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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">TBjFWKdsXKFpQvtDrLgYXdm</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021001100544</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200317</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200317</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Les&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s Cirurgia N&#227;o Card&#237;aca &#8211; Estado da Arte</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">UHG</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Ensino e Treinamento Edson de Godoy Bueno</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro de Ensino e Treinamento Edson de Godoy Bueno / UHG, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">UNIALFA</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Col&#233;gio Brasileiro de Executivos em Sa&#250;de CBEXs</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">UNIALFA / Col&#233;gio Brasileiro de Executivos em Sa&#250;de CBEXs, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Sociedad Interamericana de Cardiolog&#237;a</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Cidade do M&#233;xico</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="MX">M&#233;xico</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Sociedad Interamericana de Cardiolog&#237;a (SIAC), Cidade do M&#233;xico - M&#233;xico</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Ant&#244;nio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge</bold> &#8226; Avenida Marques do Paran&#225;, 303, 60 andar, centro, Niter&#243;i. CEP <postal-code>24030-215</postal-code>, RJ &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>lagoeiro@globo.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Jorge AJL, Mesquita ET, Martins WA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>20</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>117</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>544</fpage>
      <lpage>553</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Aproximadamente 300 milh&#245;es de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas s&#227;o realizadas anualmente no mundo, e eventos cardiovasculares adversos s&#227;o as principais causas de morbimortalidade no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. A les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca (MINS, do ingl&#234;s <italic>myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery</italic>) &#233; uma nova entidade cl&#237;nica associada com desfechos cardiovasculares adversos. MINS &#233; definida como uma les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica que pode resultar em necrose secund&#225;ria &#224; isquemia, com eleva&#231;&#227;o dos biomarcadores. A les&#227;o tem import&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica e ocorre em at&#233; 30 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca. Os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para MINS s&#227;o: n&#237;veis elevados de troponina durante ou em at&#233; 30 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, sem evid&#234;ncia de etiologia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, sem que haja necessariamente sintomas isqu&#234;micos ou achados eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos de isquemia. Recentemente, pacientes com maior risco para MINS t&#234;m sido identificados por vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas e biomarcadores, bem como por protocolos de vigil&#226;ncia quanto ao monitoramento eletrocardiogr&#225;fico e dosagem de troponina card&#237;aca. Pacientes idosos com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica pr&#233;via necessitam medir troponina diariamente no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. O objetivo deste trabalho &#233; descrever este novo problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, seu impacto cl&#237;nico e a abordagem terap&#234;utica contempor&#226;nea.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Contus&#245;es Mioc&#225;rdicas</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarcadores</kwd>
        <kwd>Cuidados Pr&#233;-Operat&#243;rios</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="59"/>
        <page-count count="10"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Aproximadamente 300 milh&#245;es de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas s&#227;o realizadas anualmente no mundo, e eventos cardiovasculares adversos s&#227;o as principais causas de morbimortalidade no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> A les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca (MINS, do ingl&#234;s <italic>myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery</italic>) &#233; uma nova entidade cl&#237;nica, diferente do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio (IM) que ocorre no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, e associada com desfechos cardiovasculares adversos, como mostrado no registro internacional VISION.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> MINS &#233; definida como uma les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica que pode resultar em necrose secund&#225;ria &#224; isquemia, com eleva&#231;&#227;o dos biomarcadores. A les&#227;o tem import&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica e ocorre em at&#233; trinta dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> MINS tem uma incid&#234;ncia estimada de oito milh&#245;es de pacientes por ano, e associa&#231;&#227;o independente com o risco de morte e complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio inicial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Esquema de desenvolvimento de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca (MINS, do ingl&#234;s myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery).</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-03-0544-00317-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>A relev&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica pode ser demonstrada pela associa&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos propostos com taxas de mortalidade de 30 dias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> e de dois anos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
      <p>MINS n&#227;o inclui les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica perioperat&#243;ria por causas n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas, tais como sepse, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, embolismo pulmonar, e insufici&#234;ncia renal, ou n&#237;veis de troponina cronicamente elevados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para MINS s&#227;o: n&#237;veis elevados de troponina no per&#237;odo de 30 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, considerados secund&#225;rios &#224; isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, isto &#233;, sem evid&#234;ncia de etiologia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, e sem a exig&#234;ncia da presen&#231;a de sintoma isqu&#234;mico ou achado eletrocardiogr&#225;fico de isquemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Apesar de MINS ser um fen&#244;meno p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio comum e altamente reconhecido, sua incid&#234;ncia, fatores de risco, fisiopatologia, e implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas n&#227;o s&#227;o completamente definidos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> As complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares s&#227;o uma causa de morbidade e mortalidade em pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, e estudos mostraram que a incid&#234;ncia de IM no perioperat&#243;rio corresponde a 6,2% de todas as cirurgias realizadas. A fisiopatologia dos eventos cardiovasculares no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio &#233; complexa, e envolve, entre outros, indu&#231;&#227;o anest&#233;sica, sangramento, anemia, hip&#243;xia, e dor no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, causando eleva&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de catecolaminas e na s&#237;ntese de cortisol, e um estado de hipercoagulabilidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> Recentemente, pacientes com maior risco para MINS t&#234;m sido identificados por vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas e biomarcadores, bem como por protocolos de vigil&#226;ncia quanto ao monitoramento eletrocardiogr&#225;fico e dosagem de troponina card&#237;aca. Assim, em pacientes idosos com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica pr&#233;via, sugere-se que os n&#237;veis de troponina sejam dosados por tr&#234;s dias no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A predi&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; dif&#237;cil e imprecisa, e as medidas de troponina parecem exercer um papel importante nesse cen&#225;rio. Estudos mostram que a troponina card&#237;aca ultrassens&#237;vel (Tn-us) pode ser detectada na maioria dos pacientes antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, e que valores mais elevados est&#227;o associados com risco aumentado. Portanto, o uso da Tn-us pode melhorar a predi&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas ap&#243;s a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Apesar do aumento na literatura sobre o assunto e de evid&#234;ncia cient&#237;fica, MINS &#233; pouco reconhecido, uma vez que, atualmente, n&#227;o existe consenso global sobre sua defini&#231;&#227;o ou crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos. Muitos estudos utilizam diferentes terminologias, tais como IM no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio/p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> ou les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica perioperat&#243;ria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> para descrever o fen&#244;meno. Al&#233;m disso, os pontos de corte para os n&#237;veis de troponina para fins diagn&#243;sticos variam entre estudos, dependendo do subtipo de troponina e do m&#233;todo utilizado para sua detec&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). Ainda, a presen&#231;a de MINS tem atra&#237;do pouca aten&#231;&#227;o entre cardiologistas e m&#233;dicos em hospitais, em termos do diagn&#243;stico, implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, e progn&#243;stico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> O objetivo deste artigo foi descrever esse novo problema cl&#237;nico com repercuss&#245;es sobre a sa&#250;de p&#250;blica e a abordagem terap&#234;utica contempor&#226;nea.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <label>Tabela 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Crit&#233;rios para caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca (MINS), les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica no perioperat&#243;rio, e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio nos per&#237;odos perioperat&#243;rio e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th valign="top" align="center"/>
              <th valign="top" align="center">Crit&#233;rios</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></td>
              <td valign="top" align="center">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Evid&#234;ncia de valores elevados de troponina card&#237;aca, com pelo menos um valor acima do limite superior de refer&#234;ncia no percentil 99;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas n&#227;o precisam estar presentes;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>A les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica &#233; considerada aguda se houver eleva&#231;&#227;o e/ou queda dos n&#237;veis de troponina card&#237;aca;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Libera&#231;&#227;o de biomarcadores card&#237;acos sem evid&#234;ncia de isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio;</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca (MINS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></td>
              <td valign="top" align="center">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Definida como les&#227;o celular mioc&#225;rdica durante os primeiros 30 dias ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca de etiologia isqu&#234;mica e independentemente associada com mortalidade;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Aus&#234;ncia de outras condi&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas;</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica perioperat&#243;ria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></td>
