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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">cqkp988DsWvNr9TZcRLsMjM</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="previous-pid" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021005008203</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021001200737</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200322</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200322</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Atorvastatina Atenua o Remodelamento Vascular em Camundongos com S&#237;ndrome Metab&#243;lica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Karine Ferreira da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Amanda Ara&#250;jo Marques</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Nayara Carvalho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Juliano Vilela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5174-5710</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael Menezes da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Jata&#237;</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Unidade Acad&#234;mica de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Jata&#237;</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Jata&#237; - Unidade Acad&#234;mica de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de, Jata&#237;, GO - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Farmacologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Departamento de Farmacologia, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"> Correspond&#234;ncia: Rafael Menezes da Costa &#8226; Universidade Federal de Jata&#237; - Unidade Acad&#234;mica de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de - BR 364, km 195, 3800. CEP 75801-615, Jata&#237;, GO &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>rafael.menezess@yahoo.com.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante, An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Carvalho KFS, Costa RM; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Carvalho KFS, Ferreira AAM, Barbosa NC, Alves JV; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Carvalho KFS, Ferreira AAM, Barbosa NC, Alves JV, Costa RM; Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Costa RM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potencial conflito de interesse</p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>18</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>117</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>737</fpage>
      <lpage>747</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p> This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> A s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica &#233; caracterizada por um conjunto de comorbidades. Durante a s&#237;ndrome, observam-se altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais no sistema cardiovascular, especialmente o remodelamento vascular. Uma das causas predisponentes para essas altera&#231;&#245;es &#233; a inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica oriunda de mudan&#231;as na estrutura e composi&#231;&#227;o do tecido adiposo perivascular. Atorvastatina &#233; eficaz no tratamento das dislipidemias. No entanto, seus efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos n&#227;o s&#227;o totalmente compreendidos. Sup&#245;e-se que, durante a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, ocorre remodelamento vascular e que o tratamento com atorvastatina pode ser capaz de atenuar tal condi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Avaliar os efeitos do tratamento com atorvastatina sobre o remodelamento vascular em modelo experimental de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Camundongos Swiss receberam dieta controle ou dieta hiperglic&#237;dica por 18 semanas. Ap&#243;s 14 semanas de dieta, os camundongos foram tratados com ve&#237;culo ou atorvastatina (20mg/kg) durante 4 semanas. Foram avaliados o perfil nutricional e metab&#243;lico por testes bioqu&#237;micos; an&#225;lise estrutural da art&#233;ria aorta por histologia e dosagem de citocinas por ensaio imunoenzim&#225;tico. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia aceit&#225;vel para os resultados foi p &lt;0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> A dieta hiperglic&#237;dica promoveu o desenvolvimento de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica. Tal fato culminou no remodelamento hipertr&#243;fico do m&#250;sculo liso vascular e tecido adiposo perivascular. Al&#233;m disso, houve aumentos das citocinas TNF-&#945; e IL-6 circulantes e no tecido adiposo perivascular. O tratamento com atorvastatina reduziu significativamente os danos metab&#243;licos, o remodelamento vascular e os n&#237;veis de citocinas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> Atorvastatina ameniza danos metab&#243;licos associados &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica induzida por dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, al&#233;m de atenuar o remodelamento vascular, sendo esses efeitos associados &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Dislipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Carbohidratos da Dieta</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome Metab&#243;lica</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodelamento Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Atorvastatina</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Camundongo</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>CNPq</funding-source>
          <award-id>433898/2018-06</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>Fontes de financiamento O presente estudo foi financiado pelo CNPq (Processo 433898/2018-06)</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="12"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="61"/>
        <page-count count="11"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares representam grandes riscos para a qualidade de vida da popula&#231;&#227;o no mundo. No Brasil, aproximadamente 350 mil indiv&#237;duos morrem por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares anualmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Dentre as diversas causas predisponentes para riscos cardiovasculares, destaca-se a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (SM), caracterizada por um conjunto de comorbidades que envolvem aumento da circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal (&#8805;89 cm para mulheres e &#8805;102 cm para homens), aumento nos n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos (&#8805;150 mg/dL), redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de colesterol HDL (&#8804;50 mg/dL para mulheres e &#8804;40 mg/dL para homens), aumento nos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos (&#8805;130/85 mmHg) e aumento na glicemia de jejum (&#8805;100 mg/dL). Dentre estas, a presen&#231;a de pelo menos tr&#234;s comorbidades &#233; elementar para o diagn&#243;stico de SM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Durante a SM, observam-se altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais dos componentes do sistema vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Em indiv&#237;duos com SM, h&#225; disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, al&#233;m de aumento na migra&#231;&#227;o e prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas. Observa-se tamb&#233;m a expans&#227;o do tecido adiposo perivascular (PVAT), evidenciada pelo aumento morfol&#243;gico dos adip&#243;citos, bem como a substitui&#231;&#227;o do tecido adiposo marrom pelo tecido adiposo branco, resultando na diminui&#231;&#227;o da libera&#231;&#227;o de fatores relaxantes derivados do PVAT e consequente perda da sua capacidade de a&#231;&#227;o anticontr&#225;til.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A hipertrofia e a substitui&#231;&#227;o dos adip&#243;citos no PVAT s&#227;o capazes de favorecer a produ&#231;&#227;o e o ac&#250;mulo de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Roedores submetidos &#224; dieta hipercal&#243;rica e que desenvolveram SM mostraram aumento e ac&#250;mulo do PVAT nas art&#233;rias aorta e car&#243;tida. Tal fato promoveu a libera&#231;&#227;o de quimiocinas e recrutamento de mon&#243;citos e c&#233;lulas T para o PVAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Neste ambiente inflamat&#243;rio, tamb&#233;m &#233; poss&#237;vel observar o aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de interleucina-6 (IL-6) e o infiltrado de macr&#243;fagos secretores do fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;) no PVAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Este conjunto desencadeia a inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica do sistema vascular, prejudicando a estrutura e a fun&#231;&#227;o dos seus constituintes.</p>
      <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o dos vasos sangu&#237;neos, de fato, contribui para o remodelamento vascular, aumento da resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica e desordens circulat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Neste contexto, o remodelamento vascular &#233; um processo cr&#244;nico adaptativo, caracterizado por altera&#231;&#245;es na estrutura dos vasos sangu&#237;neos, derivadas de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, al&#233;m de intera&#231;&#245;es entre fatores de crescimento, est&#237;mulos hemodin&#226;micos e esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio. Compreende modifica&#231;&#245;es no crescimento, morte e migra&#231;&#227;o celular, e na s&#237;ntese e degrada&#231;&#227;o da matriz extracelular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um fator importante a ser considerado nas altera&#231;&#245;es vasculares encontradas durante a SM &#233; a dislipidemia, uma condi&#231;&#227;o caracterizada pelo aumento de colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos na circula&#231;&#227;o e redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de HDL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Numerosos estudos estabeleceram que a dislipidemia leva a uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria na vasculatura, refletida pela ativa&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas endoteliais, recrutamento de leuc&#243;citos e produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Camundongos hipercolesterol&#234;micos alimentados com dieta hiperlip&#237;dica mostram remodelamento da camada m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria femoral, associado ao recrutamento de macr&#243;fagos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Neste contexto, h&#225; correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre os n&#237;veis de colesterol circulantes, inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica e remodelamento vascular.</p>
