Capta&#231;&#227;o de iodo radioativo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Baixa, normal ou elevada</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Suprimida</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Anticorpos antitireoidianos</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Presente se relacionado a doen&#231;a de Graves</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Usualmente ausentes</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">In&#237;cio ap&#243;s amiodarona</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Curto (m&#233;dia de 3 meses)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Longo (m&#233;dia de 30 meses)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Remiss&#227;o espont&#226;nea</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Poss&#237;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Evolu&#231;&#227;o para hipotireoidismo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Poss&#237;vel</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Tratamento de primeira linha</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Drogas antitireoidianas</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Glicocortocoides orais</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Tratamento definitivo subsequente</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Geralmente sim</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>Modificado de Bartalena L et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> TIA: tireotoxicose induzida pela amiodarona.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Acreditava-se que o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de interleucina-6 se apresentava altamente elevado nos casos de TIA 2 e assim seria &#250;til na diferencia&#231;&#227;o dos subtipos de TIA, por&#233;m h&#225; uma sobreposi&#231;&#227;o entre os subtipos e, portanto, n&#227;o pode ser utilizado para a distin&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A capta&#231;&#227;o de radioiodo (<sup>131</sup>I ou <sup>123</sup>I) &#233; &#250;til nessa diferencia&#231;&#227;o em &#225;reas de baixa ingest&#227;o de iodo, pois nessas regi&#245;es os pacientes com TIA 2 apresentam capta&#231;&#227;o suprimida de radioiodo. Na TIA 1 a capta&#231;&#227;o pode ser baixa, normal ou at&#233; elevada. Todavia, em &#225;reas com ingest&#227;o suficiente de iodo, caso da maior parte das regi&#245;es metropolitanas do Brasil, a capta&#231;&#227;o de radioiodo encontra-se sempre suprimida tornando a investiga&#231;&#227;o in&#250;til.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o de anticorpos anti-tireoperoxidase (anti-TPO)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> e a presen&#231;a de b&#243;cios difusos ou nodulares na ultrassonografia de tireoide apontam para TIA 1,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> contudo devido a sua elevada preval&#234;ncia na popula&#231;&#227;o esses achados tamb&#233;m n&#227;o excluem a TIA 2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Diversos estudos recentes indicam que a aus&#234;ncia de hiperfluxo na dopplerfluxometria &#233; sugestiva de TIA 2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Estes achados n&#227;o devem ser utilizados de forma isolada devido a possibilidade de formas mistas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Manter ou suspender a amiodarona?</title>
        <p>A necessidade da retirada da amiodarona ainda &#233; controversa. Em muitos casos, ela &#233; a &#250;nica medica&#231;&#227;o capaz de controlar a arritmia card&#237;aca, e devido a sua meia-vida prolongada, a retirada n&#227;o traria benef&#237;cios imediatos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, &#233; importante salientar que alguns pacientes possuem recorr&#234;ncia dos dist&#250;rbios tireoidianos, mesmo meses ap&#243;s a suspens&#227;o de amiodarona. Ademais, a droga apresenta propriedades antagonistas de T3 e inibe a convers&#227;o de T4 para T3 no cora&#231;&#227;o, portanto a sua suspens&#227;o poderia agravar as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A TIA 2 &#233; geralmente autolimitada, e a amiodarona pode ser mantida nesses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Estudos observacionais com pacientes TIA 2 revelaram que os pacientes retornam ao eutireoidismo mesmo mantendo a amiodarona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> No entanto, estudos mostram uma varia&#231;&#227;o de 8% a 73% de recorr&#234;ncia da tireotoxicose em pacientes que mantiveram o uso da medica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Um estudo com 10 anos de seguimento envolvendo 50 pacientes que mantiveram amiodarona apresentou apenas tr&#234;s casos de recorr&#234;ncia da tireotoxicose, sendo muito mais brandos do que no primeiro epis&#243;dio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A decis&#227;o de retirar a amiodarona deve ser individualizada e tomada em conjunto pelo cardiologista e pelo endocrinologista, levando em considera&#231;&#227;o os riscos e benef&#237;cios da retirada da droga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> &#201; amplamente aceito que se continue a medica&#231;&#227;o em pacientes cr&#237;ticos com arritmias que amea&#231;am a vida e que apresentem boa resposta card&#237;aca a droga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Se as condi&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas estiverem est&#225;veis e houver uma alternativa segura, a amiodarona pode ser descontinuada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento</title>