              <td valign="top" align="center">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Normalmente n&#227;o exibe sintomas t&#237;picos de isquemia mioc&#225;rdicas;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Eletrocardiograma tem sensibilidade muito baixa para o diagn&#243;stico;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Detec&#231;&#227;o e a quantifica&#231;&#227;o de les&#227;o aguda de cardiomi&#243;citos pela medida de troponina card&#237;aca;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Definida como aumento absoluto nos n&#237;veis de troponina ultrassens&#237;vel &#8805; 14 ng/L acima dos valores pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, fortemente associada com mortalidade em 30 dias</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Infarto do mioc&#225;rdio nos per&#237;odos perioperat&#243;rio e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></td>
              <td valign="top" align="center">
                <list list-type="bullet">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Definido como eleva&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de biomarcadores ou enzimas card&#237;acas (com defini&#231;&#245;es separadas para troponina ou fra&#231;&#227;o MB da creatina quinase), e um ou mais dos seguintes fatores:</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Sintomas isqu&#234;micos;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas em duas deriva&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;guas (i.e., desenvolvimento de ondas Q patol&#243;gicas, eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST, depress&#227;o do segmento ST, ou invers&#227;o da onda T); Interven&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria, ou evid&#234;ncia de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio no exame de imagem ou necr&#243;psia</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Para estruturar este artigo de revis&#227;o, a busca de artigos foi realizada em dois bancos de dados, PubMed e Scielo, utilizando as palavras-chave em ingl&#234;s &#8220;myocardial injury AND non-cardiac surgery&#8221;. A pesquisa foi realizada em janeiro de 2020. Foram inclu&#237;dos estudos prospectivos e retrospectivos, e foram exclu&#237;dos casos cl&#237;nicos e resumos apresentados em congressos. A elegibilidade de cada estudo foi independentemente avaliada por dois investigadores. Opini&#245;es divergentes sobre a relev&#226;ncia dos artigos foram resolvidas por consenso.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Aspectos epidemiol&#243;gicos</title>
          <p>Morte card&#237;aca &#233; a causa principal de mortalidade no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio nos primeiros 30 dias ap&#243;s cirurgia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> De todas as cirurgias realizadas no mundo, estima-se que aproximadamente 100 milh&#245;es envolvem pacientes com idade igual ou superior a 45 anos; cerca de 1,1 milh&#227;o (1,1%) desses sofrem um IM com sintomas de isquemia no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, 2,2 milh&#245;es (2,2%) tem um IM assintom&#225;tico, e 4,6 milh&#245;es (4,6%) sofrem MINS. As taxas de mortalidade em 30 dias nesses tr&#234;s grupos s&#227;o 9,7%, 12,5%, e 7,8%, o que corresponde, anualmente, a mais de 750 mil mortes por isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio e, portanto, a um novo desafio de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica mundial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Pacientes diagnosticados com MINS s&#227;o mais velhos que aqueles sem a doen&#231;a, e a incid&#234;ncia de MINS &#233; significativamente mais alta em homens (17,7%) que em mulheres (16,2%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Ainda, pacientes que desenvolvem MINS t&#234;m mais fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, e uma maior frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Mais que 90% dos pacientes com MINS n&#227;o apresentam eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST ou qualquer outro sintoma de isquemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Smilowitz e Berger<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> conduziram uma meta-an&#225;lise envolvendo 169 estudos, mostrando uma incid&#234;ncia de MINS de 17,9% das cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Entre os 139 estudos em que se mediram sistematicamente os biomarcadores card&#237;acos em todos os pacientes cir&#250;rgicos, MINS ocorreu em 19,6% dos pacientes. Entre os outros 30 estudos, sem medidas de biomarcadores, a incid&#234;ncia de MINS foi de 9,9%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> MINS ocorre mais frequentemente em procedimentos de urg&#234;ncia que em procedimentos eletivos (32,7% vs. 16,6%). A incid&#234;ncia tamb&#233;m varia conforme o subtipo das cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas; a incid&#234;ncia de MINS foi de 10,1% e 18,0% nas cirurgias vasculares e cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas, respectivamente.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fatores de risco</title>
          <p>Estudos t&#234;m relatado a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular ou de pelo menos um fator de risco cardiovascular entre indiv&#237;duos submetidos a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Os pacientes com MINS eram mais propensos a apresentarem press&#227;o arterial elevada, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, IM pr&#233;vio, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, e doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica em compara&#231;&#227;o a pacientes sem MINS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fatores de risco nos per&#237;odos pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, perioperat&#243;rio, e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio para les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca (MINS). AVC: acidente vascular cerebral; NT-ProBNP: N-terminal do pr&#243;-horm&#244;nio do Pept&#237;deo Natriur&#233;tico do tipo B (NT-proBNP). Adaptado de Devereaux &amp; Szczeklik W.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-03-0544-00317-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
          <p>O risco de MINS &#233; maior em indiv&#237;duos submetidos &#224; cirurgia de urg&#234;ncia ou emerg&#234;ncia, cirurgia aberta, transfus&#245;es, tempo de cirurgia prolongado, press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia &lt; 65 mmHg, frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#8805; 110 bpm, e uso de vasopressores no per&#237;odo peiroperat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref></p>
          <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre o tipo de anestesia e MINS continua incerta. Enquanto um estudo mostrou uma associa&#231;&#227;o do sevoflurano com taxas mais baixas de MINS em compara&#231;&#227;o ao propofol (11,7% vs. 29,0%, p = 0,018),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> outros estudos n&#227;o mostraram benef&#237;cio do uso de anest&#233;sicos vol&#225;teis em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de MINS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
          <p>&#201; importante identificar pacientes em risco elevado de eventos card&#237;acos adversos graves, com base na avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria e baixa capacidade funcional (&lt; 4 METs). As diretrizes recomendam avaliar os pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular conhecida, ou aqueles com idade igual ou superior a 45 anos que foram submetidos &#224; cirurgia e requeiram ao menos uma noite de interna&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Custos e acessibilidade s&#227;o considerados determinantes importantes do m&#233;todo utilizado, e estudos observacionais prospectivos avaliaram a capacidade da por&#231;&#227;o N-terminal do pr&#243;-horm&#244;nio do Pept&#237;deo Natriur&#233;tico do tipo B (NT-proBNP) e do Pept&#237;deo Natriur&#233;tico tipo B (BNP) em predizer eventos cardiovasculares maiores ap&#243;s a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca. Em pacientes com idade de 45 anos ou mais, com doen&#231;a cardiovascular importante, ou um &#205;ndice de Risco Card&#237;aco Revisado (IRCR)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> &#8805; 1, recomenda-se medir BNP ou NT-proBNP antes da cirurgia para melhorar o risco card&#237;aco perioperat&#243;rio em vez de se realizar testes de imagens ou exame de estresse card&#237;aco n&#227;o invasivo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Doen&#231;as pulmonares pr&#233;-existentes contribuem para a morbimortalidade perioperat&#243;ria em uma intensidade similar a complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> As taxas de complica&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o mais altas em cirurgias abdominais, tor&#225;cicas, e de cabe&#231;a e pesco&#231;o devido ao impacto sobre os mecanismos respirat&#243;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
          <p>A maioria dos pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular apresentam m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco e comorbidades, e h&#225; evid&#234;ncias crescentes de que fatores de risco cardiovasculares tradicionais tamb&#233;m estejam associados com tromboembolismo venoso, o que aumentaria o risco de MINS. De acordo com grandes estudos prospectivos do tipo coorte, MINS influencia, em curto e em longo prazo, todas as causas de mortalidade ap&#243;s a cirurgia vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fisiopatologia</title>
          <p>A fisiopatologia do MINS ainda n&#227;o foi totalmente definida. N&#227;o est&#225; clara a predomin&#226;ncia de trombose ou de isquemia, apesar de a maioria dos casos ocorrer em pacientes com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica subjacente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> Dois mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos distintos podem ser considerados em pacientes com MINS: ruptura, fissura ou eros&#227;o da placa coronariana, com consequente trombose intraluminal que &#233; equivalente ao infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio do tipo 1 (IAM1), e um desequil&#237;brio entre o fornecimento e a demanda de oxig&#234;nio, e presen&#231;a de placas inst&#225;veis, o que caracteriza o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio do tipo 2 (IAM 2). Estudos sugerem que ambos os mecanismos exercem importante papel na fisiopatologia do MINS no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref></p>
          <p>A confirma&#231;&#227;o de MINS &#233; feita com base nos valores elevados de troponina, segundo grandes estudos prospectivos do tipo coorte que avaliaram n&#237;veis de troponina no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de adultos que se submeteram a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas. MINS n&#227;o inclui les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica perioperat&#243;ria secund&#225;ria a uma etiologia n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica documentada, incluindo fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial parox&#237;stica, sepse, pneumonia, e embolismo pulmonar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
          <p>O estudo OPTIMUS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> avaliou 30 pacientes que tiveram IM sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (STEMI) ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca, e 30 pacientes pareados que tiveram STEMI sem cirurgia. Os pacientes foram submetidos a cateterismo card&#237;aco e &#224; tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica em uma m&#233;dia de dois dias ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico de IM. A presen&#231;a de trombo intracoronariano oclusivo como causa do IM foi observada em 13% dos casos de IM perioperat&#243;rio em compara&#231;&#227;o a 67% dos casos de IM n&#227;o relacionado &#224; cirurgia (p &lt; 0,001). As les&#245;es culpadas apresentaram fibroateroma em 60% dos casos perioperat&#243;rios e 67% dos casos n&#227;o operat&#243;rios (p = 0,52). O estudo OPTIMUS excluiu pacientes com STEMI. Estudos grandes prospectivos sugerem que STEMI corresponde de 11% a 21% dos IMs no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref></p>
