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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">T6JVV6sNzHR6cvn6zqHCM3M</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021000600970</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20190633</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20190633</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Suplementa&#231;&#227;o de Vitamina D Induz Remodela&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca em Ratos: Associa&#231;&#227;o com a Prote&#237;na de Intera&#231;&#227;o com a Tiorredoxina e a Tiorredoxina</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1159-5030</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila P. dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8825-6980</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rafacho</surname>
            <given-names>Bruna P. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alves</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Vanessa C. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1463-551X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Roscani</surname>
            <given-names>Meliza G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Paula S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2875-9532</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Polegato</surname>
            <given-names>Bertha F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5980-4367</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Minicucci</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Ang&#233;lica H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tanni</surname>
            <given-names>Suzana E.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9831-8820</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo A. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4412-1990</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio A. R. de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">UNESP</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; UNESP, Botucatu, SP - Brasil.</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">UNESP</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Bioci&#234;ncias de Botucatu</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Bioci&#234;ncias de Botucatu-UNESP, Botucatu, SP - Brasil.</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Pesquisa em Alimentos</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro de Pesquisa em Alimentos, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil.</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Priscila Portugal dos Santos</bold> &#8226; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, Rubi&#227;o J&#250;nior s/n. CEP <postal-code>18618-970</postal-code>, Botucatu, SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>prilpolmed@yahoo.com.br</email>, <email>priscila.portugal@unesp.br</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>17</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>116</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>970</fpage>
      <lpage>978</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2019</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>A vitamina D (VD) tem um importante papel na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. No entanto, a vitamina exerce uma curva &#8220;dose-resposta&#8221; bif&#225;sica na fisiopatologia cardiovascular e pode causar efeitos delet&#233;rios, mesmo em doses n&#227;o t&#243;xicas. A VD exerce suas fun&#231;&#245;es celulares ligando-se ao seu receptor. Ainda, a express&#227;o da prote&#237;na de intera&#231;&#227;o com a tiorredoxina (TXNIP) &#233; positivamente regulada pela VD. A TXNIP modula diferentes visa de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o celular que podem ser importantes para a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p>Avaliar se a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD leva &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, e se a TXNIP e a tiorredoxina (Trx) est&#227;o associadas com esse processo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Duzentos e cinquenta ratos Wistar machos foram alocados em tr&#234;s grupos: controle (C, n=21), sem suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD; VD3 (n = 22) e VD10 (n=21), suplementados com 3,000 e 10,000 UI de VD/ kg de ra&#231;&#227;o, respectivamente, por dois meses. Os grupos foram comparados por an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia (ANOVA) com um fator e teste post hoc de Holm-Sidak (vari&#225;veis com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal), ou pelo teste de Kruskal-Wallis e an&#225;lise post-hoc de Dunn. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia para todos os testes foi de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>A express&#227;o de TXNIP foi mais alta e a atividade do Trx foi mais baixa no grupo VD10. Os animais que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD apresentaram aumento de hidroper&#243;xido lip&#237;dico e diminui&#231;&#227;o de super&#243;xido dismutase e glutationa peroxidase. A prote&#237;na Bcl-2 foi mais baixa no grupo VD10. Observou-se uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na &#946;-oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos, no ciclo do &#225;cido tricarbox&#237;lico, na cadeia transportadora de el&#233;trons, e um aumento na via glicol&#237;tica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>A suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD levou &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e esse processo pode ser modulado por TXNIP e Trx, e consequentemente por estresse oxidativo.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Vitamina D</kwd>
        <kwd>Remodela&#231;&#227;o Ventricular</kwd>
        <kwd>Ratos</kwd>
        <kwd>Tiorredoxinas</kwd>
        <kwd>Estresse Oxidativo</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="47"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A Vitamina D (VD) &#233; um composto lipossol&#250;vel que sabidamente afeta &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo cl&#225;ssicos, como ossos, intestinos e rins, e estimula o transporte de c&#225;lcio desses &#243;rg&#227;os para o sangue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> No entanto, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias crescentes de que a VD afeta outros &#243;rg&#227;os, incluindo o cora&#231;&#227;o, e pode exercer um importante papel na fun&#231;&#227;o e no desenvolvimento card&#237;acos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia da defici&#234;ncia de VD aumentou nos &#250;ltimos anos, tornando-se um problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica em todo o mundo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> Al&#233;m disso, a defici&#234;ncia de VD est&#225; associada a um risco aumentado de se desenvolver v&#225;rias doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, incluindo doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Assim, pesquisadores t&#234;m recomendado aumento na exposi&#231;&#227;o solar, fortifica&#231;&#227;o de alimentos e suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD, tanto para pessoas em maior risco de hipovitaminose D como para a popula&#231;&#227;o geral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> No entanto, mais estudos com diferentes doses de suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD s&#227;o urgentemente necess&#225;rios,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> dado o n&#250;mero de estudos relatando efeitos cardiovasculares delet&#233;rios da VD em doses n&#227;o t&#243;xicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Estudos com ratos ur&#234;micos e ratos infartados suplementados com VD em doses que n&#227;o induzem hipercalcemia (n&#227;o hipercalc&#234;micas), desenvolveram hipertens&#227;o,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> altera&#231;&#245;es na aorta,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> hipertrofia ventricular esquerda,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e altera&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo energ&#233;tico card&#237;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Al&#233;m disso, estudo realizado com ratos normotensos mostrou que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD em doses n&#227;o hipercalc&#234;micas levou ao aumento da press&#227;o arterial e a altera&#231;&#245;es na estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o vascular, mediados por gera&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas e altera&#231;&#227;o na biodisponibilidade de &#243;xido n&#237;trico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Esses dados indicam que a VD exerce uma curva &#8220;dose-resposta&#8221; bif&#225;sica na remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; causada por uma les&#227;o no cora&#231;&#227;o que pode levar a mudan&#231;as celulares, intersticiais e moleculares progressivas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> As altera&#231;&#245;es celulares e moleculares incluem estresse oxidativo, apoptose, e mudan&#231;a no metabolismo energ&#233;tico, que pode progredir para hipertrofia e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A VD exerce fun&#231;&#245;es celulares ligando-se ao seu receptor e levando &#224; regula&#231;&#227;o transcricional de genes alvos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Ainda, Chen e DeLuca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> identificaram um gene da prote&#237;na VDUP1 (<italic>VD3-up-regulated protein-1</italic>), estimulada pelo tratamento com 1,25-dihidroxivitamina D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) em c&#233;lulas de linhagem promieloc&#237;tica humana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Desde ent&#227;o, a VDUP1 tem sido identificada em v&#225;rios tecidos, incluindo o cora&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A prote&#237;na codificada pela VDUP1 &#233; conhecida como prote&#237;na de intera&#231;&#227;o com a tiorredoxina (TXNIP), e foi identificada como um regulador negativo da tiorredoxina (Trx). A TXNIP liga-se ao centro catal&#237;tico da Trx, formando um complexo est&#225;vel por liga&#231;&#245;es dissulfeto, reduzindo sua atividade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Isso causa um desequil&#237;brio antioxidante, uma vez que o sistema Trx &#233; um importante sistema antioxidante redutor de tiol no cora&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> De fato, estudos com c&#233;lulas cancerosas mostraram que o tratamento com VD aumentou a produ&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (EROS).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Estudos t&#234;m mostrado que tanto a Trx como a TXNIP modulam diversas vias por meio da intera&#231;&#227;o direta com mol&#233;culas de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular. Essas prote&#237;nas participam na regula&#231;&#227;o de vias apopt&#243;ticas e hipertr&#243;ficas, e modulam o metabolismo energ&#233;tico tanto em cardiomi&#243;citos como em outros tipos celulares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> Assim, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD em doses n&#227;o hipercalc&#234;micas poderia levar a um desequil&#237;brio entre TXNIP e Trx no cora&#231;&#227;o, resultando em remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
      <p>Portanto, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar se a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD em doses n&#227;o hipercalc&#234;micas leva &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, e se a TXNIP e a Trx est&#227;o associadas a esse processo.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