        <p>Em pacientes clinicamente est&#225;veis com evid&#234;ncia que diferencia o subtipo, o tratamento deve ser estabelecido de acordo com o subtipo no qual o paciente se encaixa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Nos quadros de tireotoxicose moderada com comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, a Associa&#231;&#227;o Americana de Tireoide recomenda iniciar terapia combinada com drogas antitireoidianas e corticosteroides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Se o paciente apresentar deteriora&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, tireoidectomia de emerg&#234;ncia deve ser feita independentemente do subtipo TIA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> mostra o algoritmo para manejo de TIA conforme proposto pela Associa&#231;&#227;o Europeia de Tireoide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Como nos casos de TIA a tireoide encontra-se repleta de iodo, o tratamento com iodo radioativo &#233; invi&#225;vel por pelo menos seis a nove meses a partir da suspens&#227;o da droga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Algoritmo para manejo de tireotoxicose induzida pela amiodarona (TIA). Modificado de Bartalena L, et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-05-1038-90757-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento: TIA 1</title>
        <p>O tratamento de TIA 1 &#233; feito com drogas antitireoidianas (DAT), mas estas s&#227;o menos efetivas devido &#224; alta concentra&#231;&#227;o de iodo, e se faz necess&#225;rio o uso de doses maiores (40-60mg/dia de metimazol ou doses equivalentes de propiltiouracil).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Se o paciente permanecer est&#225;vel, a DAT deve ser mantida at&#233; a restaura&#231;&#227;o do eutireoidismo,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> geralmente entre tr&#234;s e seis meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O perclorato de pot&#225;ssio pode ser associado nas primeiras semanas para diminuir a capta&#231;&#227;o de iodo pela tireoide e tornar a tireoide mais sens&#237;vel as DAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Devido a sua toxicidade, este n&#227;o deve exceder 1g/dia e n&#227;o deve ser mantido por mais de 4-6 semanas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A tireotoxicose pode recorrer ou at&#233; n&#227;o entrar em remiss&#227;o, e nesses casos o tratamento definitivo &#233; recomendado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Se a amiodarona for descontinuada, o tratamento definitivo com radioiodo pode ser feito ap&#243;s seis a nove meses. A tireoidectomia deve ser considerada se n&#227;o for poss&#237;vel a retirada da amiodarona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> De uma forma geral, o tratamento definitivo de TIA 1 &#233; semelhante ao do hipertireoidismo espont&#226;neo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento: TIA 2</title>
        <p>A TIA 2 &#233; geralmente autolimitada, entretanto devido ao aumento da mortalidade associada a tireotoxicose em pacientes cardiopatas, o tratamento deve ser institu&#237;do para que o eutireoidismo seja atingido mais rapidamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A decis&#227;o de tratar casos leves ou subcl&#237;nicos deve ser feita levando em considera&#231;&#227;o as altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas do paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Tem sido sugerido que, em casos bem definidos de TIA 2, o tratamento com corticosteroides &#233; mais efetivo do que o tratamento com DAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> As doses utilizadas s&#227;o de 30-40mg/dia de prednisona ou dose equivalente de outro glicocorticoide por dois a tr&#234;s meses, com posterior retirada gradual baseada na resposta cl&#237;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Em casos graves, assim como nos casos de TIA 1 e mista/indefinida, a tireoidectomia radical deve ser considerada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento: TIA mistas ou indefinidas</title>
        <p>Formas mistas ou indefinidas ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o completamente caracterizadas. Acredita-se que esses casos envolvam mecanismos patog&#234;nicos mistos dos dois subtipos, tanto de aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o hormonal quanto por tireoidite destrutiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O tratamento das formas mistas ou indefinidas deve ser feito com DAT, podendo ser associados corticosteroides orais no in&#237;cio do tratamento, ou ap&#243;s 4-6 semanas se a resposta for pequena.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Em casos mais severos, a terapia combinada com DAT e corticosteroides deve ser iniciada prontamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento: Tireoidectomia</title>
        <p>&#192; tireoidectomia total corresponde &#224; melhor op&#231;&#227;o em pacientes cujo tratamento cl&#237;nico &#233; falho ou naqueles em que h&#225; demora de resposta terap&#234;utica associada a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular deprimida, sendo a melhor alternativa para restaura&#231;&#227;o imediata do eutireoidismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Apesar dos riscos associados &#224; tireoidectomia, esta deve ser considerada antes que o paciente evolua com piora cl&#237;nica severa, pois a demora na indica&#231;&#227;o da cirurgia est&#225; associada ao aumento da mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Diversos estudos avaliando pacientes com TIA submetidos &#224; tireoidectomia relataram baixa morbidade associada ao procedimento, apresentando mortalidade de 0% a 1.9%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um estudo observacional recente, 207 pacientes