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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">BYRqGMYw6kkjLwLGDbZpX5D</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021000600981</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200422</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200422</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Disautonomia: Uma Condi&#231;&#227;o Esquecida &#8211; Parte II</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8975-1182</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Arrais</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1078-4104</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mehta</surname>
            <given-names>Niraj</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2339-8731</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>T&#225;vora-Mehta</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Zildany Pinheiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7204-8490</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Roncari</surname>
            <given-names>Camila Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8756-5519</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cidr&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Alan Alves de Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2947-3066</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Elias</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Cear&#225;</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina da UFC</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cant&#237;dio</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cant&#237;dio da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC) - Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Faculdade de Medicina da UFC, Fortaleza, CE - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Cl&#237;nica de Eletrofisiologia do Paran&#225;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica de Eletrofisiologia do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Cear&#225;</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC), Fortaleza, CE - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">UFC</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Faculdade de Medicina da UFC, Fortaleza, CE - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>6</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Eletrofisiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Vit&#243;ria</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Eletrofisiologia do Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital, Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Eduardo Arrais Rocha</bold> &#8226; Av. Padre Ant&#244;nio Tom&#225;s, 3535/ 1301. CEP <postal-code>60190-120</postal-code>, Fortaleza, CE - Brasil. E-mail: <email>eduardoarraisrocha@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Rocha EA, Elias Neto J; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados, Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Rocha EA, Mehta N, T&#225;vora-Mehta MZP, Roncari CF, Cidr&#227;o AAL, Elias Neto J.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>17</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>116</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>981</fpage>
      <lpage>998</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Disautonomias Prim&#225;rias</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipotens&#227;o Ortost&#225;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipotens&#227;o Postural</kwd>
        <kwd>Fadiga</kwd>
        <kwd>Diabetes</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Nervoso Aut&#244;nomo</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ncope</kwd>
        <kwd>neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="93"/>
        <page-count count="18"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas gerais e cardiovasculares</title>
      <p>As patologias que acometem o SNA podem manifestar-se de diversas formas, a depender da etiologia, do grau de comprometimento, do tempo de doen&#231;a, da presen&#231;a de comorbidades, da idade ou do uso de f&#225;rmacos associados. Muitos sintomas podem ser completamente debilitantes, como as dores intensas na neuropatia perif&#233;rica e as quedas ou s&#237;ncopes nas neuropatias auton&#244;micas. Pode ocorrer evolu&#231;&#227;o para uma severa intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica em casos mais avan&#231;ados das disautonomias, na forma de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica precoce, de dificil tratamento clinico, podendo estar associada a hipertens&#227;o supina, o que dificulta o tratamento (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t1" position="float">
        <label>Tabela 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Sinais e sintomas cl&#237;nicos e cardiovasculares de disautonomia e/ou neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th valign="middle" align="left">Sintomas cl&#237;nicos</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">Sinais e sintomas cardiovasculares</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Impot&#234;ncia masculina e redu&#231;&#227;o da libido</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Fadiga e intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Irregularidades na menorreia</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope/s&#237;ncope</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Urg&#234;ncia e incontin&#234;ncia urin&#225;ria</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Escurecimento visual e intoler&#226;ncia a ortostase prolongada</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Diarreia/Constipa&#231;&#227;o/Empachamento</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Quedas inexplicadas</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Respostas exacerbadas a hipoglicemiantes</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Respostas exacerbadas a anti-hipertensivos</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Dificuldade de controle do diabetes (devido a gastroparesia)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Hipertens&#227;o supina</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Hipo ou anidrose</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Padr&#227;o <italic>non-dipper</italic> na MAPA</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Altera&#231;&#245;es visuais, atrofia pupila</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Cansa&#231;o, falta de ar (por incompet&#234;ncia cronotr&#243;pica)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Dor, dorm&#234;ncia ou queima&#231;&#227;o em extremidades</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Bradicardia</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Esquecimento e redu&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Palidez, extremidades frias</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Tremores, desequil&#237;brio</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Altera&#231;&#245;es no sono/Apneias</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">S&#237;ncope ou pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope p&#243;s-prandial (at&#233; duas horas ap&#243;s refei&#231;&#227;o copiosa ou rica em carboidratos)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Dor forte na regi&#227;o cervical posterior (isquemia do trap&#233;zio)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">Palpita&#231;&#245;es e taquicardia ao levantar</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <attrib>Fonte: pr&#243;prio autor.</attrib>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos de investiga&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O Sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA) apresenta complexidade razo&#225;vel, o que torna, &#224; primeira vista, sua investiga&#231;&#227;o dif&#237;cil e de interpreta&#231;&#227;o duvidosa. No entanto, alguns testes s&#227;o simples e de f&#225;cil execu&#231;&#227;o e fornecem informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas quanto &#224;s suas defici&#234;ncias. Eles podem ser realizados por meio de equipamentos computadorizados modernos ou de simples eletrocardiogramas digitais, que possam gravar os testes e os intervalos RR, tornando poss&#237;veis as medidas adequadas das rela&#231;&#245;es entre as suas varia&#231;&#245;es. Os objetivos desta avalia&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o:</p>
      <list list-type="alpha-lower">
        <list-item>
          <p>Confirmar o diagn&#243;stico;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Estadiar a gravidade da disfun&#231;&#227;o;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Identificar altera&#231;&#245;es subcl&#237;nicas;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Monitorar a evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Para a realiza&#231;&#227;o efetiva dos testes auton&#244;micos, &#233; essencial que o paciente esteja descansado e tranquilo. O laborat&#243;rio de avalia&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica deve ser um local com pouco barulho, adequadamente aquecido e levemente escurecido.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Testes dos reflexos auton&#244;micos cardiovasculares (testes de fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovagal)</title>
        <p>Foram descritos por Ewing, na d&#233;cada de 1970, e s&#227;o nos dias atuais os de padr&#227;o ouro no diagn&#243;stico da NAC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> Apresentam boa sensibilidade e especificidade, e devem ser realizados na presen&#231;a de sintomas sugestivos de disautonomia, al&#233;m de precocemente em pacientes que apresentem patologias como a diabetes, que podem evoluir com NAC mesmo na fase de intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Os testes s&#227;o divididos em m&#233;todos que avaliam as fun&#231;&#245;es simp&#225;tica e parassimp&#225;tica, sendo alterados mais usual e precocemente, sobretudo no diabetes.</p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Testes dos reflexos auton&#244;micos cardiovasculares. Caso cl&#237;nico de paciente com disautonomia avan&#231;ada e altera&#231;&#245;es nos testes respirat&#243;rios (1,08) e no coeficiente ortost&#225;tico 30:15 (1,03). Os valores precisam ser ajustados para a idade e o sexo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0981-00422-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#227;o em qualquer m&#233;todo dos tr&#234;s testes cardiovagais implica em neuropatia auton&#244;mica precoce ou incerta. O teste deve ser repetido ap&#243;s um ano, para confirma&#231;&#227;o e avalia&#231;&#227;o evolutiva. A presen&#231;a de dois testes positivos mostra-se confirmat&#243;ria para a NAC. A associa&#231;&#227;o de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica em dois testes positivos implica disautonomia avan&#231;ada e com pior progn&#243;stico.</p>
        <p>Esses testes necessitam de uma avalia&#231;&#227;o e preparo adequado, com suspens&#227;o de diversos f&#225;rmacos que possam alterar a an&#225;lise da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e do SNA. Pacientes com arritmias frequentes (mais de seis extrass&#237;stoles por minuto), fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, marca-passo card&#237;aco, tremores acentuados ou n&#227;o colaborativos impossibilitam a avalia&#231;&#227;o adequada desse exame.</p>
        <boxed-text id="box1">
          <caption>
            <title>Testes dos reflexos auton&#244;micos cardiovasculares (testes da fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovagal)</title>
          </caption>
          <p>Descritos por Ewing na d&#233;cada de 1970, s&#227;o os testes padr&#227;o-ouro no diagn&#243;stico de neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC). Eles apresentam boa sensibilidade e especificidade e devem ser realizados quando houver sintomas sugestivos de disautonomia, al&#233;m de precocemente em pacientes com patologias como diabetes, que podem evoluir com NAC, mesmo em sua fase de intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Podem ser realizados por meio de equipamentos computadorizados modernos ou de simples eletrocardiogramas digitais, que gravem os testes, os intervalos RR. Isso possibilita as medidas adequadas das rela&#231;&#245;es entre as varia&#231;&#245;es dos maiores e menores intervalos RR.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
        </boxed-text>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Teste respirat&#243;rio (quociente respirat&#243;rio E/I)</title>
        <p>Nesse m&#233;todo, verifica-se a rela&#231;&#227;o (quociente) entre o maior ciclo RR na expira&#231;&#227;o, dividido pelo maior ciclo RR na inspira&#231;&#227;o: s&#227;o feitos tr&#234;s ciclos de um minuto cada, com intervalos de um minuto entre os testes, o que possibilita a avalia&#231;&#227;o do sistema parassimp&#225;tico.</p>
        <p>Os ciclos de inspira&#231;&#227;o e expira&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o lentos e profundos, com dura&#231;&#227;o do ciclo respirat&#243;rio total de dez segundos. O m&#233;todo acentua a arritmia respirat&#243;ria sinusal, observada em indiv&#237;duos normais. A resposta normal &#233; uma acelera&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca durante a inspira&#231;&#227;o e uma desacelera&#231;&#227;o durante a expira&#231;&#227;o. Em suma, a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; registrada no intervalo de um minuto (seis ciclos respirat&#243;rios lentos, profundos e com dura&#231;&#227;o de dez segundos cada). A diferen&#231;a entre a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#225;xima e m&#237;nima, ou a raz&#227;o desses dois valores (E:I) &#233; registrada, sendo aferida em milissegundos.</p>
        <p>Usualmente, calculamos a m&#233;dia das amplitudes respirat&#243;rias nos seis ciclos. Trata-se de um teste que avalia a resposta parassimp&#225;tica a um est&#237;mulo respirat&#243;rio. Pacientes com disautonomia podem apresentar oscila&#231;&#227;o reduzida ou ausente da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#224; respira&#231;&#227;o profunda. A perda da arritmia sinusal respirat&#243;ria pode ser um dos primeiros sinais de neuropatia auton&#244;mica diab&#233;tica.</p>
        <p>Os valores normais fisiol&#243;gicos da diferen&#231;a de amplitude s&#227;o considerados quando os valores est&#227;o acima de 15 bpm. Entre 11-14 bpm, estariam classificados como lim&#237;trofe e abaixo de dez batimentos, patol&#243;gico. A raz&#227;o E:I (m&#225;xima frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, aferida em milissegundos, durante a expira&#231;&#227;o dividida pela m&#225;xima frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca durante a inspira&#231;&#227;o) em indiv&#237;duos normais deve ser maior que 1,2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Tais valores devem ser ajustados de acordo com a idade e o sexo.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Teste de Valsalva (quociente de Valsalva)</title>
        <p>Neste teste, mede-se a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o maior ciclo RR na fase de relaxamento, dividido pelo maior ciclo RR na fase da manobra de Valsalva. Isso permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o do sistema parassimp&#225;tico predominante e tamb&#233;m do simp&#225;tico, quando associada &#224;s medidas de press&#227;o arterial cont&#237;nua.</p>
        <p>A manobra de Valsalva &#233; particularmente interessante, pois testa a integridade tanto da resposta parassimp&#225;tica cardiovagal, atrav&#233;s da an&#225;lise da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, como tamb&#233;m da resposta simp&#225;tica pelo estudo da press&#227;o arterial. A t&#233;cnica consiste basicamente em fazer o paciente, ap&#243;s estar monitorado, soprar durante 15 segundos por um pequeno tubo, com discreta sa&#237;da de ar para evitar o fechamento da glote. A press&#227;o expirat&#243;ria de ar gerada deve ser em torno de 40 mmHg.</p>
        <p>Ocorrem quatro fases distintas: as deflex&#245;es da press&#227;o arterial nas fases I e III representam as perturba&#231;&#245;es mec&#226;nicas geradas por altera&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o intrator&#225;cica no in&#237;cio e final da manobra de Valsalva. Por outro lado, as fases II e IV s&#227;o consideradas, de fato, as clinicamente relevantes.</p>
        <p>Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, durante o esfor&#231;o expirat&#243;rio, h&#225;, na fase I, uma queda da press&#227;o arterial pela diminui&#231;&#227;o do retorno venoso e que &#233; percebida por barorreceptores intactos, que deflagram uma resposta que causa o aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico, levando a vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o e ao aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
        <p>Essa a&#231;&#227;o recupera a press&#227;o na fase II tardia. Ao liberar a press&#227;o intrator&#225;cica com o fim da manobra, h&#225; um retorno venoso aumentado e, com a manuten&#231;&#227;o ainda da vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, um <italic>overshoot</italic> (aumento exagerado) da press&#227;o arterial (a combina&#231;&#227;o perfeita do aumento do retorno venoso e da vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o).</p>
        <p>Pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica n&#227;o conseguem reagir com aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico &#224; queda inicial da press&#227;o provocada pela manobra. Assim, n&#227;o h&#225; um aumento da press&#227;o na fase II tardia e, tipicamente, n&#227;o h&#225; o <italic>overshoot</italic> da press&#227;o na fase IV. Ao inv&#233;s disso, a resposta da press&#227;o em pacientes com disautonomia revela um retorno gradual da press&#227;o arterial a n&#237;veis basais, ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o da hipotens&#227;o provocada pela fase expirat&#243;ria for&#231;ada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o quociente de Valsalva &#233; derivado pela m&#225;xima frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, medida em milissegundos, e gerada pela manobra de Valsalva, dividida pela menor frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca nos primeiros 30 segundos do pico da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. As respostas da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca s&#227;o mediadas pelos barorreceptores.</p>
        <p>O aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ocorre em decorr&#234;ncia da queda de press&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a resposta barorreceptora ao aumento da press&#227;o excessiva da fase IV &#233; a respons&#225;vel pela bradicardia transit&#243;ria ao final da manobra.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Em indiv&#237;duos com disautonomia, detectam-se a perda do aumento excessivo da press&#227;o e a aus&#234;ncia da bradicardia reflexa. Assim, a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca tamb&#233;m n&#227;o responde, devido &#224; falta do aumento da resposta simp&#225;tica, exibindo curva reta (aus&#234;ncia de oscila&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca).</p>
        <p>O quociente de Valsalva normal (m&#225;ximo valor de RR em ms, dividido pelo menor valor de RR) durante a manobra deve ser maior que 1,21. Os valores lim&#237;trofes estariam entre 1,11 e 1,20, enquanto os valores patol&#243;gicos seriam considerados quando menores ou iguais a 1,10.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Essas aferi&#231;&#245;es tamb&#233;m devem ser ajustadas de acordo com a idade e o sexo.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Teste do quociente 30:15 com a ortostase</title>
        <p>Faz-se a avalia&#231;&#227;o do intervalo RR ap&#243;s a ortostase, em torno do 15&#186; batimento (maior frequ&#234;ncia habitual &#8211; menor intervalo RR) e do 30&#186; batimento (menor frequ&#234;ncia &#8211; maior intervalo RR), o que indica uma avalia&#231;&#227;o predominante do sistema parassimp&#225;tico. O m&#233;todo mais simples e mais usado para testar o feedback cardiovascular &#233; medir os par&#226;metros cardiovasculares (frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, press&#227;o arterial e dosagem de noradrenalina) durante a mudan&#231;a postural da posi&#231;&#227;o horizontal para a ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Ao ficar em p&#233;, devido &#224;s mudan&#231;as na press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica, 500-800 mL de volume s&#227;o redistribu&#237;dos para os membros inferiores. Ao ficar em p&#233; ativamente, no entanto, ocorre a compress&#227;o das veias dos membros inferiores (a chamada bomba musculoesquel&#233;tica), aumentando imediatamente o retorno venoso.</p>
        <p>Os mecanismos compensat&#243;rios agem rapidamente, fazendo com que a press&#227;o arterial sofra poucas altera&#231;&#245;es em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. No entanto, em 10 a 15% dos indiv&#237;duos, desordens circulat&#243;rias ortost&#225;ticas s&#227;o observadas devido a insufici&#234;ncia dos mecanismos compensat&#243;rios.</p>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da resposta &#224; ortostase pode ser realizada por inclina&#231;&#227;o ativa ou pela resposta ao <italic>tilt</italic> <italic>test</italic>. Na primeira, no que diz respeito &#224; frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, h&#225; um aumento r&#225;pido e m&#225;ximo ao redor do d&#233;cimo quinto batimento card&#237;aco em pessoas normais. Em seguida, h&#225; uma bradicardia relativa m&#225;xima ao redor do trig&#233;simo batimento. Estudos farmacol&#243;gicos indicam que esta resposta &#233; mediada pelo nervo vago.</p>
        <p>Pacientes com neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular diab&#233;tica mostram apenas um leve aumento progressivo da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> A raz&#227;o 30:15 &#233; usada como medida da integridade parassimp&#225;tica. O intervalo RR mais longo se d&#225; no 30&#186; batimento. O intervalo RR mais curto ao 15&#186; batimento &#233; chamado de raz&#227;o de Ewing ou raz&#227;o 30:15, no qual um valor normal seria acima de 1,04.</p>
        <p>Os <italic>softwares</italic> atuais n&#227;o calculam mais a raz&#227;o 30:15 pura; utilizam as medidas do intervalo RR mais longo entre o 20&#186; e o 40&#186; batimentos card&#237;acos e do intervalo RR mais curto entre o 5&#186; e o 25&#186; batimentos card&#237;acos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Protocolo dos sete testes de avalia&#231;&#227;o de disautonomia</title>
      <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o dos tr&#234;s testes da fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovagal citados, com os testes de an&#225;lise da variabilidade RR no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia e a pesquisa de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica) representa o protocolo dos sete testes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figuras 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">2</xref>) para a pesquisa de NAC, com sensibilidade e especificidade elevada.</p>