      <p>Atorvastatina, inibidora da &#946;-hidroxi-&#946;-metil-glutaril coenzima A redutase, se apresenta como uma das estatinas mais eficazes no tratamento das dislipidemias, reduzindo a produ&#231;&#227;o de colesterol LDL e aumentando a produ&#231;&#227;o de colesterol HDL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> N&#227;o obstante, nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, crescentes evid&#234;ncias, sejam experimentais ou cl&#237;nicas, se acumularam para apoiar a ideia de que a atorvastatina exerce efeitos cardiovasculares ben&#233;ficos, independentemente de seus efeitos prim&#225;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Em um modelo experimental de SM, a atorvastatina foi capaz de melhorar a reatividade e reduzir o remodelamento estrutural de art&#233;rias de resist&#234;ncia; ambos os efeitos foram associados &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o e do estresse oxidativo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a atorvastatina &#233; capaz de inibir a secre&#231;&#227;o de metaloproteinase de matriz-9 em c&#233;lulas vasculares e suprimir a express&#227;o do fator de transforma&#231;&#227;o do crescimento beta, diminuindo a fibrose vascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Esses efeitos <italic>in vitro</italic> da atorvastatina tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associados &#224; sua capacidade anti-inflamat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> No contexto cl&#237;nico, a atorvastatina reduz processos ateroscler&#243;ticos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> e quadros cl&#237;nicos de s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> De fato, dentre os diversos efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos da atorvastatina, &#233; robusta a sua capacidade vasoprotetora. Ainda assim, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias suficientes que atestam sobre os efeitos e os poss&#237;veis mecanismos envolvidos nas a&#231;&#245;es da atorvastatina, sob a perspectiva do m&#250;sculo liso vascular e, de forma in&#233;dita, sob o PVAT como tecidos inflamat&#243;rios em condi&#231;&#245;es de SM. Assim, neste estudo, hipotetizamos que, durante a SM, ocorre remodelamento vascular a n&#237;veis de m&#250;sculo liso vascular e PVAT, ocasionado pelo aumento da inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular. Al&#233;m disso, o tratamento com atorvastatina pode ser capaz de reduzir a inflama&#231;&#227;o vascular e, consequentemente, reverter os preju&#237;zos associados &#224; SM.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Animais e delineamento experimental</title>
        <p>Todos os procedimentos experimentais foram analisados pela Comiss&#227;o de &#201;tica no Uso de Animais da Universidade Federal de Jata&#237; (Protocolo 02/2019). Camundongos Swiss machos, de 3 semanas de idade, foram adquiridos do Biot&#233;rio Central da Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s &#8211; Regional Goi&#226;nia &#8211; e acondicionados no Biot&#233;rio de Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal da Universidade Federal de Jata&#237;, com temperatura controlada de 22 &#177; 2&#186;C, umidade de 50 &#177; 5% e ciclos claro-escuro de 12 horas, com livre acesso a &#225;gua e alimento. Os camundongos foram mantidos durante todo o per&#237;odo experimental em caixas de polipropileno (comprimento [30] &#215; largura [20] &#215; altura [13] cm), na propor&#231;&#227;o de 3 camundongos por caixa.</p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s uma semana de aclimatiza&#231;&#227;o, os camundongos receberam dieta controle ou dieta hiperglic&#237;dica por 18 semanas. Ap&#243;s 14 semanas de dietas, os camundongos foram tratados (diariamente/turno vespertino) por gavagem com ve&#237;culo (solu&#231;&#227;o salina) ou atorvastatina [(20mg/kg), Sigma-Aldrich, #PZ0001, Alemanha] durante 4 semanas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> A dieta controle constitui-se em 22% de prote&#237;na, 70% de carboidrato e 8% de gordura, enquanto a dieta hiperglic&#237;dica constitui-se em 10% de prote&#237;na, 80% de carboidrato e 10% de gordura. A dieta hiperglic&#237;dica foi formada por 33% de dieta controle (Nuvilab&#174; CR1, Nuvital, Brasil), 33% de leite condensado e 7% de sacarose por peso da dieta controle, sendo o restante &#225;gua.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O conte&#250;do energ&#233;tico foi de 12,16 kJ/g para a dieta controle e 13,35 kJ/g para a dieta hiperglic&#237;dica. Os camundongos foram eutanasiados por excesso de anest&#233;sicos (cetamina e xilazina, 140 mg/kg e 12 mg/kg, respectivamente, via intraperitoneal).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perfil nutricional e murinom&#233;trico do modelo experimental</title>
        <p>O perfil nutricional foi determinado pelo consumo de alimentos e consequente ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica, al&#233;m da efici&#234;ncia alimentar. A ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica (por camundongo) foi calculada a partir da ingest&#227;o semanal de alimentos, multiplicada pelo valor energ&#233;tico da dieta (g &#215; kcal). Com a finalidade de analisar a capacidade de o camundongo converter a energia consumida em massa corporal, a efici&#234;ncia alimentar foi calculada, dividindo-se o ganho total de massa corporal (g) pela energia total ingerida (kcal), em porcentagem. O perfil murinom&#233;trico foi determinado pela an&#225;lise da massa e gordura corporal. A massa corporal dos camundongos foi aferida semanalmente, utilizando balan&#231;a anal&#237;tica de precis&#227;o, e a obesidade foi caracterizada, ao final das dietas e tratamentos, pelo &#237;ndice de adiposidade {[gordura corporal (g)/peso corporal final (g)]&#215;100}, sendo a gordura corporal calculada pela soma das gorduras epididimal, retroperitoneal e visceral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Obten&#231;&#227;o de soro e PVAT</title>
        <p>Os camundongos foram submetidos &#224; priva&#231;&#227;o alimentar por 8 horas. Ap&#243;s eutan&#225;sia, amostras de sangue foram coletadas por pun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e transferidas para tubos secos. O sangue foi centrifugado a 2.500 rpm por 15 minutos para separa&#231;&#227;o do soro, utilizado nas dosagens bioqu&#237;micas e citocinas. O PVAT foi retirado mecanicamente dos segmentos de aorta tor&#225;cica, congelado em nitrog&#234;nio l&#237;quido, pulverizado e homogeneizado em tamp&#227;o fosfato salina (PBS) gelado. O extrato tecidual foi centrifugado a 13.000 rpm por 20 minutos para separa&#231;&#227;o do material insol&#250;vel. O sobrenadante foi coletado para as dosagens de citocinas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do perfil lip&#237;dico e glic&#234;mico</title>
        <p>Foram determinados os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de colesterol total, triglicer&#237;deos e HDL (lipoprote&#237;nas de alta densidade), por m&#233;todos enzim&#225;ticos ( <italic>kits</italic> Labtest, Brasil), em amostras de soros provenientes da centrifuga&#231;&#227;o do sangue total. A partir da concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de triglicer&#237;deos, foram calculadas as concentra&#231;&#245;es de VLDL (lipoprote&#237;nas de muita baixa densidade), utilizando-se o seguinte c&#225;lculo: VLDL (mg/dL) = triglicer&#237;deos (mg/dL)/5. A partir da concentra&#231;&#227;o de HDL e VLDL, foi calculada a concentra&#231;&#227;o de LDL (lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade), utilizando o c&#225;lculo: LDL (mg/dL) = colesterol total &#8211; HDL &#8211; VLDL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A glicemia foi determinada ap&#243;s o tratamento com dietas. Uma gota de sangue foi colocada em fitas individuais espec&#237;ficas para leitura em glicos&#237;metro (Accu-Check Active, Alemanha).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Teste oral de toler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose (TOTG)</title>
        <p>Um dia anterior ao final da 18&#170; semana de dietas e tratamentos, ap&#243;s 8 horas de jejum, a glicemia de cada camundongo foi verificada por glicos&#237;metro (Accu-Check Active, Alemanha), caracterizando a glicemia do tempo zero. Em seguida, glicose na dose de 2 g/kg foi administrada aos camundongos por gavagem. A partir desse momento, o cron&#244;metro foi acionado e novas determina&#231;&#245;es da glicemia foram feitas nos tempos de 30, 60, 90 e 120 minutos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o morfoestrutural do m&#250;sculo liso vascular e do PVAT</title>
        <p>Aortas da regi&#227;o tor&#225;cica foram removidas e ent&#227;o fixadas por 24 horas em paraformalde&#237;do a 4%. As etapas seguintes envolveram a desidrata&#231;&#227;o em concentra&#231;&#245;es crescentes de &#225;lcool et&#237;lico (70%, 80%, 90% e 100%) por 120 minutos, com posterior diafaniza&#231;&#227;o em &#225;lcool et&#237;lico absoluto cada (1:1) 1, 2 e 3 por 120 minutos e em xilol 1, 2 e 3 por 30 minutos, com posterior inclus&#227;o em parafina. As aortas foram inclu&#237;das em parafina e cortadas em micr&#243;tomo na espessura de 4,5 &#181;m, para posterior colora&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Para a colora&#231;&#227;o de hematoxilina e eosina, os cortes em l&#226;minas foram submetidos ao processo de desparafiniza&#231;&#227;o, sendo mantidos em estufa a 65&#186;C, posterior imers&#227;o em xilol 1 e 2 por 20 minutos. Em seguida, foram imergidos em solu&#231;&#245;es decrescentes (100%, 90%, 70% e 50%) de &#225;lcool et&#237;lico durante 5 minutos e imersos em &#225;gua destilada por 10 minutos. Seguida a hidrata&#231;&#227;o, as l&#226;minas foram imersas em corante hematoxilina por 6 minutos e, logo ap&#243;s, lavadas em &#225;gua corrente por 10 minutos. A seguir, foram imersas em corante eosina por 6 minutos. Os cortes corados foram novamente desidratados e diafanizados, sendo montados com meio de montagem Permount<sup>&#174;</sup> (Fisher Scientific, EUA) e lam&#237;nulas.</p>
        <p>Imagens coloridas foram obtidas por c&#226;mera digital acoplada &#224; microsc&#243;pio &#243;ptico e analisadas pelo programa ImageJ (Instituto Nacional de Sa&#250;de, EUA). Para an&#225;lise das imagens, foi delimitado o l&#250;men, a t&#250;nica m&#233;dia e advent&#237;cia com o objetivo de calcular as seguintes vari&#225;veis morfom&#233;tricas: &#225;rea de sec&#231;&#227;o transversal (AST) da t&#250;nica m&#233;dia e espessura da t&#250;nica m&#233;dia. O volume dos adip&#243;citos (v) foi calculado a partir da f&#243;rmula v = &#960;d<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> /6, em que (d) representa o di&#226;metro dos adip&#243;citos. A massa do adip&#243;cito se deu pelo volume multiplicado pela densidade (0,92 g/cm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> ). O n&#250;mero de adip&#243;citos foi determinado dividindo-se a massa do PVAT pela massa m&#233;dia de adip&#243;citos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Determina&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias</title>
