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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">gckxM8BCsxcwh9bjfc5V7kJ</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021001000394</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200391</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200391</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Peculiaridade dos Pacientes com Arritmias Heredit&#225;rias na Pandemia pela COVID-19</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3679-5349</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sacilotto</surname>
            <given-names>Luciana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Olivetti</surname>
            <given-names>Natalia Quintella Sangiorgi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pisani</surname>
            <given-names>Cristiano Faria</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7881-0447</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Wu</surname>
            <given-names>Tan Chen</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5645-2055</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
            <given-names>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2329-7439</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>Sissy Lara de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bueno</surname>
            <given-names>S&#225;via Christina Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rivarola</surname>
            <given-names>Esteban Wisnivesky Rocca</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6697-7074</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Chokr</surname>
            <given-names>Muhieddine Omar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Hardy</surname>
            <given-names>Carina Abigail</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Hachul</surname>
            <given-names>Denise Tessariol</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Darrieux</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Carlos da Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scanavacca</surname>
            <given-names>Mauricio Ibrahim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil.</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Mauricio Ibrahim Scanavacca &#8226;</bold> Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o - Unidade de Arritmia &#8211; Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>mauricio.scanavacca@incor.usp.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: todos os autores. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Sacilotto L, Olivetti N. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Pisani C, Hachul D, Darrieux F, Scanavacca MI.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>06</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>117</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>394</fpage>
      <lpage>403</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Desde dezembro de 2019, observamos o r&#225;pido avan&#231;o da s&#237;ndrome respirat&#243;ria aguda grave causada pelo coronav&#237;rus 2019 (SARS-CoV-2). O impacto da evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de uma infec&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria &#233; pouco conhecido em pacientes portadores de arritmias heredit&#225;rias, devido &#224; baixa preval&#234;ncia dessas doen&#231;as. Os pacientes que apresentam quadros infecciosos podem exacerbar arritmias prim&#225;rias ocultas ou bem controladas, por diversos fatores, tais como febre, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas, estresse adren&#233;rgico e, eventualmente, o pr&#243;prio dano mioc&#225;rdico do paciente s&#233;ptico. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; destacar os principais desafios que podemos encontrar durante a pandemia pela Covid 19, especificamente nos pacientes com arritmias heredit&#225;rias, com destaque para a s&#237;ndrome do QT longo cong&#234;nito (SQTL), a s&#237;ndrome de Brugada (SBr), a taquicardia ventricular polim&#243;rfica catecolamin&#233;rgica (TVPC) e a cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Arritmog&#234;nica do Ventr&#237;culo Direito</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome de Brugada</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome do QT Longo</kwd>
        <kwd>Taquicardia Ventricular Polim&#243;rfica Catecolamin&#233;rgica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="50"/>
        <page-count count="10"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Desde dezembro de 2019, observamos o r&#225;pido avan&#231;o da s&#237;ndrome respirat&#243;ria aguda grave causada pelo novo coronav&#237;rus (SARS-CoV-2), que registrou os primeiros casos em Wuhan, na China, e atingiu o Brasil recentemente. Estudos retrospectivos demonstraram que a idade avan&#231;ada foi um preditor de mortalidade independente na Covid-19. Os demais fatores de risco, com impacto na mortalidade, foram hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica, imunossupress&#227;o, diabetes melito tipo 2, obesidade e cardiopatia severa (insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria ou miocardiopatias).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
    <p>De forma geral, as complica&#231;&#245;es por arritmias em pacientes com pneumonia s&#227;o relativamente comuns, destacando-se a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> A parada card&#237;aca ocorre em cerca de 3% dos pacientes internados,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> por&#233;m menos de 20% dos eventos hospitalares s&#227;o descritos como ritmo pass&#237;vel de revers&#227;o el&#233;trica (cardiovers&#227;o ou desfibrila&#231;&#227;o), ou seja, taquicardia/fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular (TV/FV).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Nesses pacientes, o principal mecanismo arritmog&#234;nico &#233; o dano mioc&#225;rdico por isquemia ou inflama&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
    <p>O impacto da evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da sepse, ou particularmente das infec&#231;&#245;es respirat&#243;rias, &#233; pouco conhecido em pacientes portadores de arritmias heredit&#225;rias, devido &#224; baixa preval&#234;ncia dessas doen&#231;as.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Al&#233;m disso, em sua maioria, as arritmias heredit&#225;rias apresentam, em geral, penetr&#226;ncia incompleta e idade dependente,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> sendo mais expressas em pacientes jovens que, por sua vez, apresentam risco menor de desenvolver quadros infecciosos graves.</p>
    <p>Os pacientes que apresentam quadros infecciosos mais graves podem exacerbar arritmias ocultas ou bem controladas, por diversos fatores, tais como febre, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas, estresse adren&#233;rgico e, eventualmente, o pr&#243;prio dano mioc&#225;rdico do paciente s&#233;ptico. Todos esses fatores podem alterar o equil&#237;brio dos canais i&#244;nicos, tornando os pacientes com arritmias heredit&#225;rias potencialmente mais vulner&#225;veis.</p>
    <p>Os eventos fatais em pacientes com arritmias heredit&#225;rias podem ser desencadeados por estresse f&#237;sico e emocional. Os impactos psicossociais da pandemia relacionados a depress&#227;o, estresse, ansiedade e s&#237;ndrome do p&#226;nico, agravados pelo isolamento social, enfrentamento do medo e do luto, podem predispor a maior ocorr&#234;ncia de arritmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> A eventual necessidade de suspens&#227;o tempor&#225;ria das medica&#231;&#245;es (betabloqueadores e antiarr&#237;tmicos) em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, uso de f&#225;rmacos vasopressores com efeito catecolamin&#233;rgico e dist&#250;rbios hidroeletrol&#237;ticos pode estar associada a maior risco de eventos potencialmente fatais. Portanto, o per&#237;odo da pandemia, por si s&#243;, j&#225; alerta para a necessidade de garantir vigil&#226;ncia e orienta&#231;&#245;es direcionadas para esses pacientes, que, por serem portadores de doen&#231;as raras, n&#227;o ser&#227;o bem representadas em estudos cl&#237;nicos. Em caso de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo SARS-COV2, n&#227;o h&#225; dados epidemiol&#243;gicos suficientes nessa popula&#231;&#227;o para categorizar os pacientes em grupo de risco, gerando inseguran&#231;a para o m&#233;dico e para o paciente. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>, elencamos os cuidados gerais intra e extra-hospitalares que podem ser adotados nos pacientes com arritmias gen&#233;ticas previamente conhecidas.</p>
    <table-wrap id="t1">
      <label>Tabela 1</label>
      <caption>
        <title>Cuidados sugeridos durante a pandemia de Covid-19 em pacientes com arritmias heredit&#225;rias</title>
      </caption>
      <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
        <colgroup width="100%">
          <col/>
        </colgroup>
        <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">
              <bold>Cuidados ambulatoriais</bold>
            </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Evitar excesso de not&#237;cias alarmistas e estresse emocional</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Manter os h&#225;bitos de higiene e isolamento social</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Avaliar o risco do isolamento social</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Manter ou otimizar betabloqueadores e antiarr&#237;tmicos, sempre que poss&#237;vel</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Vigil&#226;ncia di&#225;ria na ader&#234;ncia terap&#234;utica e sinais de alarme para arritmias (s&#237;ncope, pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope e palpita&#231;&#245;es)</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">
              <bold>Cuidados ambulatoriais e hospitalares</bold>
            </td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Manter eutermia &#8211; a febre deve ser tratada precocemente, principalmente em portadores de SQTL2 e SBr</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Em portadores de SQTL, desencorajamos o uso de azitromicina, hidroxicloroquina/cloroquina</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Evitar a associa&#231;&#227;o de hidroxicloroquina com amiodarona ou sotalol pelo risco de TdP, comuns em pacientes com CAVD</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Acessar o site <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.credibledrugs.org">www.credibledrugs.org</ext-link> para consulta de medica&#231;&#245;es que prolongam o intervalo QT</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Acessar o site <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.online.epocrates.com">www.online.epocrates.com</ext-link> para consulta de intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Aten&#231;&#227;o ao protocolo de controle de QT de cada institui&#231;&#227;o</td>
          </tr>
        </tbody>
      </table>
      <table-wrap-foot>
        <fn id="TFN1">