com TIA (57 tireoidectomizados, 156 tratamento cl&#237;nico), evidenciou menor mortalidade nos pacientes submetidos a tireoidectomia comparada aos tratados apenas clinicamente, particularmente em pacientes com FEVE &lt;40%. Neste mesmo estudo foi demonstrada uma melhora significativa da FEVE ap&#243;s a restaura&#231;&#227;o do eutireoidismo, sendo mais evidente nos pacientes com FEVE &lt;40%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Outros tr&#234;s estudos tamb&#233;m relataram melhora significativa da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ap&#243;s tireoidectomia, sendo tr&#234;s pacientes retirados da lista de transplante card&#237;aco ap&#243;s restaura&#231;&#227;o do eutireoidismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Se a tireoidectomia total for considerada, a avalia&#231;&#227;o individualizada dos riscos e benef&#237;cios deve ser feita, e a decis&#227;o deve ser multidisciplinar, envolvendo cardiologistas, endocrinologistas, cirurgi&#245;es e anestesistas. &#201; imprescind&#237;vel que um cirurgi&#227;o com alto volume operat&#243;rio e experi&#234;ncia com tireoidectomias seja o respons&#225;vel pelo procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Tireoidectomia total deve ser considerada quando h&#225;:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup>:</p>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Resposta insuficiente ao tratamento medicamentoso com DAT e corticosteroides;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Deteriora&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Doen&#231;a card&#237;aca avan&#231;ada, displasia arritmog&#234;nica ventricular direita, e arritmias malignas;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <label>&#8211;</label>
            <p>Tratamento definitivo alternativo ao radioiodo;</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Dadas as consequ&#234;ncias acarretadas pela TIA, salienta-se a import&#226;ncia de diagnosticar e tratar os subtipos de TIA conjuntamente. Enfatiza-se a import&#226;ncia de as decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas serem tomadas de forma conjunta por cardiologistas e endocrinologistas, e que nos casos mais severos a tireoidectomia deve ser considerada antes que ocorra piora cl&#237;nica exagerada.</p>
      <p>Estudos cl&#237;nicos envolvendo pacientes com TIA ainda s&#227;o limitados e insuficientes, principalmente ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados multic&#234;ntricos. Visto que a amiodarona &#233; uma droga bastante utilizada, e devido as consequ&#234;ncias da TIA, destaca-se a necessidade de novos ensaios cl&#237;nicos para aprimorar o manejo destes pacientes.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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        <article-title>Amiodarone-Induced Thyrotoxicosis - Literature Review &amp; Clinical Update</article-title>
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          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
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          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Arrritmia e Marcapasso, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Luciana Vergara Ferraz de Souza &#8226;</bold> Faculdade de Medicina de Jundia&#237; - R. Francisco Teles, 250. Postal Code <postal-code>13202-550</postal-code>, Vila Arens, II Jundia&#237;, SP &#8211; Brazil, E-mail: <email>luciv.f@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author Contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Souza LVF, Campagnolo MT, Martins LCB, Scanavacca MI; Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data: Souza LVF, Campagnolo MT, Martins LCB.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Amiodarone is widely used in treating atrial and ventricular arrhythmias; however, due to its high iodine concentration, the chronic use of the drug can induce thyroid disorders. Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (AIT) can decompensate and exacerbate underlying cardiac abnormalities, leading to increased morbidity and mortality, especially in patients with left ventricular ejection fraction &lt;30%.</p>
        <p>AIT cases are classified into two subtypes that guide therapeutic management. The risks and benefits of maintaining the amiodarone must be evaluated individually, and the therapeutic decision should be taken jointly by cardiologists and endocrinologists.</p>
        <p>Type 1 AIT treatment is similar to that of spontaneous hyperthyroidism, using antithyroid drugs (methimazole and propylthiouracil) at high doses. Type 1 AIT is more complicated since it has proportionally higher recurrences or even non-remission, and definitive treatment is recommended (total thyroidectomy or radioiodine).</p>
        <p>Type 2 AIT is generally self-limited, yet due to the high mortality associated with thyrotoxicosis in cardiac patients, the treatment should be implemented for faster achievement of euthyroidism. Furthermore, in well-defined cases of type 2 AIT, the treatment with corticosteroids is more effective than treatment with antithyroid drugs.</p>
        <p>In severe cases, regardless of subtype, immediate restoration of euthyroidism through total thyroidectomy should be considered before the patient progresses to excessive clinical deterioration, as delayed surgery indication is associated with increased mortality.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Amiodarone/therapeutic use</kwd>
        <kwd>Arrhythmias,Cardiaca</kwd>
        <kwd>Iosine</kwd>
        <kwd>Hyperthyroidism</kwd>
        <kwd>Thyrotoxicosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypothyroidis</kwd>