        <p>Os n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; e IL-6 no soro e no PVAT foram feitos pelo m&#233;todo imunoenzim&#225;tico (ELISA) utilizando <italic>kits</italic> DuoSet ELISA Development Systems (R&amp;D Systems, EUA) de acordo com as informa&#231;&#245;es do fabricante. Placas de microtitula&#231;&#227;o (96 po&#231;os) foram recobertas com 50 &#956;L/po&#231;o dos anticorpos espec&#237;ficos anti-TNF-&#945; e anti-IL-6, nas concentra&#231;&#245;es descritas pelo fabricante, dilu&#237;dos em PBS e incubados <italic>overnight</italic> a 4&#186;C. As placas foram lavadas com PBS/Tween-20 (0,05%), e as liga&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o espec&#237;ficas foram bloqueadas com 100 &#956;L de PBS contendo albumina do soro bovino 1% durante 2 horas em temperatura ambiente. Posteriormente, as amostras foram adicionadas, seguindo nova incuba&#231;&#227;o por 2 horas em temperatura ambiente. Ap&#243;s esse per&#237;odo, as placas foram lavadas e foram adicionados 50 &#956;L dos anticorpos biotinilados espec&#237;ficos para cada citocina. Ap&#243;s 2 horas, as placas foram lavadas e o conjugado estreptavidina-peroxidase, na dilui&#231;&#227;o de 1:40, foi adicionado a cada po&#231;o. As placas foram incubadas por 1 hora em temperatura ambiente. Posteriormente, as placas foram lavadas e adicionou-se a dosagem de 100 &#956;L do substrato tetrametilbenzidina. A densidade &#243;tica foi medida a 630 nm no espectrofot&#244;metro SpectraMAX 190 Microplate Reader (Molecular Devices, EUA). Os n&#237;veis de citocinas contidas nas amostras foram calculados a partir de uma curva padr&#227;o com 11 pontos obtidos por dilui&#231;&#227;o seriada. Os resultados foram expressos em pg/mL para amostras de soro, e pg/mg de prote&#237;na para amostras de PVAT.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>Os resultados foram expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP). Os dados seguiram distribui&#231;&#227;o normal de acordo com o teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. Os resultados foram analisados pelo teste de an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia de duas vias (Two-Way ANOVA), seguido do p&#243;s-teste Tukey. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia m&#237;nima aceit&#225;vel foi p &lt;0,05. Por conveni&#234;ncia, o n&#250;mero de camundongos para cada grupo experimental foi igual a 6. O programa Prisma, vers&#227;o 8.0 (GraphPad Software Inc., EUA) foi utilizado para analisar esses par&#226;metros, bem como para a constru&#231;&#227;o dos gr&#225;ficos.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Perfil nutricional e murinom&#233;trico</title>
        <p>A ingest&#227;o alimentar e a consequente ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica foram maiores nos camundongos mantidos com dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, bem como a efici&#234;ncia alimentar; no entanto, este &#250;ltimo par&#226;metro foi reduzido ap&#243;s o tratamento com atorvastatina. Os par&#226;metros murinom&#233;tricos, como ganho de massa, dep&#243;sitos de gorduras epididimal, retroperitoneal e visceral foram maiores nos camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica quando comparados aos camundongos mantidos em dieta controle. O tratamento com atorvastatina promoveu redu&#231;&#227;o de tais par&#226;metros ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ). Os camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica apresentaram maior aumento de massa corporal quando comparados aos camundongos mantidos em dieta controle. Al&#233;m disso, camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica e tratados com atorvastatina apresentaram redu&#231;&#227;o de massa corporal ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1A</xref> ). O &#237;ndice de adiposidade, par&#226;metro para determinar a obesidade, foi maior nos camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica quando comparados aos camundongos mantidos em dieta controle. O tratamento com atorvastatina promoveu redu&#231;&#227;o no &#237;ndice de adiposidade dos camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1B</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Comportamento alimentar e avalia&#231;&#227;o ponderal dos dep&#243;sitos de gordura corporal</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                  <th>Dieta C + Ve&#237;culo</th>
                  <th>Dieta C + Atorvastatina</th>
                  <th>Dieta H + Ve&#237;culo</th>
                  <th>Dieta H + Atorvastatina</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ingest&#227;o alimentar (g/semana)</td>
                  <td align="center">22,6 &#177; 0,3</td>
                  <td align="center">21,3 &#177; 0,4</td>
                  <td align="center">31,7 &#177; 0,2</td>
                  <td align="center">31,1 &#177; 0,5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica (kcal/semana)</td>
                  <td align="center">274,8 &#177; 3,7</td>
                  <td align="center">259,1 &#177; 4,9</td>
                  <td align="center">423,1 &#177; 2,67*</td>
                  <td align="center">415,2 &#177; 6,7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Efici&#234;ncia alimentar (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,51 &#177; 0,01</td>
                  <td align="center">0,53 &#177; 0,01</td>
                  <td align="center">0,64 &#177; 0,02*</td>
                  <td align="center">0,47 &#177; 0,03<sup>#</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ganho de massa (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">25,0 &#177; 2,31</td>
                  <td align="center">24,5 &#177; 2,25</td>
                  <td align="center">37,3 &#177; 1,52*</td>
                  <td align="center">27,9 &#177; 1,22<sup>#</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gordura epididimal (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,97 &#177; 0,12</td>
                  <td align="center">1,13 &#177; 0,11</td>
                  <td align="center">2,68 &#177; 0,24*</td>
                  <td align="center">1,31 &#177; 0,09<sup>#</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gordura retroperitoneal (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,32 &#177; 0,06</td>
                  <td align="center">0,61 &#177; 0,19</td>
                  <td align="center">1,88 &#177; 0,12*</td>
                  <td align="center">0,93 &#177; 0,19<sup>#</sup></td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Gordura visceral (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,75 &#177; 0,15</td>
                  <td align="center">0,94 &#177; 0,13</td>
                  <td align="center">1,67 &#177; 0,11*</td>
                  <td align="center">1,01 &#177; 0,17<sup>#</sup></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>
                  <italic>Dados expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; DP. *, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta C + ve&#237;culo; <sup>#</sup>, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta H + ve&#237;culo (n = 6 para cada grupo experimental). Dieta C: dieta controle, dieta H: dieta hiperglic&#237;dica.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Atorvastatina atenua a obesidade associada &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica induzida por dieta hiperglic&#237;dica. As figuras mostram valores de massa corporal (A) e &#237;ndice de adiposidade (B) de camundongos mantidos por 18 semanas em dieta controle ou dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, tratados com ve&#237;culo ou atorvastatina (20 mg/kg por 4 semanas). Os resultados representam a m&#233;dia &#177; DP. *, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta controle_ve&#237;culo; #, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta hiperglic&#237;dica_ve&#237;culo (n = 6 para cada grupo experimental).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perfil lip&#237;dico</title>
        <p>Os camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica apresentaram dislipidemia quando comparados aos camundongos que receberam dieta controle. A dislipidemia pode ser observada a partir do aumento nos n&#237;veis de colesterol total ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2A</xref> ), em que as fra&#231;&#245;es LDL ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2B</xref> ) e VLDL ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2C</xref> ) se encontraram aumentadas e a fra&#231;&#227;o HDL ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2D</xref> ), diminu&#237;da. Houve tamb&#233;m aumento nos n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos dos camundongos que receberam dieta hiperglic&#237;dica em compara&#231;&#227;o aos que foram mantidos em dieta controle ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 2E</xref> ). Os camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica e que foram tratados com atorvastatina mostraram redu&#231;&#227;o de tais par&#226;metros lip&#237;dicos.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Atorvastatina atenua a dislipidemia associada &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica induzida por dieta hiperglic&#237;dica. As figuras mostram n&#237;veis de colesterol total (A), LDL (B), VLDL (C), HDL (D) e n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos (E) de camundongos mantidos por 18 semanas em dieta controle ou dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, tratados com ve&#237;culo ou atorvastatina (20 mg/kg por 4 semanas). Os resultados representam a m&#233;dia &#177; DP. *, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta controle_ve&#237;culo; #, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta hiperglic&#237;dica_ve&#237;culo (n = 6 para cada grupo experimental).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perfil glic&#234;mico</title>
        <p>A glicemia de jejum dos camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica estava aumentada quando comparada &#224; glicemia de jejum dos camundongos mantidos em dieta controle. Os camundongos que receberam dieta hiperglic&#237;dica e tratamento com atorvastatina n&#227;o mostraram redu&#231;&#227;o na concentra&#231;&#227;o glic&#234;mica ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3A</xref> ). No TOTG ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3B</xref> ), camundongos que receberam dieta hiperglic&#237;dica apresentaram aumento na concentra&#231;&#227;o glic&#234;mica quando comparados aos camundongos que receberam dieta controle, sendo que, mesmo com o passar do tempo, os n&#237;veis de glicose n&#227;o retornaram aos n&#237;veis basais, como observado nos camundongos que receberam dieta controle. Al&#233;m disso, camundongos que receberam dieta hiperglic&#237;dica e tratados com atorvastatina apresentaram, com o passar do tempo, menor glicemia. A &#225;rea sob a curva reflete os efeitos citados ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 3C</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Atorvastatina atenua a intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose associada &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica induzida por dieta hiperglic&#237;dica. As figuras mostram n&#237;veis de glicemia em jejum (A), curvas glic&#234;micas (B) e &#225;rea sob a curva (C), obtidas no teste oral de toler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose de camundongos mantidos por 18 semanas em dieta controle ou dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, tratados com ve&#237;culo ou atorvastatina (20 mg/kg por 4 semanas). Os resultados representam a m&#233;dia &#177; DP. *, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta controle_ve&#237;culo; &amp;, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta controle_atorvastatina; #, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta hiperglic&#237;dica_ve&#237;culo (n = 6 para cada grupo experimental).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Morfologia muscular lisa</title>
        <p>Camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica apresentaram aumento na AST vascular quando comparados aos camundongos mantidos em dieta controle. Camundongos que receberam dieta hiperglic&#237;dica e foram tratados com atorvastatina mostraram redu&#231;&#227;o na AST ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4A</xref> ). De modo similar, camundongos que receberam dieta hiperglic&#237;dica apresentaram aumento na espessura da camada m&#233;dia do vaso quando comparados aos camundongos que receberam dieta controle. O tratamento com atorvastatina foi capaz de reduzir este aumento na espessura da camada m&#233;dia ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4B</xref> ).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Atorvastatina atenua o remodelamento do m&#250;sculo liso vascular associado &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica induzida por dieta hiperglic&#237;dica. As figuras mostram imagens representativas, tamanho da AST (A) e espessura da parede do vaso (B) de camundongos mantidos por 18 semanas em dieta controle ou dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, tratados com ve&#237;culo ou atorvastatina (20 mg/kg por 4 semanas). Os resultados representam a m&#233;dia &#177; DP. *, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta controle_ve&#237;culo; #, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta hiperglic&#237;dica_ve&#237;culo (n = 6 para cada grupo experimental). Dieta C: dieta controle, Dieta H: dieta hiperglic&#237;dica.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Morfologia do tecido adiposo perivascular</title>