          <p>O estudo VISION<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> foi um estudo prospectivo de 955 pacientes de 12 centros em oito pa&#237;ses, que foram submetidos &#224; angiografia coronariana por tomografia computadorizada antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca. Dos 71 pacientes (7%) que apresentaram IM no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, em 4%, o exame mostrou art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias normais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> Doen&#231;a arterial coronariana extensa ou obstrutiva esteve presente em 72% dos pacientes que apresentaram IM no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, e os demais 24% apresentaram no m&#237;nimo uma placa coron&#225;ria com estenose menor que 50%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Estudos mostraram que um n&#250;mero substancial de pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca apresenta les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas importante que n&#227;o se enquadram na defini&#231;&#227;o universal de IM. Os estudos OPTIMUS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> e VISION<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> exclu&#237;ram pacientes com les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica no perioperat&#243;rio que n&#227;o preencheram os crit&#233;rios de defini&#231;&#227;o para IM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Ambos os estudos mostraram que tromboses estiveram presentes em um ter&#231;o dos casos e, nos demais pacientes, o desequil&#237;brio entre o aporte e a demanda de oxig&#234;nio foi o poss&#237;vel respons&#225;vel pela les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica no perioperat&#243;rio. Assim, esses dados sugerem que cerca de um ter&#231;o dos casos de MINS sejam causados por trombose. Quase todos esses pacientes apresentaram estenose que predisp&#245;e os pacientes a eventos tromb&#243;ticos futuros, o que facilitaria o estabelecimento de interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas efetivas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
          <p>MINS foi consolidado para pacientes com n&#237;veis aumentados de troponina no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, na aus&#234;ncia dos crit&#233;rios para a quarta defini&#231;&#227;o universal de IM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Esses pacientes podem progredir com dor tor&#225;cica, e/ou altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas t&#237;picas de IM. Ainda, foram observadas complica&#231;&#245;es cerebrovasculares e cardiovasculares em pacientes com MINS no ambiente hospitalar e fora do hospital. Os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos do MINS envolvem eleva&#231;&#245;es de troponina nos primeiros dias ap&#243;s cirurgia, e est&#227;o fortemente associados com mortalidade em 30 dias e em longo prazo. Ainda, apesar de concentra&#231;&#245;es mais altas de troponina no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio estarem melhor associadas com complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas, tais como IM do tipo 2, eleva&#231;&#245;es pequenas est&#227;o raramente associadas com sinais evidentes de anormalidades card&#237;acas no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> Esses dados foram demonstrados no estudo VISION, no qual concentra&#231;&#227;o de troponina de 0,02 ng/mL mostrou uma associa&#231;&#227;o independente com mortalidade por causas n&#227;o vasculares (RR 1,65; IC 95% 0,74&#8211;3,67).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> Independentemente da causa (vascular ou n&#227;o vascular) de morte, MINS como resposta ao estresse da cirurgia pode ser preditora de eventos adversos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico e mecanismos de MINS</title>
        <p>A les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio n&#227;o ocorre aleatoriamente, e sua ocorr&#234;ncia &#233; mais prov&#225;vel em pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular. Se, por um lado, o tipo, a dura&#231;&#227;o, e extens&#227;o da cirurgia s&#227;o fatores que contribuem para a ocorr&#234;ncia de MINS, o risco basal &#233; um determinante bem mais forte de risco de IM e mortalidade. A avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco card&#237;aco pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio pode ajudar na escolha do paciente, dos tratamentos, tais como escolher entre procedimento endosc&#243;pico versus procedimento aberto, bem como da intensidade e dura&#231;&#227;o do seguimento p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A estimativa do risco pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio geralmente utiliza uma combina&#231;&#227;o de ferramentas de avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco, testes card&#237;acos n&#227;o invasivos e, mais recentemente e aparentemente mais promissor, o uso de biomarcadores.</p>
        <p>Entender as mudan&#231;as fisiol&#243;gicas causadas pelo estresse cir&#250;rgico e pelo uso de anestesia &#233; necess&#225;rio para avaliar o risco perioperat&#243;rio. A resposta ao estresse cir&#250;rgico &#233; ativada no hipot&#225;lamo pelo local da les&#227;o tecidual, que resulta em respostas end&#243;crina (n&#237;veis aumentados de cortisol e horm&#244;nio antidiur&#233;tico), metab&#243;lica (catabolismo de carboidratos, gordura e prote&#237;nas), e inflamat&#243;ria (libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Os m&#233;dicos geralmente utilizam informa&#231;&#245;es do paciente para avaliar toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio como um indicador aproximado de preparo f&#237;sico. No entanto, os pacientes geralmente t&#234;m pouca habilidade para estimar sua toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, e talvez por isso, os m&#233;dicos tamb&#233;m tendem a subestimar a toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio. Contudo, mesmo estimativas ruins da toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio provavelmente n&#227;o t&#234;m muita import&#226;ncia, uma vez que mesmo testes cardiopulmonares s&#227;o maus preditores de risco cardiovascular pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos investigaram v&#225;rios crit&#233;rios para o diagn&#243;stico de MINS e demonstraram sua associa&#231;&#227;o com mortalidade em 30 dias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Esses estudos estabeleceram os seguintes crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para MINS: (1) ocorr&#234;ncia de eleva&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de troponina no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio considerada como resultante de les&#227;o isqu&#234;mica do mioc&#225;rdio na aus&#234;ncia de outras condi&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas, tais como Tromboembolia pulmonar (TEP), sepse, miocardite, e s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo; (2) dentro de 30 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca; (3) sem necessariamente existir sintomas ou altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas t&#237;picas de isquemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Eleva&#231;&#227;o da troponina nos primeiros dias p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e mortalidade em 30 dias</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th valign="top" align="left">Troponina T<break/>(ng / mL)</th>
                <th valign="top" align="center">Pacientes<break/>n (%)</th>
                <th valign="top" align="center">Mortes 30 dias ap&#243;s cirurgia<break/>n (%)</th>
                <th valign="top" align="center">HR ajustado<break/>(IC 95%)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="top" align="left">&lt; 0,01</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">13.376 (88,4)</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">134 (1,0)</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">1,0</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="top" align="left">0,02</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">494 (3,3)</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">20 (4,0)</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">2,41 (1,33-3,77)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="top" align="left">0,03-0,29</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">1.121 (7,4)</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">105 (9,3)</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">5,00 (3,72-6,76)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="top" align="left">&#8805; 0,30</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">142 (0,9)</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">24 (16,9)</td>
                <td valign="top" align="center">10,48 (6,25-16,62)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>HR: hazard ratio. Adaptado de Devereaux et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Esses estudos tamb&#233;m estabeleceram limiares de troponina no perioperat&#243;rio para o diagn&#243;stico de MINS: (1) troponina T &gt; 0,03 ng/mL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> e (2) aumento na troponina T ultrassens&#237;vel (TnT-us) de 0,02 a &lt; 0,065 ng/mL, com um aumento absoluto de pelo menos 0,005ng/mL (o que foi independentemente associado com mortalidade de 30 dias), ou TnT-us &gt; 0,065 ng/mL. Apesar de nenhum estudo ter estabelecidos limiares para troponina I para MINS, os m&#233;dicos devem definir eleva&#231;&#227;o como qualquer valor acima do limite superior de refer&#234;ncia no percentil 99 para cada teste de troponina I.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina continua controversa em popula&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas espec&#237;ficas, tal como pacientes idosos com fraturas no quadril. Alguns estudos mostraram um aumento na mortalidade em curto e em longo prazo,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> enquanto outros n&#227;o mostraram essa altera&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> Um estudo observacional<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> do tipo coorte nessa popula&#231;&#227;o incluiu 312 pacientes e mostrou que o aumento isolado de troponina n&#227;o foi preditor de morte e/ou readmiss&#227;o, ou de qualquer outro desfecho incluindo complica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias, interna&#231;&#227;o, admiss&#227;o na unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI).</p>
        <p>Estudos prospectivos avaliando adultos submetidos &#224; cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca e medidas de troponina ap&#243;s a cirurgia mostraram que de 13% a 18% desenvolvem MINS em 30 dias ap&#243;s cirurgia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Entre os indiv&#237;duos que desenvolvem MINS, 22% a 29% preencheram os crit&#233;rios para a defini&#231;&#227;o universal de IM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> A maioria do IM e MINS ocorrem nas primeiras 48 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia, e o IM no perioperat&#243;rio pode ocorrer sem sintomas isqu&#234;micos. Tal disparidade pode ser explicada, em parte, pelo uso de narc&#243;ticos e sedativos ap&#243;s a cirurgia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Considerando que muitos casos de MINS passar&#227;o despercebidos na aus&#234;ncia do monitoramento de troponina, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; medir os n&#237;veis do marcador nos dias 1, 2 e 3 ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca enquanto o paciente estiver no hospital.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Com base na an&#225;lise de custo-consequ&#234;ncia do estudo VISION, podemos definir os pacientes em risco aqueles com idade superior a 65 anos ou com uma hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>)</p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca Adaptado de Devereaux &amp; Szczeklik W.