      <title>Materiais e m&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Protocolo experimental</title>
        <p>Todos os experimentos foram realizados de acordo com as diretrizes dos Institutos Nacionais da Sa&#250;de (NIH, <italic>National Institutes of Health</italic>) para o uso e cuidado de animais em laborat&#243;rio e aprovados pelo comit&#234; de &#233;tica Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal da Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, UNESP, S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil (2008/694). Ratos machos de 250g foram alocados aleatoriamente em tr&#234;s grupos e alimentados com ra&#231;&#227;o &#224; base de cereal durante dois meses. Os grupos foram: 1) grupo controle (C, n=21), que n&#227;o recebeu suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD [dieta baseada em cereal &#8211; Nuvilab CR1, com composi&#231;&#227;o aproximada (por kg de mistura): 220g prote&#237;na; 40g gordura; 100g mineral; 80 g fibra; e 1,800 UI VD; 2) VD3 (n=22), suplementada com 3,000 UI VD/kg de ra&#231;&#227;o; e 3) VD10 (n=21), suplementada com 10,000 UI de VD/kg de ra&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>O tamanho amostral foi determinado com base em nossa experi&#234;ncia com modelos experimentais e an&#225;lises. Tamb&#233;m usamos esse tamanho amostral em um estudo pr&#233;vio conduzido em nosso laborat&#243;rio para avaliar a influ&#234;ncia da suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD sobre a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, reatividade vascular, e propriedades mec&#226;nicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Os animais foram alocados aleatoriamente em caixas individuais. Subsequentemente, as caixas foram escolhidas aleatoriamente para compor os diferentes grupos.</p>
        <p>Todos os animais receberam a mesma quantidade de alimentos. A suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD foi realizada adicionando-se colecalciferol (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) dilu&#237;do em &#243;leo de milho &#224; ra&#231;&#227;o. Todos os grupos receberam 10mL de &#243;elo de milho por quilo de ra&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>O Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa (NRC, <italic>National Research Council</italic>) recomendou a quantidade de 1000 UI de VD por quilo de ra&#231;&#227;o para os ratos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> Contudo, o conselho n&#227;o estabeleceu um n&#237;vel m&#225;ximo de ingest&#227;o. Assim, n&#243;s utilizamos uma quantidade 10 vezes superior &#224; dose di&#225;ria recomendada como nosso limite m&#225;ximo de ingest&#227;o. Shepard e DeLuca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> demonstraram que ratos suplementados com doses acima de 1000 UI de VD/dia (~30000 UI/kg de ra&#231;&#227;o) apresentaram sinais de toxicidade tais como diarreia, perda de apetite, diminui&#231;&#227;o no ganho de peso, e calcifica&#231;&#227;o renal. As doses utilizadas em nosso estudo foram 4,8 e 11,8 vezes maior que as doses recomendadas para ratos e n&#227;o chegaram a 1000 UI/dia. Ainda, em nosso estudo anterior,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> essas doses de VD n&#227;o causaram sinais de toxicidade ou hipercalcemia. Assim, as doses usadas no presente estudo foram consideradas n&#227;o t&#243;xicas em termos de metabolismo do c&#225;lcio.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico</title>
        <p>Todos os animais foram avaliados por ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> utilizando um equipamento dispon&#237;vel comercialmente (General Electric Medical Systems, Vivid S6, Tirat Carmel, Israel), equipado com um transdutor <italic>phased-array</italic> 5-12 MHz. Todas as medidas foram obtidas pelo mesmo observador de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da <italic>American Society of Echocardiography</italic> e da <italic>European Association of Echocardiography</italic>.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s o exame ecocardiogr&#225;fico, realizou-se eutan&#225;sia dos animais com inje&#231;&#227;o intraperitoneal de tiopental s&#243;dico em dose elevada (180 mg/Kg), e os animais foram sacrificados por decapita&#231;&#227;o. Foram coletados sangue e cora&#231;&#227;o dos animais.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de 25-hidroxivitamina D<sub>3</sub> (25 (OH) D<sub>3</sub>) e c&#225;lcio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref></title>
        <p>Concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de 25 (OH) D<sub>3</sub> foram determinadas por cromatografia l&#237;quida de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o (HPLC) conforme descrito por Asknes,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> com pequena modifica&#231;&#227;o. O aparelho utilizado foi o cromat&#243;grafo Waters 2695, com detector fotodiodo Waters 2996. A quantifica&#231;&#227;o de 25 (OH) D<sub>3</sub> foi realizada determinando-se &#225;reas de pico nos cromatogramas, calibrados por quantidades conhecidas dos padr&#245;es (H4014 Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, EUA).</p>
        <p>Concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de c&#225;lcio foi determinada pelo m&#233;todo arsenazo III (kit Labor Lab, SP, Brasil).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hidroper&#243;xido lip&#237;dico card&#237;aco, enzima antioxidante e metabolismo card&#237;aco</title>
        <p>Amostras do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (200mg) foram usadas para as medidas das concentra&#231;&#245;es de prote&#237;na total e hidroper&#243;xido lip&#237;dico (Hl) e para determina&#231;&#227;o da atividade da glutationa peroxidase (GPx), super&#243;xido dismutase (SOD) e catalase (CAT).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> O metabolismo energ&#233;tico card&#237;aco foi avaliado pela atividade das enzimas 3-hidroxiacil CoA desidrogenase (HAD), fosfofrutoquinase, lactato desidrogenase (LDH), piruvato desidrogenase, citrato sintase (CS), complexo II (succinato desidrogenase) e ATP sintase. Os testes de atividade enzim&#225;tica foram realizados a 20<sup>o</sup>C com a absorb&#226;ncia medida por um espectrofot&#244;metro Pharmacia Biotech (UV/visible Ultrospec 5000 com software Swift II Applications). Todos os reagentes foram adquiridos de Sigma (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, EUA).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Western blot</title>
        <p>Western blot foi realizado para avaliar a express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. As amostras foram separadas em gel de poliacrilamida (SDS) a 10%, e as amostras transferidas para uma membrana de nitrocelulose. A membrana foi bloqueada com leite em p&#243; desnatado 5% e incubada com anticorpo prim&#225;rio (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc, Europa): VDUP1 (IgG1 monoclonal de camundongo, sc271238); Trx-1 (IgG policlonal de coelho, sc20146); coativador 1-alfa do receptor gama ativado por proliferador de peroxissoma (PGC-1&#945; &#8211; IgG polyclonal de coleho, sc13067); receptor ativado por proliferador de peroxissoma alfa (PPAR-&#945; - rabbit polyclonal IgG, sc9000); Bcl-2 (IgG monoclonal de coelho, sc492); caspase 3 (IgG monoclonal de coelho - Cell Signaling Technology, Inc, Beverly, MA, EUA, 9664) e anticorpo secund&#225;rio conjugado com peroxidase. O substrato quimioluminescente Super Signal&#174; West Pico (Pierce Protein Research Products, Rockford, EUA) foi usado para detectar anticorpos ligados. GAPDH (IgG1 monoclonal de camundongo, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc, Europa, sc 32233) foi usado para normaliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Teste de redu&#231;&#227;o da insulina para Trx e Trx redutase (TrxR)</title>
        <p>A atividade da Trx no cora&#231;&#227;o foi determinada pelo teste de redu&#231;&#227;o da insulina segundo m&#233;todo descrito por Yamamoto et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> com pequena modifica&#231;&#227;o. A atividade da TrxR foi determinada pelo ensaio de redu&#231;&#227;o da insulina, segundo m&#233;todo descrito por Schutze et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref> com pequena modifica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>A normalidade dos dados foi verificada pelo teste de Kolmogorov&#8211;Smirnov. Para as vari&#225;veis com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal, os grupos foram comparados por an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia (ANOVA) com um fator, e an&#225;lise post hoc de Holm-Sidak; os dados foram expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP). Para as vari&#225;veis sem distribui&#231;&#227;o normal, os dados foram comparados pelo teste de Kruskal-Wallis e teste post-hoc de Dunn, e os dados foram expressos em mediana (e intervalos superiores e inferiores). As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas usando o programa Sigma Stat para Windows v3.5 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA). Para avaliar a dose resposta da VD, utilizamos o teste de tend&#234;ncia &#8211; <italic>Trend test</italic> do software GraphPad &#8211; para as vari&#225;veis com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal, e a correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman usada para as vari&#225;veis sem distribui&#231;&#227;o normal. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia estabelecido foi de 5% em todos os testes.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Como observado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD foi efetiva, uma vez que a ingest&#227;o di&#225;ria de colecalciferol foi diferente entre os tr&#234;s grupos, as concentra&#231;&#245;es de 25-hidroxicolecalciferol foram maiores no VD10 que em C, e o grupo VD3 apresentou um valor intermedi&#225;rio. Al&#233;m disso, os animais que receberam ambas as doses de VD apresentaram um leve aumento nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de c&#225;lcio. No entanto, os grupos que receberam a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD encontraram-se com n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos normais de c&#225;lcio. Essas vari&#225;veis mostraram uma resposta dose-dependente. O peso corporal e o consumo alimentar finais n&#227;o foram diferentes entre os grupos e n&#227;o apresentaram resposta dose-dependente.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t1" position="float">