      <fig id="f2">
        <label>Figura 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>An&#225;lise da variabilidade RR no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia durante ciclo de cinco minutos. H&#225; necessidade de suspens&#227;o dos f&#225;rmacos que possam interferir na an&#225;lise da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. A presen&#231;a de arritmias frequentes, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ou marca-passo impossibilita a an&#225;lise do exame.</title>
          <p><bold>Componente de muito baixa frequ&#234;ncia 0,01-0,04 Hz (FMB &#8211; VLF):</bold> avalia&#231;&#227;o das flutua&#231;&#245;es do t&#244;nus vasomotor ligado a termorregula&#231;&#227;o e a sudorese (a&#231;&#227;o predominante do simp&#225;tico).</p>
          <p><bold>Componente de baixa frequ&#234;ncia 0,04-0,15 Hz (FB &#8211; LF):</bold> avalia&#231;&#227;o do barorreceptor (componente simp&#225;tico predominante com modula&#231;&#227;o vagal).</p>
          <p><bold>Componente de alta frequ&#234;ncia 0,15-0,5 Hz (FA &#8211; HF):</bold> relacionado ao controle sinusal (a&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica).</p>
          <p>Pode ser realizado no protocolo e em conjunto com os testes da <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> (configurando o protocolo dos sete testes de avalia&#231;&#227;o dos reflexos auton&#244;micos cardiovasculares).</p>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0981-00422-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      <p>Ele pode apresentar melhor capacidade diagn&#243;stica segundo alguns autores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Na presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s m&#233;todos alterados dos sete testes &#233; considerado positivo, e incerto ou precoce na presen&#231;a de dois m&#233;todos alterados. A semelhan&#231;a dos testes isolados cardiovagais, a presen&#231;a de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica associada inferem maior gravidade e severidade da NAC.</p>
      <p>Os testes podem ser feitos em conjunto, atrav&#233;s de <italic>softwares</italic> espec&#237;ficos como o da <italic>Poly-Spectrum-Analysis</italic><sup>&#174;</sup>, da <italic>VNS-Rhythm</italic>, ou <italic>Neuro-Diag Ansar</italic><sup>&#174;</sup>. Ambos s&#227;o considerados de baixo custo quando comparamos aos equipamentos utilizados para tilt teste com medidas hemodin&#226;micas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title><italic>Tilt test</italic> ou teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica</title>
      <p>O <italic>tilt</italic> <italic>test</italic> &#233; uma ferramenta diagn&#243;stica muito &#250;til em pacientes com disautonomia. Ao assumir a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, h&#225; uma transfer&#234;ncia de 500-800 mL de volume central para a periferia (p&#233;lvis, abd&#244;men e membros inferiores), o que leva a uma queda no volume sist&#243;lico e, consequentemente, do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco. Esse d&#233;ficit, por sua vez, &#233; sentido pelos barorreceptores do arco a&#243;rtico e do seio carot&#237;deo, que ap&#243;s a intera&#231;&#227;o com os centros vasomotores, deflagram uma resposta que gera uma redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade parassimp&#225;tica e o aumento da atividade simp&#225;tica, que se traduz em vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica e aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
      <p>Este teste diagn&#243;stico pode ser particularmente &#250;til para detectar e confirmar a fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica observada na hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, na taquicardia postural ortost&#225;tica, na hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica tardia e, obviamente, nas altera&#231;&#245;es reflexas da rea&#231;&#227;o vasovagal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O <italic>tilt</italic> <italic>test</italic> &#233; realizado em uma sala com pouco barulho e distra&#231;&#245;es m&#237;nimas. O paciente &#233; incialmente instru&#237;do a ficar em jejum por tr&#234;s horas e deitar em posi&#231;&#227;o supina, pelo per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo de 10 a 15 minutos. Embora existam v&#225;rios protocolos, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o atual (e o protocolo mais utilizado) s&#227;o a inclina&#231;&#227;o a 70 graus por cerca de 30 a 40 minutos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O teste provocativo com isoproterenol ou 1,25 mg de isossorbida sublingual pode ser &#250;til para investigar a s&#237;ncope de origem vasovagal por aumentar a sensibilidade do teste.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> No entanto, a sensibiliza&#231;&#227;o com f&#225;rmacos n&#227;o se aplica quando o objetivo &#233; avaliar a disautonomia, pois conv&#233;m avaliar a resposta fisiol&#243;gica cardiovascular espont&#226;nea ao estresse ortost&#225;tico prolongado.</p>
      <p>Embora as medidas intermitentes da press&#227;o arterial (a cada 2-3 minutos) possam ser adotadas, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua da press&#227;o arterial e do registro eletrocardiogr&#225;fico seria prefer&#237;vel, ainda que com o custo bem mais elevado.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title><italic>Tilt test</italic> associado &#224;s medidas hemodin&#226;micas</title>
      <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de m&#243;dulos adicionais &#224; medida da press&#227;o arterial cont&#237;nua (<italic>modelflow</italic> do <italic>Finapress</italic><sup>&#174;</sup> e cardiografia por imped&#226;ncia do <italic>Task Force Monitor</italic><sup>&#174;</sup>) permite determinar de modo indireto o volume sist&#243;lico. A partir desse ponto, os par&#226;metros de car&#225;ter hemodin&#226;mico podem ser estimados com razo&#225;vel precis&#227;o, tais como a resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica e o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco.</p>
      <p>O <italic>modelflow</italic> do <italic>Finapress</italic><sup>&#174;</sup> utiliza a an&#225;lise do contorno do pulso arterial, uma t&#233;cnica capaz de determinar o volume sist&#243;lico. No <italic>modelflow</italic>, a onda de fluxo do pulso arterial &#233; calculada a partir do contorno da press&#227;o de pulso arterial, cuja integra&#231;&#227;o a cada batimento card&#237;aco gera o volume sist&#243;lico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Por outro lado, a cardiografia por imped&#226;ncia (<italic>Task Force Monitor</italic><sup>&#174;</sup>) mede as altera&#231;&#245;es na imped&#226;ncia tor&#225;cica gerada por volumes sangu&#237;neos flutuantes durante o ciclo card&#237;aco, permitindo o c&#225;lculo de volume sist&#243;lico, do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e de outros par&#226;metros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Essas t&#233;cnicas n&#227;o invasivas utilizadas para determinar o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, ainda que n&#227;o totalmente precisas, foram validadas quando comparadas &#224;s t&#233;cnicas invasivas e se mostram bastante confi&#225;veis em acompanhar as mudan&#231;as relativas do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco.</p>
      <p>Portanto, o <italic>tilt test</italic> com par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e a aferi&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial cont&#237;nua permitem avaliar o volume sist&#243;lico, o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e a resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica. A an&#225;lise dos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos durante o <italic>tilt test</italic> &#233; muito importante, pois permite registrar a queda na resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica, revelando a presen&#231;a de disautonomia, muitas vezes sem a queda significativa na press&#227;o arterial, devido a mecanismos compensat&#243;rios lim&#237;trofes (disautonomia leve a moderada). Al&#233;m disso, possibilita determinar se h&#225; importante redu&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico, que pode ser um componente n&#227;o neurog&#234;nico da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (por desidrata&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, por exemplo).</p>
      <p>Dessa forma, o <italic>tilt test</italic> com par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos permite identificar altera&#231;&#245;es subcl&#237;nicas da integridade do SNA, mesmo sem a evidente queda de press&#227;o, o que aumenta a sensibilidade do m&#233;todo. A limita&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo &#233; seu elevado custo, sendo restrito a poucos centros, principalmente de pesquisas em disautonomia.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>MAPA 24 horas</title>
      <p>Os balan&#231;os auton&#244;micos diurno e noturno n&#227;o afetam apenas a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, mas tamb&#233;m a press&#227;o arterial. Normalmente, a press&#227;o arterial flutua, com n&#237;veis mais elevados durante a vig&#237;lia e queda &#224; noite (descenso noturno). Quedas proporcionais da press&#227;o arterial &#224; noite, tendo como refer&#234;ncia o per&#237;odo diurno, determinam as respostas de descenso noturno esperado: resposta atenuada (0 a 10% de descenso noturno), resposta normal (10-20% de descenso noturno), resposta acentuada (acima de 20% de descenso) e resposta reversa (eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial ao inv&#233;s de descenso noturno esperado).</p>
      <p>A resposta atenuada ou reversa demonstra atividade simp&#225;tica exacerbada, podendo estar presente na disautonomia, e tem sido associada ao aumento de mortalidade. Al&#233;m disso, a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o noturna pode aumentar o risco de hipotens&#227;o diurna (resultado, entre outros aspectos, do incremento da excre&#231;&#227;o noturna de horm&#244;nio natriur&#233;tico).</p>
      <p>A MAPA pode indicar altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica cardiovascular, podendo selecionar pacientes para avalia&#231;&#227;o mais profunda de disautonomia. Mais especificamente, a MAPA pode ser bastante &#250;til em detectar hipertens&#227;o noturna (um importante preditor de eventos cardiovasculares) e formas de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica precoce ou p&#243;s-prandial, habitualmente n&#227;o descobertos com as medidas usuais de press&#227;o arterial.</p>
      <boxed-text id="box2">
        <caption>
          <title>Hipertens&#227;o supina - Um sinal de Alerta!</title>
        </caption>
        <p>A presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o supina, padr&#227;o non-dipper ou negativo dipper no exame da MAPA 24 horas, principalmente em pacientes acometidos de patologias conhecidas que podem evoluir com disautonomia deve levar a suspei&#231;&#227;o e investiga&#231;&#227;o com screening cl&#237;nico e laboratorial para Disautonomia.</p>
      </boxed-text>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title><italic>Holter</italic> e an&#225;lises da variabilidade RR</title>
      <p>O n&#243; sinusal est&#225; sujeito tanto a a&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica quanto a parassimp&#225;tica (vagal), dependendo da modula&#231;&#227;o avaliada. Posi&#231;&#227;o em p&#233;, estresse mental e exerc&#237;cio est&#227;o associados a um aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico. O t&#244;nus vagal, por outro lado, &#233; aumentado em condi&#231;&#245;es de repouso. Em indiv&#237;duos normais, tanto o t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico quanto o parassimp&#225;tico flutua ao longo do dia, gerando uma varia&#231;&#227;o nos intervalos RR, ou simplesmente, variabilidade RR, que, em indiv&#237;duos normais, declina de tr&#234;s a cinco batimentos por d&#233;cada.</p>
      <p>O Holter 24 horas pode ser utilizado para a an&#225;lise da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#233;dia, incompet&#234;ncia cronotr&#243;pica e arritmias card&#237;acas, al&#233;m de, quando acoplado a softwares espec&#237;ficos, permitir a an&#225;lise da variabilidade RR.</p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#233;dia pode sugerir disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica no diab&#233;tico, indicar uma taquicardia sinusal inapropriada (TSI) ou permitir a identifica&#231;&#227;o de incompet&#234;ncia cronotr&#243;pica. A detec&#231;&#227;o de arritmias pode sugerir outras etiologias como justificativa dos sintomas, al&#233;m de auxiliar na sele&#231;&#227;o para a realiza&#231;&#227;o dos testes cardiovagais.</p>
      <p>Existem v&#225;rios m&#233;todos de estudo dos dados da variabilidade RR, incluindo a an&#225;lise no dom&#237;nio do tempo e da frequ&#234;ncia. Na an&#225;lise no dom&#237;nio do tempo, cada QRS &#233; detectado para determinar o intervalo &#8220;normal a normal&#8221; que, por sua vez, fornece informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, incluindo o seu desvio-padr&#227;o. A an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica mais complexa requer per&#237;odos prolongados de tempo. A an&#225;lise espectral pode fornecer avalia&#231;&#227;o no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia e informar como a vari&#226;ncia &#233; disposta, como uma fun&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia.</p>
      <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es na frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ocorrem continuamente durante as atividades di&#225;rias, refletindo no equil&#237;brio auton&#244;mico, nos mecanismos cardiovasculares reflexos e nos est&#237;mulos externos. Em pessoas normais, a variabilidade RR aumentada da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; considerada uma medida de integridade auton&#244;mica, enquanto a varia&#231;&#227;o reduzida da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; um sinal precoce de desequil&#237;brio auton&#244;mico.</p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise da variabilidade RR pode ser feita no dom&#237;nio do tempo e da frequ&#234;ncia, durante per&#237;odos curtos de poucos minutos ou em intervalos mais longos (<italic>Holter</italic> de 24 horas). A an&#225;lise no dom&#237;nio do tempo inclui a avalia&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;rios par&#226;metros, como: m&#233;dia dos intervalos normais, m&#233;dia da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, diferen&#231;a da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#225;xima, desvio-padr&#227;o na m&#233;dia de cinco minutos dos intervalos RR normais (SDANN) e raiz quadrada da m&#233;dia da diferen&#231;a dos intervalos RR sucessivos (rMSSD).</p>
      <p>Monitoriza&#231;&#245;es prolongadas (Holter 24 horas) permitem calcular, tamb&#233;m, o n&#250;mero das inst&#226;ncias por hora em que foi medida uma diferen&#231;a maior que 50 ms, entre dois intervalos RR consecutivos (pNN50). Essencialmente, todos esses &#237;ndices exploram a atividade parassimp&#225;tica.</p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise espectral da variabilidade RR (dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia), por sua vez, revela tr&#234;s componentes de frequ&#234;ncias principais:</p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Componente de frequ&#234;ncias muito baixas (&lt; 0,04Hz), relacionado com flutua&#231;&#245;es do t&#244;nus vasomotor e ligadas a termorregula&#231;&#227;o e a sudorese (controle simp&#225;tico);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Componente de frequ&#234;ncias baixas (0,04-0,15 Hz), ligado ao reflexo barorreceptor (controle simp&#225;tico com modula&#231;&#227;o vagal);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Componente de frequ&#234;ncias altas (0,15-0,4 Hz), influenciado pela respira&#231;&#227;o (arritmia sinusal respirat&#243;ria) e sendo componente de atividade parassimp&#225;tica.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Em pacientes diab&#233;ticos e com disfun&#231;&#227;o predominantemente vagal (mais precoce), a amplitude de frequ&#234;ncias altas est&#225; reduzida ou ausente. Por outro lado, nas disfun&#231;&#245;es simp&#225;ticas mais tardias, as amplitudes de frequ&#234;ncias baixas e muito baixas est&#227;o reduzidas.</p>
      <p>Os par&#226;metros do dom&#237;nio do tempo, o poder total espectral da variabilidade RR e o componente espectral de frequ&#234;ncias altas s&#227;o parassimp&#225;ticos. Embora o componente de frequ&#234;ncia baixa seja controlado pelo simp&#225;tico, a ativa&#231;&#227;o extrema simp&#225;tica (como no exerc&#237;cio, na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca) atenua a variabilidade RR, dificultando seu registro, podendo, ent&#227;o, n&#227;o se correlacionar com a atividade simp&#225;tica real.</p>
      <p>Dessa maneira, atualmente &#233; aceito que o &#8220;poder espectral&#8221; absoluto das frequ&#234;ncias baixas n&#227;o reflete a atividade simp&#225;tica. No entanto, quando medida em termos relativos (como uma percentagem da variabilidade RR global), a propor&#231;&#227;o da baixa frequ&#234;ncia sobre as altas frequ&#234;ncias providencia uma indica&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia e aproximada da modula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica do cora&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Portanto, a raz&#227;o do componente de baixa frequ&#234;ncia em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; alta frequ&#234;ncia &#233; um par&#226;metro mais representativo de status simp&#225;tico. Como a variabilidade RR &#233; influenciada pela idade, pelo sexo e pelo ritmo respirat&#243;rio, recomenda-se o ajuste para essas vari&#225;veis. Os resultados da an&#225;lise espectral correlacionam bem com os testes de fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica nas situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas.</p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise espectral &#233; mais sens&#237;vel em est&#225;gios iniciais da NAC. Nos pacientes diab&#233;ticos, em especial, uma deteriora&#231;&#227;o progressiva dos par&#226;metros da an&#225;lise espectral relacionada ao sistema parassimp&#225;tico &#233; documentada. O esperado aumento noturno da banda de alta frequ&#234;ncia da variabilidade RR, que representa a modula&#231;&#227;o vagal do cora&#231;&#227;o, parece ser a anormalidade mais precoce detectada. Durante os est&#225;gios avan&#231;ados da NAC, todos os componentes s&#227;o eliminados.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Eletromiografia e as neuropatias de fibras finas</title>
      <p>As fibras auton&#244;micas p&#243;s-ganglionares s&#227;o do tipo C, n&#227;o-miel&#237;nicas. Junto &#224;s fibras A&#948;, pouco mielinizadas, comp&#245;em o grupo das fibras finas. Diferenciam-se das fibras mielinizadas grossas por sua espessura e pela velocidade: conduzem impulsos nervosos numa velocidade que varia de 0,5 a 1 m/s, enquanto nas &#250;ltimas se observam velocidades de at&#233; 120 m/s.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
      <p>As fibras A&#948; s&#227;o do tipo sensoriais som&#225;ticas e participam da inerva&#231;&#227;o cut&#226;nea, mediando a percep&#231;&#227;o de est&#237;mulos &#225;lgicos e t&#233;rmicos. As fibras auton&#244;micas tipo C inervam a musculatura card&#237;aca, os m&#250;sculos lisos (presentes na parede dos vasos sangu&#237;neos, tratos gastrintestinal e geniturin&#225;rio) e as gl&#226;ndulas (salivares, lacrimais e sudor&#237;paras).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O comprometimento neurop&#225;tico de fibras finas pode ocorrer sem que aconte&#231;a o mesmo &#224;s fibras grossas, o que configura a neuropatia de fibras finas, ou no contexto de uma polineuropatia, onde h&#225; um acometimento claro. Nas neuropatias de fibras finas, mais comumente observa-se o acometimento das fibras A&#948;.</p>
      <p>Entre os sintomas t&#237;picos, destacam-se parestesia, dor e sensa&#231;&#227;o de queima&#231;&#227;o ou de frio, com clara piora no per&#237;odo noturno. Sintomas e sinais disauton&#244;micos ocorrem em aproximadamente 50% desses pacientes. Mais raramente, um quadro de neuropatia de fibras finas pode manifestar-se predominante, com sintomas auton&#244;micos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A biopsia de pele e o teste de quantifica&#231;&#227;o sensitiva (QST &#8211; <italic>Quantitative Sensory Testing</italic>) s&#227;o &#250;teis principalmente na avalia&#231;&#227;o das fibras A&#948;, ainda que existam outros exames direcionados &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o das fibras auton&#244;micas que, quando realizados, aumentam a sensibilidade diagn&#243;stica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref>.</p>
      <p>A eletroneuromiografia convencional, atrav&#233;s de estudos de condu&#231;&#227;o e eletromiografia, &#233; um exame fundamental na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial desses casos, n&#227;o para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico, mas, sobretudo, para excluir polineuropatia (acometimento de fibras grossas) e investigar condi&#231;&#245;es que possam manifestar-se de modo semelhante aos quadros de neuropatia de fibras finas, como a radiculopatia S1 bilateral que, caracteristicamente, cursa com parestesias nos p&#233;s.</p>
      <p>Os estudos de condu&#231;&#227;o por esse m&#233;todo avaliam apenas as fibras nervosas mais r&#225;pidas, sendo incapazes de identificar o comprometimento das fibras finas. Portanto, nos quadros puros de neuropatia de fibras finas, os estudos de condu&#231;&#227;o, incluindo a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos nervos surais, que classicamente est&#227;o alterados nos quadros de polineuropatias, ser&#227;o normais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A biopsia de pele ainda &#233; considerada o padr&#227;o-ouro no diagn&#243;stico de neuropatia de fibras finas. &#201; um procedimento pouco invasivo, realizado ambulatorialmente e com anestesia local. Em geral, retira-se um fragmento de 3 mm de tecido da regi&#227;o distal de um dos membros inferiores, 7 a 10 cm proximal ao mal&#233;olo lateral. Outros fragmentos podem ser retirados, 7 a 10 cm proximal ao joelho e distal ao troc&#226;nter maior, do mesmo membro, respectivamente, para definir o padr&#227;o &#8211; comprimento-dependente (padr&#227;o distal para proximal), ou n&#227;o comprimento-dependente, ou a biopsia de s&#237;tios espec&#237;ficos diante de sintomas focais.</p>
      <p>Conforme j&#225; mencionado, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da densidade de fibras intraepid&#233;rmicas &#233; direcionada predominantemente &#224;s fibras A&#948;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> Os valores normais esperados variam de acordo com a idade, o g&#234;nero e o s&#237;tio de biopsia, e estudos recentes procuram normatiz&#225;-los.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> Quando os valores s&#227;o desconhecidos para um determinado s&#237;tio, a an&#225;lise comparativa com o lado contralateral pode ser uma alternativa v&#225;lida.</p>