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-03-0544-00317-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        <p>BNP e NT-proBNP s&#227;o biomarcadores liberados na circula&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica em resposta &#224; distens&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio do &#225;trio esquerdo. Tamb&#233;m s&#227;o liberados em resposta &#224; isquemia, inflama&#231;&#227;o, e est&#237;mulos neuroend&#243;crinos. Concentra&#231;&#245;es de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio s&#227;o fortes preditores de eventos card&#237;acos no perioperat&#243;rio, incluindo mortalidade, IM, e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> Em pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular, a medida de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos para avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio melhora substancialmente as predi&#231;&#245;es feitas por instrumentos tais como o IRCR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Recentemente, uma suban&#225;lise do registro VISION mostrou que em indiv&#237;duos com idade maior que 45 anos, a dosagem de NT-proBNP no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio identificou indiv&#237;duos em maior risco de MINS, e promoveu valores incrementais sobre o IRCR em identificar indiv&#237;duos em maiores riscos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Rodseth et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> conduziram uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica de 2179 pacientes, e mostraram que n&#237;veis pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios elevados de BNP em concentra&#231;&#245;es maiores que 92 ng/L ou concentra&#231;&#245;es pr&#233;-operat&#243;rias de NT-proBNP maiores que 300 ng/L eram fortes preditores de morte e IM n&#227;o fatal em 30 dias ap&#243;s a cirurgia (OR, 3,4 [IC 95% 2,6&#8211;4,5; p &lt; 0,001]) e de 180 dias ou mais ap&#243;s cirurgia (OR 2,6 [IC 95% 2,0 &#8211;3,4; p &lt; 0,001]). Um modelo utilizando BNP no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio reclassificou corretamente 16% mais pacientes como em alto risco, e 15% mais pacientes como em baixo risco em compara&#231;&#227;o a um modelo em que utilizou somente fatores de risco basais no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio. Com a inclus&#227;o das medidas de BNP ou NT-proBNP, observou-se que valores elevados no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio aumenta a capacidade preditiva de um desfecho composto de morte e IM n&#227;o fatal em 30 dias (OR ajustado 2,2 [IC 95% 1,9&#8211; 2,7]) ap&#243;s cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Diretrizes da Sociedade Europeia de Anestesiologia para avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco operat&#243;rio de cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca recomendam a medida de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio em pacientes em alto risco para cirurgia geral ou ortop&#233;dica, e em pacientes em risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto para cirurgia vascular ou tor&#225;cica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
        <p>As diretrizes da Sociedade Canadense de Cardiologia para cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> recomendam medir BNP ou NT-proBNP antes da cirurgia para melhorar a estimativa de risco card&#237;aco pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio em pacientes com idade de 65 anos ou mais. Nos pacientes com idade entre 45 e 64 anos, doen&#231;a cardiovascular importante e um escore de IRCR &#8805; 1. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com elevada concentra&#231;&#227;o de biomarcadores precisam ter os n&#237;veis de troponina medida nos primeiros dois dias ap&#243;s cirurgia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A Terceira Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia recomenda, para pacientes em risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, a busca ativa pela ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares, por meio de monitoramento na UTI ou na unidade de terapia semi-intensiva. O risco de um evento de natureza isqu&#234;mica requer monitoramento eletrocardiogr&#225;fico e medida de marcadores de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (troponina) at&#233; o terceiro dia p&#243;s-cirurgia, per&#237;odo em que a maioria dos eventos cardiovasculares se concentram.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento</title>
        <p>A complexidade dos mecanismos que contribuem para a ocorr&#234;ncia de IM no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio torna dif&#237;cil o tratamento de MINS. Algumas das op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas estabelecidas para o cen&#225;rio n&#227;o operat&#243;rio, tais como o uso de agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios, s&#227;o de alto risco devido ao risco de sangramento no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Al&#233;m disso, existem poucos dados de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados sobre o tratamento de MINS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Terapia no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio para a preven&#231;&#227;o de MINS</title>
        <p>Um ponto que permanece relativamente pouco abordado em MINS &#233; a preven&#231;&#227;o. Os mecanismos propostos de IM no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio incluem fissura ou ruptura da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, em uma condi&#231;&#227;o caracterizada por hipotens&#227;o, altos n&#237;veis de catecolaminas, e arritmias. Na preven&#231;&#227;o de MINS, deve-se estabelecer um equil&#237;brio entre garantir uma adequada cobertura antitromb&#243;tica sem aumentar o risco de sangramento e minimizando os efeitos adversos de um aumento no impulso simp&#225;tico, evitando-se hipotens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
        <p>At&#233; o presente momento, o cuidado perioperat&#243;rio do paciente tem sido amplamente focado na preven&#231;&#227;o de IM, e poucos estudos tentaram determinar o impacto de terapias preventivas secund&#225;rias para IM em pacientes com eleva&#231;&#227;o isolada de troponina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
        <p>No passado, os betabloqueadores eram recomendados a pacientes em risco vascular que se submeteram a cirurgias card&#237;acas de risco alto ou intermedi&#225;rio. Contudo, ap&#243;s a publica&#231;&#227;o do estudo POISE,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> que avaliou o uso de betabloqueadores no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, a raz&#227;o risco/benef&#237;cio foi considerado desfavor&#225;vel. O estudo POISE recrutou 8351 pacientes e mostrou que o metoprolol reduziu significativamente a incid&#234;ncia de IM em compara&#231;&#227;o ao placebo, mas aumentou significativamente o risco de acidente vascular cerebral e bradicardia clinicamente importante. Ainda, o grupo que recebeu metoprolol apresentou um risco significativamente maior de mortalidade em compara&#231;&#227;o a placebo. Assim, a principal estrat&#233;gia no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio de se usar betabloqueadores mostrou-se ineficaz e mesmo perigosa para aqueles pacientes que ainda n&#227;o usam esse medicamento para condi&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas pr&#233;-existentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> Seria apropriado que pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana comprovada e aqueles com alto risco para a doen&#231;a, utilizasse betabloqueadores para os benef&#237;cios dos desfechos em longo prazo, independentemente de qualquer cirurgia iminente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Dados observacionais no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio sugerem que pacientes com MINS beneficiam-se de terapia com aspirina e estatina. Apesar de o uso de aspirina ajudar a evitar o estado de hipercoagulabilidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria que pode resultar em eventos isqu&#234;micos, o papel da aspirina na preven&#231;&#227;o de MINS permanece controverso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Em um subestudo com 415 pacientes que tiveram IM perioperat&#243;rio no estudo POISE, uma an&#225;lise multivariada demonstrou um baixo risco de morte em 30 dias em pacientes usando aspirina e estatinas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Por outro lado, os resultados do estudo POISE 2 mostraram que a aspirina n&#227;o resulta em melhora na taxa de eventos cardiovasculares ou mortalidade em 30 dias, causando um aumento significativo na ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramento em compara&#231;&#227;o a placebo. Os autores postularam que o aumento nos eventos cardiovasculares pode estar relacionado a aumento de sangramento, causando uma falha na rela&#231;&#227;o fornecimento e demanda.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref></p>
        <p>No entanto, o estudo POISE 2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref> apresenta falhas que potencialmente limitam sua aplicabilidade. Por exemplo, o tempo de administra&#231;&#227;o de aspirina no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio n&#227;o foi padronizado. Com base nos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o, a aspirina teria sido indicada para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria na maioria dos pacientes do estudo. Retirar a aspirina desses pacientes os colocaria em um risco aumento para eventos card&#237;acos e acidente vascular cerebral, uma vez que a descontinuidade do tratamento com aspirina resulta em aumento nos n&#237;veis de tromboxano A2 e fibrin&#243;lise diminu&#237;da.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Um estudo observacional de Foucrier et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> incluiu 66 pacientes que tiveram aumento na troponina ap&#243;s cirurgia vascular e 132 controles pareados que n&#227;o tiveram eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina ap&#243;s a cirurgia. O desfecho prim&#225;rio foi ocorr&#234;ncia de desfecho card&#237;aco maior &#8211; IM, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, e edema pulmonar com hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em um ano. A intensifica&#231;&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular foi definida como a introdu&#231;&#227;o ou aumento da dose de pelo menos um dos quatro medicamentos &#8211; agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios, estatinas, betabloqueadores, e inibidores de enzima conversora de angiotensina. Pacientes sem tratamento cardiovascular intensificado apresentaram um RR de 1,77 (IC 95% de 1,13 &#8211; 2,42) para o desfecho prim&#225;rio, em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle. Por outro lado, os pacientes com tratamento intensificado apresentaram um risco similar para o desfecho prim&#225;rio em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle (RR 0,63; IC 95% 0,10-1,19).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> Ainda, uma meta-an&#225;lise mostrou que a interrup&#231;&#227;o do uso de aspirina no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes com ou sem risco de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica foi associada com um risco tr&#234;s vezes maior de eventos adversos card&#237;acos s&#233;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares s&#227;o a causa mais importante de morbidade e mortalidade perioperat&#243;ria em pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular. Os efeitos protetores relacionados ao uso de estatinas parecem ser baseados na a&#231;&#227;o hipolipemiante e outras propriedades desses medicamentos, tais como melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, hemostasia, e inflama&#231;&#227;o, que resultam na estabiliza&#231;&#227;o da placa coron&#225;ria. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos mostraram que a incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares nos primeiros seis meses ap&#243;s a cirurgia, incluindo morte por causas card&#237;acas, IM agudo n&#227;o fatal, acidente vascular cerebral isqu&#234;mico, e angina inst&#225;vel, pode diminuir com o uso de atorvastatina no perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes que precisam ser submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular, independentemente das concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de colesterol.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A terceira Diretriz de Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular Perioperat&#243;ria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia recomenda que, para pacientes recebendo aspirina para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria, a medica&#231;&#227;o deve ser mantida em dose m&#225;xima de 100 mg por dia. Dados de meta-an&#225;lise sugerem que essa rela&#231;&#227;o &#233; favor&#225;vel para a maioria dos pacientes no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio. Neurocirurgias, devido &#224; alta morbidade e mortalidade dos sangramentos relacionados, s&#227;o uma indica&#231;&#227;o de suspens&#227;o do uso de aspirina sete dias antes da cirurgia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Todas as principais diretrizes recomendam a continuidade da terapia com estatina no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, e o in&#237;cio do uso de estatinas em pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> O estudo VISION mostrou que pacientes que tomaram estatinas no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio apresentaram taxas significativamente mais baixas de MINS e de mortalidade por todas as causas. As estatinas devem ser iniciadas pelo menos duas semanas antes da cirurgia para promover os efeitos de estabiliza&#231;&#227;o de placa e anti-inflamat&#243;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