          <p>SQTL: s&#237;ndrome do QT longo; SBr: s&#237;ndrome de Brugada; CAVD: cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito; TdP: torsades de pointes</p>
        </fn>
      </table-wrap-foot>
    </table-wrap>
    <p>Assim, &#233; importante revisar os principais desafios que podemos encontrar durante a pandemia da Covid 19,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> especificamente nessa subpopula&#231;&#227;o, com destaque para a s&#237;ndrome do QT longo cong&#234;nito (SQTL), a s&#237;ndrome de Brugada (SBr), a taquicardia ventricular polim&#243;rfica catecolamin&#233;rgica (TVPC) e a cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito (CAVD).</p>
    <sec>
      <title>S&#237;ndrome do QT longo cong&#234;nito</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Aspectos gerais</title>
        <p>A SQTL ocorre em 1 em 2.000 pessoas, &#233; caracterizada pelo prolongamento do intervalo QT no eletrocardiograma (ECG) de repouso de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es e uma propens&#227;o para s&#237;ncope ou convuls&#245;es por <italic>torsades de pointes</italic> (TdP) e morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca (MSC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Est&#225; associada a defeitos que acentuem as correntes despolarizantes de s&#243;dio e c&#225;lcio (INa e ICa L, respectivamente) ou atenuem correntes repolarizantes de pot&#225;ssio (IKs, IKr e IK1), levando a um prolongamento no potencial de a&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aco, refletindo no intervalo QT prolongado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> H&#225; o reconhecimento de peculiaridades cl&#237;nicas, que permitem classificar a SQTL em subtipos, principalmente SQTL 1 (canal IKs, gene <italic>KCNQ1</italic>), 2 (canais hERG ou IKr, gene <italic>KCNH2</italic>) e 3 (canal INa, gene <italic>SCN5A</italic>).</p>
        <p>A medida do intervalo QT deve ser preferencialmente realizada nas deriva&#231;&#245;es DII ou V5 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>), corrigida pelo intervalo RR precedente, utilizando a f&#243;rmula de Bazzet, preferencialmente em frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca entre 60 a 80bpm.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> As diretrizes atuais definem um valor prolongado de QTc quando acima e 450 ms em homens e 460 ms em mulheres. No entanto, 5% a 10% dos indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis t&#234;m um QTc &gt;460ms, sendo necess&#225;rios outros dados cl&#237;nicos para compor o diagn&#243;stico de SQTL. Nesses casos, recomenda-se a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do escore de Schwartz.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Apenas quando os valores de QTc s&#227;o maiores que 480ms, na aus&#234;ncia de causas secund&#225;rias, h&#225; maior especificidade para a SQTL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Por outro lado, cerca de 30% dos pacientes t&#234;m a forma oculta da SQTL, representada por altera&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica e intervalo QT normal, sendo o hist&#243;rico familiar ou o teste gen&#233;tico relevantes para suspeita cl&#237;nica nesses pacientes.</p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Medida do intervalo QT em paciente com s&#237;ndrome do QT longo.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Fonte: Fonte: acervo InCor-HC-FMUSP.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-02-0394-00391-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A conduta padr&#227;o em paciente com SQTL &#233; o bloqueio beta-adren&#233;rgico, com uso de nadolol/propranolol, al&#233;m de evitar medica&#231;&#245;es que prolonguem o intervalo QT. A indica&#231;&#227;o de denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica card&#237;aca esquerda e do cardiodesfibrilador implant&#225;vel (CDI) permanece reservada nos casos de maior risco de eventos arr&#237;tmicos potencialmente fatais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cuidados na pandemia pela Covid-19</title>
        <p>Os canais i&#244;nicos card&#237;acos s&#227;o modulados pelo sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, pois o tempo de repolariza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; constantemente ajustado pela frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Em situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse adren&#233;rgico, temos aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, com fosforila&#231;&#227;o dos canais de pot&#225;ssio e aumento da sua velocidade de abertura em condi&#231;&#245;es normais. Em situa&#231;&#245;es de defeitos proteicos geneticamente determinados, esse ajuste &#233; prejudicado, lentificando a negativa&#231;&#227;o do potencial de membrana, o que permite a entrada desequilibrada de c&#225;lcio e ocorr&#234;ncia de p&#243;s-potenciais precoces. Enquanto a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca permanece elevada, pode haver alguma inibi&#231;&#227;o desses potenciais, entretanto quando a situa&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica leva a bradicardia ou irregularidade do intervalo RR, observamos um aumento da dispers&#227;o da repolariza&#231;&#227;o e maior ocorr&#234;ncia de p&#243;s-potenciais de fase 3. Dependendo do limiar de excitabilidade da c&#233;lula, os p&#243;s-potenciais geram extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares, TdP/FV.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A suspens&#227;o ou redu&#231;&#227;o de betabloqueadores usados cronicamente no tratamento da SQTL pode agravar a ocorr&#234;ncia de arritmias potencialmente fatais. Portanto, as medica&#231;&#245;es devem ser rigorosamente mantidas em pacientes em tratamento domiciliar e, no doente cr&#237;tico, a decis&#227;o deve ser pautada pela estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica.</p>
        <p>O equil&#237;brio das correntes i&#244;nicas depende do n&#237;vel celular desses &#237;ons, que pode ser din&#226;mico em doentes cr&#237;ticos. A hipocalemia, a hipocalcemia e a hipomagnesemia provocam p&#243;s-potenciais precoces, aumentam a dispers&#227;o da repolariza&#231;&#227;o e levam a TdP com mais facilidade em portadores de SQTL. A manuten&#231;&#227;o do pot&#225;ssio entre 4,5 a 5mg/dL pode ser uma estrat&#233;gia protetora.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A sepse ou o choque s&#233;ptico s&#227;o estados adren&#233;rgicos por dor/desconfortos, al&#233;m do pr&#243;prio estado inflamat&#243;rio. Os portadores de SQTL 1 e SQTL 2 s&#227;o os que apresentam arritmias desencadeadas principalmente por estresse adren&#233;rgico e, portanto, mais vulner&#225;veis nessas situa&#231;&#245;es cr&#237;ticas. A presen&#231;a da febre pode influenciar as propriedades biof&#237;sicas dos canais sens&#237;veis &#224; temperatura, particularmente os canais hERG, acometidos na SQTL2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Por outro lado, a hipotermia tamb&#233;m est&#225; associada ao prolongamento do intervalo QT, por&#233;m com baixo risco de indu&#231;&#227;o de TdP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
        <p>As les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas inflamat&#243;rias alteram o potencial de membrana celular, gerando dispers&#227;o de repolariza&#231;&#227;o e suscetibilidade &#224;s arritmias ventriculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Al&#233;m disso, citocinas e autoanticorpos podem se ligar aos canais i&#244;nicos card&#237;acos levando &#224; canalopatia induzida pela inflama&#231;&#227;o, com maior gravidade presumida em pacientes com SQTL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Os f&#225;rmacos que bloqueiam os canais de pot&#225;ssio (hERG) podem prolongar ainda mais a repolariza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, aumentando o risco de arritmias fatais. A indica&#231;&#227;o dessas medica&#231;&#245;es deve ser rigorosamente ponderada, principalmente em regime extra-hospitalar, pela falta de monitoramento cont&#237;nuo. Al&#233;m disso, os medicamentos que levam &#224; inibi&#231;&#227;o do citocromo P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) podem aumentar ainda mais o n&#237;vel plasm&#225;tico de f&#225;rmacos que prolongam o intervalo QT.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A lista de medica&#231;&#245;es est&#225; dispon&#237;vel em <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.crediblemeds.org">www.crediblemeds.org</ext-link> e inclui a cloroquina/hidroxicloroquina e a azitromicina. No doente cr&#237;tico, outras medica&#231;&#245;es de risco s&#227;o frequentemente administradas, tais como antiem&#233;ticos (ondasentrona e metoclopramida),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> antipsic&#243;ticos (haloperidol), f&#225;rmacos vasoativos (noradrenalina, dobutamina), analg&#233;sicos (tramadol) e sedativos (etomidato, propofol).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A cloroquina e a hidroxicloroquina, associadas ou n&#227;o &#224; azitromicina, apresentam uso controverso em pacientes com Covid-19, sendo sua efic&#225;cia demonstrada <italic>in-vitro</italic>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> por&#233;m ainda sem estudos cl&#237;nicos comprobat&#243;rios. Em recente publica&#231;&#227;o, Mazzanti et al. sugerem que uma dose cumulativa de hidroxicloroquina de 2g em 5 dias, conforme adotada em 30% de todos os estudos em andamento com hidroxicloroquina (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.clinicaltrials.gov">www.clinicaltrials.gov</ext-link>), leva a um prolongamento modesto do intervalo QTc em pacientes com QTc basal normal (m&#233;dia de aumento de 20ms) e sem aumento do risco de complica&#231;&#245;es arr&#237;tmicas amea&#231;adoras &#224; vida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Em outra s&#233;rie de pacientes com l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico, com intervalo QTc m&#233;dio de 443&#177;25,3ms (373 &#8211; 518ms), houve um prolongamento do intervalo QTc em 14,2% dos pacientes em uso de cloroquina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Considerando que os pacientes com SQTL j&#225; apresentam maior suscetibilidade a pr&#243;-arritmias tipo <italic>TdP</italic>, o uso da cloroquina ou hidroxicloroquina, principalmente quando associado &#224; azitromicina, deve ser desencorajado em pacientes com SQTL.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A polifarm&#225;cia &#233; um item que exige precau&#231;&#227;o multidisciplinar, por parte de m&#233;dicos e farmac&#234;uticos; em pacientes com SQTL, isso se torna uma preocupa&#231;&#227;o ainda mais relevante pelo risco iminente de morte s&#250;bita se expostos a tais f&#225;rmacos. Especificamente nesses pacientes, devemos discutir pontualmente riscos e benef&#237;cios de cada medica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Em caso de ocorr&#234;ncia de TdP com degenera&#231;&#227;o para FV, h&#225; necessidade de desfibrila&#231;&#227;o e medidas de reanima&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar. O TdP costuma ter uma apresenta&#231;&#227;o autolimitada com resolu&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea; entretanto, o mais desafiador &#233; a preven&#231;&#227;o da recorr&#234;ncia do <italic>TdP</italic>. As medidas urgenciais incluem minimizar medica&#231;&#245;es pr&#243;-arr&#237;tmicas e suprimir os fatores que geram p&#243;s-potenciais precoces.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A principal medida para a supress&#227;o dos p&#243;s-potenciais precoces na SQTL &#233; evitar bradicardia e &#8220;pausa-depend&#234;ncia&#8221;. Em pacientes com SQTL adquirida, &#233; poss&#237;vel tentar medidas farmacol&#243;gicas, como isoprenalina endovenosa; por outro lado, em pacientes com SQTL cong&#234;nita, o <italic>overdriving</italic> deve ser realizado apenas por meio de est&#237;mulo atrial ou ventricular, com marca-passo provis&#243;rio (transcut&#226;neo ou transvenoso). A administra&#231;&#227;o de 2g sulfato de magn&#233;sio, seguida de infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua (3 a 10mg/min) &#233; terapia coadjuvante em ambas as circunst&#226;ncias, com objetivo de reduzir a amplitude da oscila&#231;&#227;o do potencial de membrana na fase 3 do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o. Em caso de refratariedade, a seda&#231;&#227;o para cessar o est&#237;mulo adren&#233;rgico pode ser necess&#225;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>S&#237;ndrome de Brugada</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Aspectos gerais</title>