        <kwd>Thyrotoxicosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Thyroiditis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Amiodarone is a class III antiarrhythmic drug frequently used to treat atrial and ventricular arrhythmias,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> especially when refractory to other antiarrhythmic drug.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> It is also used for prophylaxis of sudden cardiac death in high-risk patients, mainly in patients without access to the implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, showing a reduction in mortality when compared to placebo and other antiarrhythmic drugs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Due to its high iodine concentration, amiodarone can induce thyroid dysfunction (hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism) in up to 36% of patients who take this medication chronically.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> The incidence of hyperthyroidism ranges from 2% to 18%,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> and hypothyroidism from 5% to 22% (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> The influence of iodine on the development of these thyroid disorders is so evident that, according to its regional dietary intake, there is a change in the way the amiodarone alters the behavior of the thyroid. Proportionally, in areas with high iodine intake, there is a predominance of amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism cases, while in places with low intake, there is a higher incidence of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (AIT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Studies showing the incidence of thyroid disorders induced by amiodarone use</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="16%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">First Author, Year</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Country</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Number of patients</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Study design</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Martino E,8 1984</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Italy<break/> U.S.A.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Italy: 188<break/> U.S.A.: 41</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Italy: 10 (5%)<break/> U.S.A.: 9 (22%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Italy: 18 (9.6%)<break/> U.S.A.: 1 (2%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Not described</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Trip MD,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> 1991</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">The Netherlands</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">58</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">10 (17,2%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">11 (18,9%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Prospective</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Yiu KH,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> 2009</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Hong Kong</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">354</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">73 (20.6%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">57 (16.1%)<break/>AIT 1: 5/57<break/>AIT 2: 13/57<break/> Mixed/uncertain: 35/57</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospective <break/>2000-2005</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Stan MN,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> 2013</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">U.S.A.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">169</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Not studied</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">23 (13,6%)<break/>AIT 1: 7/23<break/>AIT 2: 13/23 <break/>Mixed/Undefined: 3/23</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospective <break/>1987-2009<break/>Adults with congenital heart disease</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Huang C-J,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> 2014</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Taiwan</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">527</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">69 (13.1%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">21 (4%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospective <break/>2008-2009</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Uchida T,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> 2014</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Japan</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">225</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Not studied</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">13 (5.8%) AIT 2</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospective <break/>2008-2012</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Lee KF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> 2010</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Hong Kong</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">390</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">87 (22%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">24 (6%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospective <break/>2005-2007</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Benjamens S,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> 2017</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">The Netherlands</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">303</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">33 (10,8%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">AIT: 44 (15,5%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospective <break/>1984-2007</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Barrett B,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> 2019</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">U.S.A.