        <p>As &#250;ltimas diretrizes do <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic>/<italic>American Heart Association</italic> (ACC/AHA) n&#227;o recomendam a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> A revasculariza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio n&#227;o reduziu a mortalidade em longo prazo ou o IM no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio em compara&#231;&#227;o ao uso de medicamentos em um estudo com mais de 5000 pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> A cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio e a interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea s&#227;o procedimentos associados com um risco significativo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> Pacientes com <italic>stents</italic> coron&#225;rios ap&#243;s a interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea est&#227;o em risco de trombose de <italic>stent</italic> durante a cirurgia, especialmente em caso de interrup&#231;&#227;o no uso de agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio. A revasculariza&#231;&#227;o antes da cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; recomendada apenas para pacientes a quem a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o &#233; indicada independentemente de cirurgia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Na fase perioperat&#243;ria, para prevenir eventos cardiovasculares, o anestesiologista deve limitar a hipotermia e imediatamente tratar hipotens&#227;o e taquicardia, possivelmente evitando o uso de betabloqueadores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cuidado no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio</title>
        <p>No per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, hipotens&#227;o, taquicardia, hip&#243;xia, sangramento e dor promovem um desequil&#237;brio entre fornecimento e consumo de oxig&#234;nio no mioc&#225;rdio, aumentando o risco de les&#227;o, devendo ser detectado e corrigido precocemente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
        <p>No manejo de MINS, o uso de aspirina e estatina pode ser recomendado em pacientes que n&#227;o preenchem os crit&#233;rios de s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda, uma vez que tal medida mostrou melhorar os resultados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> Teoricamente, os betabloqueadores podem contribuir no manejo do desequil&#237;brio entre o fornecimento e a demanda de oxig&#234;nio que resulta em MINS. No entanto, deve-se pesar os benef&#237;cios de se usar betabloqueadores e bloqueadores de receptores da angiotensina contra o risco de hipotens&#227;o, o que pode acentuar o dano no mioc&#225;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Outros estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para se obter evid&#234;ncias mais robustas acerca do uso desses medicamentos. Pacientes que preenchem os crit&#233;rios para s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda devem ser tratados segundo diretrizes cl&#237;nicas atuais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Procedimentos invasivos para investigar doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria obstrutiva em pacientes com MINS n&#227;o s&#227;o indicados, exceto para pacientes com crit&#233;rios para STEMI, ou pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica ou el&#233;trica.</p>
        <p>O estudo MANAGE avaliou o uso de dabigatrana para o tratamento de MINS. Os autores encontraram que os indiv&#237;duos no bra&#231;o da interven&#231;&#227;o apresentaram taxas mais baixas de eventos vasculares maiores (n = 97; 11% - pacientes alocados para dabigatrana vs. n = 133; 15% - pacientes alocados no grupo controle, p = 0,0115), com complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas em compara&#231;&#227;o ao bra&#231;o do placebo n = 29; 3% - pacientes alocados para dabigatrana vs. n = 31; 4% - pacientes alocados no grupo controle, p = 0,76).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> No entanto, o estudo tem algumas limita&#231;&#245;es no delineamento e nos resultados. O estudo foi finalizado precocemente, o desfecho prim&#225;rio modificado no meio do estudo, a as taxas de descontinua&#231;&#227;o do medicamento foram altas. Apesar de suas defici&#234;ncias, o estudo abre caminho para mais pesquisa na &#225;rea.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>MINS representa uma nova entidade cl&#237;nica caracterizada hoje como um problema de sa&#250;de emergente em vista do n&#250;mero crescente de cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas e sua alta preval&#234;ncia. MINS &#233; um marcador de eventos vasculares futuros, e sua detec&#231;&#227;o precoce com o uso de biomarcadores deve ser realizada em todas as cirurgias m&#233;dias e grandes realizadas em indiv&#237;duo com 65 anos de idade ou mais, e naqueles com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica pr&#233;via independentemente da idade. Registro multic&#234;ntricos e ensaios cl&#237;nicos t&#234;m sido desenvolvidos com a ajuda da medicina perioperat&#243;ria, com o objetivo de melhorar a vigil&#226;ncia cardiovascular e o tratamento desse grupo de pacientes.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
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              <surname>Redel-Traub</surname>
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              <surname>Armanious</surname>
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              <surname>Nicholson</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
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              <surname>Puelacher</surname>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Myocardial Injury after Non-cardiac Surgery &#8211; State of the Art</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2284-8251</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro de Ensino e Treinamento Edson de Godoy Bueno / UHG, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">UNIALFA / Col&#233;gio Brazileiro de Executivos em Sa&#250;de CBEXs, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Cidade do M&#233;xico</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="MX">M&#233;xico</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Sociedad Interamericana de Cardiolog&#237;a (SIAC), Cidade do M&#233;xico - M&#233;xico</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">DASA Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i, Niter&#243;i, RJ - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Ant&#244;nio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge &#8226;</bold> Avenida Marques do Paran&#225;, 303, 60 andar, centro, Niter&#243;i. Postal Code <postal-code>24030-215</postal-code>, RJ &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>lagoeiro@globo.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author Contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, writing of the manuscript and critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Jorge AJL, Mesquita ET, Martins WA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Approximately 300 million non-cardiac surgeries are performed annually worldwide and adverse cardiovascular events are the main cause of morbidity and mortality in the peri- and postoperative period. Myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery (MINS) is a new clinical entity associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes. MINS is defined as myocardial injury that can result in necrosis due to ischemia, marked by increase in biomarker levels. It has prognostic relevance and occurs within up to 30 days after non-cardiac surgery. The diagnostic criteria for MINS are an elevated postoperative measure of troponin judged as secondary to myocardial ischemia, i.e., with no evidence of a non-ischemic etiology, during or within 30 days after non-cardiac surgery, and without the requirement of an ischemic symptom or electrocardiographic finding of ischemia. Recently, patients at higher risk for MINS have been recognized using clinical variables and biomarkers and established protocols for greater surveillance in relation to electrocardiographic monitoring and cardiac troponin dosage. Elderly patients with previous atherosclerotic disease need to measure troponin daily in the postoperative period. The aim of the present work is to describe this new public health problem, its clinical impact and contemporary therapeutic approach.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Myocardial Contusions</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarkers</kwd>
        <kwd>Preoperative Care</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Approximately 300 million non-cardiac surgeries are performed annually in the world and adverse cardiovascular events are the main cause of morbidity and mortality in the peri- and postoperative period.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery (MINS) is a new clinical entity, distinct from myocardial infarction (AMI) thath occurs in the postoperative period, associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes as shown in the international VISION registry.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> MINS is defined as myocardial injury that can result in necrosis secondary to ischemia, with elevation of biomarkers. It has prognostic relevance and occurs in the period of up to thirty days after non-cardiac surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> MINS has an estimated incidence of eight million patients per year and is independently associated with the risk of death and cardiovascular complications in the initial postoperative period<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Scheme of the development of myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery (MINS).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-03-0544-00317-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
        <p>The prognostic relevance can be demonstrated by the association of the proposed diagnostic criteria with the risk of mortality at 30 days<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> and up to two years after non-cardiac surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
        <p>MINS does not include perioperative myocardial injury due to non-ischemic causes, such as sepsis, atrial fibrillation, pulmonary embolism, and renal failure, or chronically elevated troponin levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The diagnostic criteria for MINS are high troponin levels within 30 days after non-cardiac surgery judged as secondary to myocardial ischemia, i.e., with no evidence of a non-ischemic etiology, and without the requirement of an ischemic symptom or ischemia electrocardiographic finding.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Although MINS is a common and increasingly recognized postoperative phenomenon, its incidence, risk factors, pathophysiology and clinical implications are not yet fully defined.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> Cardiovascular complications are a cause of morbidity and mortality in patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery and studies have shown that the incidence of perioperative AMI corresponds to 6.2% of all surgeries performed. The pathophysiology of cardiovascular events in the postoperative period is complex and involves, among others, anesthetic induction, bleeding, anemia, hypoxia and pain in the postoperative period, causing elevation of catecholamines and cortisol production and a state of hypercoagulability.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> Recently, patients at higher risk for MINS have been identified by clinical variables and biomarkers, as well by surveillance protocols in relation to electrocardiographic monitoring and cardiac troponin dosage. Thus, it is suggested that elderly patients with previous atherosclerotic disease need to measure troponin for three days postoperatively.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Predicting cardiac complications after non-cardiac surgery is difficult and inaccurate, and troponin measurements seem to play an important role in this scenario. Studies have shown that high-sensitivity troponin (Hs-cTn) can be detected in most adult patients before non-cardiac surgery and that higher values are associated with increased risk. Therefore, the use of Hs-cTn can improve the prediction of cardiac complications after non-cardiac surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Despite the increase in the literature on the subject and scientific evidence, MINS is poorly recognized, as there is currently no global consensus on its definition or diagnostic criteria. Many studies have used different terminologies, such as POMI<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> (perioperative myocardial infarction/postoperative period) or PMI<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> (perioperative myocardial injury) to describe the phenomenon. In addition, the cutoff points of troponin levels for diagnostic purposes have varied among studies, depending on the troponin subtype and the assay used (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>). Also, the presence of MINS has drawn little attention among cardiologists and hospitalists in clinical practice, regarding its diagnosis, clinical implications and prognosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> The aim of this article is to describe this new clinical problem with repercussions on public health and the contemporary therapeutic approach.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Criteria for the characterization of myocardial injury, myocardial injury after noncardiac surgery (MINS), perioperative myocardial injury, and perioperative/postoperative myocardial infarction</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th valign="top" align="left"/>