      <p>As limita&#231;&#245;es do m&#233;todo s&#227;o: dificuldade de acesso a laborat&#243;rios especializados, principalmente no contexto de pa&#237;ses emergentes como o Brasil; a possibilidade de o exame ainda ser normal no in&#237;cio do quadro; a aus&#234;ncia de normatiza&#231;&#227;o de valores esperados para diversos s&#237;tios anat&#244;micos e a falta de padroniza&#231;&#227;o para avaliar as fibras auton&#244;micas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Teste sensorial quantitativo e teste sudomotor</title>
      <p>O teste QST (<italic>Quantitative Sensory Testing</italic>) avalia o limiar de sensa&#231;&#227;o da dor, sobretudo, atrav&#233;s de est&#237;mulo t&#233;rmico controlado pelo calor, de modo geral. Avalia, ent&#227;o, a integridade das fibras A&#948;. Trata-se, portanto, de um exame que depende da colabora&#231;&#227;o do paciente, uma vez que ele precisa sinalizar as suas percep&#231;&#245;es adequadamente. Dessa forma, ele pode ser falseado pela dificuldade de compreens&#227;o das instru&#231;&#245;es, do paciente concentrar-se ou mesmo por a&#231;&#227;o volitiva.</p>
      <p>Outras limita&#231;&#245;es ao m&#233;todo s&#227;o a baixa disponibilidade e o fato de que ele n&#227;o distingue les&#245;es perif&#233;ricas das centrais. O comprometimento das vias espinotal&#226;micas e de &#225;reas cerebrais relacionadas a esta modalidade sensitiva tamb&#233;m levar&#227;o a um padr&#227;o de anormalidade no exame. Por esses motivos, n&#227;o &#233; recomendado que o m&#233;todo seja utilizado como teste &#250;nico na defini&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de neuropatia de fibras finas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Os exames das fibras auton&#244;micas s&#227;o direcionados principalmente &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sudomotora. A produ&#231;&#227;o de suor pelas gl&#226;ndulas sudor&#237;paras &#233; mediada pela inerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica colin&#233;rgica. Observa-se, de modo geral e diante de um comprometimento de tais fibras em padr&#227;o comprimento-dependente (distal para proximal), anidrose em distribui&#231;&#227;o de botas e luvas, com hiperidrose proximal compensat&#243;ria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> A perda grave e difusa dessa fun&#231;&#227;o pode levar a dist&#250;rbios da termorregula&#231;&#227;o e hipertermia.</p>
      <p>Dos m&#233;todos dispon&#237;veis, pode-se ser feito o teste do suor termorregulador (<italic>Thermoregulatory Sweat Testing &#8211; TST</italic>) e o teste quantitativo do reflexo axonal sudomotor (<italic>Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Testing &#8211; QSART</italic>).</p>
      <p>Realiza-se o <italic>TST</italic> em uma sala onde &#233; poss&#237;vel controlar a temperatura e a umidade. O paciente deita em posi&#231;&#227;o supina em uma maca, com sua temperatura sendo monitorada por dois sensores (um para a pele e outro para a cavidade oral) e o corpo coberto por um composto, que muda de cor diante da altera&#231;&#227;o de pH local, produzido pelo suor.</p>
      <p>A temperatura da sala &#233; elevada para 45-50 &#176;C, mantendo-se uma umidade relativa do ar em torno de 35-40%. A temperatura da pele &#233; mantida entre 38,5 e 39,5 &#176;C, e a temperatura oral deve elevar-se em 1 &#176;C em rela&#231;&#227;o ao valor basal ou alcan&#231;ar 38 &#176;C (o que for maior). A observa&#231;&#227;o deve ocorrer em um per&#237;odo de tempo entre 30 e 65 minutos. A mudan&#231;a de cor do reagente sobre o corpo do paciente indica a produ&#231;&#227;o local de suor. Ent&#227;o, s&#227;o registradas fotografias digitais e gerado um mapa anat&#244;mico da densidade de suor, que ser&#225; posteriormente interpretado.</p>
      <p>As principais limita&#231;&#245;es do m&#233;todo s&#227;o a pouca disponibilidade e a sua incapacidade de distinguir comprometimento pr&#233; ou p&#243;s-ganglionar. Desse modo, a combina&#231;&#227;o com um exame direcionado &#224;s fibras p&#243;s-ganglionares pode ajudar a dirimir eventuais d&#250;vidas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O QSART avalia a fun&#231;&#227;o das fibras auton&#244;micas p&#243;s-ganglionares relacionadas &#224; fun&#231;&#227;o sudomotora e a produ&#231;&#227;o de suor atrav&#233;s do est&#237;mulo colin&#233;rgico realizado por t&#233;cnica de iontoforese. Habitualmente, s&#227;o avaliados quatro segmentos &#8211; antebra&#231;o, perna proximal, perna distal e dorso do p&#233;; isso pode fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es sobre o padr&#227;o de acometimento: comprimento-dependente ou n&#227;o comprimento-dependente.</p>
      <p>O sistema &#233; composto por uma c&#225;psula especial multicompartimentalizada (uma subdivis&#227;o para o est&#237;mulo iontofor&#233;tico, outra para mensurar a umidade e uma terceira que separa as duas primeiras), que fica em contato direto com a pele; e um sistema de fluxo cont&#237;nuo de nitrog&#234;nio seco, que passa pela c&#225;psula &#224; temperatura constante e segue para um higr&#244;metro, onde se registra a oscila&#231;&#227;o de umidade frente &#224; produ&#231;&#227;o local de suor.</p>
      <p>Registra-se a varia&#231;&#227;o de umidade em forma de gr&#225;fico, em um computador acoplado ao sistema. Este gr&#225;fico &#233; analisado principalmente quanto &#224; sua lat&#234;ncia e &#224; &#225;rea sobre a curva, com valores padronizados para homens e mulheres. As limita&#231;&#245;es do m&#233;todo s&#227;o a dificuldade de acesso e a impossibilidade de avaliar fibras pr&#233;-ganglionares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica cerebral e cintilografia com MIBG</title>
      <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica pode ser &#250;til no diagn&#243;stico de atrofia multissist&#234;mica (AMS), ao identificar altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais espec&#237;ficas no c&#233;rebro, focadas na localiza&#231;&#227;o de padr&#245;es de atrofia da subst&#226;ncia cinzenta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A visualiza&#231;&#227;o de imagens ponderadas em T1 e T2 por neuroradiologistas experientes tem identificado sinais cl&#225;ssicos como <italic>o da cruz</italic> (que representa a degenera&#231;&#227;o de fibras da ponte e pontocerebelares, com preserva&#231;&#227;o do trato c&#243;rtico-espinal). Este sinal aparece como uma cruz hiperdensa na ponte, com alta especificidade (97%), embora com baixa sensibilidade (50%). Outra observa&#231;&#227;o &#233; o sinal hiperdenso na borda do put&#226;men com alta especificidade (90%), embora tamb&#233;m com menor sensibilidade (72%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, houve um progresso significativo nas t&#233;cnicas de neuroimagem, atrav&#233;s do uso de novas conectividades e t&#233;cnicas funcionais, que podem melhorar a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica e determinar novos marcadores de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a. Uma abordagem multimodal com tecnologias inovadoras como parte do arsenal diagn&#243;stico, permitir&#225; futuros progressos nesta &#225;rea e na pesquisa da atrofia multissist&#234;mica (AMS).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; doen&#231;a de Parkinson, a an&#225;lise morfol&#243;gica do mesenc&#233;falo pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, sobretudo da subst&#226;ncia negra e dos n&#250;cleos da base, apresenta achados que auxiliam no diagn&#243;stico das s&#237;ndromes parkinsonianas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Uma nova e excitante &#225;rea na resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica &#233; a an&#225;lise da inflama&#231;&#227;o cerebral. Em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica, a inflama&#231;&#227;o cerebral tem sido investigada com espectroscopia, atrav&#233;s da medi&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de v&#225;rios metab&#243;litos relacionados &#224; neuroinflama&#231;&#227;o, incluindo os compostos que cont&#233;m colina, mio-inositol, lactato e N-acetilaspartato.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> Um estudo que avaliou a espectroscopia com resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, aplicada &#224; &#225;rea cerebral inteira, demonstrou anormalidades de metab&#243;litos e temperatura de forma distribu&#237;da em todo o c&#233;rebro, ao inv&#233;s de regionalmente limitada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O achado sugere que a s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica seja um processo patol&#243;gico difuso que afeta todo o c&#233;rebro, o que &#233; consistente com os seus sintomas cl&#237;nicos heterog&#234;neos. Estes estudos, segundo os autores, sustentam a hip&#243;tese de que a s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica seja resultado de uma neuroinflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica e de baixa intensidade.</p>
      <p>Outro dado interessante gerado pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica &#233; a an&#225;lise dos dist&#250;rbios cognitivos nas alfassinucleinopatias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> Muito desses pacientes pacientes apresentam hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, o que leva &#224; hipoperfus&#227;o cerebral transit&#243;ria. Uma hip&#243;tese sugerida &#233; que a hipoperfus&#227;o cerebral (transit&#243;ria ou repetitiva) pode ser a respons&#225;vel pelo d&#233;ficit cognitivo detectado nesses pacientes.</p>
      <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica estrutural demonstra hiperintensidade da subst&#226;ncia branca, o que pode contribuir para defeitos cognitivos. H&#225; evid&#234;ncias que a HO est&#225; associada a hiperintensidade de subst&#226;ncia branca nas alfassinucleinopatias, explicando parcialmente a rela&#231;&#227;o entre hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e defici&#234;ncia cognitiva.</p>
      <p>Novas aplica&#231;&#245;es de resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica funcional mostram que flutua&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas na substancia branca observadas na resson&#226;ncia, precedem as altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais da hiperintensidade da subst&#226;ncia branca, sendo medidas mais sens&#237;veis para avaliar o comprometimento cerebral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
      <p>As imagens de cintilografia com metaiodobenzilguanidina (MIBG) podem ser utilizadas para quantificar diretamente a inerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica card&#237;aca em v&#225;rias patologias, inclusive as neuropatias auton&#244;micas cardiovasculares. A assimetria de inerva&#231;&#227;o pode ser respons&#225;vel por predisposi&#231;&#227;o a arritmias e morte s&#250;bita, e tamb&#233;m ser utilizada para avaliar a reinerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica ap&#243;s o tratamento adequado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Testes laboratoriais</title>
      <p>As catecolaminas plasm&#225;ticas mais importantes em humanos s&#227;o a epinefrina e norepinefrina, ambas refletem a atividade simp&#225;tica. A norepinefrina &#233; liberada em terminais simp&#225;ticos neuronais; apenas uma pequena taxa chega at&#233; a circula&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica. A epinefrina, por sua vez, &#233; liberada por meio da estimula&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-ganglionar simp&#225;tica da medula adrenal. A epinefrina e a norepinefrina plasm&#225;ticas respondem de modo diverso aos agentes estressores. Enquanto a norepinefrina responde mais aos est&#237;mulos do frio, a epinefrina apresenta uma maior resposta &#224; hipoglicemia e &#224;s hipotens&#245;es.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Ficar em p&#233; ap&#243;s o repouso na posi&#231;&#227;o deitada, ou inclinar o paciente no <italic>tilt test</italic>, traz como consequ&#234;ncia o ac&#250;mulo de sangue nos membros inferiores e resulta em queda do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco. A ativa&#231;&#227;o reflexa do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico resulta, entre outras a&#231;&#245;es, no aumento na libera&#231;&#227;o de norepinefrina pelos terminais dos nervos simp&#225;ticos, o que resulta no aumento de at&#233; 100% na circula&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de norepinefrina em um per&#237;odo de cinco minutos.</p>
      <p>Pacientes com fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica secund&#225;ria &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o dos neur&#244;nios p&#243;s-gangli&#244;nicos simp&#225;ticos podem ter concentra&#231;&#245;es reduzidas de norepinefrina em posi&#231;&#227;o supina. Por outro lado, indiv&#237;duos com fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica por qualquer causa frequentemente falham em elevar seus n&#237;veis de norepinefrina plasm&#225;tica ao ficarem em p&#233; ou serem inclinados no tilt test.</p>
      <p>Isso ocorre devido &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o ou a aus&#234;ncia de disparos dos eferentes simp&#225;ticos em resposta ao est&#237;mulo ortost&#225;tico. Um incremento subnormal de norepinefrina ao estresse ortost&#225;tico &#233; um dado bastante espec&#237;fico, embora n&#227;o muito sens&#237;vel, da resposta simp&#225;tica atenuada pela fal&#234;ncia barorreflexa-simpatoneural ou pela denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Por outro lado, em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica hiperadren&#233;rgica, tais como os que apresentam prolapso de valva mitral ou alguns subtipos da s&#237;ndrome postural ortost&#225;tica taquicardizante (SPOT ou POTS na l&#237;ngua inglesa), pode haver incremento supranormal exagerado de norepinefrina, quando submetidos ao estresse ortost&#225;tico (ficar de p&#233; ou inclinados).</p>
      <p>Na hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica, causada por diversas desordens auton&#244;micas, incluindo a neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC), o incremento ortost&#225;tico de norepinefrina &#233; atenuado. Portanto, um incremento de norepinefrina plasm&#225;tica menor que 60% ap&#243;s cinco minutos de ortostase favorece o diagn&#243;stico de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Outros exames laboratoriais espec&#237;ficos podem ser solicitados a fim de investigar as diversas etiologias potencialmente causadoras de disautonomia conforme a sintomatologia e a suspeita cl&#237;nica. Patologias como diabetes, amiloidose, insufici&#234;ncia renal, doen&#231;as autoimunes e neoplasias, sobretudo de pulm&#227;o, podem necessitar de investiga&#231;&#227;o especializada.</p>
      <boxed-text id="box3">
        <caption>
          <title>Neuropatia perif&#233;rica = sinal de alerta</title>
        </caption>
        <p>A presen&#231;a de sintomas ou do diagn&#243;stico de neuropatia perif&#233;rica pode representar um sinal de alerta para a pesquisa de disautonomia. Nos pacientes diab&#233;ticos, mais de 50% apresentar&#227;o neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC) quando diagnosticados com neuropatia perif&#233;rica, enquanto quase 100% dos pacientes com NAC ter&#227;o neuropatia perif&#233;rica.</p>
      </boxed-text>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Tratamento</title>
      <p>Na maioria dos casos, o tratamento da disautonomia e, particularmente, da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (HO), bem como sua principal manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, devem seguir uma abordagem progressiva, que passa tanto pelo tratamento n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico como pelo uso de f&#225;rmacos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figuras 3</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">4</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref></p>
      <fig id="f3">
        <label>Figura 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Fluxograma de abordagem da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e seus diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais. Dividido em grupos com aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em ortostase, usualmente observada em HO por hipovolemia ou medicamentosa e sem aumento, visto nas hipotens&#245;es neurog&#234;nicas e excluindo-se o uso de f&#225;rmacos bradicardizantes ou pacientes com doen&#231;a do n&#243; sinusal.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0981-00422-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      <fig id="f4">
        <label>Figura 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Abordagem terap&#234;utica das disautonomias.</title>
        </caption>
        <attrib>Fonte: pr&#243;prio autor.</attrib>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0981-00422-gf04.tif"/></fig>
      <p>O objetivo do tratamento dos pacientes com HO &#233; a melhora dos sintomas cl&#237;nicos debilitantes (especialmente a redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de quedas) e da qualidade de vida, aumentando a toler&#226;ncia a maiores per&#237;odos de ortostase e a capacidade f&#237;sica. A busca por n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial normais dificilmente &#233; ating&#237;vel.</p>
      <p>A necessidade de tratamento deve estar baseada em uma an&#225;lise individualizada, tomando como refer&#234;ncia a gravidade da apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e as comorbidades envolvidas. Em boa parte dos casos, particularmente nos pacientes idosos e/ou com disautonomia, deve-se buscar um melhor controle dos sintomas e dos sinais vitais em ortostase, visando ajudar na otimiza&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica institu&#237;da.</p>
      <p>Existe uma car&#234;ncia de estudos sobre o tratamento da HO, sendo que as recomenda&#231;&#245;es existentes est&#227;o baseadas, sobretudo, em pequenos trabalhos. Uma limita&#231;&#227;o potencial &#233; o fato de n&#227;o terem sido validados por estudos randomizados, com um n&#250;mero mais significativo de pacientes. Al&#233;m disso, eles refletem apenas o resultado do tratamento agudo da HO e, de modo geral, em um grupo heterog&#234;neo de pacientes. Trata-se de um aspecto fundamental, j&#225; que a HO envolve diversas patologias que se distinguem na sua forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o e evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> Um consenso de especialistas em HO neurog&#234;nica (HON) prop&#244;s um tratamento escalonado e baseado em quatro etapas:</p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Avaliar e ajustar os medicamentos preexistentes;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Tratamento n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Implementar a monoterapia;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Tentar a associa&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Segundo esses autores, existe uma recomenda&#231;&#227;o de que para cada etapa proposta do tratamento exista um per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo de duas semanas de observa&#231;&#227;o, a fim de definir o benef&#237;cio sintom&#225;tico antes da migra&#231;&#227;o para outra estrat&#233;gia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Os envolvidos no tratamento dos pacientes com disautonomia devem sempre lembrar que a educa&#231;&#227;o do paciente, dos familiares e dos cuidadores sobre os mecanismos envolvidos na g&#234;nese da HO e as situa&#231;&#245;es da atividade di&#225;ria que podem favorecer uma queda da press&#227;o arterial s&#227;o fundamentais no tratamento cl&#237;nico. Exemplos como o de permanecer em ambientes com temperatura elevada, banhos quentes, tipo e intensidade de esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico, postura ortost&#225;tica prolongada ou atingida de forma r&#225;pida, ingest&#227;o de bebida alco&#243;lica ou de grandes refei&#231;&#245;es, particularmente com carboidratos, podem precipitar ou agravar os sintomas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Tratamento n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico</title>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise dos medicamentos em uso</title>
        <p>Independente da etiologia da disautonomia, sempre que poss&#237;vel deve ser considerada a interrup&#231;&#227;o do uso ou o ajuste posol&#243;gico dos medicamentos que potencializam a HO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Um n&#250;mero substancial desses agentes s&#227;o medicamentos de uso regular por parte dos cardiologistas.</p>
        <p>Na medida em que se faz o ajuste dos medicamentos, &#233; importante manter um monitoramento constante dos sintomas de HON. Para que isso aconte&#231;a, alguns estudos recomendam a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de question&#225;rios criados com este fim.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Nos casos com indica&#231;&#227;o definida, deve-se optar por anti-hipertensivos com uma meia-vida menor, preferencialmente com dosagem noturna &#250;nica.</p>
        <p>Medicamentos como os nitratos e diur&#233;ticos, que diminuem a pr&#233;-carga, devem ser suspensos ou evitados. Outros f&#225;rmacos que tamb&#233;m pioram ou contribuem para a HO s&#227;o aos f&#225;rmacos dopamin&#233;rgicos, anticolin&#233;rgicas, antidepressivos tric&#237;clicos, alfa-1-bloqueadores (p. ex., tansulosina) e outros anti-hipertensivos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medidas n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas</title>
        <p>A pr&#243;xima etapa do tratamento &#233; a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;rias medidas n&#227;o-farmacol&#243;gicas na rotina di&#225;ria do paciente, todas com o objetivo de minimizar os sintomas decorrentes da HON. Do ponto de vista pr&#225;tico, elas s&#227;o incorporadas ao mesmo tempo em que se faz uma revis&#227;o cuidadosa do tratamento farmacol&#243;gico previamente ministrado.</p>
        <p>No caso de pacientes que apresentem sincope, pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope ou quedas recorrentes, existe uma urg&#234;ncia maior em eliminar a instabilidade postural causada pela HO e orientar os pacientes sobre as manobras que possam reduzir a reten&#231;&#227;o venosa nos membros inferiores e no trato digest&#243;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
        <p>As medidas n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas podem ser usadas individualmente; no entanto, s&#227;o mais eficazes quando usadas em combina&#231;&#227;o ou durante a titula&#231;&#227;o concomitante de tratamentos farmacol&#243;gicos. Embora sejam custo-efetivas e pass&#237;veis de combina&#231;&#227;o com as interven&#231;&#245;es farmacol&#243;gicas, as orienta&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas podem apresentar baixa ader&#234;ncia por parte dos pacientes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Aumento do volume circulat&#243;rio</title>