        <p>Para verificar se houve altera&#231;&#245;es na morfologia do PVAT, foi avaliada a t&#250;nica advent&#237;cia a partir da medida e do n&#250;mero dos adip&#243;citos presentes na mesma, sendo poss&#237;vel observar que os camundongos que receberam dieta hiperglic&#237;dica apresentaram adip&#243;citos maiores ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 5A</xref> ) e em menor n&#250;mero ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 5B</xref> ) quando comparados com os camundongos que receberam dieta controle. O grupo que recebeu dieta hiperglic&#237;dica e tratamento com atorvastatina obteve redu&#231;&#227;o no tamanho e aumento no n&#250;mero dos adip&#243;citos.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Atorvastatina atenua o remodelamento do PVAT associado &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica induzida por dieta hiperglic&#237;dica. As figuras mostram imagens representativas (A) e o tamanho de adip&#243;citos PVAT (B) de camundongos mantidos por 18 semanas em dieta controle ou dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, tratados com ve&#237;culo ou atorvastatina (20 mg/kg por 4 semanas). Os resultados representam a m&#233;dia &#177; DP. *, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta controle_ve&#237;culo; #, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta hiperglic&#237;dica_ve&#237;culo (n = 6 para cada grupo experimental). Dieta C: dieta controle, Dieta H: dieta hiperglic&#237;dica.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf05.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perfil inflamat&#243;rio</title>
        <p>Foram determinadas as concentra&#231;&#245;es de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias TNF-&#945; ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figuras 6A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">6C</xref> ) e IL-6 ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figuras 6B</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">6D</xref> ) no soro e no PVAT. Os camundongos que receberam dieta hiperglic&#237;dica apresentaram maiores concentra&#231;&#245;es de TNF-&#945; e IL-6, tanto no soro quanto no PVAT, quando comparados aos camundongos que receberam dieta controle. O tratamento com atorvastatina reduziu os n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; e IL-6, tanto no soro quanto no PVAT, de camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f06">
            <label>Figura 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Atorvastatina atenua os aumentos nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias associados &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica induzida por dieta hiperglic&#237;dica. As figuras mostram n&#237;veis de TNF-&#945; (A e C) e IL-6 (B e D) no soro e no PVAT, respectivamente, de camundongos mantidos por 18 semanas em dieta controle ou dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, tratados com ve&#237;culo ou atorvastatina (20 mg/kg por 4 semanas). Os resultados representam a m&#233;dia &#177; DP. *, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta controle_ve&#237;culo; &amp;, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta controle_atorvastatina; #, p &lt;0,05 vs. dieta hiperglic&#237;dica_ve&#237;culo (n = 6 para cada grupo experimental).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf06.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>A dieta hiperglic&#237;dica resultou em mudan&#231;as murinom&#233;tricas e metab&#243;licas em camundongos. Silva et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> submeteu um modelo experimental &#224; dieta semelhante, verificando aumentos em id&#234;nticos par&#226;metros utilizados neste estudo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Neste contexto, Leopoldo et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> utilizando modelos experimentais, definiu as categorias de adiposidade ap&#243;s submiss&#227;o &#224; dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, tais quais variam entre: normal &#8211; &#237;ndice de adiposidade (%) 4,17 a 4,55; excesso de peso &#8211; &#237;ndice de adiposidade (%) 5,69 a 6,23; e obesidade &#8211; &#237;ndice de adiposidade (%) 7,53 a 10,02.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Nossos resultados demostram &#237;ndice de adiposidade de aproximadamente 10% para os camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, o que classifica o modelo experimental como obeso.</p>
      <p>A glicose &#233; um carboidrato que atua como uma das principais fontes de energia para o organismo e, em excesso, atrav&#233;s de vias metab&#243;licas, &#233; armazenada em forma de glicog&#234;nio. Se a capacidade de armazenamento da ingesta de carboidratos excede a glicog&#234;nese, o excedente &#233; convertido em triacilglicer&#243;is e &#233; incorporado a colester&#243;is provenientes da dieta e a apolipoprote&#237;nas, respons&#225;veis pelo transporte de triglicer&#237;deos at&#233; os tecidos de armazenamento, como, por exemplo, o tecido adiposo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Dessa forma, o excesso de carboidratos ofertados na dieta dos camundongos corrobora para o aumento da massa corporal e do &#237;ndice de adiposidade.</p>
      <p>Os camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica apresentaram dislipidemia e aumento da glicose s&#233;rica em jejum. Mullugeta et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> demostrou, em portadores de diabetes melito do tipo 2, que a hiperglicemia e a resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina est&#227;o associados &#224; dislipidemia, ou seja, hiperglicemia promove preju&#237;zos no metabolismo lip&#237;dico. Al&#233;m disso, demostrou-se que indiv&#237;duos hiperglic&#234;micos apresentam valores s&#233;ricos de triglicer&#237;deos, colesterol total e fra&#231;&#245;es aumentados quando comparados aos indiv&#237;duos normoglic&#234;micos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O tratamento com atorvastatina se mostrou eficiente para o controle dos n&#237;veis de colesterol total e fra&#231;&#245;es. Al&#233;m disso, a atorvastatina reduziu os n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos, a massa corporal e o &#237;ndice de adiposidade. Silva et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> tamb&#233;m demostrou a efic&#225;cia da atorvastatina em doses di&#225;rias de 10 mg ou 20 mg sobre a corre&#231;&#227;o do perfil lip&#237;dico de indiv&#237;duos, em que, al&#233;m da terap&#234;utica sobre o colesterol, os triglicer&#237;deos tamb&#233;m foram reduzidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Sabe-se que VLDL e LDL s&#227;o lipoprote&#237;nas constitu&#237;das por quantidades significativas de triacilglicer&#243;is; sendo assim, propomos que, com a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de VLDL e LDL, por meio da a&#231;&#227;o da atorvastatina, &#233; observada diminui&#231;&#227;o de triglicer&#237;deos. Parhofer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> descreve o efeito redutor de triglicer&#237;deos principalmente pela a inibi&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ntese de colesterol, e tamb&#233;m salientam que VLDL e LDL t&#234;m o mesmo mecanismo de remo&#231;&#227;o. Assim, ao reduzir a quantidade de LDL na circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, pode-se tamb&#233;m diminuir significantemente os n&#237;veis de VLDL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, de acordo com o TOTG, induziu nos camundongos intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose. Sabe-se que a exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica do organismo &#224; hiperglicemia acaba afetando a atividade insul&#237;nica no que diz respeito a s&#237;ntese, secre&#231;&#227;o e a&#231;&#227;o deste horm&#244;nio, o que, de fato, &#233; observado no diabetes melito tipo 2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Sendo assim, &#233; poss&#237;vel sugerir que os resultados levantados no perfil glic&#234;mico de camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica corroboram para o desenvolvimento de diabetes melito tipo 2. Kissebah et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> demonstrou que o aumento da gordura visceral est&#225; associado &#224; intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose e &#224; resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina; Taylor et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> demonstrou que a gordura visceral est&#225; relacionada com o desenvolvimento de diabetes melito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Estudos descrevem que o aumento da gordura visceral predisp&#245;e a produ&#231;&#227;o e secre&#231;&#227;o de citocinas, tais como IL-6 e TNF-&#945;, e adipocinas como resistina e adiponectina, que est&#227;o associadas ao desenvolvimento de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e disfun&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo e no controle da glicose, por interfer&#234;ncia na sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular na insulina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> O aumento da gordura visceral, bem como o aumento de TNF-&#945; e IL-6, justificam o desequil&#237;brio no perfil glic&#234;mico.</p>
      <p>A terapia com atorvastatina foi capaz de atenuar a intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose nos camundongos mantidos em dieta hiperglic&#237;dica. Huptas, et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> obteve resultados promissores em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento de indiv&#237;duos portadores de SM com atorvastatina, ele demostrou melhoras no metabolismo da glicose mediante a redu&#231;&#227;o da intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose e da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina. Suzuki et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> utilizando modelos experimentais de intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose e de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, realizou TOTG e teste de toler&#226;ncia &#224; insulina (TTI) com ou sem o tratamento com atorvastatina, e demostrou que o grupo tratado tem TOTG e TTI reduzidos em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo que recebeu ve&#237;culo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
      <p>N&#227;o se sabe ao certo por quais mecanismos a atorvastatina melhora os par&#226;metros relacionados ao metabolismo da glicose. Tal melhora pode estar relacionada &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o do processo de gliconeog&#234;nese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> No entanto, &#233; poss&#237;vel sugerir que tal redu&#231;&#227;o da intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose pode estar relacionada com a redu&#231;&#227;o dos dep&#243;sitos de gordura visceral; al&#233;m disso, pode estar relacionada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas (TNF-&#945; e IL-6), que s&#227;o potenciais causas de disfun&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas.</p>