                <th valign="top" align="left">Criteria</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Myocardial Injury<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></td>
                <td valign="top" align="left">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Evidence of elevated cardiac troponin values with at least one value above the 99<sup>th</sup> percentile upper reference limit;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Clinical manifestations do not have to be present;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>The myocardial injury is considered acute if there is a rise and/or fall of cardiac troponin values;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Cardiac biomarker release without evidence of myocardial ischemia;</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">myocardial injury after noncardiac surgery (MINS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></td>
                <td valign="top" align="left">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Defined as myocardial cell injury during the first 30 days after noncardiac with ischemic etiology and is independently associated with mortality;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Absence of other non-ischemic conditions;</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Perioperative myocardial injury<sup>(</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>)</sup></td>
                <td valign="top" align="left">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Commonly does not exhibit typical symptoms of myocardial ischemia;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Electrocardiography has very low sensitivity for diagnosis;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Detection and quantification of acute cardiomyocyte injury by measuring cardiac troponin;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Defined as an absolute increase in high-sensitivity troponin of &#8805;14 ng/L above preoperative values;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>After noncardiac surgery, strongly associated with 30-day mortality</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Perioperative/ postoperative myocardial infarction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></td>
                <td valign="top" align="left">
                  <list list-type="bullet">
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Defined as an elevated cardiac biomarker or enzyme levels (with separate definitions for troponin or creatine kinase MB fraction), and one or more of the following:</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Ischemic symptoms;</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>Electrocardiographic changes in two contiguous leads (i.e., development of pathologic Q waves, ST-segment elevation, ST-segment depression, or T-wave inversion);</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p>coronary artery intervention, or evidence of AMI on cardiac imaging or autopsy;</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>To structure this review article, two databases (Pubmed and Scielo) were searched, using the keywords in English &#8220;myocardial injury AND non-cardiac surgery&#8221;. The survey took place in January 2020. Prospective and retrospective studies were included, and clinical cases and abstracts presented at conferences were excluded. The eligibility of each study was independently assessed by two investigators. Divergent opinions regarding the relevance of the articles were resolved by consensus.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Myocardial injury after non-cardiac surgery</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Epidemiological aspects</title>
            <p>Cardiac death is the leading cause of postoperative mortality in the first 30 days after surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> It is estimated that among all surgeries performed in the world, approximately 100 million involve patients aged 45 years and over, nearly 1.1 million (1.1%) of these have a AMI with ischemic symptoms in the perioperative period, 2.2 million (2.2%) have an asymptomatic AMI, and 4.6 million (4.6%) have MINS. Thirty-day mortality rates in these three groups are 9.7%, 12.5% and 7.8%, respectively, which corresponds to more than 750 thousand deaths due to myocardial ischemia annually and thus a new global public health challenge.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
            <p>Patients diagnosed with MINS are older than those without the disease and the incidence of MINS is slightly higher in men (17.7%) than in women (16.2%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Also, patients who develop MINS have more atrial fibrillation, heart failure, coronary artery disease, chronic kidney disease and have a higher preoperative heart rate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> More than 90% of patients with MINS do not present elevation of the ST segment or any other symptom of ischemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
            <p>Smilowitz &amp; Berger<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> carried out a meta-analysis involving 169 studies, showing that the incidence of MINS was 17.9% of non-cardiac surgeries. Among the 139 studies that systematically measured cardiac biomarkers in all surgical patients, MINS occurred in 19.6% of patients. Among the other 30 studies, without biomarker measurements, the incidence of MINS was 9.9%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> MINS occurs more frequently in urgent procedures than in elective procedures (32.7% <italic>vs</italic>. 16.6%). The incidence also varies according to the subtype of non-cardiac surgery; the incidence of MINS was 20.1% and 18.0% in vascular surgeries and orthopedic surgeries, respectively.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Risk factors</title>
            <p>Studies have reported the prevalence of cardiovascular disease or at least one cardiovascular risk factor among individuals undergoing non-cardiac surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Patients with MINS were more likely to have high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, previous MI, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease compared to patients without MINS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
            <fig id="f5">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Risk factors for myocardial injury in non-cardiac surgery in the pre-, peri- and postoperative periods; NT-proBNP: N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide. Adapted from Devereaux &amp; Szczeklik W.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-03-0544-00317-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
            <p>The risk of MINS is higher in individuals undergoing urgent or emergency surgery, open surgery, transfusions, prolonged surgery time, mean arterial pressure &lt; 65 mmHg, heart rate &#8805; 110 bpm and use of vasopressors in the perioperative period.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref></p>
            <p>The relationship between the type of anesthesia and MINS remains uncertain. While sevoflurane has been associated with lower MINS rates than propofol (11.7% <italic>vs</italic>. 29.0%, p = 0.018) in one study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> other studies have shown no benefit from volatile anesthetics in relation to the occurrence of MINS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
            <p>It is important to identify patients at high risk of serious adverse cardiac events based on preoperative assessment and low functional capacity (&lt; 4 METs). Guidelines recommend evaluating those patients with known cardiovascular disease or aged 45 years or older who have undergone surgery that requires at least one night of hospitalization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
            <p>Cost and accessibility are considered important determinants of the method used, and prospective observational studies have assessed the prognostic capability of the N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) to predict major cardiovascular events after non-cardiac surgery. In patients aged 45 years or older with significant cardiovascular disease or with a Revised Cardiac Risk Index (RCRI) score <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> &#8805; 1 it is recommended to measure BNP or NT-proBNP before surgery to improve the estimate perioperative cardiac risk instead of imaging and noninvasive cardiac stress testing.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
            <p>Pre-existing lung diseases contribute to perioperative morbidity and mortality at a similar intensity to cardiac complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Complication rates are higher in abdominal, thoracic, and head and neck surgeries due to the impact on respiratory mechanisms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
            <p>Most patients undergoing vascular surgery have multiple risk factors and comorbidities and there is growing evidence that traditional cardiovascular risk factors are also associated with venous thromboembolism, which would increase the risk of MINS. According to large prospective cohort studies, MINS influences in the short and long term all causes of mortality after vascular surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Pathophysiology</title>
            <p>The pathophysiology of MINS is not yet fully defined. It is not clear about the predominance of thrombosis or ischemia, although most cases occur in patients with underlying atherosclerotic disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> Two distinct pathophysiological mechanisms can be considered in patients with MINS: rupture, fissure, or erosion of the coronary plaque with consequent intraluminal thrombosis that is equivalent to type 1 acute MI (type 1 AMI) and an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and/or demand and presence of unstable plaques that characterizes type 2 acute MI (type 2 AMI). Studies suggest that both mechanisms play an important role in the pathophysiology of MINS in the perioperative period.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref></p>
            <p>MINS confirmation is made based on elevated troponin levels, according to large prospective cohort studies that evaluated post-operative troponin levels in adults undergoing non-cardiac surgery. MINS does not include perioperative myocardial injury secondary to a documented non-ischemic etiology, including paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, sepsis, pneumonia, and pulmonary embolism.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
            <p>The OPTIMUS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> study evaluated 30 patients who had a MI without ST elevation (STEMI) after non-cardiac surgery and 30 paired patients who had a non-operative STEMI. The study patients underwent cardiac catheterization and optical coherence tomography on average two days after the diagnosis of AMI. Intracoronary occlusive thrombus as the cause of AMI was present in 13% of cases of perioperative MI compared to 67% of cases of MI not related to surgery (p &lt; 0.001). The culprit lesions showed fibroatheroma in 60% of the perioperative cases and 67% of the non-operative cases (p = 0.52). The OPTIMUS study excluded patients with STEMI. Large prospective studies suggest that STEMI accounts for 11% to 21% of perioperative MIs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref></p>