        <p>A SBr acomete cerca de 1 em 5.000 pessoas, com predom&#237;nio no sexo masculino. O diagn&#243;stico da SBr &#233; definido pelo ECG, na presen&#231;a de supradesnivelamento do segmento ST de 2mm, em pelo menos uma deriva&#231;&#227;o precordial direita (V1-V2), em posi&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o (quarto espa&#231;o intercostal [EIC]) ou em EIC superiores (segundo ou terceiro EIC) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>), seguido de onda T negativa (padr&#227;o tipo 1). O principal desafio no diagn&#243;stico e na classifica&#231;&#227;o &#233; que esse padr&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fico &#233; din&#226;mico na maioria dos pacientes;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> portanto, pode ser documentado espontaneamente ou necessitar de teste provocativo, sob uso de f&#225;rmacos espec&#237;ficos (p. ex., ajmalina).</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Posicionamento dos eletrodos precordiais na s&#237;ndrome de Brugada. A. Posicionamento das deriva&#231;&#245;es precordiais para se obter maior sensibilidade na detec&#231;&#227;o do padr&#227;o t&#237;pico de Brugada, demonstrado no eletrocardiograma (ECG) em B, com t&#237;pico supradesnivelamento do segmento ST. Paciente de 26 anos de idade, assintom&#225;tica, com antecedente familiar de morte s&#250;bita precoce.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Fonte: acervo InCor-HC-FMUSP.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-02-0394-00391-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de causas secund&#225;rias, a presen&#231;a do padr&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fico espont&#226;neo de SBr tipo 1 &#233; suficiente para o diagn&#243;stico. Nos casos de SBr induzida por febre ou por testes provocativos, haveria a necessidade de adicionar dados cl&#237;nicos pessoais e familiares para definir o diagn&#243;stico com precis&#227;o. Recentemente, foi proposto um sistema de pontua&#231;&#227;o na SBr (escore de Shanghai), que pode ser utilizado como ferramenta diagn&#243;stica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref></p>
        <p>As causas secund&#225;rias, chamadas de fenoc&#243;pias de SBr, incluem uso de f&#225;rmacos que induzem ao supradesnivelamento do segmento ST (p. ex., tric&#237;clicos), dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e outras formas de distor&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (presen&#231;a de <italic>pectus excavatum</italic>) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Fenoc&#243;pias de s&#237;ndrome de Brugada</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Condic&#807;o&#771;es metabo&#769;licas</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Crise adrenal, acidose metabo&#769;lica, hiperglicemia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Distu&#769;rbios eletroli&#769;ticos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipercalemia, hipocalemia e hiponatremia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Compressa&#771;o meca&#770;nica na via de sai&#769;da do ventri&#769;culo direito</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Tumores, <italic>pectus excavatum</italic></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Outras</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Isquemia mioca&#769;rdica e embolia pulmonar</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pericardite e miocardite</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Medicac&#807;o&#771;es e intoxicac&#807;o&#771;es exo&#769;genas</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>Fonte: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.brugadadrugs.org">www.brugadadrugs.org</ext-link><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref></p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A gen&#233;tica da Sbr &#233; mais complexa do que as outras s&#237;ndromes el&#233;tricas prim&#225;rias. O SCN5A, primeiro gene identificado, ainda permanece como gene causal, mas todos os demais 20 genes citados na literatura recente carecem de correla&#231;&#227;o gen&#243;tipo-fen&#243;tipo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O tratamento para os pacientes com SBr envolve evitar situa&#231;&#245;es que facilitem a ocorr&#234;ncia das arritmias potencialmente fatais (TV/FV), como febre, uso de drogas il&#237;citas, liba&#231;&#227;o alco&#243;lica, refei&#231;&#245;es copiosas ou medica&#231;&#245;es que aumentem o bloqueio dos canais de s&#243;dio. A quinidina, importante bloqueador dos canais Ito, aparenta ser segura e reduz eventos arr&#237;tmicos no seguimento cl&#237;nico de pacientes com alto risco.</p>
        <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o CDI &#233; reservada para pacientes que ou apresentaram TV sustentada espont&#226;nea documentada, parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria (PCR) recuperada ou, na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, naqueles que apresentam maior risco de eventos arr&#237;tmicos, como na presen&#231;a da s&#237;ncope. O estudo eletrofisiol&#243;gico (EEF) pode ser usado para estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, com resultados controversos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> A abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia do substrato da Sbr emergiu como tratamento coadjuvante para arritmias ventriculares recorrentes e est&#225; sendo estudada em pacientes sem eventos arr&#237;tmicos pr&#233;vios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cuidados na pandemia pela Covid-19</title>
        <p>O primeiro aspecto em pacientes com SBr &#233; a precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, por se tratar de uma altera&#231;&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fica inespec&#237;fica, com vieses de interpreta&#231;&#227;o. A lista de doen&#231;as que podem mimetizar a altera&#231;&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fica da SBr, chamadas de fenoc&#243;pias, deve ser cuidadosamente analisada, para adequada orienta&#231;&#227;o (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>). Podemos notar que v&#225;rias fenoc&#243;pias podem ocorrer no contexto infeccioso, como as miocardites, os dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, o tromboembolismo pulmonar e o infarto do mioc&#225;rdico.</p>
        <p>A posi&#231;&#227;o de eletrodos, descrita na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>, aumenta a sensibilidade diagn&#243;stica de SBr e pode ser preferida em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o de eletrodos-padr&#227;o para pacientes com diagn&#243;stico suspeito ou confirmado, podendo ser realizado em pacientes com Covid-19 que apresentem parada card&#237;aca em TV/FV durante interna&#231;&#227;o em unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI), especialmente quando associada a quadros febris. Por outro lado, para an&#225;lise de outras patologias, comuns no curso da infec&#231;&#227;o, como miocardite e infarto, a escolha dos eletrodos em posi&#231;&#227;o superiores deve estar bem identificada no ECG, para n&#227;o induzir a erros de interpreta&#231;&#227;o com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; progress&#227;o da onda R e amplitude dos complexos. A medida do intervalo QT pode ser realizada na deriva&#231;&#227;o D2 no ECG com deriva&#231;&#245;es superiores, visto que as deriva&#231;&#245;es perif&#233;ricas s&#227;o mantidas em posi&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o.</p>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Eletrocardiograma de paciente com cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica de ventr&#237;culo direito. Paciente de 45 anos de idade, recuperado de parada card&#237;aca. Observa-se a presen&#231;a de onda &#233;psilon (seta) e onda T negativa de V1 a V3, ambos crit&#233;rios maiores, al&#233;m de baixa voltagem em plano frontal, denotando grave acometimento ventricular.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Fonte: acervo InCor-HC-FMUSP.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-02-0394-00391-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        <p>As principais medidas para manejo dos pacientes com SBr em UTI s&#227;o prevenir a febre e evitar uso de medica&#231;&#245;es que acentuem o defeito do canal. V&#225;rios s&#227;o os exemplos de medica&#231;&#245;es que aumentam risco de morte s&#250;bita nos portadores de SBr, como f&#225;rmacos de suporte no paciente internado (difenidramina), no tratamento de arritmias (amiodarona e propafenona), agentes anest&#233;sicos (propofol) e analg&#233;sicos (tramadol).</p>