      <p>De acordo com Mulvany (1999), o remodelamento vascular pode ser classificado a partir de medidas da AST e espessura da parede. O aumento da AST e da espessura da parede &#233; caracter&#237;stico de remodelamento do tipo hipertr&#243;fico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Uma das causas do remodelamento vascular &#233; a inflama&#231;&#227;o mediada por aumento de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias. Estudos relacionados &#224; SM mostram que a hipertrofia do PVAT resulta na migra&#231;&#227;o, ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas imunes e aumento da secre&#231;&#227;o dessas citocinas, levando a um processo inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico de baixa intensidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As mudan&#231;as na estrutura e na composi&#231;&#227;o do PVAT refletem-se na t&#250;nica m&#233;dia do vaso, pois, fisiologicamente, o PVAT &#233; constitu&#237;do de adip&#243;citos que agem como reguladores da prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas da musculatura lisa vascular (CMLV). A mudan&#231;a por adip&#243;citos n&#227;o especializados culmina em aumento da prolifera&#231;&#227;o de CMLV e hipertrofia da musculatura lisa. Esta hipertrofia apresenta papel significativo em doen&#231;as vasculares como, por exemplo, reestenose e hipertens&#227;o arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
      <p>TNF-&#945; e IL-6 se encontram em concentra&#231;&#245;es aumentadas durante a inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica presente na obesidade, na resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e na SM. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; clara rela&#231;&#227;o do aumento dessas citocinas em mudan&#231;as fenot&#237;picas do PVAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias promovem o remodelamento e a disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular, uma vez que concentra&#231;&#245;es aumentadas de TNF-&#945; promovem a hiperplasia neointimal e a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. De forma semelhante, a IL-6, quando em concentra&#231;&#245;es aumentadas, pode induzir a infiltra&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos no PVAT, contribuindo para o desenvolvimento de aneurisma e remodelamento vascular associado &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o do PVAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A partir de uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica, foi induzida em coelhos hipercolesterolemia para levantamento das altera&#231;&#245;es que a condi&#231;&#227;o poderia desenvolver nas art&#233;rias pulmonares dos animais. As art&#233;rias apresentaram aumento da prolifera&#231;&#227;o de CMLV, bem como hipertrofia da t&#250;nica m&#233;dia e hiperplasia da t&#250;nica &#237;ntima, al&#233;m disso, no tecido pulmonar, havia grande infiltrado de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias como, por exemplo, macr&#243;fagos; houve aumento de IL-6 no soro desses animais. Os coelhos foram tratados com atorvastatina, evidenciando-se a revers&#227;o da condi&#231;&#227;o hipercolesterol&#234;mica, do remodelamento vascular e dos processos inflamat&#243;rios no tecido pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Similarmente, atorvastatina inibe o remodelamento vascular induzido por aldosterona, via redu&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Como limita&#231;&#227;o desse estudo, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel estabelecer uma rela&#231;&#227;o casu&#237;stica direta entre o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico com atorvastatina, as amenidades no perfil metab&#243;lico e o remodelamento vascular. A partir do delineamento experimental utilizado nesse estudo, mostramos que a atorvastatina reduz a adiposidade e melhora os perfis lip&#237;dicos, glic&#234;micos e inflamat&#243;rios. Na literatura, &#233; cl&#225;ssico que tais fatos s&#227;o ben&#233;ficos para a estrutura e a fun&#231;&#227;o vascular. Sendo assim, n&#227;o temos a clareza absoluta de que o remodelamento vascular atenuado se deu por a&#231;&#245;es diretas da atorvastatina sobre a vasculatura, ou por meio de efeitos adjacentes ao metabolismo. Ressaltamos que, em organismos multicomplexos, mecanismos isolados n&#227;o justificam a g&#234;nese de doen&#231;as, sendo que, nesse contexto, h&#225; sempre uma vasta intera&#231;&#227;o entre mecanismos e sistemas para tal. Portanto, independentemente da a&#231;&#227;o direta ou pleiotr&#243;pica da atorvastatina, a terapia final se mostra promissora para o contexto deste estudo.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em resumo, este estudo mostra que o tratamento com atorvastatina atenua os danos metab&#243;licos associados &#224; s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica induzida por dieta hiperglic&#237;dica, al&#233;m de atenuar o remodelamento do m&#250;sculo liso vascular e do PVAT, sendo esses efeitos associados &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias TNF-&#945; e IL-6.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4">
        <p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold> O presente estudo foi financiado pelo CNPq (Processo 433898/2018-06)</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Atorvastatin Attenuates Vascular Remodeling in Mice with Metabolic Syndrome</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Karine Ferreira da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Amanda Ara&#250;jo Marques</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Nayara Carvalho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Juliano Vilela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5174-5710</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael Menezes da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Jata&#237; - Unidade Acad&#234;mica de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de, Jata&#237;, GO - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo - Departamento de Farmacologia, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><bold>Mailing address: Rafael Menezes da Costa</bold> &#8226; Universidade Federal de Jata&#237; - Unidade Acad&#234;mica de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de - BR 364, km 195, 3800. Postal Code 75801-615, Jata&#237;, GO &#8211; Brazil E-mail: rafael.menezess@yahoo.com.br</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>Author Contributions</p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Statistical analysis, Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Carvalho KFS, Costa RM; Acquisition of data: Carvalho KFS, Ferreira AAM, Barbosa NC, Alves JV; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Carvalho KFS, Ferreira AAM, Barbosa NC, Alves JV, Costa RM; Obtaining financing: Costa RM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p>Metabolic syndrome is characterized by an array of comorbidities. During this syndrome, structural changes are observed in the cardiovascular system, especially vascular remodeling. One of the predisposing causes for these changes is chronic inflammation resulting from changes in the structure and composition of perivascular adipose tissue. Atorvastatin is effective in the treatment of dyslipidemias. However, its pleiotropic effects have not been completely understood. We hypothesize that metabolic syndrome may lead to vascular remodeling and that atorvastatin therapy may be able to attenuate this condition.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p>To assess the effects of atorvastatin therapy on vascular remodeling in an experimental model of metabolic syndrome.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p>Swiss mice received a control diet or a hyperglicemic diet for 18 weeks. After 14 weeks of diet, mice were treated with vehicle or atorvastatin (20mg/kg) during for 4 weeks. Nutritional and metabolic profiles were assessed by biochemical tests; moreover, a histological assessment of aorta structure was conducted, and cytokine levels were determined by the immunoenzyme assay. The acceptable level of significance for the results was set at p&lt;0.05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p>Hyperglicemic diet promoted the development of metabolic syndrome. It indeed culminated in hypertrophic remodeling of vascular smooth muscle and perivascular adipose tissue. Furthermore, there were increases in the levels of circulating TNF-&#945; and IL-6 and in the perivascular adipose tissue. Atorvastatin therapy significantly reduced metabolic damages, vascular remodeling, and cytokine levels.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p>Atorvastatin attenuate metabolic damages associated with metabolic syndrome induced by hyperglycemic diet, in addition to attenuating vascular remodeling; both effects are associated with reduced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Dietary Carbohydrates</kwd>
        <kwd>Metabolic Syndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>Vascular Remodeling</kwd>
        <kwd>Atorvastatin</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Mice</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Cardiovascular diseases pose great risks for the quality of life of the world population. In Brazil, nearly 350 thousand individuals die from cardiovascular diseases every year.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> One of the most important predisposing causes for cardiovascular risks is metabolic syndrome (MS), characterized by an array of comorbidities involving increased abdominal circumference (&#8805; 89 cm for women and &#8805; 102 cm for men), increased levels of triglycerides (&#8805; 150 mg/dL), reduced levels of HDL cholesterol (&#8804; 50 mg/dL for women and &#8804; 40 mg/dL for men), increased levels of blood pressure (&#8805; 130/85 mmHg), and increased levels of fasting glucose (&#8805; 100 mg/dL). The presence of at least three of these comorbidities is pivotal for the diagnosis of MS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>During MS there are structural and functional changes in components of the vascular system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Individuals with MS present endothelial dysfunction, in addition to increased migration and proliferation of smooth muscle cells. An expansion of perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) is also observed, as shown by morphological increase of adipocytes and by the replacement of brown adipose tissue with white adipose tissue, resulting in a reduction in the release of PVAT-derived relaxing factors and consequent lack of anti-contractile capacity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Hypertrophy and replacement of adipocytes in the PVAT may favor the production and accumulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Rodents that underwent a high-calorie diet and developed MS showed increase in and accumulation of PVAT in the aorta and the carotid arteries. This fact promoted the release of chemokines and recruitment of monocytes and T-cells to PVAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> In this inflammatory environment, increased production of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and infiltrate of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;) releasing macrophages may also be observed in the PVAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> This set triggers chronic vascular system inflammation, impairing the structure and the function of the constituents of this system.</p>