        <label>Tabela 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Peso corporal, vitamina D, consumo alimentar, c&#225;lcio s&#233;rico e 25-hidroxicolecalciferol plasm&#225;tico nos grupos de animais suplementados com vitamina D e grupo controle</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="16%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th valign="middle" align="left">Vari&#225;vel</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">C</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">VD3</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">VD10</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">P1 Teste de compara&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">P2 Teste de tend&#234;ncia</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Peso corporal (g)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">422&#177;26,8 (21)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">429&#177;35,6 (22)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">421&#177;31,7 (21)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,646</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,923</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Consumo alimentar (g/dia)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">25,7&#177;1,54 (21)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">25,9&#177;1,91 (22)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">24,9&#177;1,98 (21)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,166</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,154</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Ingest&#227;o de VD (UI/dia)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">45,5 (44,8-48,1) (21)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">123 (118-128)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref> (22)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">290 (283-310)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">#</xref> (21)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">25 (OH) D<sub>3</sub> (ng/mL)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">14,6 (9,40-16,4) (7)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">19,0 (17,2-32,4) (7)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">35,6 (33,2-37,8)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref> (7)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,007</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Ca (mg/dL)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">8,25&#177;1,10 (9)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">9,32&#177;1,15<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref> (10)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">9,44&#177;0,54<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">*</xref> (10)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,023</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,011</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN1">
            <p>Dados expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; DP ou mediana e percentis 25 e 75. N&#250;meros em par&#234;nteses indicam o n&#250;mero de animais em cada grupo. C: grupo controle, sem suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD; VD3 e VD10: grupos que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o com 3000 e 10000 UI vitamina D/kg de ra&#231;&#227;o, respectivamente. VD: vitamina D; 25 (OH) D3: 25-hidroxicolecalciferol plasm&#225;tico; Ca: c&#225;lcio s&#233;rico. P1: valor p para teste de ANOVA com um fator ou teste de Kruskal Wallis e Holm-Sidak ou teste post hoc de Dunn; P2: p valor para teste de tend&#234;ncia ou correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman. N&#250;meros em negrito representam os efeitos estatisticamente significativos</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN2">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>&#8800; grupo C;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN3">
            <label>#</label>
            <p>&#8800; grupo VD3</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Como observado nas <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figuras 1A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">lB</xref> e na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD causou mudan&#231;as na TXNIP, atividade de Trx e prote&#237;na Trx, sem participa&#231;&#227;o da TrxR. A express&#227;o de TXNIP foi maior e a atividade da Trx menor no grupo VD10. Essas vari&#225;veis mostraram uma resposta dose-dependente. Ainda, observou-se uma redu&#231;&#227;o na express&#227;o de Trx de maneira dose-dependente.</p>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Western blot. A: Esquerda: Western blots da prote&#237;na de intera&#231;&#227;o com a tiorredoxina (TXNIP). Direita: densidade de banda da raz&#227;o TXNIP/GAPDH (mediana); p= 0.002. B: Esquerda: Western blots da tiorredoxina (Trx). Direita: densidade de banda da raz&#227;o Trx/GAPDH (mediana); p= 0,082. C: Esquerda: Western blots da prote&#237;na Bcl-2. Direita: densidade de banda da raz&#227;o Bcl-2/GAPDH (mediana); p= 0,027. D: Esquerda: Western blots do coativador 1-alfa do receptor gama ativado por proliferador de peroxissoma (PGC-1&#945;). Direita: densidade de banda da raz&#227;o PGC-1&#945;/GAPDH (mediana); p= 0,006. N&#250;mero de animais: 11-12. C: grupo controle sem suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD; VD3: grupo suplementado com 3,000 UI VD/Kg de ra&#231;&#227;o; VD10: suplementado com 10 000 UI VD/Kg de ra&#231;&#227;o. An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: ANOVA com um fator. * &#8800; grupo C; # &#8800; grupo VD3. C+ animal controle para ajuste para a corrida em gel.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0970-90633-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      <table-wrap id="t2" position="float">
        <label>Tabela 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Atividade enzim&#225;tica da tiorredoxina (Trx) e da tiorredoxina redutase (TrxR) nos grupos de animais suplementados com vitamina D e grupo controle</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="16%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th valign="middle" align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">C</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">VD3</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">VD10</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">P1 Teste de compara&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">P2 Teste de tend&#234;ncia</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Atividade da Trx (DO 340 nm x minuto)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,251&#177;0,08 (10)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,226&#177;0,06 (10)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,115&#177;0,07<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">#</xref> (10)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Atividade da TrxR (mU/mg prote&#237;na x minuto)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,097 (0,096-0,098) (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,097 (0,096-0,097) (9)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,096 (0,085-0,098) (10)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,383</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,117</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN4">
            <p>Dados expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; DP ou mediana e percentis 25 e 75. N&#250;meros em par&#234;nteses indicam o n&#250;mero de animais em cada grupo. C: grupo controle, sem suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD; VD3 e VD10: grupos que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o com 3000 e 10000 UI vitamina D/kg de ra&#231;&#227;o, respectivamente. Trx: atividade enzim&#225;tica da tiorredoxina; DO: densidade &#243;tica; TrxR: tiorredoxina redutase; P1: valor p para teste de ANOVA com um fator ou teste de Kruskal Wallis e Holm-Sidak ou teste post hoc de Dunn; P2: p valor para teste de tend&#234;ncia ou correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman. N&#250;meros em negrito representam os efeitos estatisticamente significativos</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN5">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>&#8800; grupo C;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN6">
            <label>#</label>
            <p>&#8800; grupo VD3.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> resume dados de estresse oxidativo e apoptose. Neste estudo, os animais que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD apresentaram aumento no estresse oxidativo, demonstrado por valores mais altos de peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica em VD10; al&#233;m disso, observamos uma atividade mais baixa das enzimas antioxidantes. As atividades de SOD e GPx foram mais baixas nos animais que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD e a raz&#227;o LH/(SOD+GPx+CAT) foi mais alta no grupo VD10. Para os dados de apoptose, a express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas antiapopt&#243;ticas Bcl-2 foi mais baixa no VD10, com resposta dose-dependente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1C</xref>). O fator apopt&#243;tico caspase-3 clivado foi mais baixo no grupo VD3 que no grupo VD10 (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t3" position="float">
        <label>Tabela 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Vari&#225;veis do estresse oxidativo e apoptose nos grupos de animais suplementados com vitamina D e grupo controle</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="16%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th valign="middle" align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">C</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">VD3</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">VD10</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">P1 Teste de compara&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">P2 Teste de tend&#234;ncia</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">LH (nmol/g tecido)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">143,8&#177;13,9 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">134,1&#177;20,1 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">179,6&#177;11,8<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">#</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">SOD (nmol/mg prote&#237;na)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">19,9 (18,6-24,5) (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">13,0 (11,8-14,0)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">13,0 (11,8-14,2)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">GPx (umol/g tecido)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">40,4&#177;6,2 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">31,5&#177;4,6<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">29,7&#177;3,1<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">CAT (&#956;mol/g tecido)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">120,9&#177;15,5 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">124,6&#177;11,1 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">110,9&#177;15,8 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,165</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,178</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">LH/(SOD+GPx+CAT)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,79&#177;0,09 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,80&#177;0,14 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1,18&#177;0,09<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN8">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">#</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Caspase-3 (unidade arbitr&#225;ria)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1,01&#177;0,49 (12)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,84&#177;0,48 (12)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1,54&#177;0,56<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN9">#</xref> (12)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,023</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,060</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN7">
            <p>Dados expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; DP ou mediana e percentis 25 e 75. N&#250;meros em par&#234;nteses indicam o n&#250;mero de animais em cada grupo. C: grupo controle, sem suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD; VD3 e VD10: grupos que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o com 3000 e 10000 UI vitamina D/kg de ra&#231;&#227;o, respectivamente. SOD: super&#243;xido dismutase; GPx: glutationa peroxidase; CAT: catalase; LH: hidroper&#243;xido lip&#237;dico; Caspase-3: Caspase-3-clivada. P1: valor p para ANOVA com um fator e teste de Holm-Sidak ou an&#225;lise post-hoc de Dunn; P2: valor p para teste de tend&#234;ncia ou correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman. N&#250;meros em negrito representam os efeitos significativos.</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN8">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>&#8800; grupo C;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN9">