        <p>A import&#226;ncia da febre nos pacientes com SBr est&#225; bem estabelecida. Em geral, h&#225; aumento do intervalo PR, da dura&#231;&#227;o do QRS e aumento do ponto J. A febre aumenta, inclusive, o risco de arritmias em maiores de 70 anos, quando o risco da doen&#231;a j&#225; est&#225; reduzido.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref> Pacientes considerados de alto risco, com temperatura acima de 38,5&#186;C, apesar do uso de antipir&#233;ticos, devem procurar atendimento m&#233;dico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A SBr foi a primeira arritmia gen&#233;tica a ganhar destaque em publica&#231;&#245;es durante a pandemia. Foi relatado o caso de um paciente que desmascarou o padr&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fico durante um estado febril. Por se tratar de um paciente jovem, sem crit&#233;rios de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, os autores optaram por dar alta com <italic>LifeVest</italic>, indispon&#237;vel no Brasil.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A hidroxicloroquina e a azitromicina podem ser indicadas, a depender da avalia&#231;&#227;o de riscos e benef&#237;cios. Sugerimos dosar eletr&#243;litos sangu&#237;neos e considerar monitoramento durante o tratamento. O prolongamento do intervalo QT e a dispers&#227;o da repolariza&#231;&#227;o com hidroxicloroquina e azitromicina poderiam aumentar o risco de arritmia em pacientes com SBr, mesmo sem rela&#231;&#227;o direta dessas medica&#231;&#245;es com os canais despolarizantes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O tratamento da tempestade el&#233;trica na Sbr tem como objetivo aumentar a corrente de c&#225;lcio (despolarizante), a fim de se obter normaliza&#231;&#227;o do supradesnivelamento do segmento ST e reduzir a reentrada de fase 2. O isoproterenol, como agonistas beta-adren&#233;rgicos, pode ser eficaz, preferencialmente em associa&#231;&#227;o com quinidina (indispon&#237;vel no Brasil). Os inibidores da fosfodiesterase III, como o cilostazol oral ou o milrinone endovenoso, apresentaram redu&#231;&#227;o de arritmogenicidade em modelos experimentais de Sbr, mas seus efeitos em humanos ainda est&#227;o em andamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito e/ou esquerdo</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Aspectos gerais</title>
        <p>A cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito e/ou esquerdo, tamb&#233;m conhecida como displasia ou cardiomiopatia arritmog&#234;nica do ventr&#237;culo direito (CAVD/DAVD), tem uma preval&#234;ncia m&#233;dia de 1:5000 na popula&#231;&#227;o geral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> &#201; uma doen&#231;a heterog&#234;nea, com diversas apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que pode ter como primeira manifesta&#231;&#227;o a morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca, que ocorre com maior frequ&#234;ncia durante exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico. N&#227;o h&#225; um exame padr&#227;o-ouro no diagn&#243;stico de CAVD, e o escore consagrado engloba hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas da despolariza&#231;&#227;o e repolariza&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref>), exames de imagem, avalia&#231;&#227;o anatomopatol&#243;gica e molecular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Atualmente, sabe-se que a CAVD &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o de heran&#231;a geneticamente determinada, autoss&#244;mica dominante na maioria dos casos, podendo ter formas raras que s&#227;o de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica recessiva, como na doen&#231;a de Naxos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> ou na s&#237;ndrome de Carvajal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> A penetr&#226;ncia da CAVD &#233; incompleta, com acometimento familiar em at&#233; 50% dos casos, podendo estar subestimada pela expressividade vari&#225;vel da doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>A apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da CAVD ocorre frequentemente entre a segunda e a quarta d&#233;cada de vida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> As manifesta&#231;&#245;es mais comuns s&#227;o palpita&#231;&#245;es, s&#237;ncope e parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria, podendo progredir para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva.</p>
        <p>As muta&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; CAVD acometem tipicamente genes que codificam prote&#237;nas desmossomais, estruturas importantes na ades&#227;o celular do cardiomi&#243;cito que t&#234;m um papel-chave na sua fisiopatologia. Os desmossomos, al&#233;m de serem estruturas especializadas em conex&#227;o celular, s&#227;o importantes mediadores que atuam na transdu&#231;&#227;o dos sinais intracelulares e intercelulares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> A perda da complexa fun&#231;&#227;o desmossomal provoca ruptura da jun&#231;&#227;o intercelular, desprendimento de mi&#243;citos e morte celular. A substitui&#231;&#227;o do cardiomi&#243;cito por fibrose e gordura contribui para o desenvolvimento de &#225;rea de condu&#231;&#227;o lenta, que gera substrato anat&#244;mico cicatricial para macrorreentrada e arritmias ventriculares. A fibrose progride do epic&#225;rdio para o endoc&#225;rdio e envolve principalmente a parede livre do VD, resultando em afilamento e dilata&#231;&#227;o aneurism&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O tratamento deve ser direcionado &#224; manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da CAVD. N&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia de que os antiarr&#237;tmicos previnam a morte s&#250;bita, sendo o CDI indicado em pacientes de alto risco (recuperados de PCR e TV espont&#226;nea documentada). Os betabloqueadores s&#227;o considerados primeira linha no tratamento das arritmias atriais, extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares, TV n&#227;o sustentada, al&#233;m de importante coadjuvante no controle de choques apropriados ou inapropriados (principalmente por arritmias atriais) pelo CDI. O sotalol, a amiodarona e a abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia podem ser alternativas terap&#234;uticas, quando os betabloqueadores s&#227;o ineficazes ou mal tolerados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cuidados na pandemia pela Covid-19</title>
        <p>As arritmias ventriculares em pacientes com CAVD s&#227;o frequentemente desencadeadas por estresse f&#237;sico e emocional, tendo um componente adren&#233;rgico-dependente importante. Dessa forma, o aumento da libera&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica relacionado &#224; reposta compensat&#243;ria da s&#237;ndrome inflamat&#243;ria que acompanha o quadro infeccioso pode ser indutor das arritmias ventriculares. Deve-se manter o betabloqueador nesses pacientes enquanto houver condi&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica e, se poss&#237;vel, os antiarr&#237;tmicos (sotalol, amiodarona). Os f&#225;rmacos com efeito alfa ou beta-adren&#233;rgico &#8211; como aminas vasoativas (epinefrina, norepinefrina) e inotr&#243;picos (dobutamina, milrinone) &#8211; podem aumentar o risco de arritmias ventriculares; contudo, manter a estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica &#233; soberana em pacientes cr&#237;ticos.</p>
        <p>Estima-se que cerca de 17% dos pacientes internados pela Covid-19 necessitam de intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal e ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica para recupera&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> A ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica tem efeitos hemodin&#226;micos sobre VD como aumento de p&#243;s-carga direita e redu&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco direito em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o do VD e aumento da press&#227;o venosa central.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Os dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos (hipocalemia, hipocalcemia ou hipomagnesemia) podem tamb&#233;m aumentar a suscetibilidade em pacientes com substrato anat&#244;mico, como &#233; o caso da CAVD e, portanto, a vigil&#226;ncia de eletr&#243;litos deve ser rigorosa.</p>
        <p>A hidroxicloroquina e a azitromicina sabidamente prolongam a repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Dessa maneira, sua associa&#231;&#227;o com os antiarr&#237;tmicos da classe III de Vaughan-Williams como sotalol e amiodarona, pode potencializar o risco de atividade deflagrada por p&#243;s-potenciais precoces, podendo causar TdP/FV. Conforme sugerido por alguns autores, a amiodarona poderia exercer a&#231;&#227;o antiviral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> Os antivirais como ritonavir/lopinavir n&#227;o apresentam efeito catecolamin&#233;rgico que aumentem o risco arr&#237;tmico em pacientes com cardiopatia e n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias que possam interagir com betabloqueadores/antiarr&#237;tmicos habitualmente usados na CAVD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Taquicardia ventricular polim&#243;rfica catecolamin&#233;rgica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Aspectos gerais</title>
        <p>A TVPC ocorre em aproximadamente 1 em 10.000 pessoas, acomete principalmente crian&#231;as na primeira e segunda d&#233;cada de vida, com s&#237;ncope ou PCR recuperada, relacionada ao exerc&#237;cio ou &#224; emo&#231;&#227;o. O ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es em repouso &#233; normal. O diagn&#243;stico &#233; feito pelo teste de exerc&#237;cio, ap&#243;s a exclus&#227;o de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca estrutural, preferencialmente por resson&#226;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
        <p>Durante o teste de exerc&#237;cio, as extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares aparecem com o incremento do esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, quando a FC atinge 100 bpm, progredindo para TV polim&#243;rfica e, &#224;s vezes, para TV bidirecional cl&#225;ssica que &#233; considerada patognom&#244;nica dessa canalopatia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Prot&#243;tipo da arritmia ventricular em pacientes com taquicardia ventricular polim&#243;rfica catecolamin&#233;rgica. Paciente de 26 anos de idade, com arritmia ventricular multifocal nas primeiras etapas do esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, com antecedente familiar de morte s&#250;bita na primeira d&#233;cada de vida.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Fonte: acervo InCor-HC-FMUSP.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-02-0394-00391-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A arritmia implicada na TVPC ocorre pela perda de recapta&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio no citosol. A epinefrina, liberada durante o esfor&#231;o, promove acentuada libera&#231;&#227;o adicional de c&#225;lcio do ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico durante a di&#225;stole. O acionamento das correntes de s&#243;dio e c&#225;lcio leva a um acentuado influxo de s&#243;dio, que pode despolarizar a c&#233;lula e provocar extrass&#237;stoles por atividade deflagrada por p&#243;s-potenciais tardios. A emerg&#234;ncia de extrass&#237;stoles ventriculares rand&#244;micas pelo sistema de Purkinje &#233; respons&#225;vel pelo aspecto polim&#243;rfico da TV.</p>