        <p>Pacientes com HON precisam de interven&#231;&#245;es que possibilitem a normaliza&#231;&#227;o ou a expans&#227;o do volume sangu&#237;neo. Muitos deles, especialmente os idosos, apresentam uma diminui&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica secund&#225;ria a uma ingesta inadequada de l&#237;quido por via oral, o que pode ser decorrente de uma restri&#231;&#227;o volunt&#225;ria para evitar condi&#231;&#245;es comuns, como a urg&#234;ncia urin&#225;ria do idoso ou de pacientes com doen&#231;as neurol&#243;gicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O ajuste do volume de ingesta de fluidos tamb&#233;m deve levar em considera&#231;&#227;o a &#225;rea geogr&#225;fica e as oscila&#231;&#245;es clim&#225;ticas. A ingesta de &#225;gua &#233; considerada o &#8220;f&#225;rmaco&#8221; de primeira escolha no tratamento da HON.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, em situa&#231;&#245;es agudas (p. ex.: s&#237;ncope ou HO muito sintom&#225;tica), quando existe programa&#231;&#227;o de longo per&#237;odo de ortostase ou exposi&#231;&#227;o ao calor, recomenda-se o uso de ingesta r&#225;pida de &#225;gua, preferencialmente gelada (500 mL ingerida no per&#237;odo de 2 a 3 minutos), devido &#224; promo&#231;&#227;o do aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e &#224; consequente eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A resposta press&#243;rica aguda inicia-se depois de cinco a dez minutos ap&#243;s a ingesta de &#225;gua, com pico entre 20 e 40 minutos, ou seja, produz um efeito que mimetiza o uso de f&#225;rmacos de efeito r&#225;pido e curta dura&#231;&#227;o. O efeito dessa ingesta r&#225;pida de &#225;gua se deve ao reflexo hipo-osmolar na circula&#231;&#227;o portal e pode durar at&#233; uma hora, possibilitando uma melhora dos sintomas de HON. A ingesta de outros l&#237;quidos &#233; ineficaz para gerar uma resposta press&#243;rica significativa. Dessa forma, a hidrata&#231;&#227;o adequada pode produzir efeitos agudos e cr&#244;nicos, com impacto cl&#237;nico ben&#233;fico nos pacientes com HON.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ingesta de s&#243;dio</title>
        <p>Outro tratamento n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico importante &#233; o monitoramento e o ajuste do aporte di&#225;rio de sal. Como o s&#243;dio &#233; considerado um componente negativo da dieta, muitos pacientes buscam remover ou reduzir significativamente o seu uso na dieta, piorando os sintomas ortost&#225;ticos.</p>
        <p>Recomenda-se aos pacientes com HON uma ingesta de 2 a 3 de s&#243;dio ao dia (5 a 7,5 g de sal). Alguns casos podem necessitar de aportes maiores, chegando at&#233; 10 g de s&#243;dio. Pacientes com risco de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, hipertens&#227;o supina ou edema perif&#233;rico devem ser monitorados de perto, pela possibilidade de piora dos sintomas, j&#225; que podem necessitar ajustes ou menores ingestas. Deve-se evitar a priva&#231;&#227;o acentuada de sal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Dieta</title>
        <p>Em pacientes com HO, a ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica n&#227;o &#233; capaz de compensar o ac&#250;mulo de sangue na circula&#231;&#227;o espl&#226;ncnica ap&#243;s a refei&#231;&#227;o. A atividade simp&#225;tica vasoconstritora na HON &#233; deficiente e muitos pacientes apresentam hipotens&#227;o significativa ap&#243;s a ingesta de alimentos.</p>
        <p>Para os indiv&#237;duos com hipotens&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial, recomenda-se refei&#231;&#245;es em menor quantidade e com maior frequ&#234;ncia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> Esse tipo de dieta tem se mostrado eficaz na diminui&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas ortost&#225;ticos em pacientes portadores de fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura e atrofia multissist&#234;mica. Existem evid&#234;ncias de que a dieta com baixo teor glic&#234;mico pode causar um efeito ben&#233;fico em pacientes como sintomas de HO. A hipotens&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial tamb&#233;m pode ser reduzida com o uso de cafe&#237;na ou acarbose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A anemia leva a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da viscosidade sangu&#237;nea e da capacidade de carreamento de oxig&#234;nio, com aumento potencial dos sintomas de HO. Portanto, ela deve ser prevenida e tratada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> O d&#233;ficit de vitamina B<sub>12</sub> pode estar associado a instabilidade postural e causar HO, sendo causa revers&#237;vel de algumas polineuropatias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref> Dessa forma, as mudan&#231;as na dieta e a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com vitaminas e ferro nos pacientes com defici&#234;ncias destes minerais pode ser &#250;til aos pacientes com HON.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Manobras f&#237;sicas para elevar a press&#227;o arterial</title>
        <p>Os pacientes com HO devem ser informados a respeito de medidas simples que podem ser utilizadas para aumentar a PA durante as atividades di&#225;rias. Entre as contra-manobras f&#237;sicas, incluem-se o cruzamento de pernas, o agachamento e a tens&#227;o dos m&#250;sculos das pernas, bra&#231;os, abd&#244;men, n&#225;degas ou do corpo inteiro.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref> Essas manobras geram aumentos da pr&#233;-carga card&#237;aca e, consequentemente, no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, na press&#227;o arterial e na perfus&#227;o cerebral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A manobra mais b&#225;sica &#233; a ativa&#231;&#227;o da bomba muscular das panturrilhas (musculatura &#8220;antigravitacional&#8221;). Se as v&#225;lvulas venosas s&#227;o competentes, a ativa&#231;&#227;o muscular aumenta a press&#227;o venosa card&#237;aca e de enchimento card&#237;aco. Pequenos aumentos na PA podem alterar a autorregula&#231;&#227;o e prevenir a pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope e a s&#237;ncope.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Os pacientes devem ser alertados de que o ato de sentar ou deitar melhora os sintomas, ainda que estes possam recorrer ap&#243;s o retorno &#224; postura ortost&#225;tica. Existem evid&#234;ncias que sinalizam para o efeito ben&#233;fico da contra&#231;&#227;o volunt&#225;ria dos membros inferiores por 40 segundos ap&#243;s ado&#231;&#227;o da ortostase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O treinamento de contramanobras respirat&#243;rias que facilitem o retorno venoso do abd&#244;men e dos membros inferiores para o cora&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m &#233; &#250;til, pois estas se utilizam de respira&#231;&#227;o profunda lenta e da cria&#231;&#227;o de resist&#234;ncia inspirat&#243;ria.</p>
        <p>Muitos pacientes, particularmente os portadores de disautonomias mais graves, necessitam de ajuda de terceiros para realizar as contramanobras f&#237;sicas. Eles devem ser aconselhados a levantar-se lentamente (ao longo de mais 15 segundos), uma vez que j&#225; foi comprovado que tal m&#233;todo atenua a queda da press&#227;o arterial.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Atividade f&#237;sica</title>
        <p>A atividade f&#237;sica e o exerc&#237;cio devem ser incentivados a fim de evitar o descondicionamento, que sabidamente pode piorar a intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref> Os mecanismos subjacentes &#224; exacerba&#231;&#227;o est&#227;o relacionados &#224; hipovolemia e ao remodelamento do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, levando &#224; deteriora&#231;&#227;o do desempenho da c&#226;mara ventricular esquerda. Tais altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas s&#227;o revertidas pelo treinamento e aptid&#227;o f&#237;sicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Entretanto, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio fisico, particularmente nos casos de HO por disautonomia, demonstrou que a ado&#231;&#227;o da postura ortost&#225;tica, imediatamente ap&#243;s a pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cio em dec&#250;bito supino, pode exarcerbar a HO nesses pacientes. Tal observa&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; reprodut&#237;vel em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Por conta desse fator, principalmente nos pacientes idosos, portadores de HON, o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico muitas vezes deve ser supervisionado por familiares ou profissionais especializados para evitar les&#245;es ou quedas. Nesse subgrupo de pacientes, deve-se priorizar o treinamento f&#237;sico moderado e, sobretudo, direcionado para os membros inferiores e exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos que n&#227;o gerem um maior estresse gravitacional, como a bicicleta em dec&#250;bito supino ou exerc&#237;cios em meio aqu&#225;tico.</p>
        <p>Os pacientes devem evitar exerc&#237;cios extenuantes, j&#225; que podem causar o aumento da temperatura corporal e a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, com consequente risco de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70"><sup>70</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71"><sup>71</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Para minimizar a HO, o paciente deve ser hidratado antes e durante todo o per&#237;odo do exerc&#237;cio e ser alertado sobre o risco inicial de potencializa&#231;&#227;o da HO logo ap&#243;s a interrup&#231;&#227;o do esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Evitar o aumento da temperatura corporal</title>
        <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o da temperatura corporal causa vasodilata&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica. Pacientes com HON devem evitar situa&#231;&#245;es que causem aumento da temperatura corporal, como exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos de alta intensidade, exerc&#237;cios em ambientes com alta temperatura e umidade, saunas ou banhos quentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref> Al&#233;m disso, indiv&#237;duos com fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica, por terem um comprometimento da capacidade termorregulat&#243;ria, apresentam maior risco de hipertermia.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cabeceira elevada</title>
        <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o da cabeceira da cama &#233; uma medida importante, realizada atrav&#233;s do uso de uma cunha sob o colch&#227;o ou da coloca&#231;&#227;o de blocos sob as pernas da cabeceira, para que a cabe&#231;a do paciente fique de 20 a 30 cm mais alta do que os p&#233;s, reduzindo a hipertens&#227;o supina. &#194;ngulos de inclina&#231;&#227;o menores podem n&#227;o ser t&#227;o bem-sucedidos, e travesseiros dobrados sob a cabe&#231;a podem n&#227;o ser suficientes.</p>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o supina comumente leva ao aumento da noct&#250;ria e a deple&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica noturna. Este aumento da diurese noturna diminui com a eleva&#231;&#227;o da cabeceira. Adicionalmente, ainda que modesto, o aumento do estresse gravitacional noturno mant&#233;m a ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, o que permite uma press&#227;o mais elevada durante a manh&#227;.</p>
        <p>A efic&#225;cia dessa interven&#231;&#227;o foi questionada em um estudo randomizado recente que, entretanto, n&#227;o diferenciou as causas de HO e n&#227;o monitorou adequadamente a hidrata&#231;&#227;o e o grau de eleva&#231;&#227;o do leito, aspectos esses que podem ter contribu&#237;do para um resultado negativo. Consequentemente, recomenda-se que pelo menos nos pacientes com fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica, seja orientada a eleva&#231;&#227;o da cabeceira da cama. Tal postura espec&#237;fica n&#227;o &#233; isenta de efeitos adversos, podendo estar associada ao edema de tornozelo, ao deslizamento do corpo na cama e, como resultado, &#224; dor nos p&#233;s.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75"><sup>75</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vestu&#225;rio compressivo</title>
        <p>O uso de meias el&#225;sticas que gerem um gradiente de press&#227;o pode ser ben&#233;fico no tratamento da HO. Meias ou bandagens de compress&#227;o reduzem o ac&#250;mulo de sangue perif&#233;rico nas extremidades inferiores, a hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e os eventuais sintomas.</p>
        <p>&#201; prefer&#237;vel que a compress&#227;o se estenda at&#233; a cintura, pois a maioria da estase ocorre na circula&#231;&#227;o espl&#226;ncnica, que cont&#233;m at&#233; 25% do volume sangu&#237;neo em repouso. Deve-se colocar as meias pela manh&#227;, com paciente deitado na cama e antes que ele se levante.</p>
        <p>Esses procedimentos n&#227;o invasivos costumam ser desafiadores, de baixa aceitabilidade e demandam a ajuda de terceiros, principalmente em pacientes idosos e com doen&#231;as neurol&#243;gicas. Os benef&#237;cios a longo prazo dessas interven&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o foram estudados. Alguns autores sugerem que uma alternativa aceit&#225;vel, devido &#224; baixa ades&#227;o a longo prazo do vestu&#225;rio compressivo, seria a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de roupas de ciclistas, que podem oferecer uma compress&#227;o abdominal satisfat&#243;ria.</p>
        <p>De qualquer forma, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre as t&#233;cnicas de compress&#227;o (particularmente do abd&#244;men) e as contramanobras f&#237;sicas se mostram muito efetivas nos pacientes portadores de disautonomia de etiologia neurog&#234;nica.</p>
        <p>Um aumento da press&#227;o abdominal de 20-40 mmHg atrav&#233;s do uso de cintas abdominais e associada &#224;s contramanobras f&#237;sicas de contra&#231;&#227;o dos membros inferiores, resultam em um aumento significativo da resposta press&#243;rica ao estresse gravitacional. Estudos que avaliaram o tratamento n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico das disautonomias, identificaram evid&#234;ncias no uso de vestu&#225;rio compressivo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><sup>76</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Tratamento farmacol&#243;gico</title>
      <p>A adi&#231;&#227;o do tratamento farmacol&#243;gico pode ser necess&#225;ria em pacientes com HO grave, quando as abordagens n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas s&#227;o insuficientes para prevenir os sintomas pr&#233;-sincopais ou sincopais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figuras 3</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">4</xref>). &#201; importante que se considere adequadamente o diagn&#243;stico prov&#225;vel do paciente, como o HON, o SPOT ou a s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica.</p>
      <p>A presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o pr&#233;via ou hipertens&#227;o supina, comum em pacientes com disautonomia, e a doen&#231;a cardiovascular subjacente tamb&#233;m devem ser consideradas. <italic>O</italic> tratamento da HO &#233; desafiador por conta das poucas op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas. Apenas a midodrina e a droxidopa (aprovadas nos EUA e no Jap&#227;o) apresentam evid&#234;ncias de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados que apoiam o seu uso no tratamento de HO. Os dois f&#225;rmacos normalmente n&#227;o se encontram dispon&#237;veis no mercado brasileiro.</p>
      <p>N&#227;o existem estudos comparativos que visem orientar a escolha inicial do medicamento na HON. A sele&#231;&#227;o de um medicamento ou outro, em muitas situa&#231;&#245;es, estar&#225; relacionada &#224; prefer&#234;ncia, &#224; experi&#234;ncia do cl&#237;nico e a possibilidade de acesso ao medicamento por parte do paciente. Devemos sempre levar em conta a gravidade e a exist&#234;ncia de comorbidades (especialmente a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e/ou renal).</p>
      <p>Esses agentes podem aumentar a PA e a volemia, o que pode agravar a hipertens&#227;o supina. Consequentemente, a melhora esperada da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (e a redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de s&#237;ncope e quedas) deve ser ponderada em rela&#231;&#227;o aos riscos, a longo prazo, da hipertens&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Outros desafios associados ao tratamento s&#227;o a disponibilidade limitada de evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas e a falta de estudos comparativos de efic&#225;cia. A seguir, apresentamos uma vis&#227;o geral dos principais medicamentos usados no tratamento da HO e as recomenda&#231;&#245;es de uso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Midodrina</title>
        <p>O midodrina foi o primeiro f&#225;rmaco aprovado pela ag&#234;ncia reguladora americana (FDA) para o tratamento da HO. Trata-se de um pr&#243;-medicamento que pode ser rapidamente convertido em seu metab&#243;lito ativo, a desglimidodrina. &#201; um agonista alfa-1-adren&#233;rgico seletivo, com meia-vida curta (pico de a&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s uma hora) e dura&#231;&#227;o de a&#231;&#227;o estimado de 3-4 horas. Demonstrou-se que o midodrina aumenta significativamente a press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea em ortostase e reduz os sintomas de intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>Uma metan&#225;lise recente tamb&#233;m concluiu que o midodrina melhora os resultados cl&#237;nicos, com m&#237;nimos efeitos colaterais significativos. A dose geralmente come&#231;a em 2,5 mg, podendo chegar at&#233; a 10-15 mg por dose, em at&#233; 3 vezes ao dia. Devido a sua meia-vida curta, o esquema de dosagem t&#237;pico &#233; a cada 4 horas, a primeira ao acordar. A midodrina n&#227;o deve ser administrado na hora de dormir e os pacientes devem evitar deitar-se por quatro horas ap&#243;s a &#250;ltima dose de midodrina, a fim de afastar o risco de agravamento da hipertens&#227;o supina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81"><sup>81</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Dada a sua meia-vida curta, tamb&#233;m pode ser usada de acordo com o necess&#225;rio, antes de atividades espec&#237;ficas relacionadas a ocorr&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica sintom&#225;tica. Os efeitos colaterais do midodrina s&#227;o a hipertens&#227;o supina, a piloere&#231;&#227;o, o formigamento no couro cabeludo, a urg&#234;ncia ou reten&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria e a cefaleia.</p>
        <p>A midodrina est&#225; contraindicada em paciente que apresente doen&#231;a card&#237;aca grave, bradicardia, hist&#243;ria de angina, glaucoma de &#226;ngulo fechado, doen&#231;a arterial oclusiva grave, tireotoxicose, feocromocitoma, insufici&#234;ncia renal grave, doen&#231;a de Raynaud e retinopatia diab&#233;tica proliferativa. Deve-se, tamb&#233;m, estar atento aos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fludrocortisona</title>
        <p>Em pacientes sem hipertens&#227;o ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, a fludrocortisona &#233; inclu&#237;da no tratamento baseada na opini&#227;o de especialistas, sendo mais amplamente usada em pa&#237;ses que n&#227;o disp&#245;em dos outros f&#225;rmacos preconizados. A fludrocortisona &#233; um mineralocortic&#243;ide sint&#233;tico que aumenta o volume intravascular e a reabsor&#231;&#227;o renal de s&#243;dio. Os efeitos da fludrocortisona a longo prazo na PA, no entanto, s&#227;o atribu&#237;dos a maior sensibilidade dos vasos sangu&#237;neos a noradrenalina e a angiotensina II. A dose inicial t&#237;pica &#233; de 0,05 mg por dia e pode ser aumentada at&#233; 0,3 mg (em dose &#250;nica ou fracionada).</p>
        <p>O in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o ocorre no per&#237;odo de tr&#234;s a sete dias. Seus efeitos colaterais podem incluir hipocalemia, dores de cabe&#231;a, edema perif&#233;rico, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e hipertens&#227;o supina. Em doses mais altas, os pacientes podem apresentar risco aumentado de supress&#227;o do eixo hipot&#225;lamo-hip&#243;fise-adrenal. Cerca de 30% dos pacientes deixam de usar o medicamento por conta dos efeitos colaterais.</p>
        <p>De modo geral, em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o supina preexistente, a fludrocortisona geralmente n&#227;o &#233; escolhida como medicamento de primeira linha, sendo a midodrina o mais apropriado. A evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica formal que apoia o uso do f&#225;rmaco para o tratamento da HO neurog&#234;ncia &#233; escassa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><sup>82</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84"><sup>84</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Droxidopa</title>
        <p>Mais recentemente, o FDA aprovou a droxidopa para o tratamento da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica nos Estados Unidos, especialmente na doen&#231;a de Parkinson, na atrofia multisist&#234;mica e na fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura. A droxidopa &#233; um pr&#243;-f&#225;rmaco sint&#233;tico que se converte em noradrenalina no c&#233;rebro e nos tecidos perif&#233;ricos. Os n&#237;veis circulantes de norepinefrina aumentam no per&#237;odo m&#225;ximo de seis horas ap&#243;s a droxidopa. A droga tem pico plasm&#225;tico entre 1-4 hs, com m&#233;dia de 2hs em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis.</p>
        <p>A droxidopa &#233; bem tolerada e melhora a toler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica em ensaios controlados em HON (100-600 mg VO, 3 vezes ao dia). Semelhante ao midodrina, a droxidopa n&#227;o deve ser administrada dentro de cinco horas antes de dormir. Recomenda-se cautela no uso do medicamento em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva e insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica. Seus efeitos colaterais incluem dor de cabe&#231;a, tontura, n&#225;usea e fadiga.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85"><sup>85</sup></xref> Intera&#231;&#245;es importantes existem com os f&#225;rmacos usados para tratamento da doen&#231;a de parkinson.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Outros medicamentos</title>
        <p>Outros medicamentos s&#227;o a pseudoefedrina, a atomoxetina (inibidor da recapta&#231;&#227;o de noradrenalina), a ioimbina (antagonista do receptor alfa-2-adren&#233;rgico), a octreotida (an&#225;logo da somatostatina), a ergotamina, a eritropoetina e a piridostigmina (inibidor da colinesterase).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86"><sup>86</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A <italic>atomoxetina</italic> &#233; um inibidor de transportador de noradrenalina, aprovado para o tratamento do transtorno do d&#233;ficit de aten&#231;&#227;o e hiperatividade (TDAH). No entanto, em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica que apresentem fun&#231;&#227;o noradren&#233;rgica perif&#233;rica intacta, ela pode causar uma vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica potente e, consequentemente, o aumento da press&#227;o arterial. Esse medicamento &#233; pouco eficaz na fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura (FAP), por conta do comprometimento perif&#233;rico do sistema noradren&#233;rgico.</p>