            <label>#</label>
            <p>&#8800; grupo VD3.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref> resume dados do metabolismo energ&#233;tico card&#237;aco. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; &#946;-oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos, a express&#227;o de PGC-1&#945; (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1D</xref>) e a atividade de HAD foram mais baixas no grupo VD10. Ambas as vari&#225;veis apresentaram uma resposta dose-dependente. Quanto &#224; via glicol&#237;tica, a atividade das enzimas PFK e LDH foi mais elevada no grupo VD10. A enzima LDH e o complexo PDH apresentaram aumento de maneira dose-dependente. O ciclo do &#225;cido tricarbox&#237;lico (CAT) foi avaliado pela atividade da enzima CS, e a cadeia transportadora de el&#233;trons (CTE) avaliada pela atividade do complexo II e da atividade da ATP sintase. A atividade da CS e do complexo II foi mais baixa no grupo VD10. Ambas as enzimas apresentaram uma resposta dose-dependente. A atividade da ATP sintase variou entre os grupos, sendo maior no grupo VD3. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es indicam que os animais que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD apresentaram d&#233;ficit na oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos, no CAT e na CTE, com aumento na via glicol&#237;tica.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t4" position="float">
        <label>Tabela 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Vari&#225;veis do metabolismo energ&#233;tico card&#237;aco nos grupos de animais suplementados com vitamina D e grupo controle</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="16%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th valign="middle" align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">C</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">VD3</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">VD10</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">P1 Teste de compara&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th valign="middle" align="center">P2 Teste de tend&#234;ncia</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">PPAR&#945; (unidade arbitr&#225;ria)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">1,06&#177;0,40 (12)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,87&#177;0,44 (12)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,95&#177;0,50 (11)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,593</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,562</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">HAD (nmol/mg prote&#237;na)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">69,9&#177;10,8 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">65,8&#177;13,1 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">34,4&#177;5,14<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">#</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">PFK (nmol/g tecido)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">131&#177;23,6 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">123&#177;34,8 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">170&#177;36,4 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,048</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,053</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">LDH (nmol/mg prote&#237;na)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">220&#177;18,1 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">209&#177;10,0 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">256&#177;9,60<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">#</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">PDH (nmol/g tecido)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">317&#177;57,9 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">337&#177;42,9 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">382&#177;41,6 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,088</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,034</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">CS (umol/g tecido)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">39,7&#177;3,22 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">40,4&#177;2,75 (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">34,5&#177;4,02<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">#</xref> (8)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,004</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,005</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">Complexo II (umol/mg tecido)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">6,36&#177;0,90 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">6,27&#177;1,18 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">3,40&#177;0,67<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">#</xref> (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0,001</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td valign="middle" align="left">ATP sintase (umol/mg tecido)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">45,4&#177;2,96 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">53,0&#177;5,42 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">44,6&#177;8,04 (6)</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,049</td>
              <td valign="middle" align="center">0,824</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN10">
            <p>Dados expressos em m&#233;dia &#177;DP. N&#250;meros em par&#234;nteses indicam o n&#250;mero de animais em cada grupo. C: grupo controle, sem suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD; VD3 e VD10: grupos que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o com 3000 e 10000 UI vitamina D/kg de ra&#231;&#227;o, respectivamente. PPAR&#945;: receptor ativado por proliferador de peroxissoma alfa; HAD: 3-hidroxiacil CoA desidrogenase; PFK: fosfofrutoquinase; LDH: lactato desidrogenase; PDH: piruvato desidrogenase; CS: citrato sintase; Complexo II: complexo II respirat&#243;rio; ATP: adenosina trifosfato. P1: valor p para ANOVA com um fator e an&#225;lise post-hoc de Holm-Sidak; P2: valor de p para o teste de tend&#234;ncia. N&#250;meros em negrito representam os efeitos significativos.</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN11">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>&#8800; grupo C;</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="TFN12">
            <label>#</label>
            <p>&#8800; grupo VD3.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as entre os tr&#234;s grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s vari&#225;veis estruturais ou na fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica no ecocardiograma ap&#243;s dois meses de suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD. As vari&#225;veis ecocardiogr&#225;ficas encontram-se descritas no material suplementar (Tabela S1).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>O presente estudo mostrou que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD, em doses n&#227;o hipercalc&#234;micas durante dois meses, associou-se com maior express&#227;o de TNIP e menor atividade da Trx. Al&#233;m disso, os animais apresentaram altera&#231;&#245;es moleculares compat&#237;veis com o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, tais como estresse oxidativo, redu&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores antiapopt&#243;ticos, e mudan&#231;as no metabolismo card&#237;aco, sem altera&#231;&#245;es na estrutura ou fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Altera&#231;&#245;es na express&#227;o de TXNIP e Trx podem ser um dos mecanismos envolvidos na remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em animais suplementados com VD.</p>
      <p>Um estudo pr&#233;vio mostrou que a 1,25(OH)<sub>2</sub>D<sub>3</sub> aumenta a express&#227;o de TXNIP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> A TXNIP interage com a Trx e atua como um regulador negativo de Trx, diminuindo sua express&#227;o e sua atividade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Neste estudo, observamos que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD aumentou a express&#227;o de TXNIP e reduziu a atividade de Trx. Ambas s&#227;o importantes mol&#233;culas de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o, modulando v&#225;rias fun&#231;&#245;es celulares no cora&#231;&#227;o, tal como o equil&#237;brio redox (por uma a&#231;&#227;o direta sobre EROS ou atuando sobre homeostase de prote&#237;nas e enzimas antioxidantes), apoptose e metabolismo energ&#233;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> Em nosso estudo, observamos que todas essas fun&#231;&#245;es celulares foram afetadas pela suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao equil&#237;brio redox, observamos um aumento na peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica e diminui&#231;&#227;o na atividade das enzimas antioxidantes SOD e GPx. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es caracterizam o estresse oxidativo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Uma diminui&#231;&#227;o nesses mecanismos antioxidantes pode induzir danos celulares graves, devido a desequil&#237;brios entre a produ&#231;&#227;o e a remo&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres, como indicado pela raz&#227;o LH/SOD+GPx+CAT no animais VD10.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> O sistema SOD-CAT-GPx &#233; considerado a primeira linha de defesa contra a forma&#231;&#227;o de EROS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Estudos <italic>in vitro</italic> (com c&#233;lulas tumorais, adip&#243;citos e c&#233;lulas &#243;sseas humanas) tamb&#233;m mostraram um potencial papel pr&#243;-oxidante da VD. O tratamento com VD nessas c&#233;lulas levou a mudan&#231;as no equil&#237;brio redox, como um aumento em EROS, e redu&#231;&#227;o na SOD e glutationa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A apoptose &#233; o processo biol&#243;gico pelo qual a morte celular programada ocorre, a partir da intera&#231;&#227;o de fatores pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios e antiapopt&#243;ticos, tal como a prote&#237;na Bcl-2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> Neste estudo, mostramos uma menor express&#227;o da Bcl-2 nos animais que receberam suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD, de maneira dose-dependente. Estudos com c&#233;lulas tumorais tamb&#233;m mostraram que o tratamento com VD levou ao aumento da apoptose,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> e os mecanismos envolvidos foram redu&#231;&#227;o de Bcl-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> e maior estresse oxidativo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