        <p>Aproximadamente 60% dos pacientes com TVPC apresentam defeito no receptor card&#237;aco de rianodina, codificado pelo gene RyR2 (TVPC tipo 1). A TVPC tipo 2 &#233; mais rara e representa a doen&#231;a em seu padr&#227;o de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mico recessivo, causado por muta&#231;&#245;es da calsequestrina (CASQ2). Alguns casos de TVPC, ainda mais incomuns, foram relacionados a outras prote&#237;nas relacionadas &#224; homeostase do c&#225;lcio, gerando o mesmo padr&#227;o de arritmias ventriculares. Os genes implicados nessas recentes descobertas foram CALM1 (que codifica a calmodulina) e TRDN (codifica&#231;&#227;o da triadina). As muta&#231;&#245;es no KCNJ2 e TECRL tamb&#233;m j&#225; foram descritas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O objetivo principal da terapia &#233; o bloqueio adren&#233;rgico com propranolol ou nadolol, que pode ser refor&#231;ado pela simpatectomia card&#237;aca esquerda, em pacientes que permanecem sintom&#225;ticos ou sem redu&#231;&#227;o das arritmias em testes ergom&#233;tricos. A flecainida (indispon&#237;vel no Brasil), recentemente, mostrou benef&#237;cio no tratamento por inibir a libera&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio mediada pela rianodina (op&#231;&#227;o, se efeito de classe, com propafenona).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O CDI deve ser indicado principalmente em recuperados de PCR. Entretanto, diferentemente de outras canalopatias, o choque pode induzir a libera&#231;&#227;o de epinefrina e morte por tempestade el&#233;trica; portanto, a otimiza&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica &#233; soberana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cuidados na pandemia pela Covid-19</title>
        <p>Os pacientes com TVPC, mesmo com controle adequado de sintomas e de arritmias ventriculares, podem apresentar recorr&#234;ncias potencialmente fatais se houver suspens&#227;o ou redu&#231;&#227;o dos betabloqueadores e, portanto, &#233; importante manuten&#231;&#227;o das medica&#231;&#245;es intra e extra-hospitalares, ponderando o <italic>status</italic> hemodin&#226;mico do doente mais cr&#237;tico.</p>
        <p>F&#225;rmacos com efeito alfa ou beta-adren&#233;rgico como aminas vasoativas (epinefrina, norepinefrina) e inotr&#243;picos (dobutamina, milrinone) utilizados habitualmente para suporte hemodin&#226;mico podem aumentar o risco de arritmias ventriculares em pacientes com TVPC. A epinefrina &#233; usada para teste farmacol&#243;gico na TVPC devido ao seu potencial de desmascarar as arritmias ventriculares, e, portanto, se o paciente necessitar de suporte hemodin&#226;mico, outras aminas vasoativas devem ser preferidas &#224; epinefrina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O milrinone, inibidor de fosfodiesterase 3, reduz a degrada&#231;&#227;o do monofosfato de adenosina c&#237;clica (AMPc), aumentando a libera&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio pelo receptor de rianodina, que &#233; a patog&#234;nese da TVPC. Em algumas situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas, considerando o comprometimento hemodin&#226;mico, pode ser poss&#237;vel utilizar dose baixa de bloqueadores de receptores beta 1 (propranolol).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Durante uma infec&#231;&#227;o grave, os pacientes podem n&#227;o tolerar os betabloqueadores e antiarr&#237;tmicos de uso cr&#244;nico e, durante todo esse per&#237;odo de maior vulnerabilidade arr&#237;tmica, deve-se atentar a dist&#250;rbios hidreletrol&#237;ticos e evit&#225;-los.</p>
        <p>Antivirais como ritonavir/lopinavir n&#227;o apresentam potencial intera&#231;&#227;o com betabloqueadores ou efeito catecolamin&#233;rgico que aumentem o risco arr&#237;tmico em pacientes com TVPC, por&#233;m podem interagir com a flecainida &#8211; f&#225;rmaco coadjuvante no tratamento da TVPC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> No Brasil, na falta de comercializa&#231;&#227;o de flecainida, utilizamos propafenona, que tamb&#233;m pode interagir com os antivirais.</p>
        <p>A hidroxicloroquina, aparentemente, n&#227;o aumenta os n&#237;veis de catecolaminas. No entanto, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa entre a hidroxicloroquina e o propranolol/nadolol. Os betabloqueadores s&#227;o metabolizados via citocromo CYP2D6, e sua inibi&#231;&#227;o pela hidroxicloroquina pode acarretar aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o do medicamento, exigindo monitoramento cuidadoso da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e da press&#227;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> A flecainida e a propafenona apresentam uma intera&#231;&#227;o semelhante, resultando em aumento do n&#237;vel s&#233;rico dos antiarr&#237;tmicos, potencializando risco arr&#237;tmico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> Nessas situa&#231;&#245;es, devemos pesar risco e benef&#237;cio individual para decis&#227;o terap&#234;utica.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Os pacientes com arritmias heredit&#225;rias apresentam diversos fatores moleculares e estruturais que os predisp&#245;em a eventos potencialmente fatais no curso de uma infec&#231;&#227;o viral. A pandemia pela Covid-19 nos leva a distanci&#225;-los do risco de infec&#231;&#227;o, refor&#231;ando medidas de isolamento e higiene, al&#233;m de orientar precau&#231;&#245;es nos cuidados m&#233;dicos, relembrando as peculiaridades de portadores de doen&#231;as raras. Dentre as recomenda&#231;&#245;es, refor&#231;amos os cuidados com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s medica&#231;&#245;es utilizadas pelo paciente, ao tratamento efetivo da febre e dos dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos e ao risco de prescri&#231;&#227;o de medica&#231;&#245;es com potencial pr&#243;-arr&#237;tmico.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;sgradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: all authors. Writing of the manuscript: Sacilotto L, Olivetti N. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Pisani C, Hachul D, Darrieux F, Scanavacca MI.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Since December 2019 we have observed the rapid advance of the severe acute respiratory syndrome caused by the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). The impact of the clinical course of a respiratory infection is little known in patients with hereditary arrhythmias, due to the low prevalence of these diseases. Patients who present with infectious conditions may exacerbate hidden or well-controlled primary arrhythmias, due to several factors, such as fever, electrolyte disturbances, drug interactions, adrenergic stress and, eventually, the septic patient&#8217;s own myocardial damage. The aim of this review is to highlight the main challenges we may encounter during the Covid 19 pandemic, specifically in patients with hereditary arrhythmias, with emphasis on the congenital long QT syndrome (LQTS), Brugada syndrome (SBr), ventricular tachycardia polymorphic catecholaminergic (CPVT) and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Aarrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
        <kwd>Brugada Syndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>Long QT Syndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Since December 2019 we have observed the rapid advance of the severe acute respiratory syndrome caused by the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), the first cases of which arose in Wuhan, China, subsequently arriving in Brazil. Retrospective studies have shown that old age was an independent predictor of mortality by COVID-19. Other risk factors impacting mortality were systemic arterial hypertension, chronic pulmonary obstructive disease, immunosuppression, type-2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, and severe cardiopathy (heart failure, coronary disease, or cardiomyopathies).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Overall, complications due to arrhythmias in patients with pneumonia, particularly atrial fibrillation, are relatively common.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> Cardiac arrest occurs in about 3% of hospitalized patients;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> however, less than 20% of cardiac rhythms of in-hospital events are reported as being electrically reversible to sinus rhythm (by cardioversion or defibrillation), i.e., ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation (VT/VF).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> In such patients, the primary arrhythmogenic mechanism is myocardial injury due to ischemia or inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
      <p>The impact of a clinical evolution to sepsis, or specifically of the respiratory infections, is poorly known in patients who harbor inherited arrhythmias, due to the low prevalence of these diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Moreover, most inherited arrhythmias generally have incomplete penetrance and are age-dependent,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> being mainly expressed in young patients who, in turn, have a lower risk of developing severe infectious conditions.</p>
      <p>Patients presenting with more severe infectious conditions may have exacerbation of concealed or well-controlled arrhythmias, due to several factors such as fever, electrolytic disorders, drug interaction, adrenergic stress and, eventually, the septic patient&#8217;s own myocardial injury. All these factors may alter the ion channels balance, rendering these patients with inherited arrhythmias potentially more vulnerable.</p>
      <p>Lethal events in patients with inherited arrhythmias may be triggered by physical and emotional stress. The psychosocial impacts of the pandemic, which correlate to depression, stress, anxiety and panic syndrome, further aggravated by social isolation and the confrontation of fear and grief, may all predispose to a higher occurrence of arrhythmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> The possible need for a temporary suspension of medications (&#946;&#8211;;blockers and antiarrhythmic drugs) in hemodynamically unstable patients, the use of vasopressor drugs with catecholaminergic effects, and hydro-electrolytic disorders may be linked to a higher risk for potentially fatal events. Therefore, the pandemic period itself is a warning for the need to warrant vigilance and orientation directed to these patients who, once harboring rare diseases, are not well represented in clinical studies. In case of infection by SARS-COV2, there is not enough epidemiological data on this population to categorize them as a risk group, thus generating insecurity for both physician and patient. In <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref> we rank the in- and out-of-hospital general healthcare measures that should be adopted for patients with previously known genetic arrhythmias.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Out-of-hospital and inpatient care during COVID-19 pandemic in patients with inherited arrhythmias</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="100%">
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Out-of-hospital care</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Avoid emotional stress</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Practice good hygiene and physical distancing</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Check for the risk of social distancing</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Keep beta-blockers and antiarrhythmic drus, as appropriate</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Attention with alarm symptoms (syncope, presyncope and palpitations) and optimal pharmacological treatment and adherence to medication</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">