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Total: 190</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">26 (13.7%)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">4 (2.1%) <break/>25% spontaneous resolution</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Retrospective <break/>2007-2018 <break/>Pediatric and young adults</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism is less severe than hyperthyroidism and has a simpler treatment. In hypothyroidism cases, amiodarone withdrawal is unnecessary, and treatment can be done just by introducing levothyroxine. In some subclinical cases, the dose adjustment (reduction) may be enough for the thyroid function to return to normal. Therefore, there is no need for hormone replacement in subclinical patients, only regular thyroid function assessment to evaluate progression to hypothyroidism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Clinically, AIT cases pose greater complications risks; moreover, the diagnosis and treatment are far more complex. Prolonged exposure to high levels of thyroid hormones may lead to the onset of arrhythmias and rapid deterioration of cardiac function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> An observational study analyzed 354 patients in chronic use of amiodarone demonstrated a significant increase in major cardiovascular events in the group that developed AIT, comparing to the group that remained euthyroid (31,6% vs. 10.7%, p&lt;0.01), mainly due to the high incidence of ventricular arrhythmias leading to hospital admission (7% vs. 1.3%, p=0.03).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Another study reported a 10% mortality rate before thyrotoxicosis control, associated with left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) &lt;30%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>AIT&#8217;s main diagnosis and treatment issues were revised and summarized practically based on recent studies and guidelines. Likewise, we emphasize the importance of therapeutic decisions to be taken jointly by cardiologists and endocrinologists.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>A literary review through MEDLINE search using the combinations of the MeSH terms: &#8220;Amiodarone&#8221;,&#8221;Thyrotoxicosis&#8221;, and &#8220;Thyroid&#8221; was conducted. Also, manual and electronic searches were performed based on references cited in the studies evaluated. Clinical studies that address thyroid changes secondary to amiodarone use, focusing on the incidence and the clinical and surgical treatment, were included. Were excluded studies that addressed other organs disorders caused by amiodarone and case reports with less than ten patients. In the compiled data were also analyzed the most current consensus of the Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabology (SBEM), American Thyroid Association (ATA) and European Thyroid Association (ETA).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Amiodarone: mechanism of action on the thyroid</title>
          <p>In many ways, amiodarone can act by influencing the thyroid gland. Structurally, amiodarone is a diiodinated medication, with 37% of its molecular weight referring to iodine; thus, each 200mg of amiodarone (daily maintenance dose) contains about 75mg of iodine. The daily dose of iodine recommended by the World Health Organization is 0.15mg (adults),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> and with the use of amiodarone, about 7.5mg of free iodine are released in the body daily, exceeding the recommended dose by 50 times.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The medication also has extreme similarity with the hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> and its long half-life ensures that the substance stays in the body for up to 100 days, which enhances its toxicity and allows the side effects to occur during its use and even after the drug withdrawal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite the recognition that medication influences the thyroid itself and the metabolism of its hormones in the body, there is still little information about its mechanism of action. Inhibition of the enzyme 5&#8217;-deiodinase is one of the theories about how amiodarone acts on thyroid hormone metabolism. This interaction results in a serum increase of the reverse T3 and T4 substrates of the enzyme in question, concurrently with the decrease of T3, a product of the conversion performed by the inhibited molecule. Iodine overload and drug-induced cytotoxicity also corroborate the explanation of the onset of thyroid disorders as side effects of chronic medication use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Amiodarone-induced Thyrotoxicosis (AIT)</title>