        <p>A <italic>piridostigmina</italic>, um inibidor da acetilcolinesterase que aumenta a disponibilidade da acetilcolina nas termina&#231;&#245;es nervosas, agiria na preven&#231;&#227;o da HO. Entretanto, ela aumenta a atividade nervosa simp&#225;tica em resposta ao estresse ortost&#225;tico, causando uma mudan&#231;a na sensibilidade do baroreceptores. Provavelmente, ela &#233; mais &#250;til em pacientes de menor gravidade, com fun&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica residual e possui a vantagem de n&#227;o piorar a hipertens&#227;o supina. Estudos mostram que a menor efic&#225;cia da piridostigmina se comparada a fludrocortisona na HO da doen&#231;a de Parkinson, ainda que cause menor hipertens&#227;o supina e apesar do aumento da hipertens&#227;o supina perif&#233;rica n&#227;o ser acompanhado de similar aumento na press&#227;o arterial central com a fludrocortisona.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91"><sup>91</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A <italic>acarbose</italic>, agente que impede a absor&#231;&#227;o de glicose no intestino delgado, diminui a libera&#231;&#227;o de horm&#244;nios gastrointestinais e retarda o esvaziamento g&#225;strico quando administrada 20 minutos antes da refei&#231;&#227;o. Esse padr&#227;o tem se mostrado eficiente nos casos de hipotens&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial. Ela &#233; contraindicada em pacientes com cetoacidose diab&#233;tica, cirrose, doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria intestinal, colite ulcerativa, obstru&#231;&#227;o intestinal ou qualquer doen&#231;a intestinal cr&#244;nica que possa interromper a digest&#227;o ou absor&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>A <italic>cafe&#237;na</italic> (200-250 mg ou uma x&#237;cara de caf&#233; de 200 mL por dia), quando administrada nos pacientes que n&#227;o s&#227;o usu&#225;rios cr&#244;nicos, pode ajudar a inibir a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica e, portanto, &#233; capaz de aumentar a press&#227;o arterial em ortostase.</p>
        <p>Um estudo recente mostrou que a <italic>di-hidroergotamina</italic>, em combina&#231;&#227;o com a cafe&#237;na, pode ser utilizada como tratamento alternativo em pacientes com fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica e sem doen&#231;a arterial coronariana vascular subjacente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Tratamento farmacol&#243;gico combinado</title>
      <p>Existem poucos dados para determinar a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a de diferentes combina&#231;&#245;es de terapia em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; monoterapia para a HO. Recomenda-se buscar a dose m&#225;xima toler&#225;vel de um &#250;nico agente e, em seguida, caso o benef&#237;cio sintom&#225;tico n&#227;o seja obtido, considerar a troca para uma terapia diferente ou adicionar um segundo agente e titular, a partir da menor dose efetiva.</p>
      <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o mais comum nos casos refrat&#225;rios se d&#225; entre a midodrina e a fludrocortisona. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de &#225;gua, sal e de medidas preventivas j&#225; discutidas tamb&#233;m podem ser efetiva quando combinada aos f&#225;rmacos. Uma combina&#231;&#227;o entre os demais f&#225;rmacos &#233; poss&#237;vel, sempre com aten&#231;&#227;o a flexibilidade de dose (particularmente dos f&#225;rmacos de meia-vida curta, como o midodrina) e o controle rigoroso da ades&#227;o ao tratamento n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92"><sup>92</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93"><sup>93</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Peculiaridades no manejo da hipertens&#227;o supina e hipotens&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Hipertens&#227;o supina e noturna</title>
        <p>Nos pacientes portadores de HO, especialmente HON, &#233; frequente observarmos a associa&#231;&#227;o a hipertens&#227;o supina e noturna, sendo que a gravidade da hipertens&#227;o noturna se correlaciona com a magnitude da HO. A hipertens&#227;o supina &#233; distinta da hipertens&#227;o essencial, uma vez que a maioria dos pacientes &#233; normotenso enquanto est&#225; sentado e pode ser severamente hipotenso em p&#233;. Aproximadamente 50% dos pacientes com FAP apresentam hipertens&#227;o supina. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o supina e noturna deve ser realizada de rotina nos pacientes com HON, pois a sua presen&#231;a &#233; um limitador das op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas, devido a possibilidade de efeitos adversos. A MAPA tamb&#233;m pode ser utilizada na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e para o seguimento cl&#237;nico.</p>
        <p>Na maioria dos pacientes, existem fortes raz&#245;es para priorizar o tratamento da HON sobre a hipertens&#227;o supina. A HO sintom&#225;tica &#233; a causa de uma variedade de sintomas relacionados &#224; postura, incluindo tonturas, pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope ou s&#237;ncope, fadiga, dor cervival em nuca, fraqueza e defici&#234;ncia visual durante ortostase. Todos os sintomas que podem contribuir para um aumento na ocorr&#234;ncia de quedas devem ser bem avaliados, pois estas representam uma das mais comuns causas de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, com elevada morbimortalidade.</p>
        <p>Para a preven&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o supina, deve-se:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Dormir com a cabeceira da cama elevada;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Consumir refei&#231;&#227;o rica em carboidratos na hora de dormir;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Evitar a ingesta de l&#237;quidos antes de dormir;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Evitar o dec&#250;bito supino durante o dia, especialmente nos pacientes que estejam usando vestu&#225;rio de compress&#227;o ou f&#225;rmacos vasopressores.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>N&#227;o existem medicamentos aprovados para o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o supina, mas existem v&#225;rios agentes potencialmente &#250;teis. Em pacientes que ainda apresentam algum t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico, um agonista alfa-2 central (clonidina) reduz o fluxo simp&#225;tico quando administrado ao final da tarde, sem exacerbar a hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica durante o dia. &#201; importante evitar-se o uso de diur&#233;ticos e anti-hipertensivos de a&#231;&#227;o prolongada, mesmo que eles possibilitem o controle da hipertens&#227;o supina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92"><sup>92</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93"><sup>93</sup></xref></p>
        <boxed-text id="box4">
          <caption>
            <title>Tratamento para hipertens&#227;o supina na disautonomia</title>
          </caption>
          <p>O ponto de corte da PA para iniciar a terapia antihipertensiva n&#227;o foi definido e as decis&#245;es de tratamento devem ser tomadas individualmente. No entanto, anti-hipertensivos podem ser indicados com cautela se a PA noturna atingir valores predominantemente &#8805; 160/100 mmHg (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>), com o uso de f&#225;rmacos de a&#231;&#227;o curta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92"><sup>92</sup></xref><sup>.</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93"><sup>93</sup></xref></p>
          <p>A hipertens&#227;o supina &#233; distinta da hipertens&#227;o essencial, uma vez que a maioria dos pacientes &#233; normotensa enquanto est&#225; sentada e pode ser gravemente hipotensa em p&#233;.</p>
        </boxed-text>
        <table-wrap id="t2" position="float">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial supina</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th valign="middle" align="left">F&#225;rmacos<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">*</xref></th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">Mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">Dose habitual</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Captopril</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Inibidor da enzima de convers&#227;o de angiotensina</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">25 mg &#224; noite</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Clonidina<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">a</xref></td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Agonista alfa-2 central</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0,1-0,2 mg ap&#243;s refei&#231;&#227;o noturna</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Hidralazina</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Relaxamento da musculatura lisa perif&#233;rica</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">10-25 mg &#224; noite</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Losartana</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Antagonista dos receptores de angiotensina II</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">50 mg &#224; noite</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Nitroglicerina (patch)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Vasodilatador</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0,1 mg/h (patch &#8211; remover pela manh&#227;)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Os medicamentos anti-hipertensivos de meia-vida curta devem ser os de uso preferencial para o tratamento da hipertens&#227;o supina. A administra&#231;&#227;o deve ser feita apenas no per&#237;odo noturno. Lembrar que muitos desses medicamentos possuem dosagem habitual de 2-3x/dia. Quando tomados inadvertidamente dessa forma ou durante a vig&#237;lia, podem piorar os sintomas de HON</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <label>a</label>
              <p>O uso da clonidina aumenta o risco de hipotens&#227;o matinal.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hipotens&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial</title>
        <p>A hipotens&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial (HOP) &#233; comumente observada em portadores de HO, mas pode ocorrer isoladamente, em particular nos pacientes idosos institucionalizados. Os mecanismos que levam ao decl&#237;nio da press&#227;o arterial n&#227;o s&#227;o claros. A ocorr&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial e a sua extens&#227;o s&#227;o favorecidas pela ingest&#227;o de glicose.</p>
        <p>As estrat&#233;gias de tratamento incluem: refei&#231;&#245;es pequenas, frequentes e com baixo conte&#250;do de carboidratos; beber &#225;gua antes e durante a refei&#231;&#227;o (recomenda-se tomar 400-500 mL de &#225;gua gelada, 30 minutos antes das refei&#231;&#245;es); minimizar ou, preferencialmente, evitar a ingest&#227;o de &#225;lcool; eliminar as causas iatrog&#234;nicas (administra&#231;&#227;o de anti-hipertensivos entre as refei&#231;&#245;es, n&#227;o durante as refei&#231;&#245;es) e o uso de cafe&#237;na (200-250 mg ou uma x&#237;cara de caf&#233; de 200 mL) e a acarbose (100 mg).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <p>
          <bold>S&#233;ries Cl&#237;nicas da Sociedade Brasileira de Arritmias Card&#237;acas - SOBRAC</bold>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Dysautonomia: A Forgotten Condition &#8212; Part II</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8975-1182</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Arrais</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1078-4104</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mehta</surname>
            <given-names>Niraj</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2339-8731</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>T&#225;vora-Mehta</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Zildany Pinheiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7204-8490</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Roncari</surname>
            <given-names>Camila Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8756-5519</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cidr&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Alan Alves de Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2947-3066</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Elias</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cant&#237;dio da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC) - Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Faculdade de Medicina da UFC, Fortaleza, CE - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica de Eletrofisiologia do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC), Fortaleza, CE - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff11">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Faculdade de Medicina da UFC, Fortaleza, CE - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff12">
          <label>6</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Vit&#243;ria</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Eletrofisiologia do Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital, Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Eduardo Arrais Rocha</bold> &#8226; Av. Padre Ant&#244;nio Tom&#225;s, 3535/ 1301. Postal Code <postal-code>60190-120</postal-code>, Fortaleza, CE - Brazil. E-mail: <email>eduardoarraisrocha@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author Contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Rocha EA, Elias Neto J; Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of the data, Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Rocha EA, Mehta N, T&#225;vora-Mehta MZP, Roncari CF, Cidr&#227;o AAL, Elias Neto J.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Primary Dysautonomias</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypotension, Orthostatic</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypothension, Postural</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatigue</kwd>
        <kwd>Diabetes</kwd>
        <kwd>Autonomic Nervous System</kwd>
        <kwd>Syncope</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>General and Cardiovascular Clinical Manifestations</title>
        <p>The pathologies that affect the autonomic nervous system (ANS) can manifest in different ways, depending on the etiology, degree of impairment, disease duration, presence of comorbidities, age or use of associated drugs. Many symptoms can be completely debilitating, such as severe pain in peripheral neuropathy and falls or syncope in autonomic neuropathies. Progression to severe orthostatic intolerance may occur in more advanced cases of dysautonomies, with severe early orthostatic hypotension and supine hypertension, making treatment difficult (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t3" position="float">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Clinical and Cardiovascular Signs and Symptoms of Dysautonomia and/or Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th valign="middle" align="left">Clinical symptoms</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">Cardiovascular signs and symptoms</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Impotence in men and reduced libido</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Fatigue and exercise intolerance</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Abnormal menorrhea</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Pre-syncope/syncope</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Urinary urgency and incontinence</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Visual darkening and intolerance to prolonged orthostasis</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Diarrhea/Constipation/Indigestion</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Unexplained falls</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Exacerbated responses to hypoglycemic agents</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Exacerbated responses to antihypertensive drugs</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Difficult control of diabetes (due to gastroparesis)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Supine hypertension</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Hypohidrosis or anhidrosis</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Non-dipper pattern on Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring (ABPM)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Abnormal vision, pupil atrophy</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Tiredness, shortness of breath (due to chronotropic incompetence)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Pain, numbness or burning feeling in the extremities</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Bradycardia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Forgetfulness, decreased cognitive function</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Paleness, cold extremities</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Tremors, unbalance</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Orthostatic hypotension</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Sleep abnormalities/apnea</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Postprandial syncope or pre-syncope (up to 2 hours after a copious or high-carbohydrate meal)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Severe pain in the posterior cervical region (trapezius ischemia)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">Palpitations and tachycardia on rising</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Source: Author.</attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Investigation methods</title>
        <p>The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is reasonably complex, which makes it hard to investigate it and interpret it at first. However, some tests are simple, easy to perform and provide valuable information about its shortcomings. They can be performed using modern computerized equipment or through simple digital electrocardiograms that can record the tests, the RR intervals, allowing for adequate measurements of the relationships between their variations.</p>
        <p>The objectives of this evaluation are:</p>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p>To confirm diagnosis;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>To stage the severity of dysfunction;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>To identify subclinical abnormalities;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>To monitor evolution of the disease.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>For the effective performance of autonomic tests, the patient must be rested and calm. The autonomic evaluation laboratory should be a quiet properly heated and lightly darkened place.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiovascular Autonomic Reflex Tests (Cardiovagal Function Tests)</title>
          <p>These tests were described by Ewing, in the 70s, and today, they are the gold standard tests for the diagnosis of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> They have good sensitivity and specificity and must be performed in the presence of symptoms suggestive of dysautonomia, and early in patients with pathologies that include diabetes, which may progress to CAN, even in their glucose intolerance phase (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 1</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiovascular Autonomic Reflex Tests. Clinical case of a patient with advanced disautonomia with abnormal breathing tests (1.08) and abnormal orthostatic coefficient 30/15 (1.03). Values need to be adjusted for age and sex.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>.</sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0981-00422-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>The tests are divided into methods that assess sympathetic and parasympathetic function, which are usually abnormal earlier, especially in diabetes.</p>
          <p>Abnormal results in one method of the 3 cardiovascular tests implies early or uncertain autonomic neuropathy. The test must be repeated after 1 year for confirmation and evaluation of evolution. The presence of 2 positive tests is confirmatory for CAN. The association of orthostatic hypotension with 2 positive tests implies advanced dysautonomia and worse prognosis.</p>
          <p>These tests require proper assessment and preparation, with the suspension of several drugs that can alter the analysis of heart rate and ANS. Proper evaluation of this test is not possible in patients with frequent arrhythmias (more than 6 ectopic beats per minute), atrial fibrillation, cardiac pacemaker, and accentuated tremors and non-collaborative patients.</p>
          <boxed-text id="box5">
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiovascular Autonomic Reflex Tests (Cardiovagal Function Tests)</title>
            </caption>
            <p>These were described by Ewing in the 70s. They are the gold standard tests in the diagnosis of Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN). They have good sensitivity and specificity and should be performed in the presence of symptoms suggestive of dysautonomia, and early in patients with pathologies such as diabetes, which may progress to CAN, even in their glucose intolerance stage.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref></p>
            <p>They can be performed using modern computerized equipment or through simple digital electrocardiograms, which can record the tests, the RR intervals, allowing for adequate measurements of the relationships between the variations of the longest and shortest RR intervals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
          </boxed-text>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Breathing Test (E/I Respiratory Quotient)</title>
          <p>This method analyzes the ratio (quotient) between the highest RR cycle on exhalation divided by the largest RR cycle on inspiration &#8212; 3 cycles of 1 minute each are performed, with 1-minute intervals between tests, allowing to evaluate the parasympathetic system.</p>
          <p>Inhalation and exhalation cycles are slow and deep, with a total respiratory cycle lasting 10 seconds. It accentuates the sinus respiratory arrhythmia seen in normal individuals. The normal response is an acceleration of the heart rate during inspiration and deceleration on exhalation. In summary, heart rate is recorded for 1 minute (6 slow, deep breathing cycles lasting 10 seconds each). The difference between the maximum and minimum heart rate, or the ratio of these two (E:I ratio), is recorded and measured in milliseconds.</p>
          <p>Usually, respiratory amplitudes are averaged over the 6 cycles. This is a test that assesses parasympathetic response to respiratory stimulus. Patients with dysautonomia may experience reduced or no heart rate oscillation on deep breathing. Loss of respiratory sinus arrhythmia may be one of the first signs of diabetic autonomic neuropathy.</p>