                <bold>Out-of-hospital and inpatient care</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Keep euthermia &#8211; fever should be treated early, especially in patients with LQTS2 and BrS</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Azithromycin and Hydroxychloroquine/Chloroquine must be discouraged in patients with LQTS</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Avoid the association of hydroxychloroquine with amiodarone or sotalol due to the risk of TdP</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; The drugs that may lengthen the QT interval is available on <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.credibledrugs.org">www.credibledrugs.org</ext-link></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Drugs interactions are available on <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.online.epocrates.com">www.online.epocrates.com</ext-link></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Be aware of QT control protocols of each hospital</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <p>LQTS: Long QT syndrome, BrS: Brugada Syndrome, ARVC: arrhythmogenic right ventricle cardiomyopathy; TdP: Torsades de pointes.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>For all the aforementioned reasons, it is important to review the main challenges faced during the COVID-19 pandemic,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> specifically in this subpopulation, highlighting congenital long-QT syndrome (LQTS), Brugada syndrome (BrS), catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Congenital Long-QT Syndrome</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Overview</title>
          <p>LQTS affects 1:2,000 individuals and is characterized by prolongation of the QT interval on the standard 12-lead ECG and a propensity for syncope or seizures secondary to <italic>torsades de pointes</italic> (TdP) and sudden cardiac death (SDC).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
          <p>LQTS is associated to defects that either increase the sodium and calcium (respectively Ina and Ica L) depolarization currents, or attenuate the potassium (IKs, IKr and IK1) repolarization currents, leading to a prolonged cardiac action potential that results in QT-interval prolongation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Clinical peculiarities and molecular diagnosis allow for LQTS classification into subtypes, mainly LQTS-1 (IKs channel, gene <italic>KCNQ1</italic>), LQTS-2 (hERG or IKr channels, gene <italic>KCNH2</italic>), or LQTS-3 (Ina channel, gene <italic>SCN5A</italic>).</p>
          <p>The QT interval must be preferably measured from leads DII or V5 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>) and corrected by the preceding RR interval using Bazett&#8217;s formula, ideally at a 60 to 80 bpm heart rate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> The present guidelines define that QTc is prolonged when its value is above 450 ms in men and 460 ms in women. However, 5% to 10% of healthy individuals have a QTc &gt; 460 ms; therefore, other clinical data are necessary to establish LQTS diagnosis. For these cases, the use of Schwartz score is recommended.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> There is greater specificity for LQTS only when QTc values are above 480 ms in the absence of secondary causes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> On the other hand, about 30% of the patients have the concealed form of LQTS, represented by genetic background and normal QT interval, so the family history and a genetic test are relevant in case of clinical suspicion in these patients.</p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>QT interval measurement in a patient with Long QT Syndrome.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>InCor-HCFMUSP collection.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-02-0394-00391-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>The standard treatment for patients with LQTS is &#946;-adrenergic blockade using nadolol/propranolol, in addition to avoiding drugs that prolong the QT interval. The indication for left cardiac sympathetic denervation and ICD remains restricted to cases with greater risk for potentially fatal arrhythmic events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Healthcare during the COVID-19 pandemic</title>
          <p>Cardiac ion channels are modulated by the autonomic nervous system, since the cardiac repolarization time is constantly adjusted by the heart rate. In a context of adrenergic stress, there is an increase in heart rate, with potassium channel phosphorylation and increased opening velocity in normal conditions. In situations of genetically-determined protein defect, this adjustment is impaired, thus slowing channel inactivation and allowing for an imbalanced entrance of calcium and occurrence of early after-depolarization (EAD). While the heart rate remains high, there may be some inhibition of these triggers; however, when the metabolic situation leads to bradycardia or RR interval irregularity, there is an increased repolarization dispersion and greater occurrence of EAD. Depending on the cell excitability threshold, EAD gives rise to ventricular extrasystoles (or &#8220;premature ventricular beats - PVBs&#8221;), TdP/VF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The suspension or reduction of the chronic use of &#946; &#8211; blockers for the treatment of LQTS may aggravate the occurrence of potentially fatal arrhythmias; therefore, there should be a strict maintenance of medications for patients treated at home, while in critically-ill patients, the decision must be guided by their hemodynamic stability.</p>
          <p>Ion current balance depends on the cell level of those ions, which can be dynamic in critically-ill patients. Hypokalemia, hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia lead to the emergence of EAD, increased dispersion of repolarization, and TdP occurs more easily in LQTS carriers. Keeping potassium levels between 4.5 and 5 mg/dL might be a protective strategy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Sepsis or septic shock are situations associated with high adrenergic tone due to pain/discomfort, in addition to the inflammatory condition itself. LQTS-1 and LQTS-2 carriers are those who present with arrhythmias triggered mainly by adrenergic stress, being therefore more prone to such critical situations. The presence of fever may influence the biophysical properties of temperature-sensitive channels, particularly the hERG channels affected in LQTS-2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Contrarywise, hypothermia is also associated with prolongation of the QT interval, albeit with a low risk of TdP induction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Myocardial inflammatory injuries change the cell membrane potential, generating repolarization dispersion and susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Furthermore, cytokines and antibodies may link to the cardiac ion channels and lead to inflammation-induced channelopathy, presumably with greater severity in LQTS patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Potassium-channel (hERG) blocking drugs may further prolong the cardiac repolarization, thus increasing the risk for fatal arrhythmias. The indication of these medications must be strictly weighed, especially in out-of-hospital regimens that lack continuous monitoring. In addition, drugs that lead to P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) cytochrome inhibition may further increase the serum level of drugs that prolong the QT interval.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
          <p>There is a list of drugs in <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.crediblemeds.org">www.crediblemeds.org</ext-link> that includes chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin. In critically-ill patients, other drugs that pose risk are often administered, such as antiemetic (ondansetron and metoclopramide),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> antipsychotic (haloperidol), vasoactive (noradrenaline, dobutamine), analgesic (tramadol), and sedative drugs (etomidate, propofol).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, associated or not to azithromycin, is controversial in COVID-19 patients, of which efficacy has been demonstrated <italic>in vitro</italic>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> but still lacking support from clinical studies. In a recent publication, Mazzanti et al. suggested that a cumulative 2g dose of hydroxychloroquine in 5 days, as it is adopted in 30% of all ongoing studies of hydroxychloroquine (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.clinicaltrials.gov">www.clinicaltrials.gov</ext-link>), leads to mild prolongation of the QTc interval in patients with normal baseline QTc (average increase of 20 ms), without increasing the risk for life-threatening arrhythmic complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> In another series of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, with mean QTc interval of 443 &#177; 25.3 ms (373 &#8211; 518 ms), QTc interval prolongation occurred in 14.2% of patients using chloroquine.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Considering that LQTS patients already are more prone to TdP-type pro-arrhythmias, the use of chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine, mainly in association with azithromycin, must be discouraged in patients with LQTS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Polypharmacy is an issue requiring multidisciplinary caution on the part of both physicians and pharmacists; in LQTS patients, this becomes an even more relevant concern, due to the risk of imminent sudden death when they are exposed to such drugs. Specifically in these patients, one must promptly discuss the risks and benefits of each medication.</p>
          <p>In case of TdP occurrence degenerating into VF, defibrillation and cardiopulmonary resuscitation are required. TdP usually has a self-limited presentation with spontaneous resolution; however, prevention of TdP recurrence is the most challenging factor. Emergency measures include minimizing pro-arrhythmic medications and suppressing factors that give origin to early after-potentials.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The primary measure aimed to suppress EAD in LQTS is to avoid bradycardia and pause episodes. In patients with acquired LQTS it is possible to try pharmacological measures, such as intravenous isoprenaline; on the other hand, in patients with congenital LQTS, overdriving should only be done by atrial or ventricular stimulation, with a temporary (transcutaneous or transvenous) pacemaker implantation. The administration of 2g followed by continuous infusion (3 to 10mg/min) of magnesium sulphate is an adjunct therapy in both circumstances, aiming to reduce the oscillation amplitude at phase 3 of the membrane action potential. In case of refractoriness, sedation may be necessary to cease the adrenergic stimulus.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Brugada Syndrome</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Overview</title>