            <p>The VISION study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> was a prospective cohort study of 955 patients from 12 centers in eight countries, who underwent coronary computed tomographic angiography (CTA) before non-cardiac surgery. Of the 71 patients (7%) who had AMI in the preoperative period, in 4% CTA showed normal coronaries.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> Obstructive or extensive coronary artery disease was present in 72% of patients who had AMI in the perioperative period, and the remaining 24% had at least one coronary plaque with stenosis less than 50%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
            <p>Studies have shown that a substantial number of patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery have important myocardial injuries that will not meet the universal definition of MI. The OPTIMUS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> and VISION<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> studies excluded patients who had perioperative myocardial injury that did not meet the definition criteria for MI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Both studies showed that thrombosis was present in one third of the cases and in the other patients, the imbalance between oxygen supply and demand was possibly the responsible for perioperative myocardial injury. Therefore, these data suggest that nearly one third of MINS cases are caused by thrombosis. Almost all these patients had underlying coronary stenosis that predispose patients to future thrombotic events, which would facilitate the establishment of effective therapeutic interventions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
            <p>MINS has been consolidated for patients with increased troponin in the postoperative period in the absence of the criteria for the fourth universal definition of MI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> These patients may progress with chest pain and/or electrocardiographic changes typical of MI. In addition, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications have been observed in in-hospital and out-hospital patients with MINS. The pathophysiological mechanisms of MINS involve elevations of troponin in the first days after surgery and are strongly associated with mortality at 30 days and in the long run. Also, although higher concentrations of troponin in the postoperative period are better associated with cardiac complications such as type 2 MI, low troponin elevations are rarely associated with evident signs of cardiac abnormalities in the postoperative period.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> These data were demonstrated in the VISION study, in which a troponin of 0.02ng/mL was independently associated with mortality from non-vascular causes (RR 3.25, 95% CI 1.78-5.94), but not with vascular causes (RR 1.65, 95% CI 0.74&#8211;3.67).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> Regardless of whether patients have a vascular or non-vascular death, MINS as a response to the stress of surgery may be a predictor of adverse events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>MINS diagnosis and mechanisms</title>
          <p>Postoperative myocardial injury does not occur at random and is more likely in cardiovascular disease patients. If, on the one hand, the type, duration, and extent of surgery are factors that contribute to the occurrence of MINS, the baseline risk is a much stronger determinant of MI risk and mortality. The assessment of preoperative cardiac risk can help guide patient selection, treatment decisions such as, open <italic>versus</italic> endoscopic procedure and the intensity and duration of postoperative follow-up.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Preoperative risk estimation generally uses a combination of risk assessment tools, non-invasive cardiac tests and, more recently and apparently more promising, the use of biomarkers.</p>
          <p>Understanding the physiological changes due to surgical stress and the use of anesthesia is necessary to assess perioperative risk. The response to surgical stress is activated in the hypothalamus by the site of tissue damage, which results in endocrine (increased levels of cortisol and antidiuretic hormone), metabolic (catabolism of carbohydrates, fat, and proteins) and inflammatory (release of cytokines) responses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Physicians often use patient information to assess exercise tolerance as an approximate index of physical fitness. However, patients generally have little ability to estimate their tolerance to exercise, and perhaps that is why physicians also underestimate exercise tolerance. However, poor estimates of exercise tolerance probably do not matter much, because even the cardiopulmonary test poorly predicts preoperative cardiovascular risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Epidemiological studies have investigated several criteria for the diagnosis of MINS and demonstrated their association with 30-day mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> These studies established the following diagnostic criteria for MINS: (1) elevated postoperative troponin levels considered as a result of myocardial ischemic injury in the absence of other non-ischemic conditions such as Pulmonary Tromboembolism (PTE), sepsis, myocarditis, Takotsubo cardiomyopathy; (2) within thirty days after non-cardiac surgery; (3) and without the requirement of symptoms or electrocardiographic changes of ischemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Elevation of troponin in the first postoperative days and mortality in 30 days</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th valign="top" align="left">Troponin T<break/>(ng / mL)</th>
                  <th valign="top" align="center">Patients<break/>n (%)</th>
                  <th valign="top" align="center">Deaths 30 days after surgery<break/>n (%)</th>
                  <th valign="top" align="center">Adjusted HR<break/>(CI 95%)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td valign="top" align="left">&lt; 0.01</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">13,376 (88.4)</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">134 (1.0)</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">1.0</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td valign="top" align="left">0.02</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">494 (3.3)</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">20 (4.0)</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">2.41 (1.33-3.77)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td valign="top" align="left">0.03 -0.29</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">1,121 (7.4)</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">105 (9.3)</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">5.00 (3.72-6.76)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td valign="top" align="left">&#8805; 0.30</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">142 (0.9)</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">24 (16.9)</td>
                  <td valign="top" align="center">10.48 (6.25-16.62)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>HR: hazard ratio. Adapted from Devereaux et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>These studies also established perioperative troponin thresholds for MINS: (1) a troponin T &gt; 0.03 ng/mL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> and (2) elevation in highly sensitive troponin T (hsTnT) from 0.02 to &lt; 0.065 ng/mL with an absolute change of at least 0.005 ng/mL (which was independently associated with 30-day mortality), or hsTnT &gt; 0.065 ng/mL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> Although no study has established ideal thresholds for troponin I for MINS, there is no preference for troponin T over I. Until research establishes troponin I thresholds for MINS, clinicians must define an elevation as any value above the 99<sup>th</sup> percentile upper reference limit for each troponin I assay.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The elevation of troponin remains controversial in specific surgical populations, such as elderly patients with hip fractures. Some studies have reported an increase in short and long-term mortality,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> while others showed no change.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> An observational cohort study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> on this type of population included 312 patients and showed that the isolated increase in troponin was not predictive of death and/or readmission or any other outcome, including postoperative complications, hospitalization, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, or functional status.</p>
          <p>Prospective studies evaluating adults undergoing non-cardiac surgery and troponin measurements after surgery demonstrate that 13% to 18% develop MINS within 30 days of surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Among these individuals who develop MINS, 22% to 29% met the criteria for the universal definition of MI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Most of the perioperative MI and MINS occur in the first 48 hours after surgery, and the perioperative MI can occur without ischemic symptoms. This disparity can be explained, in part, by the use of narcotics and sedatives after surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Considering that most of MINS&#8217; cases will go unnoticed without troponin monitoring, the recommendation is to measure the biomarker levels in at-risk patients on days 1, 2 and 3 after non-cardiac surgery while the patient is in the hospital.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Based on the cost-consequence analysis of the VISION study, we can define patients at risk those who are older than 65 years or with a history of atherosclerotic disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 3</xref>)</p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Evaluation for patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery. Adapted from Devereaux &amp; Szczeklik W.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-03-0544-00317-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
          <p>BNP and NT-proBNP are biomarkers released into the systemic circulation in response to the stretching of the left atrial myocardium. They are also released in response to ischemia, inflammation, and neuroendocrine stimuli. Preoperative concentrations of natriuretic peptides are strong predictors of perioperative cardiac events, including mortality, MI and heart failure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> In patients undergoing vascular surgery, measurement of natriuretic peptides for preoperative risk assessment substantially improves predictions based on tools such as the RCRI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Recently, a sub-analysis of the VISION registry showed that in individuals over 45 years, NT-proBNP dosing in the preoperative period identified individuals at greatest risk for MINS and promoted incremental value on the RCRI scale by identifying individuals at greatest risk cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Rodseth e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> conducted a systematic review of 2,179 patients and showed that elevated preoperative BNP in concentrations higher than 92ng/L or concentrations of preoperative NT-proBNP higher than 300ng/L were strong predictors of death or non-fatal MI within 30 days after surgery (OR, 3.4 [95% CI 2.6&#8211;4.5; p &lt; 0.001]) and 180 days or more after surgery (OR 2.6 [95% CI 2.0&#8211;3.4; p &lt; 0.001]). A model using preoperative BNP correctly reclassified 16% more high-risk patients and 15% more low-risk patients than a model based only on preoperative baseline risk factors. Adding BNP or NT-proBNP measurements, it was observed that high preoperative values increase the predictive capacity of a composite outcome of death and non-fatal MI in 30 days (adjusted OR, 3.7 [95% CI 2, 2&#8211;6.2]) and 180 days (adjusted OR 2.2 [95% CI 1.9&#8211; 2.7]) after non-cardiac surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