      <p>As prote&#237;nas TXNIP e Trx participam na regula&#231;&#227;o de vias apopt&#243;ticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> Em um estudo <italic>in vitro</italic> realizado por Min et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> mostrou que a TXNIP diminui a express&#227;o do gene Bcl-2. Outro estudo, com c&#233;lulas epiteliais humanas, mostrou que o tratamento com VD aumenta a atividade de TXNIP e diminui a atividade de Trx. Al&#233;m disso, os autores observaram um aumento no estresse oxidativo, diminui&#231;&#227;o na express&#227;o de Bcl-2 e ativa&#231;&#227;o da apoptose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Em nosso estudo, os animais suplementados com VD mostraram uma diminui&#231;&#227;o no fluxo de substratos oxid&#225;veis para &#946;-oxida&#231;&#227;o, CAT, e CTE. Por outro lado, os animais apresentaram um aumento na via glicol&#237;tica. Mudan&#231;as no metabolismo podem ser mediadas por dois importantes fatores de PGC-1&#945; e PPAR &#945;. O PGC-1&#945; liga-se a PPAR&#945; e ao receptor do retinoide, formando um complexo que regula a transcri&#231;&#227;o de enzimas de &#946;-oxida&#231;&#227;o e CTE, e inibe a oxida&#231;&#227;o do piruvato.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> Neste estudo, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD causou redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de PGC-1&#945;. Estudos mostraram que as prote&#237;nas TXNIP e Trx regulam vias do metabolismo energ&#233;tico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> por exemplo, modulando o PGC-1&#945;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> Camundongos transg&#234;nicos com express&#227;o aumentada de Trx no cora&#231;&#227;o apresentaram elevada express&#227;o de PGC-1&#945; e melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Nossos achados nos permitem supor que um dos mecanismos envolvidos nas altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e moleculares observadas nos animais suplementados com VD durante dois meses s&#227;o as altera&#231;&#245;es no complmexo TXNIP/Trx.</p>
      <p>Todas essas altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e moleculares precedem as altera&#231;&#245;es na estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Os animais tratados com VD por dois meses n&#227;o apresentaram mudan&#231;as na estrutura ou fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Contudo, estudos com um per&#237;odo mais longo de suplementa&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para avaliar se a VD leva a essas altera&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      <p>Para a maioria das altera&#231;&#245;es observadas em nosso estudo, a VD mostrou uma resposta dose-dependente, e a intensidade dessas mudan&#231;as foi maior na dose mais elevada da vitamina.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>No presente estudo, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD foi realizada durante dois meses, o que nos permitiu observar somente mudan&#231;as bioqu&#237;micas, celulares e moleculares. Estudos com per&#237;odos mais longos de suplementa&#231;&#227;o poderiam mostrar mudan&#231;as na estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, o que seria mais relevante clinicamente.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em nosso estudo, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o com VD em doses n&#227;o hipercalc&#234;micas levou a um processo precoce de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. O poss&#237;vel mecanismo das altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas pela suplementa&#231;&#227;o de VD &#233; via modula&#231;&#227;o de TXNIP e Trx, e consequente estresse oxidativo.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>*Material suplementar</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, clique aqui.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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          <article-title>Thioredoxin1 upregulates mitochondrial proteins related to oxidative phosphorylation and TCA cycle in the heart</article-title>
          <source>Antioxid Redox Signal</source>
          <year>2006</year>
          <volume>8</volume>
          <issue>9-10</issue>
          <fpage>1635</fpage>
          <lpage>1650</lpage>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>46. Ago T, Yeh I, Yamamoto M, Schinke-Braun M, Brown JA, Tian B, et al. Thioredoxin1 upregulates mitochondrial proteins related to oxidative phosphorylation and TCA cycle in the heart. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2006;8(9-10):1635-50.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B47">
        <label>47</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Santos</surname>
              <given-names>PP</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Oliveira</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ferreira</surname>
              <given-names>VC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Polegato</surname>
              <given-names>BF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Roscani</surname>
              <given-names>MG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fernandes</surname>
              <given-names>AA</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The role of lipotoxicity in smoke cardimyopathy</article-title>
          <source>Plos One</source>
          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>9</volume>
          <issue>12</issue>
          <elocation-id>e113739</elocation-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>47. Santos PP, Oliveira F, Ferreira VC, Polegato BF, Roscani MG, Fernandes AA, et al. The role of lipotoxicity in smoke cardimyopathy. Plos One. 2014;9(12):e113739.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Vitamin D Supplementation Induces Cardiac Remodeling in Rats: Association with Thioredoxin-Interacting Protein and Thioredoxin</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1159-5030</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila P. dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8825-6980</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rafacho</surname>
            <given-names>Bruna P. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alves</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Vanessa C. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1463-551X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Roscani</surname>
            <given-names>Meliza G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Paula S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2875-9532</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Polegato</surname>
            <given-names>Bertha F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5980-4367</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Minicucci</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Ang&#233;lica H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tanni</surname>
            <given-names>Suzana E.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9831-8820</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo A. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4412-1990</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio A. R. de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; UNESP, Botucatu, SP - Brazil.</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Bioci&#234;ncias de Botucatu-UNESP, Botucatu, SP - Brazil.</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro de Pesquisa em Alimentos, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil.</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Priscila Portugal dos Santos</bold> &#8226; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu, Rubi&#227;o J&#250;nior s/n. Postal Code <postal-code>18618-970</postal-code>, Botucatu, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>prilpolmed@yahoo.com.br</email>, <email>priscila.portugal@unesp.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author Contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Santos PP, Azevedo PS, Polegato BF, Minicucci MF, Minamoto SE, Zornoff LAM, Paiva SAR; Acquisition of data: Santos PP, Rafacho BPM, Gon&#231;alves AF, Pires VCM, Roscani MG, Polegato BF, Fernandes AAH; Analysis and interpretation of the data: Santos PP, Azevedo PS, Minicucci MF, Fernandes AAH, Zornoff LAM, Paiva SAR; Statistical analysis: Santos PP, Minamoto SE, Paiva SAR; Obtaining financing: Paiva SAR; Writing of the manuscript: Santos PP, Azevedo PS, Zornoff LAM, Paiva SAR; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual contente: Santos PP, Rafacho BPM, Gon&#231;alves AF, Azevedo PS, Polegato BF, Minicucci MF, Fernandes AAH, Zornoff LAM, Paiva SAR.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Vitamin D (VD) has been shown to play an important role in cardiac function. However, this vitamin exerts a biphasic &#8220;dose response&#8221; curve in cardiovascular pathophysiology and may cause deleterious effects, even in non-toxic doses. VD exerts its cellular functions by binding to VD receptor. Additionally, it was identified that the thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) expression is positively regulated by VD. TXNIP modulate different cell signaling pathways that may be important for cardiac remodeling.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>To evaluate whether VD supplementation lead to cardiac remodeling and if TXNIP and thioredoxin (Trx) proteins are associated with the process.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>A total of 250 Male Wistar rats were allocated into three groups: control (C, n=21), with no VD supplementation; VD3 (n = 22) and VD10 (n=21), supplemented with 3,000 and 10,000 IU of VD/ kg of chow respectively, for two months. The groups were compared by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Holm-Sidak post hoc analysis, (variables with normal distribution), or by Kruskal-Wallis test and Dunn's test post hoc analysis. The significance level for all tests was 5%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>TXNIP protein expression was higher and Trx activity was lower in VD10. The animals supplemented with VD showed increased lipid hydroperoxide and decreased superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. The protein Bcl-2 was lower in VD10. There was a decrease in fatty acid &#946;-oxidation, tricarboxylic acid cycle and electron transport chain with shift to increase in glycolytic pathway.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>VD supplementation led to cardiac remodeling and this process may be modulated by TXNIP and Trx proteins and consequently oxidative stress.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Vitamin D</kwd>
        <kwd>Ventricular Remodeling</kwd>
        <kwd>Rats</kwd>
        <kwd>Thioredoxins</kwd>
        <kwd>Oxidative Stress</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Vitamin D (VD) is a fat-soluble compound known to affect classical target organs, like bones, intestines and kidneys, and stimulates calcium transport from these organs to the blood.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> However, increasing evidence has shown that VD affects other organs including the heart and may play an important role in cardiac development and function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The prevalence of VD deficiency has increased in recent years, becoming a public health problem worldwide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> Furthermore, VD deficiency is associated with an increased risk of developing several chronic diseases including cardiovascular diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Therefore, researchers have recommended increased sun exposure, food fortification and VD supplementation, both for people at higher risk for hypovitaminosis D and for the general population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> However, further research with different doses of VD supplementation is urgently needed,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> due to increasing reports of deleterious cardiovascular effects of VD in non-toxic doses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> Uremic rats and infarcted rats, both supplemented with VD at non-hypercalcemic dosages presented hypertension,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> changes in the aorta,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> left ventricular hypertrophy,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> cardiac dysfunction, and changes in cardiac energy metabolism.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Additionally, study with normotensive rats showed that VD supplementation at non-hypercalcemic doses led to increased blood pressure and changes in vascular structure and function, mediated by generation of reactive species and changes in nitric oxide bioavailability.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> These data indicate that VD exerts a biphasic &#8220;dose response&#8221; curve on cardiac remodeling.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Cardiac remodeling is caused by an injury to the heart, which can lead to progressive cellular, interstitial, and molecular changes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> The cellular and molecular alterations include oxidative stress, apoptosis, and cardiac energy metabolism change, which can progress to hypertrophy and ventricular dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