          <p>AIT is associated with high rates of major cardiovascular events and increased mortality, principally cardiovascular death. The appearance and recurrence of ventricular arrhythmias and severe left ventricular dysfunction (LVEF &lt;30%) are the main factors related to this increase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Therefore, restoration of euthyroidism should be established as soon as possible, and in emergency cases, the thyroidectomy can be indicated for a rapid resolution of the thyrotoxicosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>AIT cases are divided into two subtypes due to differences in pathophysiology and the need for directed treatment. Type 1 AIT (AIT 1) occurs through autonomous production of thyroid hormones due to iodine overload, particularly with concomitant previous thyroid abnormalities (thyroid nodules or latent Graves&#8217; disease). Type 2 AIT (AIT 2) is the most frequent and occurs in patients with a previously healthy thyroid, corresponding to destructive thyroiditis due to direct amiodarone cytotoxicity in the follicular cells, with consequent release in the hormonal reserves preformed and the thyrotoxicosis induction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref> illustrates the differences in pathophysiology of the two subtypes. Occasionally, this distinction is complicated, and there is an overlap between the two subtypes; these cases are denominated as mixed or undefined forms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Pathophysiology of the main forms of AIT. AIT: amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-05-1038-90757-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagnosis</title>
          <p>Means to identify patients at higher risk of developing thyroid dysfunction secondary to amiodarone use have not yet been defined.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> The American Thyroid Association recommends thyroid function evaluation through serum dosage of thyrotropin (TSH) and free T4 evaluation before starting amiodarone and every three to six months during the medication use. The thyroid function should be evaluated before starting amiodarone, within the first three months after its initiation, and then every three to six months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Initially, patients treated with amiodarone present thyroid function changes; however, the majority return to normal without the need for treatment or drug discontinuation. In the first three months of treatment with amiodarone, there is a rise in the serum levels of TSH, T4 and reverse T3, and a concomitantly decrease of T3. After that, the levels of TSH, T4 and T3 normalize, and T4 may remain at the upper limit of normality or slightly elevated, and the reverse T3 remains elevated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>TSH measurement is the most sensitive and specific method for diagnosing hyperthyroidism, as small changes in free T4 levels cause significant changes in TSH concentrations. In subclinical hyperthyroidism, TSH levels are low or even undetectable, and free T4 and T3 values are norma.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In thyrotoxicosis, TSH is very low or undetectable, and free T4 and/or T3 levels are elevated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The patients with AIT may be asymptomatic or have the typical clinical picture of hyperthyroidism, with symptoms such as palpitations, tremors, sweating, heat intolerance, nervousness and weight loss. Amiodarone beta-adrenergic blockade in the heart may justify the absence of palpitations, which makes AIT clinical presentation even more insidious.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> The diagnosis of thyrotoxicosis is confirmed by suppressed serum TSH levels and elevated levels of free T3 and free T4 thyroid hormones.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The differentiation between the two AIT subtypes can be difficult, although some laboratory parameters associated with thyroid ultrasound with Dopplerfluxometry may be used for the proper distinction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> The characteristics of AIT subtypes are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Main characteristics of AIT subtypes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Characteristics</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Type 1 AIT</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Type 2 AIT</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Previous thyroid changes</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Yes</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Usually no</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dopplerfluxometry</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Increased vascularity</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">No hypervascularity</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Radioactive iodine uptake</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Low, normal or high</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Supressed</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Antithyroid Antibodies</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Present if related to Graves' disease</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Usually absent</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Onset time after starting amiodarone</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Short (median 3 months)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Long (median 30 months)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Spontaneous remission</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">No</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Possible</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Subsequent hypothyroidism</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">No</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Possible</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">First-line treatment</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Antithyroid Drugs</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Oral glucocorticoids</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Subsequent