          <p>Normal physiological values of the amplitude difference are considered above 15 bpm. Between 11&#8211;14 bpm, borderline and below 10 beats would be pathological. The E:I ratio (maximum heart rate measured in milliseconds during exhalation divided by the maximum heart rate during inspiration) in normal individuals must be greater than 1.2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> These values must be adjusted for age and sex.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Valsalva Test &#8212; (Valsalva Quotient)</title>
          <p>In this test, the relationship between the largest RR cycle in the relaxation phase divided by the largest RR cycle in the Valsalva maneuver phase is measured, allowing to assess particularly the parasympathetic system and also the sympathetic system, when associated with continuous blood pressure measurements.</p>
          <p>The Valsalva maneuver is particularly interesting because it tests the integrity of both the cardiovagal parasympathetic response, by analyzing heart rate, and the sympathetic response, by analyzing blood pressure. The technique basically consists of making the monitored patient blow for 15 seconds through a small tube, with a discreet air outlet to avoid closing the glottis. The expiratory air pressure generated should be around 40 mmHg.</p>
          <p>There are 4 distinct phases: blood pressure deflections in phases I and III represent mechanical disturbances generated by changes in intrathoracic pressure, at the beginning and at the end of the Valsalva maneuver. On the other hand, phase II and phase IV are the clinically relevant phases.</p>
          <p>In healthy individuals, during expiratory effort, in phase I, blood pressure drops due to decreased venous return. This pressure drop is perceived by intact baroreceptors, which trigger a response with increased sympathetic tone, leading to vasoconstriction and increased heart rate.</p>
          <p>This action recovers pressure in late phase II. On release of intrathoracic pressure at the end of the maneuver, there is increased venous return and, with the maintenance of peripheral vasoconstriction, there is blood pressure overshoot (perfect combination of increased venous return and vasoconstriction).</p>
          <p>Patients with autonomic dysfunction are unable to react with increased sympathetic tone to the initial pressure drop caused by the maneuver. Therefore, there is no pressure increase in late phase II and, typically, there is no blood pressure overshoot in phase IV. Instead, pressure response in patients with dysautonomia reveals a gradual return of blood pressure to baseline levels after induction of hypotension caused by the forced expiration.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
          <p>With regard to heart rate, the Valsalva quotient is derived from the maximum heart rate measured in milliseconds and generated by the Valsalva maneuver, divided by the lowest heart rate in the first 30 seconds of the peak heart rate. Heart rate responses are mediated by baroreceptors.</p>
          <p>Increase in heart rate is due to the blood pressure drop. Besides, baroreceptor response to the blood pressure overshoot in phase IV is responsible for the transient bradycardia at the end of the maneuver.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
          <p>In patients with dysautonomia, there is a loss of both blood pressure overshoot and reflex bradycardia. Therefore, heart rate does not respond either, due to the absence of increased sympathetic response, showing a straight curve (absence of heart rate oscillation).</p>
          <p>The normal Valsalva quotient (maximum RR value in ms divided by the lowest RR value) during the maneuver must be greater than 1.21. Borderline values would be between 1.11 and 1.20, while pathological values would be considered if less than or equal to 1.10.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> These values must also be adjusted for age and sex.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>30/15 Quotient Test with Orthostasis</title>
          <p>RR interval is evaluated after orthostasis around the 15<sup>th</sup> beat (usually higher frequency &#8212; lower RR interval) and around the 30<sup>th</sup> beat (lower frequency &#8212; higher RR interval), indicating a predominant evaluation of the parasympathetic system.</p>
          <p>The simplest and most commonly used method for testing cardiovascular feedback is by measuring cardiovascular parameters (heart rate, blood pressure, noradrenaline dosage) during postural change from horizontal posture to orthostatic posture.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Due to changes in hydrostatic pressure, when standing, 500&#8211;800 ml of volume is redistributed to the lower limbs. However, when actively standing the lower limb veins are compressed (the so-called skeletal-muscle pump), immediately increasing venous return.</p>
          <p>Compensatory mechanisms act quickly, causing blood pressure to change very little in healthy individuals. However, in 10 to 15% of individuals, orthostatic circulatory disorders are observed due to insufficient compensatory mechanisms.</p>
          <p>Evaluation of response to orthostasis can be performed by active inclination or by response to the tilt test. In the first, with regard to heart rate, there is a rapid and maximum increase around the fifteenth heart beat in normal people. After that, there is relative maximum bradycardia around the thirtieth beat. Pharmacological studies indicate that this response is mediated by the vagus nerve.</p>
          <p>Patients with diabetes-associated cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy show only a slight progressive increase in heart rate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> The 30:15 ratio (or Ewing's ratio) is used as a measure of parasympathetic integrity. The longest RR interval at the 30<sup>th</sup> beat and the shortest RR interval at the 15<sup>th</sup> beat is called the Ewing ratio or 30:15 ratio, where a normal value would be above 1.04.</p>
          <p>Current software packages no longer calculate pure 30:15 ratio. Instead, they use the measurement of the longest RR interval between the 20<sup>th</sup> and 40<sup>th</sup> heartbeat and the shortest RR interval, between the 5<sup>th</sup> and 25<sup>th</sup> heartbeat.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Protocol of the 7 Tests for Dysautonomia</title>
        <p>Association of 3 cardiovascular function tests with 3 tests of analysis of RR variability in the frequency domain and orthostatic hypotension investigation represents the protocol of the 7 tests (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">figures 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">2</xref>) for investigation of CAN, with high sensitivity and specificity.</p>
        <fig id="f6">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title><bold>Analysis of RR Variability in the frequency domain</bold> during a 5-minute cycle. Any drugs that interfere with heart rate analysis must be discontinued. The presence of frequent arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation or pacemaker makes it impossible to analyze the test.</title>
            <p><bold>Very low frequency component &#8212; 0.01&#8211;0.04 Hz (FMB &#8211; VLF) &#8212;</bold> Assessment of vasomotor tone fluctuations related to thermoregulation and sweating &#8212; (predominant sympathetic action)</p>
            <p><bold>Low Frequency Component &#8212; 0.04&#8211;0.15 Hz (FB-LF) &#8212;</bold> Baroreceptor evaluation (predominant sympathetic component with vagal modulation)</p>
            <p><bold>High Frequency Component &#8212; 0.15&#8211;0.5 Hz (FA &#8212; HF) &#8212;</bold> Related to sinus control (parasympathetic action)</p>
            <p><bold>It can be carried out in the protocol with the tests in</bold><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5"><bold>figure 1</bold></xref><bold>(characterizing the protocol of the 7 Cardiovascular Autonomic Reflex Evaluation Tests)</bold>.</p>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0981-00422-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>This test may have a better diagnostic capacity according to some authors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> It is considered positive if 3 methods out of the 7 tests are abnormal, or uncertain or early if 2 abnormal methods. Similar to the isolated cardiovagal tests, the presence of associated orthostatic hypotension implies greater CAN severity.</p>
        <p>These tests can be performed together using specific software such as the VNS-Rhythm poly-spectrum analysis<sup>&#174;</sup> or Neuro-Diag. Ansar<sup>&#174;</sup>, which are inexpensive compared to equipment used with hemodynamic measures.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tilt test</title>
        <p>The tilt test is a very useful diagnostic tool for patients with dysautonomia. On orthostatic position, 500&#8211;800ml of central volume is transfered to the periphery (pelvis, abdomen and lower limbs). This volume movement leads to a drop in systolic volume and, consequently, cardiac output. This drop, in turn, is felt by the baroreceptors of the aortic arch and carotid sinus which, after interaction with vasomotor centers, trigger a response with a reduction in parasympathetic activity and an increase in sympathetic activity. This translates into peripheral vasoconstriction and increased heart rate.</p>
        <p>This diagnostic test can be particularly useful to detect and confirm the autonomic failure seen in orthostatic hypotension, orthostatic postural tachycardia, late orthostatic hypotension and, obviously, reflex changes in vaso-vagal reaction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The tilt test is performed in a quiet room with minimal distractions. The patient is initially instructed to fast for 3 hours and lie down in the supine position for at least 10&#8211;15 minutes. Although there are several protocols, the current recommendation and the most commonly used protocol is inclination at 70 degrees for about 30&#8211;40 minutes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Provocative test with isoproterenol or 1.25 mg sublingual isosorbide can be useful for investigating syncope of vaso-vagal origin as it increases test sensitivity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> However, drug sensitization does not apply when the goal is to evaluate dysautonomia, because it is necessary to evaluate spontaneous cardiovascular physiological response to prolonged orthostatic stress.</p>
        <p>Although intermittent blood pressure measurements (every 2&#8211;3 minutes) can be performed, continuous monitoring of blood pressure and electrocardiographic recording would be preferable, however at a much higher cost.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tilt test associated with hemodynamic measurements</title>
        <p>The use of additional modules to measure continuous blood pressure (Finapress<sup>&#174;</sup> modelflow and Task Force Monitor<sup>&#174;</sup> impedance cardiography) allows to determine stroke volume indirectly. From this parameter, other hemodynamic parameters can be estimated with reasonable precision, such as peripheral vascular resistance and cardiac output.</p>
        <p>Finapress<sup>&#174;</sup> modelflow uses the analysis of arterial pulse contour, which is a technique for determining stroke volume. In modelflow, the arterial pulse flow wave is calculated from the arterial pulse pressure contour. Integration of this flow wave with each beat generates the stroke volume.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Impedance cardiography (Task Force Monitor<sup>&#174;</sup><sup>&#174;</sup>), on the other hand, measures abnormalities in chest impedance generated by fluctuating blood volumes during the cardiac cycle, allowing to calculate stroke volume, cardiac output and other parameters.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Although these noninvasive cardiac output determination techniques are not completely accurate, they have been validated compared to invasive techniques and are quite reliable to monitor the relative changes in cardiac output.</p>
        <p>Therefore, the tilt test with hemodynamic parameters, in addition to measuring continuous blood pressure, allows to evaluate stroke volume, cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance. Analysis of hemodynamic parameters during the tilt test is very important, as it allows to record the drop in peripheral vascular resistance and reveal the presence of dysautonomia, often without a significant drop in blood pressure due to borderline compensatory mechanisms (mild to moderate dysautonomia).</p>
        <p>Besides, it allows to determine whether there is a significant reduction in stroke volume, which may be a non-neurogenic component of orthostatic hypotension (due to chronic dehydration, for example).</p>
        <p>Thus, the tilt test with hemodynamic parameters allows to identify subclinical abnormalities in ANS integrity even without any evident pressure drop, hence increasing test sensitivity. The limitation of the method is its high cost. It is restricted to few centers, especially for dysautonomia research.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>24 hours Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring (ABPM)</title>
        <p>Daytime and nocturnal autonomic balance does not only affect heart rate, but also blood pressure. Normally, blood pressure fluctuates, with higher levels during wakefulness, declining at night (nocturnal decrease). Proportional blood pressure drops at night based on the daytime period determine the expected nocturnal decrease responses: attenuated response (0&#8211;10% nocturnal decrease), normal response (10&#8211;20% nocturnal decrease), marked response (above 20% decrease) and reverse response (increase in blood pressure instead of expected nocturnal decrease).</p>
        <p>Attenuated or reverse response shows exacerbated sympathetic activity, which may be present in dysautonomia, and has been associated with increased mortality. In addition, the presence of nocturnal hypertension may increase the risk of daytime hypotension (as a result, among other things, of increased nocturnal excretion of natriuretic hormone).</p>
        <p>ABPM can indicate cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction abnormalities and is able to select patients for a deeper assessment of dysautonomia. More specifically, ABPM can be especially useful in detecting nocturnal hypertension (an important predictor of cardiovascular events) and forms of early or postprandial orthostatic hypotension, usually not detected with the usual blood pressure measurements.</p>
        <boxed-text id="box6">
          <caption>
            <title>Supine Hypertension &#8211; Warning Sign</title>
          </caption>
          <p>The presence of supine hypertension or non-dipper pattern on 24-h ABPM, especially in patients with pathologies that are known to involve dysautonomia must consider suspicion and investigation with clinical and laboratory screening for dysautonomia.</p>
        </boxed-text>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Holter Monitoring and RR Variability Analyses</title>
        <p>The sinus node is subject to both sympathetic and parasympathetic (vagal) action, depending on the situation evaluated. Standing position, mental stress and exercise are associated with increased sympathetic tone. On the other hand, vagal tone is increased in resting conditions. In normal individuals, both sympathetic and parasympathetic tone fluctuate throughout the day, generating a variation in RR intervals or simply RR variability. In normal individuals, RR variability declines 3&#8211;5 beats every decade.</p>
        <p>24-h Holter can be used to analyze average heart rate, chronotropic incompetence and cardiac arrhythmias, and when coupled with specific software, it allows analyzing RR variability.</p>
        <p>High mean heart rates may suggest autonomic dysfunction, such as in diabetic patients, or indicate inappropriate sinus tachycardia (IST), or even allow the identification of chronotropic incompetence. The detection of arrhythmias may suggest other etiologies as a justification for the symptoms, and helps in the selection for the performance of cardiovascular tests.</p>
        <p>There are several methods for analyzing RR variability data, including time and frequency domain analysis. In the time domain analysis, each QRS is detected to determine the &#8220;normal to normal&#8221; interval. This interval also provides additional information, including standard deviation. More complex statistical analyses require extended periods of time. Spectral analysis can provide evaluation in the frequency domain, giving information on how variance is arranged as a function of frequency.</p>
        <p>Heart rate abnormalities occur continuously during daily activities, reflecting autonomic balance, reflex cardiovascular mechanisms and external stimuli. In normal people, increased RR variability of heart rate is considered a measure of autonomic integrity, while reduced heart rate variation is an early sign of autonomic imbalance.</p>
        <p>Analysis of RR variability can be done in the time domain and in the frequency domain for short periods of a few minutes or longer periods (24-hour Holter). Time domain analysis includes evaluation of many parameters, such as: mean normal intervals; mean heart rate, difference in maximum heart rate, standard deviation of the average normal-to-normal intervals (SDANN); root mean square of successive differences between normal heartbeats (rMSSD).</p>
        <p>Prolonged monitoring (24-h Holter) also allows to calculate the number of instances per hour in which a difference greater than 50 ms was measured between two consecutive RR intervals (pNN50). Essentially, all of these indexes explore parasympathetic activity.</p>
        <p>The spectral analysis of RR variability (frequency domain), in turn, reveals 3 main frequency components:</p>
        <p>Very low frequency component (&lt;0.04Hz) related to fluctuations in vasomotor tone linked to thermoregulation and sweating (sympathetic control);</p>
        <p>Low frequency component (0.04&#8211;0.15 Hz) connected to the baroreceptor reflex (sympathetic control with vagal modulation);</p>
        <p>High frequency component (0.15&#8211;0.4 Hz) influenced by breathing (respiratory sinus arrhythmia), being a component of parasympathetic activity.</p>
        <p>In diabetic patients with predominantly vagal (earlier) dysfunction, the range of high frequencies is reduced or absent. On the other hand, in later sympathetic dysfunctions, the amplitudes of low and very low frequencies are reduced.</p>
        <p>Time domain parameters, total spectral power of RR variability and the high frequency spectral component are parasympathetic parameters. Although the low frequency component is controlled by sympathetic activity, extreme sympathetic activation (as in exercise, in heart failure) attenuates RR variability, making it difficult to record it, and may, therefore, not correlate with the real sympathetic activity.</p>
        <p>Thus, it is now accepted that the absolute &#8220;spectral power&#8221; of low frequencies does not reflect sympathetic activity. However, when measured in relative terms (as a percentage of the overall RR variability), the relative ratio of low to high frequencies provides a relative and approximate indication of sympathetic modulation of the heart.</p>
        <p>Therefore, the ratio of low to high frequency component best represents sympathetic status. As RR variability is influenced by age, sex and respiratory rate, adjustment for these variables is recommended. Results of spectral analysis correlate well with the tests of autonomic function in clinical situations.</p>
        <p>Spectral analysis is more sensitive in the early stages of CAN. In diabetic patients in the early stages of CAN, a progressive deterioration of the parameters of spectral analysis related to the parasympathetic system is documented. The expected nocturnal increase in the high frequency band of RR variability, representing vagal modulation of the heart, seems to be the earliest abnormality detected. During advanced stages of CAN, all components are eliminated.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Electromyography and Small Fiber Neuropathies</title>
        <p>Postganglionic autonomic fibers are type C, non-myelinated. With the A&#948; fibers, little myelinated, they make up the group of fine fibers. They differ from thick myelinated fibers by their thickness and conduction speed: they conduct nerve impulses at a speed of 0.5 to 1 m/s, while in the latter, speeds of up to 120 m/s are observed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A&#948; fibers are of the somatic sensory type and participate in skin innervation, mediating the perception of pain and thermal stimuli, whereas type C autonomic fibers innervate the cardiac musculature, smooth muscles (present in the blood vessel wall, gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts) and salivary, lacrimal and sweat glands.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Neuropathic involvement of small fibers can occur without the involvement of thick fibers, characterizing small fiber neuropathy, or in the context of a polyneuropathy, where there is a clear involvement of those. In the context of small fiber neuropathies, involvement of A&#948; fibers is more commonly observed.</p>
        <p>Typical symptoms include paresthesia, pain, a burning sensation or cold, with clear worsening at night. Dysautonomic signs and symptoms occur in approximately 50% of these patients. More rarely, small fiber neuropathy may appear predominantly with autonomic symptoms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Skin biopsy and quantitative sensory testing (QST) are useful mainly for the assessment of A&#948; fibers. Other tests are for the evaluation of autonomic fibers and, when performed, they increase diagnostic sensitivity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Conventional electroneuromyography, through conduction and electromyography studies, is a key test for the initial evaluation of these cases, not to confirm diagnosis, but mainly to rule out polyneuropathy (involvement of thick fibers) and conditions that may appear like small fiber neuropathy, such as bilateral S1 radiculopathy which characteristically involves paresthesia of the feet.</p>
        <p>Conduction studies by this method evaluate only the fastest nerve fibers and is not able to identify impairment of small fibers. Therefore, in pure cases of small fiber neuropathy, conduction studies, including evaluation of sural nerves, which are classically altered in cases of polyneuropathies, will be normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Skin biopsy is still considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of small fiber neuropathy. It is a low-invasive procedure, performed on an outpatient basis, with local anesthesia. In general, a 3-mm tissue fragment is removed from the distal region of one of the lower limbs, 7 to 10 cm proximal to the lateral malleolus. Other fragments can be removed 7 to 10 cm proximal to the knee and 7 to 10 cm distal to the greater trochanter, of the same limb, to define the pattern &#8212; length-dependent (distal to proximal pattern) or not length-dependent, or biopsy of specific sites if focal symptoms are detected.</p>