        <p>Blood vessel inflammation indeed contributes to vascular remodeling, increased peripheral resistance, and circulatory desorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> In this context, vascular remodeling is a chronic adaptive process characterized by changes in blood vessel structure derived from pro-inflammatory cytokines, in addition to growth factors, hemodynamic stimulation, and reactive oxygen species. It encompasses changes in cell growth, death, and migration and in synthesis and degradation of the extracellular matrix.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>An important factor to be considered in the vascular changes found during MS is dyslipidemia, a condition characterized by increased circulating levels of cholesterol and triglycerides and reduced levels of HDL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Numerous studies established that dyslipidemia leads to an inflammatory vascular response, reflected in the activation of endothelial cells, recruitment of leukocytes, and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Hypercholesterolemic mice fed with a high-fat diet showed remodeling in the medial layer of the femoral artery, associated with recruitment of macrophages.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In this context, there is a positive correlation between levels of circulating cholesterol, chronic inflammation, and vascular remodeling.</p>
        <p>Atorvastatin, an inhibitor of &#946;-hydroxy-&#946;-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase, has shown to be one of the most effective statins in the treatment of dyslipidemias, reducing the production of LDL-cholesterol and increasing the production of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> However, over the last decades, a growing body of evidence, both experimental and clinical, has accumulated to support the idea that atorvastatin exerts beneficial cardiovascular effects, regardless of its primary effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> In an experimental MS model, atorvastatin was able to improve reactivity and reduce structural remodeling of resistance arteries, both of which were associated with reduced inflammation and reduced oxidative stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Furthermore, atorvastatin is able to inhibit the secretion of matrix metalloproteinase 9 in vascular cells and suppress the expression of transforming growth factor beta, thus reducing vascular fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> These <italic>in vitro</italic> effects of atorvastatin also associated with its anti-inflammatory capacity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> In the clinical context, atorvastatin reduces atherosclerotic processes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> and clinical manifestations of acute coronary syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Indeed, one of the several pleiotropic effects of atorvastatin is its robust vasoprotective capacity. Nevertheless, there is no sufficient evidence to confirm the effects and the possible mechanisms involved in the actions of atorvastatin from the perspective of the vascular smooth muscle and, unprecedentedly, of PVAT as inflammatory tissues in conditions of MS. Therefore, in this study we hypothesize that MS leads to vascular remodeling of vascular smooth muscle and of PVAT, resulting from increased vascular inflammation. Moreover, atorvastatin therapy may be able to reduce vascular inflammation and thus revert the damages associated with MS.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Animals and experimental design</title>
          <p>All experimental procedures were analyzed by the Ethics Committee on Animal Use of Universidade Federal de Jata&#237; (Protocol 02/2019). Three-week old male Swiss mice were obtained from the Central Vivarium of Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s &#8211; Regional Goi&#226;nia and housed in the Animal Experimentation Vivarium of Universidade Federal de Jata&#237;, under a controlled temperature of 22 &#177; 2&#186;C, humidity of 50 &#177; 5%, and 12-hour light/dark cycles, and ad libitum access to water and food. During the entire experimental period, mice were kept in polypropylene cages (30 cm long x 20 cm wide x 13 cm high), in groups of 3 mice per cage.</p>
          <p>After one week of acclimatization, mice received a control diet or a hyperglycemic diet for 18 weeks. After 14 weeks of diet, mice were treated (daily in the afternoon) by gavage with vehicle (saline) or atorvastatin (20mg/kg, Sigma-Aldrich, #PZ0001, Germany) for 4 weeks.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The control diet consisted of 22% of protein, 70% of carbohydrate, and 8% of fat, whereas the hyperglycemic diet consisted of 10% of protein, 80% of carbohydrate, and 10% of fat. The hyperglycemic diet included 33% of control diet (Nuvilab&#174; CR1, Nuvital, Brazil), 33% of condensed milk, and 7% of sucrose by weight, the remaining being water.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> The energy density was 12.16 kJ/g for the control diet and 13.35 kJ/g for the hyperglycemic diet. Mice were euthanized by overdose anesthesia (ketamine and xylazine, 140 mg/kg and 12 mg/kg, respectively, administered intraperitoneally).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Nutritional and murinometric profile of the experimental model</title>
          <p>The nutritional profile was determined by food consumption and consequent caloric intake, in addition to feed efficiency. Caloric intake (by mouse) was calculated based on weekly food intake multiplied by the energy content of the diet (g x kcal). In order to analyze the capacity of each mouse to convert the ingested calories into body mass, feed efficiency was calculated by dividing the overall body mass gain (g) by the overall energy intake (kcal), in percent. The murinometric profile was determined by analysis of body mass and fat. Mice&#8217;s body mass was measured every week using a high accuracy analytical balance, and obesity was characterized by the adiposity index {[body fat (g)/ final body weight (g)]x100} at the end of the diets and treatments, and body fat was calculated by the sum of epididymal, retroperitoneal and visceral fats.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Collection of serum and PVAT</title>
          <p>Mice were subjected to an 8-hour fasting. After euthanasia, blood samples were collected through cardiac puncture and transferred into dry tubes. Blood was centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 15 minutes to separate the serum to be used in the determination of mice&#8217;s biochemical and cytokine levels. PVAT was mechanically removed from segments of the thoracic aorta, frozen in liquid nitrogen, pulverized and homogenized in cold phosphate buffer solution (PBS). The tissue specimen was centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 20 minutes to separate the insoluble material. The supernatant was collected for determination of cytokine levels.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Assessment of lipid and glucose profiles</title>
          <p>Serum levels of total cholesterol total, triglycerides, and HDL-cholesterol were determined by enzymatic methods (kits Labtest, Brazil) in blood samples obtained after whole blood centrifugation. The concentration of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) was calculated based on the serum concentration of triglycerides, using the following formula: VLDL (mg/dL)= Triglycerides (mg/dL)/5. The concentration of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) was calculated based on HDL and VLDL concentrations, using the following formula: LDL (mg/dL) = Total cholesterol total - HDL - VLDL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Glucose was determined after treatment with the diets. A drop of blood was applied to individual test strips specific for blood glucose measurement (Accu-Check Active, Germany).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)</title>
          <p>On the day before the end of the 18th week of diets and treatments, after 8-hour fasting, mice&#8217;s blood glucose was measured by a glucometer (Accu-Check Active, Germany), in order to determine baseline blood glucose levels. Subsequently, a 2 g/kg dose of glucose was administered to mice by gavage. From this moment on, a chronometer was started and new blood glucose measurements were conducted at 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Morphostructural assessment of vascular smooth muscle and PVAT</title>
          <p>Specimens of thoracic aortas were removed and then fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 24 hours. The next stages involved dehydration in increasing concentrations of ethyl alcohol (70%, 80%, 90% and 100%) for 120 minutes, with subsequent diaphanization in absolute ethyl alcohol (1:1) 1, 2 and 3 for 120 minutes and in xylol 1, 2 and 3 for 30 minutes, with subsequent inclusion in paraffin. Aorta specimens were included in paraffin and sectioned in a microtome at a thickness of 4.5 &#181;m for subsequent staining.</p>
          <p>For hematoxylin and eosin staining, slides were deparaffinized, kept in a greenhouse at 65&#186;C, and then immersed in xylol 1 and 2 for 20 minutes. Subsequently, slides were immersed in decreasing concentrations of ethyl alcohol (100%, 90%, 70% and 50%) for 5 minutes and immersed in distilled water for 10 minutes. After hydration, slides were immersed in hematoxylin for 6 minutes and immediately after washed in running water for 10 minutes. Subsequently, they were immerse in eosin for 6 minutes. Sections were dehydrated and diaphanized again and then mounted with Permount&#174; Mounting Medium (Fisher Scientific, USA) and glass slides.</p>
          <p>Stained images were obtained by a digital camera coupled to an optical microscope and analyzed with the ImageJ software (National Institutes of Health, USA). For the analysis of images, lumen, tunica media, and tunica adventitia were delimited in order to calculate the following morphometric variables: cross-sectional area (CSA) and thickness of tunica media. The volume of adipocytes (v) were calculated by the formula v=&#960;d<sup>3</sup>/6, where (d) represents the diameter of adipocytes. The mass of adipocytes was calculated by volume multiplied by density (0.92 g/cm<sup>3</sup>). The number of adipocytes was determined by dividing the mass of PVAT by mean mass of adipocytes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Determination of levels of inflammatory cytokines</title>