definitive treatment</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Generally yes</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">No</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>Modified from Bartalena L et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> AIT: amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>It was believed that the serum interleukin-6 level was highly elevated in AIT 2 and, therefore, valuable for differentiating AIT subtypes; however, there is an overlap between AIT subtypes; thus, it can not be used for this distinction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Radioiodine uptake (<sup>131</sup>I or <sup>123</sup>I) is helpful in this differentiation in areas of low iodine intake, as in these regions, patients with AIT 2 present suppressed radioiodine uptake. In AIT 1, the uptake may be low, normal or even high. However, in areas with sufficient iodine intake, as in most metropolitan regions of Brazil, radioiodine uptake is always suppressed, making the investigation useless.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The detection of thyroid peroxidase antibodies (anti-TPO)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> and the presence of diffuse or nodular goiters on thyroid ultrasound point to AIT 1,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> nevertheless due to their high prevalence in the population, these findings also do not exclude AIT 2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Several recent studies indicate that the absence of hyperflow on Dopplerfluxometry is suggestive of AIT 2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> However, these findings should not be used alone due to the possibility of mixed forms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Maintain or discontinue amiodarone?</title>
          <p>The need for amiodarone withdrawal is still controversial. In many cases, it is the only medication capable of controlling cardiac arrhythmia, and due to its prolonged half-life, the removal would not bring immediate benefits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> In addition, it is important to note that some patients have a recurrence of thyroid disorders, even months after amiodarone interruption. Furthermore, the drug has T3 antagonist properties and inhibits the conversion of T4 to T3 in the heart, so its removal could aggravate the clinical manifestations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>AIT 2 is generally self-limited, and amiodarone may be maintained in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Observational studies with AIT 2 patients have shown that patients return to euthyroidism even when maintaining the amiodarone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> However, studies show a variation of 8% to 73% of thyrotoxicosis recurrence in patients that continued using the medication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> A 10-year follow-up study involving 50 patients who maintained amiodarone reported only three cases of thyrotoxicosis recurrence, much milder than in the first episode.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The decision to withdraw amiodarone should be individualized and made jointly by the cardiologist and the endocrinologist, considering the risks and benefits of the drug withdrawal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Continuing the medication is widely accepted in critically ill patients with life-threatening arrhythmias who have a good cardiac response to the drug.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> If the cardiac conditions are stable and there is another safe alternative, amiodarone may be discontinued.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment</title>
          <p>Clinically stable patients with evidence that differentiates the treatment&#8217;s subtypes must be established according to the subtype in which the patient fits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In cases of mild thyrotoxicosis with impaired cardiac function, the American Thyroid Association recommends initiating combination therapy with antithyroid drugs and corticosteroids.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>If the patient presents with fast deterioration of cardiac function, emergency thyroidectomy should be performed regardless of AIT subtype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 2</xref> shows the algorithm for AIT management as proposed by the European Thyroid Association.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Since the thyroid is loaded with iodine in AIT cases, radioactive iodine treatment is not feasible for at least six to nine months after the drugwithdrawal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Algorithm for the management of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (AIT). Modified from Bartalena L, et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-05-1038-90757-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment: AIT 1</title>