          <p>BrS affects about 1 in 5,000 people, with a male gender predominance. The BrS diagnosis is established by the ECG, through the presence of ST-segment elevation &gt;2mm in at least one right precordial lead (V1-V2), in standard (fourth intercostal space, ICS) or superior ICS (second or third ICS), (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 2</xref>) followed by a negative T-wave (type-1 pattern). The main diagnostic and classification challenge is the fact that this is a dynamic ECG pattern in most patients,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> therefore it may be spontaneously documented or obtained after a provocative test using specific drugs (e.g., ajmaline).</p>
          <fig id="f6">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Placement of precordial leads in a patient with Brugada Syndrome. A) Precordial leads placed at superior intercostal space to increase the detection of Brugada type 1 pattern, as demonstrated in panel B. B) An asymptomatic 26-year-old girl, with a familiar history of sudden cardiac death.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>InCor-HCFMUSP collection.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-02-0394-00391-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>In the absence of secondary causes, the presence of a spontaneous BrS type-1 ECG pattern is sufficient for the diagnosis. In cases of BrS induced by fever or provocative tests, it would be necessary to add personal and familiar clinical data to precisely define the diagnosis. Recently, a scoring system (Shanghai score) was proposed for BrS, which may be used as a diagnostic tool.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Secondary causes, the so-called BrS phenocopies, include the use of drugs that induce the elevation of the ST-segment (e.g. tricyclic drugs), electrolytic disorders, myocardial ischemia, and other forms of ST-segment distortion (presence of <italic>pectus excavatum</italic>) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref></p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Brugada Syndrome phenocopies</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Metabolic conditions</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Adrenal crisis, metabolic acidosis, hyperglycemia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Electrolyte disturbances</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hyperkalemia, hypokalemia and hyponatremia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Mechanical compression of right ventricle outflow tract</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Tumors, pectus excavatum</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Others</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Myocardial ischemia and pulmonary embolism</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pericarditis and myocarditis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Exogenous Medications and Poisonings</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <p>Fonte: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.brugadadrugs.org">www.brugadadrugs.org</ext-link><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref></p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>BrS genetics is more complex than the other primary electrical syndromes. <italic>SCN5A</italic>, the first identified gene, still remains a causative gene; however, all the other 20 genes reported in the recent literature lack a genotype-phenotype correlation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Therapy for BrS patients involves the avoidance of situations that facilitate the occurrence of potentially fatal arrhythmias (VT/VF), such as fever, use of illicit drugs, alcohol consumption, copious meals, or drugs that increase sodium channel blockade. Quinidine, an important I<sub>to</sub> channel blocker, seems to be safe and able to reduce arrhythmic events in the clinical follow-up of high-risk patients.</p>
          <p>The indication for ICD implantation is restricted to patients that have shown documented spontaneous sustained VT, aborted sudden cardiac death (aSCD), or as primary prevention for those presenting with a greater risk for arrhythmic events, like the presence of syncope. The electrophysiologic study (EPS) can be used for risk stratification of asymptomatic patients, with controversial results.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Radiofrequency ablation of the BrS substrate has emerged as an adjuvant therapy for recurrent ventricular arrhythmias and is being studied in patients without previous arrhythmic events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Healthcare in the COVID-19 pandemic</title>
          <p>The first aspect to be considered in BrS patients is diagnostic accuracy, since this is a specific electrocardiographic pattern vulnerable to interpretation bias. The list of diseases that can mimic BrS ECG changes, the so-called phenocopies, must be carefully scrutinized for adequate guidance. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>) It is possible to observe that many phenocopies may occur in an infectious condition, such as in myocarditis, electrolytic disorders, pulmonary thromboembolism and myocardial infarction.</p>
          <p>Recording ECGs by placing the precordial leads at higher ICS, as depicted in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>, increases the sensitivity for detecting Brugada-type ECG pattern, and may be preferred over the standard lead positioning in patients with suspected or confirmed diagnosis. It can be additionally performed in COVID-19 patients with a VT/VF cardiac arrest during ICU hospitalization, especially if associated with fever. On the other hand, for the analysis of common pathologies during the course of infection, such as myocarditis and infarction, placing precordial leads at higher ICS should be clearly identified in the ECG, to avoid misinterpretation related to R-wave progression, axis and QRS amplitude. QT interval measurement may be performed from D2 of the ECG with superior leads, since the peripheral leads are kept in standard position.</p>
          <fig id="f7">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>ECG of a patient with Arrhythmogenic right ventricle cardiomyopathy. A 45-year-old man recovered from sudden cardiac death. Presence of epsilon wave (arrow) and T wave inversion from V1 to V3, both major signals according to task force criteria. There is also low voltage QRS in limb leads, showing a severe ventricular impairment.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>InCor-HCFMUSP collection.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-02-0394-00391-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>The main measures for the management of BrS patients in the ICU are the prevention of fever and the avoidance of certain medications that enhance channel defects (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.brugadadrugs.org">www.brugadadrugs.org</ext-link>). There are several examples of drugs that increase the risk of sudden death in BrS carriers, such as supportive drugs in hospitalized patients (diphenhydramine), drugs to treat arrhythmias (amiodarone and propafenone), anesthetic agents (propofol), and analgesic drugs (tramadol).</p>
          <p>The importance of fever in patients with BrS is well established. Usually, there is an increase of the PR interval, QRS duration, and the J point. Fever also increases the risk of arrhythmia in people older than 70 years in whom the risk of the disease has already been reduced.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref> Those considered high-risk patients, with temperature over 38.5 &#186;C even after the administration of antipyretic drugs, should seek medical assistance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
          <p>BrS was the first genetic arrhythmia to gain the spotlight in publications during the pandemic. The case of a patient who had the electrocardiographic BrS pattern unmasked by fever was reported. Because this was a young patient to whom the criteria for hospitalization would not apply, the authors chose to discharge him with <italic>LifeVet</italic>, which is not available in Brazil.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin may be indicated, depending on the evaluation of risks <italic>versus</italic> benefits. We suggest measuring serum electrolytes and considering continuous monitoring during the treatment. Prolongation of the QT interval and dispersion of repolarization with hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin might increase the risk for arrhythmia in patients with BrS, even without a direct relationship of these drugs with the depolarization channels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The management of electrical storm in BrS intends to increase the (depolarization) calcium channel to attain normalization of the ST segment elevation and the reduction of phase 2 reentries. Isoproterenol, as well as &#946;-adrenergic agonists, can be effective, preferably in association with quinidine (unavailable in Brazil). The use of phosphodiesterase III inhibitors, such as oral cilostazol or intravenous milrinone, have shown a decrease in arrhythmogenicity in experimental models of BrS; however, studies on their effects in human beings are still under way.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Arrhythmogenic Right and/or Left Ventricular Cardiomyopathy</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Overview</title>
          <p>The arrhythmogenic right and/or left ventricular cardiomyopathy (AR+/LVC), for a long time known as arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD), has an average prevalence of 1:5,000 among the general population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> This heterogeneous disease with various clinical presentations can have sudden cardiac death as its first manifestation, occurring more often during physical exercise. There is no diagnostic standard gold test for AR+/LVC; there is a complex set of clinical tests that comprises the clinical history, electrocardiographic changes of depolarization and repolarization (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 3</xref>), cardiac imaging, anatomopathological and molecular evaluations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Currently, AR+/LVC is known to be a genetically-determined, mostly autosomal dominant condition, displaying some rare forms of autosomal recessive inheritance, such as in Naxos Disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> or Carvajal syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> AR+/LVC penetrance is incomplete, the family is affected in up to 50% of the cases, and cases may still be underestimated due to the variant expression of the disease.</p>