        <p>VD exerts its cellular functions by binding to VD receptor and leading to transcriptional regulation of target genes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Additionally, Chen and DeLuca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> identified a VD3-up-regulated protein1 (VDUP1) gene that is up-regulated in the human HL-60 promyelocytic cell line by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Since then, VDUP1 has been identified in various tissues, including the heart.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The protein encoded by VDUP1 is known as thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) and was identified as a negative regulator of thioredoxin (Trx). TXNIP binds to the catalytic center of Trx forming a stable disulfide-linked complex, reducing its activity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> This causes an antioxidant imbalance, since the Trx system is an important antioxidant thiol reducing system in the heart.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Indeed, studies with cancer cell showed that VD treatment enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Studies have shown that both Trx as TXNIP modulate different pathways by direct interaction with intracellular signaling molecules. These proteins participate in the regulation of apoptotic and hypertrophic pathways and modulate energy metabolism in both cardiomyocytes and other cell types<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref>. Therefore, VD supplementation at non-hypercalcemic doses could lead to an imbalance of TXNIP and Trx in the heart, resulting in cardiac remodeling.</p>
        <p>Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate whether VD supplementation at non-hypercalcemic doses leads to cardiac remodeling and whether TXNIP and Trx proteins are associated with this process.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
        <title>Materials and Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Experimental protocol</title>
          <p>All experiments were performed in accordance with the National Institutes of Health's Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and were approved by the Ethics Committee for Animal Experimentation of the Botucatu Medical School, UNESP, S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil (2008/694). Male Wistar rats of 250 g were randomly allocated into three groups and fed a cereal-based chow for two months. The groups were: 1) control group (C, n=21), with no supplementation of VD (cereal-based diet -Nuvilab CR1, with the approximate composition [kg mixture]: protein, 220g; fat, 40g; mineral, 100g; fiber, 80g and VD, 1,800 IU); 2) VD3 (n=22), supplemented with 3,000 IU VD/kg of chow; and 3) VD10 (n=21), supplemented with 10,000 IU VD/kg of chow.</p>
          <p>The sample size was determined based on our experience with experimental models used and analyzes; it was also used on a previous study carried out in our laboratory, to assess the influence of VD supplementation on systolic arterial pressure, vascular reactivity, and mechanical properties.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> The animals were randomly placed in individual boxes. Subsequently the boxes are chosen at random to compose the different groups.</p>
          <p>All animals were fed the same amount of chow. VD supplementation was performed by adding cholecalciferol (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) diluted with corn oil, to the chow. All animal groups received 10 mL of corn oil per kg of chow.</p>
          <p>The National Research Council recommended the amount of 1,000 IU of VD per kg of chow for the rats.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> However, the council has not established an upper intake level. Therefore, we used 10 times the recommended daily dose as our tolerable upper intake level. Shepard and DeLuca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> showed that rats supplemented with doses above 1,000 IU of VD/day (~ 30,000 IU/kg of chow) presented toxicity signs such as diarrhea, loss of appetite, decrease in weight gain, and kidney calcification. The doses used in our study were 4.8 and 11.8 times higher than the recommended dose for rats and did not reach the 1,000 IU/day. Furthermore, in our previous study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> these VD doses did not cause toxicity signs or hypercalcemia. Therefore, the doses used in the present study were considered non-toxic in terms of calcium metabolism.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Echocardiographic study</title>
          <p>All animals were evaluated by transthoracic echocardiography,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> using a commercially available echocardiographic machine (General Electric Medical Systems, Vivid S6, Tirat Carmel, Israel) equipped with a 5-12 MHz phased array transducer. All measurements were obtained by the same observer according to the American Society of Echocardiography and the European Association of Echocardiography's recommendations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref></p>
          <p>After the echocardiographic study, euthanasia of animals was performed with intraperitoneal injection of sodium thiopental at excessive dose (180 mg / kg), and the animals were decapitated. The blood and the hearts of animals were collected.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Assessment of 25-hydroxyvitamin D<sub>3</sub> (25 (OH) D<sub>3</sub>) and calcium<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref></title>
          <p>Plasma concentrations of 25 (OH) D<sub>3</sub> were measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) as described by Asknes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> with slight modification.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> The apparatus used was the Waters 2695 chromatograph with photodiode detector Waters 2996. 25 (OH/) D<sub>3</sub> was quantified by determining peak areas on high-performance liquid chromatograms, calibrated against known amounts of standards (H4014 Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA).</p>
          <p>Serum concentration of calcium was measured through arsenazo III method (test kit, Labor Lab, SP, Brazil).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiac lipid hydroperoxide, antioxidant enzyme and cardiac energy metabolism</title>
          <p>Left ventricular samples (200 mg) were used for the measurements of total protein and lipid hydroperoxide (LH) concentration and for determination of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Cardiac energy metabolism was assessed by 3-hydroxyacyl coenzyme-A dehydrogenase (HADH), phosphofructokinase, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), pyruvate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase (CS), complex II (succinate dehydrogenase), and ATP synthase activities. The enzyme activity assays were performed at 25&#176;C with the absorbance measured using a Pharmacia Biotech spectrophotometer (UV/visible Ultrospec 5000 with Swift II Applications software). All of the reagents were from Sigma (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Western blot</title>
          <p>Western blot was performed to analyze protein expression in the left ventricle. Samples were separated on 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and the proteins were transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane. The membrane was blocked with 5% nonfat dry milk and incubated with primary antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc, Europa): VDUP1 (mouse monoclonal IgG1, sc271238); Trx-1 (rabbit polyclonal IgG, sc20146); peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1&#945; - rabbit polyclonal IgG, sc13067); peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-&#945; (PPAR-&#945; - rabbit polyclonal IgG, sc9000); Bcl-2 (rabbit monoclonal IgG, sc492); caspase 3 (rabbit monoclonal IgG - Cell Signaling Technology, Inc, Beverly, MA, USA, 9664), and secondary peroxidase-conjugated antibody. Super Signal&#174; West Pico Chemiluminescent Substrate (Pierce Protein Research Products, Rockford, USA) was used to detect bound antibodies. GAPDH (mouse monoclonal IgG1, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc, Europe, sc 32233) was used for blot normalization.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Insulin reduction assay for Trx and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR)</title>
          <p>The activity of Trx in the heart was determined by the insulin reduction assay, according to the method described by Yamamoto et al. 2003<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> with slight modification. The activity of TrxR in the heart was determined by the insulin reduction assay, according to the method described by Schutze et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref> with slight modification.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>The normality of the data was verified by Kolmogorov&#8211;Smirnov statistical test. The groups were compared by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Holm-Sidak post hoc analysis, for variables with normal distribution, and data are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation (SD). Otherwise, the groups were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test and Dunn's post hoc analysis and the data are expressed as medians (including the lower and upper quartiles). The statistical analyses were performed using Sigma Stat for Windows v3.5 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA). To assess the dose-response of VD, test for trend was used: Trend test of the statistical package GraphPad Prism software was used for variables with normal distribution; and the Spearman correlation used for variables without normal distribution.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> The significance level for all tests was 5%.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>As shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Table 1</xref>, VD supplementation was effective, since daily intake of cholecalciferol was different between the three groups, and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol concentrations were higher in VD10 than in C, and VD3 had an intermediary value. Additionally, the animals receiving both VD doses showed a slight increase in serum calcium level. However, the supplemented groups were in normocalcemic range. These variables showed a dose-dependent response. The final body weight and food consumption did not differ among groups and did not present a dose-dependent response.