          <p>AIT 1 treatment is done with antithyroid drugs (ATD), but these are less effective due to the high iodine concentration, and it is necessary to use higher doses (40-60mg/day) methimazole or equivalent doses of propylthiouracil).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> If the patient remains stable, the ATD should be maintained until euthyroidism restoration,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> usually between three to six months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Potassium perchlorate may be associated in the first weeks to decrease thyroid uptake of iodine and make the thyroid more sensitive to the ATD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Due to its toxicity, it should not exceed 1g/day and should not be maintained for more than 4-6 weeks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The thyrotoxicosis may recur or may even not go into remission, and in these cases, the definitive treatment is recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> If amiodarone is discontinued, definitive radioiodine treatment can be done after six to nine months. Thyroidectomy should be considered if amiodarone withdrawal is not possible.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Overall, the definitive treatment of AIT 1 is similar to spontaneous hyperthyroidism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment: AIT 2</title>
          <p>AIT 2 is usually self-limited, yet due to the increased mortality associated with thyrotoxicosis in cardiac patients, the treatment should be instituted to achieve euthyroidism more rapidly.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> The decision to treat mild or subclinical cases should be made considering the patient&#8217;s cardiac alterations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It has been suggested that, in well-defined AIT 2 cases, corticosteroid treatment is more effective than ATD treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> The doses used are 30-40mg/day of prednisone or equivalent dose of another glucocorticoid for two to three months, with subsequent gradual withdrawal based on clinical response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> In severe cases, as well as in AIT 1 and mixed/undefined AIT cases, radical thyroidectomy should be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment: TIA mixed or undefined</title>
          <p>Mixed or undefined forms are not yet fully characterized. However, it is believed that these cases involve mixed pathogenic mechanisms of both subtypes, such as increased hormones production and destructive thyroiditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The treatment of undefined forms should begin with ATD, and oral corticosteroids may be associated at the beginning of the treatment or after 4-6 weeks if the response is small.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> In more severe cases, combination therapy with ATD and corticosteroids should be promptly initiated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment: Thyroidectomy</title>
          <p>Total thyroidectomy is the best option in patients whose clinical treatment is flawed or those with delayed therapeutic response associated with depressed ventricular function, which is currently the best alternative for immediate euthyroidism restoration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Despite the risks associated with thyroidectomy, it should be considered before the patient progresses with severe clinical worsening, as the delay in surgery indication is associated with increased mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Several studies evaluating AIT patients submitted to thyroidectomy reported low morbidity associated with the procedure, showing a 0% to 1.9% mortality rate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a recent observational study, 207 AIT patients submitted to thyroidectomy (57 thyroidectomized, 156 clinical treatment) evidenced lower mortality in patients who underwent thyroidectomy than those who were only treated clinically, particularly in LVEF &lt;40% patients. This same study demonstrated a significant improvement of LVEF after euthyroidism restoration, being more evident in LVEF &lt;40% patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Other three studies also reported significant improvement of cardiac function after thyroidectomy, being three patients removed from the cardiac transplant list after euthyroidism restoration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
          <p>If total thyroidectomy is considered, individualized risk and benefit assessment should be made, and the decision should be multidisciplinary, involving cardiologists, endocrinologists, surgeons, and anesthesiologists. It is essential that a surgeon with high operative volume and experience with thyroidectomies is responsible for the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Total thyroidectomy should be considered when:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Insufficient response to drug treatment with ATD and corticosteroids;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Rapid deterioration of cardiac function;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Advanced heart disease, right ventricular arrhythmogenic dysplasia, and malignant arrhythmias;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <label>&#8211;</label>
              <p>Definitive treatment alternative to radioiodine (I<sup>131</sup>);</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Given the consequences caused by TIA, the importance of diagnosing and treating TIA subtypes together is highlighted. Furthermore, it emphasizes the importance of therapeutic decisions being taken jointly by cardiologists and endocrinologists and that in more severe cases, thyroidectomy should be considered before exaggerated clinical worsening occurs.</p>
        <p>Clinical studies involving patients with AIT are still limited and insufficient, particularly multicenter randomized controlled trials. Since amiodarone is a widely used drug, and due to AIT consequences, the need for new clinical trials to improve the management of these patients is highlighted.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn3">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