          <p>European Society of Anesthesiology guidelines for preoperative risk assessment of non-cardiac surgery recommend preoperative measurement of natriuretic peptides in high-risk patients scheduled for general or orthopedic surgery and in intermediate and high-risk patients scheduled for vascular surgery or chest surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The Canadian Society of Cardiology Guidelines for Noncardiac Surgery<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> recommend measuring BNP or NT-proBNP before surgery to improve the estimate of perioperative cardiac risk in patients 65 years of age or older. In those aged 45 to 64 years with significant cardiovascular disease or an RCRI score &#8805; 1. In addition, patients with high concentrations of biomarkers must have troponin measured in the first two postoperative days.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The Third Guideline for Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology recommends for those patients of intermediate or high risk, the active search for the occurrence of cardiovascular events, through monitoring in a semi-intensive unit or ICU environment. The risk of an event of ischemic nature requires electrocardiographic monitoring and measurement of myocardial injury markers (troponin) until the third day after surgery, a period in which most cardiovascular events are concentrated.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment</title>
          <p>The complexity of the mechanisms that contribute to perioperative MI makes it difficult to treat MINS. Some of the treatment options established for the non-operative scenario, such as the use of antiplatelet agents, pose a high risk due to the possibility of postoperative bleeding. In addition, there is little data from randomized clinical trials on the treatment of MINS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Preoperative therapy for MINS prevention</title>
          <p>A point that remains relatively unaddressed at MINS is prevention. The proposed mechanisms of MI in the perioperative period include fissures or rupture of the atherosclerosis plaque, in a condition characterized by hypotension, tachycardia, high catecholamine levels and arrhythmias . In the prevention of MINS, a balance must be struck between providing adequate antithrombotic coverage without increasing the risk of bleeding and minimizing the adverse effects of increased sympathetic impulse, avoiding hypotension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
          <p>To date, perioperative patient care has largely focused on the prevention of MI, and few studies have attempted to determine the impact of secondary preventive therapies for MI in patients with isolated troponin elevation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
          <p>In the past, beta-blockers were recommended in patients at vascular risk who underwent cardiac surgery of intermediate or high risk. However, after the publication of the POISE trial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> that evaluated the preoperative use of beta-blockers, the risk-benefit ratio was considered unfavorable. The POISE study recruited 8,351 patients and demonstrated that metoprolol significantly reduced the incidence of MI compared to placebo, but significantly increased the risk of stroke and clinically important bradycardia. In addition, the metoprolol group had a significantly higher risk of mortality compared to placebo. So, the main preoperative strategy of using beta-blockers proved to be ineffective and even dangerous for those patients who are not yet taking the drug to treat their pre-existing cardiac conditions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> In patients with proven, or at high-risk of, coronary heart disease, it is appropriate that they receive beta-blockers for long-term outcome benefits, irrespective of any impending surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Perioperative observational data suggest that patients with MINS benefit from aspirin and statin therapy. Although the use of aspirin would aim to avoid a state of postoperative hypercoagulability that can result in ischemic events, the role of aspirin in preventing MINS remains controversial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> In a substudy of 415 patients who had a perioperative MI in the POISE trial, a multivariate analysis demonstrated a lower risk of death at 30 days in patients using aspirin and statins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> On the other hand, the results of the POISE 2 study showed that aspirin did not result in an improvement in the rate of cardiovascular events and mortality within 30 days, instead causing a significant increase in bleeding compared to placebo. The authors postulated that the increase in cardiovascular events may be related to increased bleeding, causing a supply and demand failure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref></p>
          <p>However, the POISE 2 study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref> has some shortcomings that potentially limit its applicability. For example, the time of aspirin administration in the preoperative period has not been standardized. Based on the inclusion criteria, aspirin would have been indicated for secondary prevention in most patients in the study. Withdrawing aspirin in these patients may have put them at increased risk for cardiac events and stroke, as withdrawal from aspirin treatment results in increased thromboxane A2 levels and decreased fibrinolysis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Observational study by Foucrier et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> included 66 patients who had troponin elevation after vascular surgery and 132 paired controls who did not have troponin elevation after surgery. The primary outcome was the occurrence of a major cardiac outcome, that is, MI, coronary revascularization, or pulmonary edema with hospitalization in one year. Intensification of cardiovascular medication was defined as the introduction or increase of the dose of at least one of the following four medications &#8211; antiplatelet agents, statins, beta-blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Patients without intensified cardiovascular treatment had an RR of 1.77 (95% CI 1.13&#8211;2.42) for the primary outcome, compared to the matched control group. On the other hand, patients who received intensification of cardiovascular treatment had a similar risk for the primary outcome compared with the control group (RR 0.63; 95% CI 0.10&#8211;1.19).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> Also, a meta-analysis demonstrated that interruption of aspirin in the perioperative period in patients with or without risk of ischemic heart disease was associated with a three-time greater risk of serious adverse cardiac events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Cardiovascular complications are the most important cause of perioperative morbidity and mortality among patients undergoing vascular surgery. The protective effects related to the use of statins seem to be based on lipid-lowering and other properties of these drugs, such as improvement in endothelial function, in hemostasis and inflammation, which result in coronary plaque stabilization. Clinical trial showed that the incidence of cardiovascular events in the first six months after surgery, including death from cardiac causes, nonfatal acute MI, ischemic stroke, and unstable angina, can be reduced with perioperative use of atorvastatin in patients who must undergo vascular surgery, regardless of their serum cholesterol concentration.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The Third Guideline for Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology recommends that for patients receiving aspirin for secondary prevention, the medication should be kept at the maximum dose of 100mg per day. Meta-analysis data suggest that this relationship is favorable for the majority of patients in the perioperative period. Neurosurgeries, due to the high morbidity and mortality of related bleeding, are an indication for aspirin suspension seven days before surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The main guidelines recommend the continuation of statin therapy in the perioperative period, and the initiation of statins in patients undergoing vascular surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> The VISION study showed that patients who took statins preoperatively had significantly lower rates of MINS and all-cause mortality. Statins should be started at least two weeks before surgery to promote the plaque-stabilizing effects and anti-inflammatory action.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The latest American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) guidelines do not recommend coronary revascularization before non-cardiac surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> Preoperative coronary artery revascularization did not reduce long-term mortality or postoperative MI compared to drugs in a study with more than 5,000 patients undergoing vascular surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> Myocardial revascularization surgery and percutaneous coronary intervention are procedures associated with a significant risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> Patients with coronary stents after percutaneous coronary intervention are at risk of in-stent thrombosis during surgery, especially if antiplatelet drugs are discontinued in the perioperative period. Revascularization before non-cardiac surgery is recommended only for patients in whom revascularization is indicated regardless of surgery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref></p>
          <p>In the perioperative phase, to prevent cardiovascular events, the anesthesiologist must limit hypothermia and immediately treat hypotension and tachycardia, possibly avoiding beta-blockers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Postoperative care</title>
          <p>In the postoperative period, hypotension, tachycardia, hypoxia, bleeding, and pain promote an imbalance in the supply and consumption of oxygen in the myocardium, increasing the risk of injury, and must be detected and corrected early.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
          <p>In the management of MINS, the use of aspirin and statin may be recommended in patients who do not meet the criteria for acute coronary syndrome, as this has been shown to improve results.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> Theoretically, beta-blockers may have a role in the management of the imbalance between oxygen supply and demand that results in MINS. However, the benefits of using beta-blockers and angiotensin-blocking agents should be weighed against the risk of hypotension, which can accentuate myocardial damage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Additional studies are needed to provide more robust evidence on the use of these drugs. Patients who meet the criteria for acute coronary syndrome should be treated according to current clinical practice guidelines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Invasive procedures to investigate obstructive coronary disease in patients with MINS would not be indicated, except for patients who present criteria for STEMI or patients with hemodynamic or electrical instability.</p>
          <p>The MANAGE study examined the use of dabigatran for the treatment of MINS. The authors found that subjects in the intervention arm had lower rates of major vascular events (n = 97; 11% - patients assigned to dabigatran vs 133 &#8211; 15% &#8211; in placebo group, p = 0.0115), with similar bleeding complications compared to the placebo arm (n = 29 patients; 3% - dabigatran group vs. n = 31; 4% &#8211; placebo group, p = 0.76).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> However, the study has some limitations in its design and results. The study ended early, the primary outcome was modified in the middle of the study, and drug discontinuation rates were high. Despite its deficiencies, the study paves the way for further research in this area.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>MINS represents a new clinical entity characterized today as an emergent health problem in view of the growing number of non-cardiac surgeries and their high prevalence. MINS is a marker of future vascular events and its early detection with the use of biomarkers should be performed in all medium or large surgeries in individuals aged 65 years or over and in those with previous atherosclerotic disease regardless of age. Multicenter registries and clinical trials have been progressively developed with the aid of perioperative medicine aiming at improving cardiovascular surveillance and treatment of this group of patients.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn3">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