          <p>The levels of TNF-&#945; and IL-6 in serum and in the PVAT were assessed by the immunoenzyme assay (ELISA) using DuoSet ELISA Development Systems kits (R&amp;D Systems, USA) according to manufacturer&#8217;s instructions. Microtiter 96-well plates were covered with 50 &#956;l/well of specific anti-TNF-&#945; and anti-IL-6 antibodies at the concentrations described by the manufacturer, diluted in PBS, and incubated overnight at 4&#186;C. Plates were washed with PBS/Tween-20 (0.05%), and nonspecific binding sites were blocked with 100 &#956;l of PBS containing 1% bovine serum albumin for 2 hours at room temperature. Subsequently, samples were added, and a new incubation was conducted for 2 hours at room temperature. After this period, plates were washed and 50&#956;l of biotinylated antibodies specific for each cytokine were added. After 2 hours, plates were washed, and streptavidin-peroxidase conjugate diluted at 1:40 was added to each well. Plates were incubated for 1 hour at room temperature. Subsequently, plates were washed and 100&#956;l of tetramethylbenzidine substrate were added. Optical density was measured at 630 nm in a SpectraMAX 190 Microplate Reader spectrophotometer (Molecular Devices, USA). The levels of cytokines in the samples were calculated based on an 11-point standard curve obtained by serial dilution. Results were expressed in pg/mL for serum samples and pg/mg of protein for samples of PVAT.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>Results were expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD). Data followed a normal distribution, according to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Results were analyzed by two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey post-hoc test. The minimum acceptable level of significance was p&lt;0.05. For convenience reasons, the number of mice for each experimental group was 6. The Prisma software, version 8.0 (GraphPad Software Inc., USA) was used to analyze these parameters and to design the graphs.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Nutritional and murinometric profile</title>
          <p>Food intake and, consequently, calorie intake were higher in mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet, as well as feed efficiency. However, this last parameter was reduced after atorvastatin therapy. Murinometric parameters, such as mass gain, deposits of epididymal, retroperitoneal and visceral fats were higher in mice that received the hyperglycemic diet compared with those that received the control diet. Atorvastatin therapy led to a decrease in these parameters ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> ). Mice on the hyperglycemic diet showed a greater increase in body mass compared to those on the control diet. Furthermore, mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet and treated with atorvastatin had a decrease in their body mass ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1A</xref> ). The adiposity index, the parameter used to determine obesity, was higher in mice that received the hyperglycemic diet compared to those that received the control diet. Atorvastatin therapy led to a decrease in the adiposity index among mice on the hyperglycemic diet ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Figure 1B</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Eating behavior and weight assessment of body fat deposits</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="20%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" style="font-weight:normal"> </th>
                    <th>CD + Vehicle</th>
                    <th>CD + Atorvastatin</th>
                    <th>HD + Vehicle</th>
                    <th>HD + Atorvastatin</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Food intake (g/week)</td>
                    <td align="center">22.6 &#177; 0.3</td>
                    <td align="center">21.3 &#177; 0.4</td>
                    <td align="center">31.7 &#177; 0.2</td>
                    <td align="center">31.1 &#177; 0.5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Calorie intake (kcal/week)</td>
                    <td align="center">274.8 &#177; 3.7</td>
                    <td align="center">259.1 &#177; 4.9</td>
                    <td align="center">423.1 &#177; 2.67*</td>
                    <td align="center">415.2 &#177; 6.7</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Feed efficiency (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.51 &#177; 0.01</td>
                    <td align="center">0.53 &#177; 0.01</td>
                    <td align="center">0.64 &#177; 0.02*</td>
                    <td align="center">0.47 &#177; 0.03<sup>#</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Mass gain (g)</td>
                    <td align="center">25.0 &#177; 2.31</td>
                    <td align="center">24.5 &#177; 2.25</td>
                    <td align="center">37.3 &#177; 1.52*</td>
                    <td align="center">27.9 &#177; 1.22<sup>#</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Epididymal fat (g)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.97 &#177; 0.12</td>
                    <td align="center">1.13 &#177; 0.11</td>
                    <td align="center">2.68 &#177; 0.24*</td>
                    <td align="center">1.31 &#177; 0.09<sup>#</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Retroperitoneal fat (g)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.32 &#177; 0.06</td>
                    <td align="center">0.61 &#177; 0.19</td>
                    <td align="center">1.88 &#177; 0.12*</td>
                    <td align="center">0.93 &#177; 0.19<sup>#</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Visceral fat (g)</td>
                    <td align="center">0.75 &#177; 0.15</td>
                    <td align="center">0.94 &#177; 0.13</td>
                    <td align="center">1.67 &#177; 0.11*</td>
                    <td align="center">1.01 &#177; 0.17<sup>#</sup></td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>
                    <italic>Dados expressed as mean &#177; SD. *, p&lt;0.05 vs. CD + Vehicle;<sup>#</sup>, p&lt;0.05 vs. HD + Vehicle (n=6 for each experimental group). CD: Control Diet, HD: Hyperglycemic Diet.</italic>
                  </p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f01001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Atorvastatin attenuates obesity associated with metabolic syndrome induced by hyperglycemic diet. The figures show body mass (A) and adiposity index (B) of mice fed with a control diet or with a hyperglycemic diet for 18 weeks and treated with vehicle solution or atorvastatin (20 mg/kg for 4 weeks). Results expressed as mean &#177; SD. *, p&lt;0.05 vs. Control Diet_Vehicle; #, p&lt;0.05 vs. Hyperglycemic Diet_Vehicle (n=6 for each experimental group).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Lipid profile</title>
          <p>Mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet had dyslipidemia compared with those fed with the control diet. Dyslipidemia may be observed based on increased levels of total cholesterol ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2A</xref> ), in which LDL ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2B</xref> ) and VLDL ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2C</xref> ) fractions were increased and HDL fraction ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2D</xref> ) was reduced. There was also an increase in the levels of triglycerides of mice that received the hyperglycemic diet compared to those that received the control diet ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 2E</xref> ). Mice on the hyperglycemic diet and treated with atorvastatin showed a decrease in these lipid parameters.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Atorvastatin attenuates dyslipidemia associated with metabolic syndrome induced by hyperglycemic diet. The figures show the levels of total cholesterol (A), LDL (B), VLDL (C), HDL (D), and triglycerides (E) of mice fed with a control diet or with a hyperglycemic diet for 18 weeks and treated with vehicle solution or atorvastatin (20 mg/kg for 4 weeks). Results expressed in mean &#177; SD. *, p&lt;0.05 vs. Control Diet_Vehicle; #, p&lt;0.05 vs. Hyperglycemic Diet_Vehicle (n=6 for each experimental group).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Glucose profile</title>
          <p>Fasting serum glucose of mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet was increased when compared to that of mice fed with the control diet. Mice that received the hyperglycemic diet and atorvastatin therapy did not show a decrease in glucose concentration ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3A</xref> ). In the OGTT ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3B</xref> ), mice on the hyperglycemic diet had an increased glucose concentration compared with mice on the control diet, and blood glucose levels did not return to baseline levels over time, as observed in mice on control diet. Moreover, mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet and treated with atorvastatin had lower blood glucose levels over time. The area under the curve shows the above mentioned effects ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 3C</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Atorvastatin attenuates glucose intolerance associated with metabolic syndrome induced by hyperglycemic diet. The figures show the levels of fasting glucose (A), glucose curves (B), and area under the curve (C) obtained in the oral glucose tolerance tests of mice fed with a control diet or with a hyperglycemic diet for 18 weeks and treated with vehicle solution or atorvastatin (20 mg/kg for 4 weeks). Results expressed as mean &#177; SD. *, p&lt;0.05 vs. Control Diet_Vehicle; &amp;, p&lt;0.05 vs. Control Diet_Atorvastatin; #, p&lt;0.05 vs. Hyperglycemic Diet_Vehicle (n=6 for each experimental group).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Morphology of smooth muscle</title>
          <p>Mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet had an increase in vascular CSA compared to those fed with the control diet. Mice that received the hyperglycemic diet and were treated with atorvastatin showed decreased CSA ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4A</xref> ). Similarly, there was an increase in the thickness of vessel tunica media among mice on the hyperglycemic diet compared to those on the control diet. Atorvastatin therapy was able to reduce this increase in thickness of tunica media ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 4B</xref> ).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Atorvastatin attenuates remodeling of vascular smooth muscle associated with metabolic syndrome induced by hyperglycemic diet. The figures show representatives images, size of CSA (A) and vessel wall thickness (B) of mice fed with a control diet or with a hyperglycemic diet for 18 weeks and treated with vehicle solution or atorvastatin (20 mg/kg for 4 weeks). Results expressed as mean &#177; SD. *, p&lt;0.05 vs. Control Diet_Vehicle; #, p&lt;0.05 vs. Hyperglycemic Diet_Vehicle (n=6 for each experimental group). CD: Control Diet, HD: Hyperglycemic Diet.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Morphology of perivascular adipose tissue</title>
          <p>In order to investigate whether there were changes in PVAT morphology, the present study assessed the size and the number of adipocytes presents in the tunica adventitia. It was possible to observe that mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet had larger adipocytes ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5A</xref> ) and in a smaller number ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 5B</xref> ) compared to mice fed with the control diet. The group that received the hyperglycemic diet and atorvastatin therapy showed a reduction in the size of adipocytes and an increase in their number.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Atorvastatin attenuates PVAT remodeling associated with metabolic syndrome induced by hyperglycemic diet. The figures show representative images (A) and size of PVAT adipocytes (B) of mice fed with a control diet or with a hyperglycemic diet for 18 weeks and treated with vehicle solution or atorvastatin (20 mg/kg for 4 weeks). Results expressed as mean &#177; SD. *, p&lt;0.05 vs. Control Diet_Vehicle; #, p&lt;0.05 vs. Hyperglycemic Diet_Vehicle (n=6 for each experimental group). CD: Control Diet, HD: Hyperglycemic Diet.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Inflammatory profile</title>