        <p>As mentioned before, evaluation of the density of intra-epidermal fibers predominantly focuses on the A&#948; fibers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> The expected normal values vary according to age, gender and biopsy site. Recent studies have sought to standardize these values.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> When the values are unknown for a given site, comparative analysis with the contralateral side may be a valid alternative.</p>
        <p>Limitations of this method are: difficulty accessing specialized laboratories, especially in developing countries such as Brazil; the possibility that the test may still be normal at the beginning of the condition; no standardization of expected values for many anatomical sites and no standardization for the evaluation of autonomic fibers.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Quantitative Sensory Testing and Sudomotor Test</title>
        <p>The Quantitative Sensory Testing (QST Testing) assesses the pain sensation threshold mainly through controlled thermal stimulus, usually by heat. It therefore assesses the integrity of A&#948; fibers. It is a test that depends on the patient's collaboration, since they need to be able to share their perceptions. Thus, it can be distorted by the difficulty of understanding instructions, patient's difficulty to concentrate or even by volitional action.</p>
        <p>Other limitations to the method are: low availability and the fact that it does not distinguish peripheral from central injuries. Involvement of the spino-thalamic pathways and brain areas related to this sensory modality will also lead to an abnormal pattern in the test. For these reasons, it is not recommended that it be used as a single test to diagnose small fiber neuropathy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Tests of the autonomic fibers are mainly directed to the evaluation of sudomotor function. Sweat production by the sweat glands is mediated by cholinergic sympathetic innervation. It is observed, in general, in the presence of impairment of such fibers in a length-dependent pattern (distal to proximal), anhidrosis in the distribution of boots and gloves, with compensatory proximal hyperhidrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> Severe and diffuse loss of this function may lead to thermoregulation and hyperthermia disorders.</p>
        <p>Of the available methods, Thermoregulatory Sweat Testing (TST) and Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Testing (QSART) can be performed.</p>
        <p>TST is carried out in a room where it is possible to control temperature and humidity. The patient lies supine on a stretcher, their temperature is monitored by 2 sensors (one for the skin and another one for the oral cavity) and have their body covered by a compound that changes color when the local pH changes by sweat.</p>
        <p>The room temperature is increased to 45&#8211;50&#186;C, maintaining a relative humidity of about 35&#8211;40%. Skin temperature is maintained between 38.5 and 39.5 &#186;C and the oral temperature must rise by 1 &#186;C from the baseline value or reach 38 &#186;C (whichever is greater). Observation should take place between 30 and 65 minutes. The color change of the reagent on the patient's body indicates the local production of sweat. Digital photographs are taken and an anatomical map of the sweat density is generated, which is then interpreted.</p>
        <p>The main limitations of the method are the low availability and inability to distinguish pre- or post-ganglionic impairment. Thus, combining it with a test that is directed at post-ganglionic fibers can help to make this distinction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref></p>
        <p>QSART evaluates the function of post-ganglionic autonomic fibers related to sudomotor function. It evaluates the production of sweat through the cholinergic stimulus by iontophoresis. Usually, four segments are evaluated &#8212; forearm, proximal leg, distal leg and dorsum of the foot; this can provide information about the pattern of involvement: length-dependent or non-length-dependent.</p>
        <p>The system consists of a special multi-compartmentalized capsule (a compartment for iontophoretic stimulation, another to measure humidity and a third one that separates the first two), which is in direct contact with the skin, a continuous flow system of dry nitrogen, which passes through the capsule at constant temperature and goes to a hygrometer, which records humidity fluctuation due to local sweat production.</p>
        <p>Humidity variation is recorded in a chart on a computer attached to the system. The chart is analyzed mainly for its latency and the area under the curve, with standard values for men and women. The limitations of this method are the difficulty of access and the impossibility of evaluating pre-ganglion fibers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain and MIBG Scintigraphy</title>
        <p>Magnetic resonance imaging can be useful in the diagnosis of multisystem atrophy (MSA) by identifying specific structural changes in the brain, focused on identifying gray matter atrophy patterns.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
        <p>T1- and T2-weighted images viewed by experienced neuroradiologists have identified classical signs, such as the hot cross bun sign (which represents degeneration of the pons fibers and pontocerebellar fibers, with preservation of the corticospinal tract). This sign appears as a hyperintense cross on the pons, with high specificity (97%), although with low sensitivity (50%). Another observation is the hyperintense signal at the putamen edge with high specificity (90%), although also with less sensitivity (72%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Over the past few years, there has been significant progress in neuroimaging techniques, using new connectivity and functional techniques, which can improve diagnostic accuracy and determine new markers of disease progression. A multimodal approach with innovative technologies, as part of the diagnostic arsenal, will allow future progress in the diagnosis and research of multisystemic atrophy (MSA).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Regarding Parkinson's disease, the morphological analysis of the midbrain by magnetic resonance imaging, particularly of the substantia nigra and the basal nuclei, presents findings that support the diagnosis of parkinsonian syndromes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A new and exciting area in MRI is the analysis of brain inflammation. In patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, brain inflammation has been investigated with spectroscopy, measuring levels of various metabolites related to neuroinflammation, including compounds containing choline, myo-inositol, lactate and N-acetylaspartate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> A study evaluating magnetic resonance spectroscopy applied to the entire brain area demonstrated abnormalities of metabolites and temperature distributed throughout the brain, rather than regionally limited.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref></p>
        <p>This finding suggests that chronic fatigue syndrome is a diffuse pathological process that affects the entire brain, which is consistent with the heterogeneous clinical symptoms of the syndrome. These findings, according to the authors, support the hypothesis that the chronic fatigue syndrome is the result of low intensity chronic neuroinflammation.</p>
        <p>Another interesting aspect of magnetic resonance imaging is the analysis of cognitive disorders in alpha-synucleinopathies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> Many of these patients have orthostatic hypotension, which leads to transient cerebral hypoperfusion. A suggested hypothesis is that transient or repetitive cerebral hypoperfusion may be responsible for cognitive deficits in these patients.</p>
        <p>Structural magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates hyperintensity of the white matter, which may contribute to cognitive defects. There is evidence that orthostatic hypotension is associated with white matter hyperintensity in &#945;-synucleinopathies, partially explaining the relationship between orthostatic hypotension and cognitive impairment.</p>
        <p>New applications of functional magnetic resonance imaging show that physiological fluctuations in the white matter observed on the resonance precede the structural changes in white matter hyperintensity, therefore they are more sensitive measures to assess brain impairment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
        <p>MIBG (metaiodobenzylguanidine) scintigraphy images can be used to directly quantify cardiac sympathetic innervation in various pathologies, including cardiovascular autonomic neuropathies. Innervation asymmetry may be responsible for predisposition to arrhythmias and sudden death. It can also be used to assess sympathetic reinnervation after adequate treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Laboratory tests</title>
        <p>The most important plasma catecholamines in humans are epinephrine and norepinephrine, both reflecting sympathetic activity. Norepinephrine is released in neuronal sympathetic terminals, and a small portion only reaches systemic circulation. Epinephrine, in turn, is released by sympathetic pre-ganglionic stimulation of the adrenal medulla. Plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine respond differently to stressors. While norepinephrine responds more to cold stimuli, epinephrine is more responsive to hypoglycemia and hypotension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Standing after resting in a lying position, or tilting the patient on the tilt test, results in blood accumulation in the lower limbs, resulting in a drop in cardiac output. Reflex activation of the sympathetic nervous system results, among other actions, in increased release of norepinephrine by terminals of the sympathetic nerves, reflecting an increase of up to 100% in the plasma circulation of norepinephrine in 5 minutes.</p>
        <p>Patients with autonomic failure secondary to dysfunction of the sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons may have reduced concentrations of norepinephrine in the supine position. On the other hand, individuals with autonomic failure for any reason often fail to raise their plasma norepinephrine levels when standing or leaning on the tilt test.</p>
        <p>This is due to reduced or no triggers of sympathetic efferents in response to orthostatic stimulus. A subnormal increase in norepinephrine on orthostatic stress is a very specific, although not very sensitive, factor of sympathetic response attenuated by baroreflex-sympathoneural failure or sympathetic denervation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
        <p>On the other hand, in patients with hyperadrenergic autonomic dysfunction (such as some patients with mitral valve prolapse or some subtypes of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome &#8212; POTS &#8212; there may be an exaggerated supranormal increase in norepinephrine when subjected to orthostatic stress (standing or when tilting).</p>
        <p>In neurogenic orthostatic hypotension, caused by autonomic disorders including cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN), orthostatic increase in norepinephrine is attenuated. Therefore, an increase in plasma norepinephrine smaller than 60% after 5 minutes of orthostasis supports diagnosis of neurogenic orthostatic hypotension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Other specific laboratory tests may be requested to investigate various etiologies that may potentially cause dysautonomia, depending on the symptoms and clinical suspicion. Pathologies such as diabetes, amyloidosis, renal failure, autoimmune diseases, neoplasms, mainly of the lung, may require specialized investigation.</p>
        <boxed-text id="box7">
          <caption>
            <title>Peripheral Neuropathy &#8212; Warning Sign</title>
          </caption>
          <p>The presence of symptoms or diagnosis of peripheral neuropathy may represent a warning sign for Disautonomia investigation. In diabetic patients, more than 50% will have cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) when diagnosed with peripheral neuropathy, while almost 100% of patients with CAN will have peripheral neuropathy.</p>
        </boxed-text>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Treatment</title>
        <p>Treatment of dysautonomia and particularly orthostatic hypotension (OH), its main clinical symptom in most cases, must follow a progressive approach that involves both non-pharmacological treatment and use of drugs (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figures 3</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">4</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref></p>
        <fig id="f7">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Flowchart on the management of orthostatic hypotension and its differential diagnoses. Divided into groups with increased heart rate in orthostasis, usually observed in OH due to hypovolemia or medication and without increase, as seen in neurogenic hypotension, excluding the use of bradycardic drugs or patients with sinus node disease.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0981-00422-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        <fig id="f8">
          <label>Figure 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Therapeutic approach to dysautonomia.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Source: Author.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0981-00422-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>The goal of treating patients with OH is to improve debilitating clinical symptoms (specially to reduce the risk of falls) and quality of life, increasing tolerance to longer periods of orthostasis and physical capacity. Having normal blood pressure levels is hardly attainable.</p>
        <p>The need for treatment must be based on an individualized analysis of the cases, taking as a reference the severity of the condition and the comorbidities involved. In most cases, particularly in elderly and/or dysautonomic patients, better control of symptoms and vital signs in orthostasis should be sought to help optimize the established therapy.</p>
        <p>There is a lack of studies on the treatment of OH, and the existing recommendations are mainly based on small studies. A potential limitation of these studies is that they have not been validated by randomized studies, with a more significant number of patients. Besides, they have the limitation of reflecting mainly the result of acute treatment of OH and, in general, in a heterogeneous group of patients, an aspect that is fundamental since OH involves a range of pathologies that are different to each other in terms of presentation and clinical course.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A consensus of experts in neurogenic OH (NOH) has proposed a stepwise treatment based on 4 steps:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>evaluating and adjusting pre-existing medications</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>non-pharmacological treatment</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>implementing monotherapy</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Trying to combine drugs.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>According to these authors, there is a recommendation that for each proposed treatment stage there should be a minimum period of 2 weeks of observation to define the symptomatic benefit before migrating to another strategy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Those involved in the treatment of patients with dysautonomia should always remember that educating the patient, family and caregivers about the mechanisms involved in the genesis of OH and the situations of daily activity that can lead to a drop in blood pressure are the cornerstones of clinical treatment. Staying in hot environments, having hot showers, type and intensity of physical effort, prolonged or quickly achieved orthostatic position, drinking alcohol or having large meals, particularly with carbohydrates, can precipitate or worsen the symptoms.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Non-pharmacological treatment</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Analysis of the medications in use</title>
          <p>Regardless of the etiology of dysautonomia, whenever possible, discontinuation or dose adjustment of drugs that may worsen OH should be considered.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> A substantial number of these agents are drugs regularly used by cardiologists.</p>
          <p>As the medication is adjusted, it is important to monitor the symptoms of NOH continuously. Some studies recommend using questionnaires created for this purpose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> In cases with a defined indication, antihypertensive drugs with a shorter half-life, preferably with a single nocturnal intake, must be chosen.</p>
          <p>Medicines such as nitrates and diuretics, which decrease the preload, must be discontinued or avoided. Other drugs that also worsen or contribute to OH include dopaminergic drugs, anticholinergics, tricyclic antidepressants, &#945;1-blockers (e.g.: tamsulosin) and other antihypertensives.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Non-pharmacological measures</title>
          <p>The next step in treatment is the incorporation of a range of non-pharmacological measures in the patient's daily routine, all with the objective of minimizing the symptoms resulting from NOH. From a practical point of view, these measures are incorporated while a careful review of the pharmacological treatment previously in use is conducted.</p>
          <p>For patients with syncope, pre-syncope or recurrent falls, postural instability resulting from OH must be eliminated with greater urgency, and patients must be guided on maneuvers that may reduce venous retention in the lower limbs and digestive tract.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Non-pharmacological measures can be used individually, but are most effective when used in combination or during concomitant titration of pharmacological treatments. Although they are cost-effective and can be combined with pharmacological interventions, non-pharmacological instructions may have low compliance by patients.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Increased circulatory volume</title>
          <p>Patients with NOH need interventions to normalize or expand blood volume. Many of these patients, especially the elderly, present volume decrease secondary to inadequate intake of oral fluid. This may be due to a voluntary restriction of fluid intake, to avoid common conditions such as urinary urgency in the elderly or in patients with neurological diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Adjusting the volume of fluid intake should also consider the geographical area and climatic fluctuations. Water intake is considered a first-choice &#8220;drug&#8221; in the treatment of NOH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Also, in acute situations (e.g.: syncope or very symptomatic OH), or when long periods of orthostasis or exposure to heat are expected, rapid water intake is recommended, preferably cold water (500 ml in 2&#8211;3 minutes), due to its action in promoting increased sympathetic tone and consequent BP increase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></p>
          <p>This acute pressure response starts 5&#8211;10 minutes after drinking water, peaking at 20&#8211;40 minutes, that is, producing an effect that mimics the use of drugs with a fast short-term effect. The effect of this rapid water intake is due to the hypo-osmolar reflex in the portal circulation and can last for up to 1 hour, enabling an improvement in the symptoms of NOH. The intake of other liquids is ineffective in generating a significant pressure response. Proper hydration can produce acute and chronic effects, with a beneficial clinical impact on patients with NOH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sodium intake</title>
          <p>Another important non-pharmacological treatment is monitoring and adjusting the daily supply of salt. Because sodium is considered a negative component of the diet, many patients eliminate or significantly reduce the salt content in the diet, which makes orthostatic symptoms get worse.</p>
          <p>For patients with NOH, an intake of 2 to 3 servings of sodium a day (5 to 7.5 g of salt) is recommended. Some cases may require larger intakes, reaching 10 g of sodium. Patients at risk for heart failure, supine hypertension or peripheral edema must be monitored closely as symptoms may get worse and may require adjustments or lower intakes. Excessive salt deprivation should be avoided.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diet</title>
          <p>In patients with OH, sympathetic activation is not able to compensate for the accumulation of blood in the splanchnic circulation after a meal. In NOH, vasoconstrictive sympathetic activity is deficient and many patients have significant hypotension after food intake.</p>
          <p>In individuals with postprandial hypotension, smaller and more frequent meals are recommended.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> This type of diet has been shown to be effective in reducing orthostatic symptoms in patients with pure autonomic failure and multisystemic atrophy. There is evidence that a low glycemic diet may have a beneficial effect on OH symptoms. Postprandial hypotension can also be reduced with the caffeine or acarbose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Anemia leads to decreased blood viscosity and oxygen-carrying capacity with a potential increase in OH symptoms and, therefore, must be prevented and treated.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> Vitamin B12 deficit may be associated with postural instability and cause OH, being a reversible cause of some polyneuropathies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref> Therefore, changes in diet, as well as supplementation with vitamins and iron in patients with deficiencies of these minerals can be useful in patients with NOH.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Physical maneuvers to raise blood pressure</title>