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t5" position="float">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Body weight, vitamin D and food ingestion, serum calcium and plasma 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (OH) D3 in the groups of rats supplemented with vitamin D and control group</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="16%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th valign="middle" align="left">Variable</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">C</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">VD3</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">VD10</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">P1 Comparison test</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">P2 Trend test</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Body weight (g)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">422&#177;26.8 (21)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">429&#177;35.6 (22)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">421&#177;31.7 (21)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.646</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.923</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Food ingestion (g/day)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">25.7&#177;1.54 (21)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">25.9&#177;1.91 (22)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">24.9&#177;1.98 (21)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.166</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.154</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">VD ingestion (IU/day)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">45.5 (44.8-48.1) (21)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">123 (118-128)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref> (22)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">290 (283-310)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">#</xref> (21)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">25 (OH) D<sub>3</sub> (ng/mL)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">14.6 (9.40-16.4) (7)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">19.0 (17.2-32.4) (7)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">35.6 (33.2-37.8)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref> (7)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.007</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Ca (mg/dL)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">8.25&#177;1.10 (9)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">9.32&#177;1.15<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref> (10)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">9.44&#177;0.54<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">*</xref> (10)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.023</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.011</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN14">
              <p>Data expressed as mean&#177;SD or median with 25 and 75 percentiles. Numbers in parentheses indicate the numbers of animals in each group. C: control group, with no supplementation of VD; VD3 and VD10: supplemented with 3,000 and 10.000 IU VD/kg of chow, respectively; VD: vitamin D; 25 (OH) D3: plasma 25-hydroxycholecalciferol; Ca: serum calcium. P1: p value of 1-way ANOVA or Kruskal Wallis and Holm-Sidak or Dunn's test post hoc analysis; P2: p value of Trend test or Spearman correlation. Bold numbers represent the significant effects that were considered.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN15">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>&#8800; C group;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN16">
              <label>#</label>
              <p>&#8800; VD3 group.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>As shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figures 1A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">1B</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 2</xref>, VD supplementation changed were TXNIP, Trx activity and Trx protein, without TrxR participation. Protein expression of TXNIP was higher and Trx activity was lower in VD10. These variables showed a dose-dependent response. Additionally, there was a decrease in the protein expression of Trx in a dose-dependent manner.</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Western blot. A: Left: representative western blots showing thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP). Right: median TXNIP/GAPDH ratio band density; p= 0.002. B: Left: representative western blots showing thioredoxin (Trx). Right: median Trx/GAPDH ratio band density; p= 0.082. C: Left: representative western blots showing Bcl-2. Right: median Bcl-2/GAPDH ratio band density; p= 0.027. D: Left: representative western blots showing peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-&#947; coactivator 1&#945; (PGC-1&#945;). Right: median PGC-1&#945;/GAPDH ratio band density; p= 0.006. Number of animals: 11-12. C: control group, with no supplementation of VD; VD3: supplemented with 3,000 IU VD/Kg of chow; VD10: supplemented with 10,000 IU VD/kg of chow. Statistical analysis 1-way ANOVA. * C group; # &#8800; VD3 group. C+ is a control animal for adjustment for gel running.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-05-0970-90633-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        <table-wrap id="t6" position="float">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Thioredoxin (Trx) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) enzymatic activity in the groups of rats supplemented with vitamin D and control group</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="16%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th valign="middle" align="left">Variables</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">C</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">VD3</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">VD10</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">P1 Comparison test</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">P2 Trend test</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Trx activity (OD 340 nm x minute)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.251&#177;0.08 (10)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.226&#177;0.06 (10)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.115&#177;0.07<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN18">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN19">#</xref> (10)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0.001</bold>
                </td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">
                  <bold>&lt;0.001</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">TrxR activity (mU/mg protein x minute)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.097 (0.096-0.098) (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.097 (0.096-0.097) (9)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.096 (0.085-0.098) (10)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.383</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.117</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN17">
              <p>Data expressed as mean &#177; SD or median with 25 and 75 percentiles. Numbers in parentheses indicate the numbers of animal in each group. C: control group, with no supplementation of VD; VD3 and VD10: supplemented with 3,000 and 10.000 IU VD/kg of chow. Trx activity: thioredoxin enzymatic activity; OD: optical density; TrxR: thioredoxin reductase. P1: p value of 1-way ANOVA or Kruskal Wallis and Holm-Sidak or Dunn's test post hoc analysis; P2: p value of Trend test or Spearman correlation. Bold numbers represent statistically significant effects.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN18">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>&#8800; C group;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN19">
              <label>#</label>
              <p>&#8800; VD3 group.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Table 3</xref> summarizes the oxidative stress and apoptosis data. In this study, the animals supplemented with VD presented an increase in oxidative stress, shown by the higher lipid peroxidation values in the VD10; in addition, we observed a lower activity of antioxidant enzymes. SOD and GPx activity were lower in VD-supplemented animals and the LH/(SOD+GPx+CAT) ratio was higher in VD10. These alterations in variables showed a dose-dependent response. For apoptosis data, the expression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein was lower in VD10 and showed a dose-dependent response (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1-C</xref>). The apoptotic factor, caspase-3-cleaved, was lower in VD3 than in VD10 (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Table 3</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t7" position="float">
          <label>Table 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Variables of oxidative stress and apoptosis in the groups of rats supplemented with vitamin D and control group</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="16%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th valign="middle" align="left">Variables</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">C</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">VD3</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">VD10</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">P1 Comparison test</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">P2 Trend test</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">LH (nmol/g tissue)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">143.8&#177;13.9 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">134.1&#177;20.1 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">179.6&#177;11.8<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN22">#</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">SOD (nmol/mg protein)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">19.9 (18.6-24.5) (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">13.0 (11.8-14.0)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">13.0 (11.8-14.2)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">GPx (umol/g tissue)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">40.4&#177;6.2 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">31.5&#177;4.6<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">29.7&#177;3.1<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">CAT (&#956;mol/g tissue)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">120.9&#177;15.5 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">124.6&#177;11.1 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">110.9&#177;15.8 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.165</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.178</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">LH/(SOD+GPx+CAT)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.79&#177;0.09 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.80&#177;0.14 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1.18&#177;0.09<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN22">#</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Caspase-3 (arbitrary unit)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1.01&#177;0.49 (12)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.84&#177;0.48 (12)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1.54&#177;0.56<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN22">#</xref> (12)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.023</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.060</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN20">