          <p>Concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokines called TNF-&#945; ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figures 6A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">6C</xref> ) and IL-6 ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figures 6B</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">6D</xref> ) were determined in the serum and in PVAT. Mice on the hyperglycemic diet showed higher concentration of TNF-&#945; and IL-6, both in serum and in PVAT, compared to mice on the control diet. Atorvastatin therapy reduced the levels of TNF-&#945; and IL-6 both in the serum and in the PVAT of mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f06001">
              <label>Figure 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Atorvastatin attenuates increased concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines associated with metabolic syndrome induced by hyperglycemic diet. The figures show the levels of TNF-&#945; (A and C) and IL-6 (B and D) in serum and in PVAT, respectively, of mice fed with a control diet or with a hyperglycemic diet for 18 weeks and treated with vehicle solution or atorvastatin (20 mg/kg for 4 weeks). Results expressed as mean &#177; SD. *, p&lt;0.05 vs. Control Diet_Vehicle; &amp;, p&lt;0.05 vs. Control Diet_Atorvastatin; #, p&lt;0.05 vs. Hyperglycemic Diet_Vehicle (n=6 for each experimental group).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-04-0737-00322-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>The hyperglycemic diet resulted in murinometric and metabolic changes in mice. Silva et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> subjected an experimental group to a similar diet and found increases in parameters identical to those used in this study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In this context, Leopoldo et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> using experimental models, defined the categories of adiposity after study participants received a hyperglycemic diet, which vary from: normal &#8211; adiposity index (%) 4.17-4.55; overweight &#8211; adiposity index (%) 5.69-6.23; and obesity &#8211; adiposity index (%) 7.53-10.02.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Our results showed an adiposity index of nearly 10% for mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet, which classifies the experimental group as obese.</p>
        <p>Glucose is a carbohydrate that represents one of the main energy sources for the body and, when in excess, through metabolic pathways, is stored as glycogen. If the capacity to store carbohydrate intake exceeds glycogenesis, the remaining excess is converted into triacylglycerol and incorporated into cholesterols obtained from the diet and into apolipoproteins, responsible to transport triglycerides to storage tissues, such as adipose tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Thus, carbohydrate excess in the diet of mice contributes to increases in body mass and adiposity index.</p>
        <p>Mice that received the hyperglycemic diet showed dyslipidemia and increased fasting serum glucose. Mullugeta et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> showed that hyperglycemia and insulin resistance are associated with dyslipidemia in individuals with type II diabetes mellitus, i.e., hyperglycemia leads to impaired lipid metabolism. Furthermore, it was found that hyperglycemic individuals had increased serum levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol and its fractions compared to normoglycemic individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Atorvastatin therapy proved to be efficient to control the levels of total cholesterol and its fractions. Moreover, atorvastatin reduced the levels of triglycerides, body mass, and adiposity index. Silva et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> also showed the effectiveness of atorvastatin in daily doses of 10 mg or 20 mg on the correction of individuals&#8217; lipid profile, in which cholesterol therapy led also to a decrease in the level of triglycerides.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> It is known that VLDL and LDL are lipoproteins consisting significant amounts of triacylglycerols; thus, we propose that by reducing the levels of VLDL and LDL through atorvastatin therapy may lead to reduced levels of triglycerides. Parhofer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> describes the lowering effect of triglycerides, especially by the inhibition of cholesterol synthesis, and also highlight that VLDL and LDL have the same removal mechanism; hence, the reduction in the number of circulating LDL particles may also significantly reduce VLDL levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
        <p>According to the OGTT, the hyperglycemic diet induced glucose intolerance in mice. Chronic exposure to hyperglycemia is known to eventually affect insulin activity with regard to synthesis, secretion of action of this hormone, which is indeed observed in type II diabetes mellitus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Therefore, it is possible to suggest that the results found for the glucose profile of mice on the hyperglycemic diet contribute to the development of type II diabetes mellitus. Kissebah et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> showed that increased visceral fat is associated with glucose intolerance and insulin resistance, and Taylor et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> found that visceral fat is related to the development of diabetes mellitus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Previous studies described that increased visceral fat predisposes to production and secretion of cytokines, such as IL-6 and TNF-&#945;, and adipokines, such as resistin and adiponectin, which are associated with the development of insulin resistance and disorders in glucose metabolism and control, due to interference with insulin intracellular signaling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> Increased visceral fat, as well and increased levels of TNF-&#945; and IL-6, justify the imbalances in glucose profile.</p>
        <p>Atorvastatin therapy was able to attenuate glucose intolerance in mice fed with the hyperglycemic diet. Huptas et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> obtained promising results with atorvastatin therapy in individuals with MS, showing improvements in glucose metabolism through reduced glucose intolerance and reduced insulin resistance. Using experimental models of glucose intolerance and insulin resistance, Suzuki et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> performed OGTT and insulin tolerance test (ITT) in groups treated and not treated with atorvastatin and showed that the treated group had reduced levels of glucose and insulin in OGTT and ITT compared to the group that received the vehicle solution.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The mechanisms through which atorvastatin improves parameters related to glucose metabolism are not known yet. This improvement may be related to decreased gluconeogenesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> However, it is possible to suggest that reduced glucose intolerance may be related to reduced deposits of visceral fat and may also be related to reduced production of cytokines (TNF-&#945; and IL-6), which are potential causes of metabolic disorders.</p>
        <p>According to Mulvany (1999), vascular remodeling may be classified based on measures of CTA and wall thickness. Increased CTA and wall thickness is typical of hypertrophic remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> One of the causes of vascular remodeling is inflammation mediated by increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Studies on MS showed that PVAT hypertrophy results in migration, activation of immune cells and secretion of the above mentioned cytokines, leading to a low-intensity chronic inflammatory process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Changes in the structure and composition of PVAT reflect in vessel tunica media, because PVAT is physiologically constituted by adipocytes that act as regulators of the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). The change to non-specialized adipocytes culminates in increased VSMC proliferation and smooth muscle hypertrophy. This hypertrophy has a major role in vascular diseases such as restenosis and arterial hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
        <p>TNF-&#945; and IL-6 are found in increased concentrations during chronic inflammation present in obesity, insulin resistance, and MS. Additionally, there is a clear relationship between increased levels of these cytokines and phenotypic changes in PVAT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> Pro-inflammatory cytokines promote vascular remodeling and dysfunction, since increased concentrations of TNF-&#945; promote neointimal hyperplasia and endothelial dysfunction. Similarly, increased concentration of IL-6 may induce macrophage infiltration into PVAT, contributing to development of aneurism and vascular remodeling associated with PVAT inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Hypercholesterolemia was induced from a hyperlipidemic diet in rabbits to investigate what changes this condition could develop in their pulmonary arteries. These arteries had increased VSMC proliferation, tunica media hypertrophy, and tunica intima hyperplasia. Furthermore, there were a large infiltrate of inflammatory cells, e.g., macrophages, in lung tissue a higher concentration of serum IL-6 in the rabbits. These animals were treated with atorvastatin, which led to a reversal of hypercholesterolemia, vascular remodeling, and inflammatory processes in lung tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup> Similarly, atorvastatin inhibits aldosterone-induced vascular remodeling by decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The main limitation of this study was the impossibility of establishing a direct causal relationship of pharmacological therapy with atorvastatin with improvements in metabolic profile and vascular remodeling. Based on the experimental design used in this study, we showed that atorvastatin reduces adiposity and improves lipid, glucose and inflammatory profiles. Literature has extensively shown that these facts are beneficial for vascular structure and function. Therefore, it is not clear yet whether attenuated vascular remodeling may be explained by direct actions of atorvastatin on vessels or by effects underlying the metabolism. We reinforce that, in multicomplex organisms, isolated mechanisms do not justify the genesis of diseases, since it always involves a vast interaction between mechanisms and systems. Therefore, regardless whether atorvastatin has a direct or pleiotropic action, the final therapy has shown to be promising for the context of this study.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>In short, this study shows that atorvastatin therapy attenuates the metabolic damages associated with MS induced by hyperglycemic diet, in addition to attenuating remodeling of vascular smooth tissue and PVAT; these effects are associated with reduced levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-&#945; and IL-6.</p>
      </sec>
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    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>Study Association</p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn4001">
          <p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold>: This study was partially funded by CNPq (Process 433898/2018-06).</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