          <p>OH patients should be informed about simple measures that can be used to increase BP during daily activities. These physical counter-maneuvers include: crossing the legs, squatting and tightening leg, arm, abdomen, bottom or whole-body muscles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref> These maneuvers increase cardiac preload, with consequent increases in cardiac output, blood pressure and cerebral perfusion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The most basic maneuver is activation of the calf muscle pump (&#8220;anti-gravity&#8221; muscles). If venous valves are competent, muscle activation increases cardiac venous pressure and cardiac filling pressure. Even small BP increases can alter self-regulation and prevent presyncope and syncope.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Patients should be warned that sitting or lying down improves symptoms, but they can recur after returning to orthostatic position. Some evidence points to the beneficial effect of voluntary contraction of the lower limbs for 40 seconds after orthostasis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
          <p>It is also useful to train respiratory counter-maneuvers that facilitate venous return of the abdomen and lower limbs to the heart. These respiratory maneuvers use slow deep breathing and inspiratory resistance.</p>
          <p>Many patients, particularly those with more severe dysautonomia, need help from others to perform physical counter-maneuvers. They should be advised to get up slowly (over 15 seconds or more), as it has been shown to mitigate blood pressure drop.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Physical activity</title>
          <p>Physical activity and exercise should be encouraged to avoid poor fitness, which is known to worsen orthostatic intolerance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref> The mechanisms underlying exacerbation are related to hypovolemia and left ventricular remodeling, leading to deteriorated left ventricular chamber performance. These cardiac abnormalities are reversed by physical training and physical fitness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref></p>
          <p>However, physical exercise, particularly in cases of OH due to dysautonomy, demonstrated that orthostatic posture, immediately after exercising in the supine position, may exacerbate OH in these patients. This observation is not reproducible in healthy individuals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref></p>
          <p>As a result, especially in elderly patients with NOH, physical exercise must be supervised by family members or specialized professionals to avoid injuries or falls. In this subgroup of patients, moderate physical training should be prioritized, especially for the lower limbs and physical exercises that do not generate greater gravitational stress, such as cycling in the supine position or water exercises.</p>
          <p>Patients should avoid strenuous exercises due to increased body temperature and peripheral vasodilation, with a consequent risk of orthostatic hypotension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70"><sup>70</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71"><sup>71</sup></xref></p>
          <p>To minimize OH, the patient must be hydrated before and throughout the exercise session and must be warned about the initial risk of OH worsening right after interruption of physical effort.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avoiding increased body temperature</title>
          <p>Increasing body temperature causes peripheral vasodilation. Patients with NOH should avoid situations that cause an increase in body temperature, such as high-intensity physical exercise, exercise in environments with high temperature and humidity, saunas or hot baths.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref> Also, as individuals with autonomic failure have an impaired thermal-regulatory capacity, they have higher risk of hyperthermia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Head-up tilt sleeping</title>
          <p>Head-up tilt sleeping is an important measure. It can be done by sliding a wedge under the mattress or by placing blocks under the legs under the bed head so that the patient's head is 20 to 30 cm higher than the feet, reducing supine hypertension. Smaller tilt angles may not be as successful. Folded pillows placed under the head may not be enough.</p>
          <p>Supine hypertension commonly leads to increased nocturia and nocturnal volume depletion. This increase in nocturnal diuresis decreases by raising the bed head. Also, although small, increase in nocturnal gravity stress maintains activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, allowing higher pressure in the morning.</p>
          <p>The effectiveness of this intervention was questioned in a recent randomized study. However, this study failed to make any distinction between the causes of OH and did not properly monitor hydration and the bed head raising degree, which may have contributed to a negative result. As a result, it should be recommended that at least patients with autonomic failure be told to head-up tilt sleeping. This specific action is not exempt from adverse effects, and may be associated with ankle edema and sliding of the body in bed and consequent feet pain.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75"><sup>75</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Compressive clothing</title>
          <p>Elastic stockings to generate some pressure gradient may be beneficial in the treatment of OH. Compression stockings or bandages reduce the accumulation of peripheral blood in the lower limbs, decrease orthostatic hypotension and reduce symptoms.</p>
          <p>Compression must preferably extend to the waist, as most of the stasis occurs in the splanchnic circulation, which contains up to 25% of the resting blood volume. It is necessary to put on the stockings in the morning while lying down, before getting out of bed.</p>
          <p>These non-invasive procedures are usually challenging, of low acceptability and require help from third parties, especially in elderly patients and those with neurological diseases. The long-term benefits of these interventions have not been studied. Some authors suggest that an acceptable alternative, due to the low long-term adhesion of compressive clothing, would be wearing cycling clothing, which can offer satisfactory abdominal compression.</p>
          <p>In any case, the association between compression techniques (particularly of the abdomen) and physical counter-maneuvers has been shown to be very effective in patients with neurogenic etiology.</p>
          <p>An increase in abdominal pressure of 20&#8211;40mmHg promoted by abdominal straps combined with physical counter-maneuvers of lower limb contraction results in a significant increase in pressure response to gravitational stress. Studies evaluating non-pharmacological treatment of dysautonomia have found evidence on the use of compressive clothing.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><sup>76</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Pharmacological Treatment</title>
        <p>Addition of pharmacological treatment may be necessary in patients with severe OH when non-pharmacological approaches are insufficient to prevent pre-syncopal or syncopal symptoms (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">figures 3</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">4</xref>). This requires probable patient diagnosis, such as NOH, POTS or chronic fatigue syndrome, to be properly considered.</p>
        <p>Previous hypertension or supine hypertension, common in patients with dysautonomia and an underlying cardiovascular disease, should also be considered. The treatment of OH is challenging because of the few therapeutic options. Only midodrine and droxidopa (approved in the USA and Japan) have evidence from randomized clinical trials supporting their use in the treatment of OH. Neither of these two drugs is normally available in Brazil.</p>
        <p>There are no comparative studies to guide the initial choice of the drug in NOH. Selection of a medication or another, in many situations, will be related to the clinician's preference and experience and the patient's possibility of having access to the medication. Severity and comorbidities (especially heart or kidney failure) should always be taken into account.</p>
        <p>These agents can increase BP and blood volume, which may worsen supine hypertension. As a result, the expected improvement in orthostatic hypotension (and the decreased risk of syncope and falls) must be weighed against the long-term risks of hypertension.</p>
        <p>Other treatment challenges are the limited availability of clinical evidence and the lack of comparative effectiveness research studies. Below, we present an overview of the main drugs used in the treatment of OH and the recommendations of use.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Midodrine</title>
          <p>Midodrine was the first drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for OH. It is a prodrug that is quickly converted into its active metabolite, desglimidodrine. This is a selective &#945;1-adrenergic agonist, with short half-life (peak action at 1 hour) and duration of action of about 3&#8211;4 hours. Midodrine has been shown to significantly increase blood pressure in orthostasis, while decreasing symptoms of orthostatic intolerance.</p>
          <p>A recent meta-analysis also found that midodrine improves clinical outcomes with minimal significant side effects. The dose usually starts at 2.5 mg, and may get to 10&#8211;15 mg per dose, up to 3 times a day. Due to the short half-life, a typical dosing schedule is every 4 hours, starting on waking up. It should not be administered at bedtime and patients should avoid lying down for 4 hours after the last dose of midodrine to avoid worsening of supine hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81"><sup>81</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Given the short half-life, it can also be used as needed, before specific activities related to symptomatic orthostatic hypotension. Side effects of midodrine include supine hypertension, piloerection, tingling of the scalp, urinary urgency or retention and headache.</p>
          <p>Midodrine is contraindicated in cases of severe heart disease, bradycardia, history of angina, closed-angle glaucoma, severe occlusive arterial disease, thyrotoxicosis, pheochromocytoma, severe renal failure, Raynaud's disease and proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Care should also be taken in patients with heart failure and chronic renal failure.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Fludrocortisone</title>
          <p>In patients without hypertension or heart failure, fludrocortisone is included in the treatment based on expert opinion and it is the most widely used, especially in countries that do not have the other recommended drugs. Fludrocortisone is a synthetic mineralocorticoid that increases intravascular volume and renal sodium reabsorption. The long-term effects of fludrocortisone on BP, however, are attributed to the increased sensitivity of blood vessels to noradrenaline and angiotensin II. The starting dose is typically 0.05 mg per day and can be increased to 0.3 mg (in a single or divided dose).</p>
          <p>Onset of action occurs in 3 to 7 days. Its side effects may include hypokalemia, headaches, peripheral edema, heart failure and supine hypertension. At higher doses, patients may be at increased risk of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis suppression. 30% of patients stop using the drug due to side effects.</p>
          <p>In patients with pre-existing supine hypertension, fludrocortisone is generally not chosen as a first-line medication, with midodrine being the most appropriate one. Formal clinical evidence supporting the use of fludrocortisone for the treatment of neurogenic OH is scarce.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><sup>82</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84"><sup>84</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Droxidopa</title>
          <p>The FDA has recently approved droxidopa for the treatment of neurogenic orthostatic hypotension in the United States, especially in Parkinson's disease, multisystemic atrophy and pure autonomic failure. Droxidopa is a synthetic prodrug that is converted into norepinephrine in the brain and peripheral tissues. Circulating levels of norepinephrine increase in 6 hours after droxidopa. The drug has a plasm peak between 1-4 hours, with a average of 2 hours in healthy individuals.</p>
          <p>Droxidopa is well tolerated and improves orthostatic tolerance in NOH controlled trials (100&#8211;600 mg VO, 3 times a day). Similar to midodrine, droxidopa should not be taken within 5 hours before bedtime. Caution is recommended in patients with congestive heart failure and chronic renal failure. Its side effects include headache, dizziness, nausea and fatigue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85"><sup>85</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Other medications</title>
          <p>Other drugs include pseudoephedrine, atomoxetine (norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor), yohimbine (&#945;2-adrenergic receptor antagonist), octreotide (somatostatin analogue), ergotamine, erythropoietin and pyridostigmine (cholinesterase inhibitor).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86"><sup>86</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Atomoxetine is a norepinephrine transporter inhibitor approved for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, in patients with autonomic impairment who have intact peripheral noradrenergic function, this medication can cause a powerful peripheral vasoconstriction, leading to blood pressure increase. This medication is little effective in pure autonomic failure (PAF) due to peripheral impairment of the noradrenergic system.</p>
          <p>Pyridostigmine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor that increases availability of acetylcholine in nerve endings is supposed to prevent OH. However, it does so by increasing sympathetic nerve activity in response to orthostatic stress, causing changes in baroreceptor sensitivity. It is probably more useful in less severe patients with residual sympathetic function and has the advantage of not worsening supine hypertension. A study has found it is less efficient than fludrocortisone in the OH of Parkinson's disease, but causes less supine hypertension, although this increase in peripheral supine hypertension is not accompanied by a similar increase in central blood pressure with fludrocortisone.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91"><sup>91</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Acarbose, an agent that prevents glucose absorption in the small intestine, decreases the release of gastrointestinal hormones and delays gastric emptying when administered 20 minutes before a meal. This pattern has been shown to be efficient in those cases of postprandial hypotension. It is contraindicated for patients with diabetic ketoacidosis, cirrhosis, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, intestinal obstruction or any chronic intestinal disease that may disrupt digestion or absorption.</p>
          <p>Caffeine (200&#8211;250 mg or 1 cup of 200 ml coffee per day) in patients who are not chronic users may help by inhibiting peripheral vasodilation. Therefore, it may increase blood pressure in orthostasis.</p>
          <p>A recent study showed that dihydroergotamine, in combination with caffeine, can be used as an alternative treatment in patients with autonomic failure and without underlying vascular coronary artery disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Combined pharmacological treatment</title>
          <p>There is little data to determine the effectiveness and safety of different combinations of therapy compared to monotherapy for OH. It is recommended to seek the maximum tolerable dose of a single agent and then, if no symptomatic benefit is obtained, consider switching to a different therapy or adding a second agent and titrate from the lowest effective dose.</p>
          <p>The most common association in refractory cases is between midodrine and fludrocortisone. The use of water, salt and the preventive measures discussed can also be effective when combined with drugs. A combination with other drugs is possible, always paying attention to dose flexibility (particularly the dose of drugs with short half-life such as midodrine) and strict control of adherence to non-pharmacological treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92"><sup>92</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93"><sup>93</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Peculiarities of the management of supine hypertension and postprandial hypotension</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Supine and nocturnal hypertension</title>
          <p>In patients with OH, especially NOH, we commonly observe an association with supine and nocturnal hypertension, with the severity of nocturnal hypertension correlating with the magnitude of OH. Supine hypertension is distinct from essential hypertension, since most patients are normotensive while sitting and can be severely hypotensive while standing. Approximately 50% of patients with PAF and MSA have supine hypertension. Evaluation of supine and nocturnal hypertension should be performed routinely in patients with NOH, as its presence is a limiter for therapeutic options due to the possibility of adverse effects. ABPM can also be used for diagnostic evaluation and clinical follow-up.</p>
          <p>In most patients, there are strong reasons to prioritize the treatment of NOH over supine hypertension. Symptomatic OH carries a variety of posture-related symptoms including dizziness, pre-syncope or syncope, fatigue, cervical spine pain, weakness and visual impairment on orthostasis. All symptoms that can contribute to increased occurrence of falls must be well evaluated, as falls represent some of the most common causes of hospitalization, and it leads to high morbidity and mortality.</p>
          <p>To prevent and treat supine hypertension, one should:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>head-up tilt sleeping;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Have carbohydrate-rich meals just before going to bed;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avoid liquids before going to bed;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avoid supine position during the day, especially those patients wearing compression garments or vasopressor drugs.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>There are no drugs approved for the treatment of supine hypertension, but there are several potentially useful agents.</p>
          <p>In patients who still have some sympathetic tone, a central alpha-2 agonist (clonidine) reduces sympathetic flow when administered late in the afternoon, without exacerbating orthostatic hypotension during the day. It is important to avoid the use of long-acting diuretics and antihypertensive drugs, even if they can control supine hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92"><sup>92</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93"><sup>93</sup></xref></p>
          <boxed-text id="box8">
            <caption>
              <title>Supine hypertension therapy in dysautonomia</title>
            </caption>
            <p>The cut-off point for BP to start antihypertensive therapy has not been defined and treatment decisions must be made individually. However, antihypertensive drugs may be prescribed with caution if nocturnal BP is predominantly &#8805;160/100 mmHg (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">table 2</xref>) with administration of shortacting drugs.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92"><sup>92</sup></xref><sup>.</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93"><sup>93</sup></xref></p>
            <p>Supine hypertension is different from essential hypertension, since most patients are normotensive while sitting and can be severely hypotensive while standing.</p>
          </boxed-text>
          <table-wrap id="t4" position="float">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Treatment of Supine Hypertension</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th valign="middle" align="left">Drugs<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">*</xref></th>
                  <th valign="middle" align="center">Mechanism of action</th>
                  <th valign="middle" align="center">Usual dose</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td valign="middle" align="left">Captopril</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">25 mg at night</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td valign="middle" align="left">Clonidine<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">a</xref></td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">Central alpha-2 agonist</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">0.1&#8211;0.2mg after a night meal</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td valign="middle" align="left">Hydralazine</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">Peripheral smooth muscle relaxation</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">10&#8211;25 mg at night</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td valign="middle" align="left">Losartana</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">Angiotensin II receptor antagonist</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">50 mg at night</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td valign="middle" align="left">Nitroglycerin (patch)</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">Vasodilator</td>
                  <td valign="middle" align="center">0.1 mg/h (patch &#8212; remove in the morning)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Short-lived antihypertensive drugs should preferably be used to treat supine hypertension. Administration should only be done at night. Remember that many of these medications are usually taken 2&#8211;3 times a day and, if taken inadvertently this way, or while awake, they may worsen the symptoms of NOH</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <label>a</label>
                <p>Use of clonidine increases the risk of morning hypotension.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Postprandial hypotension</title>
        <p>Postprandial hypotension (PPH) is commonly observed in patients with OH, but it can occur in isolation, particularly in institutionalized elderly patients. The mechanisms leading to blood pressure drops are not clear. Postprandial hypotension and its extension are favored by glucose intake.</p>
        <p>Treatment strategies include: small, frequent meals with low carbohydrate content; drinking water before and during the meal (it is recommended to take 400&#8211;500 ml of cold water 30 minutes before meals); minimizing or preferably avoiding alcohol intake; eliminating iatrogenic causes (administration of antihypertensive drugs between meals and not during meals) and caffeine (200&#8211;250 mg or 200 ml of coffee), and acarbose (100 mg).</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p>
            <bold>Clinical Series of the Brazilian Society of Cardiac Arrhythmias</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