          <p>AR+/LVC clinical manifestation frequently emerges between the second and fourth decades of life.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> The most common symptoms are palpitations, syncope, aSCD and congestive heart failure.</p>
          <p>Mutations related to AR+/LVC typically affect genes encoding desmosomal proteins, which are important structures for cardiomyocyte cell adhesion, that play a key role in its physiopathology. Desmosomes, specialized structures of cell connection, are also important mediators acting in the intra- and inter-cell signal transduction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> Total loss of the complex desmosomal function leads to rupture of the cell-cell junction, detachment of myocytes and cell death. Fibro-fatty replacement of the cardiomyocytes contributes to the development of slow conduction areas that generate a scarred anatomic substrate for macro-reentry and ventricular arrhythmias. Fibrosis progresses from the epicardium to the endocardium, involving mainly the right ventricular free wall and causing its aneurysmatic thinning and dilation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The treatment is focused on the AR+/LVC clinical manifestation. There is no evidence that antiarrhythmic drugs prevent sudden death, and ICD is the indicated management for high-risk patients (aSCD and spontaneous VT). &#946;&#8211;blockers are considered to be the first-line therapy for atrial arrhythmias, premature ventricular contractions (PVC), non-sustained VT, besides being important adjuvants for the control of appropriate or inappropriate ICD shocks (especially due to atrial arrhythmias). Sotalol, amiodarone and radiofrequency ablation may be therapeutic alternatives when &#946;&#8211;blockers are either ineffective or poorly tolerated.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Healthcare in the COVID-19 pandemic</title>
          <p>Ventricular arrhythmias in AR+/LVC patients are often triggered by physical and emotional stress and have an important adrenergic-dependent component. Thus, the increased adrenergic release related to the compensatory response to the inflammatory syndrome accompanying the infectious condition may induce ventricular arrhythmias. &#946;&#8211;blockers should be maintained for as long as the hemodynamic condition persists in these patients and, if possible, also the antiarrhythmic drugs (sotalol, amiodarone). Drugs with alpha- or beta-adrenergic effects, such as vasoactive amines (epinephrine, noradrenaline) and those with inotropic effects (dobutamine, milrinone) may increase the risk for ventricular arrhythmias; however, maintaining the hemodynamic stability is mandatory in critically-ill patients.</p>
          <p>It is estimated that about 17% of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 need orotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation for their recovery.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Mechanical ventilation has hemodynamic effects on the right ventricle, such as the increase of the right afterload and reduction of the right cardiac output in patients with right ventricular dysfunction and increased central venous pressure.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The electrolytic disturbances (hypokalemia, hypocalcemia or hypomagnesemia) can also increase the susceptibility in patients with the anatomic substrate as it is the case in AR+/LVC; therefore, a thorough monitoring of electrolytes must be maintained.</p>
          <p>Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin are known to prolong ventricular repolarization. Thus, their association with class III Vaughan-Williams antiarrhythmics, such as sotalol and amiodarone, may enhance the risk for EAD-triggered activity and TdP/VF. An anti-viral effect of amiodarone has been proposed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> Antivirals such as ritonavir/lopinavir do not have the catecholaminergic effect of increasing the arrhythmic risk, and there is no evidence of drug-to-drug interaction with &#946;&#8211;blockers / antiarrhythmic drugs in patients with AR+/LVC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia (CPVT)</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Overview</title>
          <p>CPVT occurs in approximately 1 in 10.000 people, affecting mainly children in their first and second decades of life, with syncope or aSCD related to exercise or emotion. Resting ECG is within the normal parameters. Diagnosis is attained by performing a stress test, after ruling out cardiac structural disease, preferably by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.</p>
          <p>During the exercise test, premature ventricular beats arise with the increment of physical effort when the heart rate reaches 100 bpm, progressing to polymorphic VT and sometimes to the classic bidirectional VT, which is considered to be pathognomonic for this channelopathy (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 4</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
          <fig id="f8">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Ventricular arrhythmia prototype in patients with Cathecolaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia. A 26-year-old girl with polymorphic premature beats and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia during treadmill test and a family history of sudden cardiac death in the first decade of life.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>InCor-HCFMUSP collection.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-117-02-0394-00391-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>The arrhythmia implicated in CPVT occurs through the loss of calcium reuptake in the cytosol. Epinephrine release during exertion promotes an additional increase in calcium release in the sarcoplasmic reticulum during diastole. The triggering of the sodium and calcium currents leads to a sudden sodium inflow that can depolarize the cell and cause PVCs by delayed afterdepolarization. The emergence of random premature ventricular beats by the Purkinje system is responsible for the polymorphic aspect of the VT.</p>
          <p>Approximately 60% of the patients with CPVT have a defective ryanodine cardiac receptor encoded by the RyR2 gene (CPVT type 1). CPVT type 2 is rarer and represents the disease with an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance, caused by calsequestrin (CASQ2) mutations. Some cases of CPVT, even though unusual, have been related to other proteins associated with the calcium homeostasis, which give origin to the same ventricular arrhythmia pattern. The genes implicated in these recent discoveries are CALM1 (encoding calmodulin) and TRDN (encoding triadin). KCNJ2 and TECRL mutations have been previously described.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The main goal of the therapy is the adrenergic blockade with propranolol or nadolol, which can be reinforced by left cardiac sympathetic denervation in patients who remain symptomatic or with no reduction of PCV and Non-Sustained Ventricular Tachycardia (NSVT) burn during exercise testing. Flecainide, which is not available in Brazil, has been recently shown to have therapeutical benefits by inhibiting ryanodine-mediated calcium release (perhaps propafenone might carry a class effect.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref></p>
          <p>ICD must be indicated mainly in aSCD patients. However, in contrast to other channelopathies, shock may induce release of adrenaline and death by electrical storm and, therefore, pharmacologic optimization is mandatory.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Healthcare in the COVID-19 pandemic</title>
          <p>CPVT patients, even if appropriately controlled for symptoms and ventricular arrhythmias, may present with potentially fatal recurrences if &#946;&#8211;blockers are withhold or reduced; therefore, it is important to maintain the in- and out-of-hospital medications for these patients, by assessing the hemodynamic status of critically-ill patients.</p>
          <p>Medications with &#945;- or &#946;-adrenergic effects, such as vasoactive (epinephrine, noradrenaline) and inotropic (dobutamine, milrinone) drugs, usually employed for hemodynamic support, may increase the risk for ventricular arrhythmias in CPVT patients. Epinephrine is used as a pharmacological test in CPVT due to its potential for unmasking ventricular arrhythmias, and so, if the patient needs hemodynamic support, other vasoactive amines should be preferred to epinephrine.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Milrinone, a phosphodiesterase-3 inhibitor, reduces cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) degradation, thus increasing calcium release by the ryanodine receptor, which is the pathogenesis of CPVT. In some specific situations, and considering the hemodynamic compromise, it may be possible to use a low dose of &#946;&#8211;1 receptor blocker (propranolol).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
          <p>In the course of a severe infection, the patients may not tolerate the chronic use of &#946;&#8211;blockers and antiarrhythmics and one must pay attention to hydroelectrolytic disorders during the entire period of greater arrhythmic vulnerability, aiming to avoid them.</p>
          <p>Antivirals, such as Ritonavir/Lopinavir, do not show any potential interaction with &#946;&#8211;blockers nor a catecholaminergic effect that may increase the arrhythmic risk in CPVT patients; however, they may interact with Flecainide &#8211; an adjuvant drug in the treatment of CPVT.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Hydroxychloroquine apparently does not increase catecholamine levels. However, there is evidence of drug interaction between hydroxychloroquine and propranolol/nadolol. &#946;&#8211;blockers are metabolized through cytochrome CYP2D6, and its inhibition by hydroxychloroquine may result in increased concentration of the drug, which demands careful heart rate and blood pressure monitoring.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> Flecainide and propafenone show a similar interaction, resulting in a serum level increase of the antiarrhythmic drugs and enhancing the arrhythmic risk.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> In these situations, one must weigh the individual benefit/risk ratio to make a therapeutic decision.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Patients with inherited arrhythmias present with various molecular and structural factors that predispose them to potentially fatal events in the course of a viral infection. The COVID-19 pandemic prompts us to keep these patients away from the risk of infection and to reinforce measures of isolation and hygiene, in addition to orienting healthcare precautions by recalling the peculiarities of carriers of rare diseases. Among the recommendations, we emphasize caution regarding the medications used by the patient, the effective treatment of fever and electrolytic disturbances, and the risk of prescribing medications with proarrhythmic potential.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