              <p>Data expressed as mean&#177;SD or median with 25 and 75 percentiles. Numbers in parentheses indicate the numbers of animals in each group. C: control group, with no supplementation of VD; VD3 and VD10: supplemented with 3,000 and 10.000 IU VD/Kg of chow, respectively. SOD: superoxide dismutase; GPx: gluthathione peroxidase; CAT: catalase; LH: lipid hydroperoxide; Caspase-3: Caspase-3-cleaved. P1: p value of 1-way ANOVA and Holm-Sidak or Dunn's test post hoc analysis; P2: p value of Trend test or Spearman correlation. Bold numbers represent statistically significant effects.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN21">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>&#8800; C group;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN22">
              <label>#</label>
              <p>&#8800; VD3 group.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Table 4</xref> summarizes data of cardiac energy metabolism. In relation to fatty acids &#946;-oxidation, protein expression of PGC-1&#945; (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1-D</xref>) and OHADH activity were lower in VD10. Both variables showed a dose-dependent response. The protein expression of PPAR&#945; did not differ among the groups and did not present a dose-dependent response. For the glycolytic pathway, the activity of PFK and LDH enzymes showed higher values in the VD10 group. The LDH enzyme and PDH complex showed an increase in a dose-dependent manner. The tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) was evaluated by the activity of CS, and the electron transport chain (ETC) was evaluated by the activity of complex II and ATP synthase activity. The activity of CS and complex II was lower in VD10. Both enzymes showed a dose-dependent response. The activity of ATP synthase differed between the groups, with higher values in the VD3 group. These alterations indicate that the animals supplemented with VD presented impairment in fatty acids oxidation, TCA, and ETC, with a shift to an increase in the glycolytic pathway.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t8" position="float">
          <label>Table 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Variables of cardiac energy metabolism in the groups of rats supplemented with vitamin D and control group</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="16%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th valign="middle" align="left">Variable</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">C</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">VD3</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">VD10</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">P1 Comparison test</th>
                <th valign="middle" align="center">P2 Trend test</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">PPAR&#945; (arbitrary unit)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">1.06&#177;0.40 (12)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.87&#177;0.44 (12)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.95&#177;0.50 (11)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.593</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.562</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">OHADH (nmol/mg protein)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">69.9&#177;10.8 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">65.8&#177;13.1 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">34.4&#177;5.14<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN24">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN25">#</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">PFK (nmol/g tissue)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">131&#177;23.6 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">123&#177;34.8 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">170&#177;36.4 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.048</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.053</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">LDH (nmol/mg protein)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">220&#177;18.1 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">209&#177;10.0 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">256&#177;9.60<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN24">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN25">#</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">PDH (nmol/g tissue)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">317&#177;57.9 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">337&#177;42.9 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">382&#177;41.6 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.088</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.034</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">CS (umol/g tissue)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">39.7&#177;3.22 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">40.4&#177;2.75 (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">34.5&#177;4.02<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN24">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN25">#</xref> (8)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.004</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.005</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">Complex II (umol/mg tissue)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">6.36&#177;0.90 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">6.27&#177;1.18 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">3.40&#177;0.67<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN24">*</xref><xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN25">#</xref> (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">&lt;0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td valign="middle" align="left">ATP synthase (umol/mg tissue)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">45.4&#177;2.96 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">53.0&#177;5.42 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">44.6&#177;8.04 (6)</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.049</td>
                <td valign="middle" align="center">0.824</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN23">
              <p>Data expressed as mean &#177; SD. Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of animals in each group. C: control group, with no supplementation of VD; VD3 and VD10: supplemented with 3,000 and 10,000 IU vitamin D/kg of chow, respectively. PPAR&#945;: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor &#945;; OHADH: 3-hydroxyacyl coenzyme-A dehydrogenase; PFK: phosphofructokinase; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; PDH: pyruvate dehydrogenase; CS: citrate synthase; Complex II: respiratory complex II; ATP: adenosine triphosphate. P1: p value of 1-way ANOVA and Holm-Sidak post hoc analysis; P2: p value of Trend test. Bold numbers represent statistically significant effects.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN24">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>&#8800; C group;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN25">
              <label>#</label>
              <p>&#8800; VD3 group</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>No differences were observed between the three groups in relation to structural variables, or in systolic and diastolic function by echocardiogram after two months of VD supplementation. Echocardiographic variables are provided in the supplementary material (Table S1).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>This study showed that VD supplementation, in non-hypercalcemic doses, for two months in normal rats was associated with higher expression of TXNIP and lower Trx activity. In addition, the animals presented molecular alterations compatible with the cardiac remodeling process, such as oxidative stress, decreased anti-apoptotic markers, and alterations in cardiac energy metabolism, without changes in cardiac structure and function. Changes in the expression of TXNIP and Trx may be one of the mechanisms involved in the cardiac remodeling in animals supplemented with VD.</p>
        <p>A previous study showed that 1,25(OH)<sub>2</sub>D<sub>3</sub> upregulates the expression of TXNIP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> TXNIP interacts with Trx and acts as a negative regulator of Trx, by decreasing its expression and its activity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> In this study, we observed that VD supplementation led to higher expression of TXNIP and lower activity of Trx. TXNIP and Trx are important signaling molecules, thereby modulating various cellular functions in the heart such as the redox balance (by a direct action on ROS or acting on homeostasis of proteins and antioxidant enzymes), apoptosis and energy metabolism.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> In our study, we observed that all these cellular functions were affected by VD supplementation.</p>
        <p>In relation to redox balance, we observed an increase in lipid peroxidation and decrease in the activity of antioxidant enzymes: SOD and GPx. These alterations characterize oxidative stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> A decrease in these antioxidant mechanisms can induce severe cell damages due to imbalances between the production and the removal of free radicals, as indicated by the LH/SOD+GPx+CAT ratio in VD10 animals.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> The SOD-CAT-GPx system is considered the first line of defense against oxyradical formation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Studies <italic>in vitro</italic> (with tumor cells, adipocytes, and human bone cells) have also shown a potential prooxidant role of VD. Treatment with VD in these cells led to changes in redox balance, such as an increase in ROS, and SOD and glutathione reduction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Apoptosis is the biological process by which programmed cell death occurs, requiring the interaction of pro- and anti-apoptotic factors, such as the Bcl-2 protein.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> In this study, we showed lower expression of Bcl-2 in animals supplemented with VD, in a dose-dependent manner. Studies with tumor cells also showed that VD treatment led to increased apoptosis,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> and the mechanisms involved are decreased Bcl-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> and increased oxidative stress.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
        <p>TXNIP and Trx proteins have been shown to participate in the regulation of apoptosis pathways.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> An <italic>in vitro</italic> study performed by Min et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> showed that TXNIP down-regulates Bcl-2 gene expression. Another study, with human epithelial cells, showed that treatment with VD increases TXNIP and decreases Trx activity. In addition, the authors observed increased in oxidative stress, decreased Bcl-2 expression and apoptosis activation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In our study, the animals supplemented with VD showed a decrease in the flow of oxidizable substrates for &#946;-oxidation, TCA, and ETC. On the other hand, the animals presented an increase in the glycolytic pathway. Changes in metabolism may be mediated by two important transcription factors, PGC-1&#945; and PPAR &#945;. PGC-1&#945; binds to PPAR&#945; and retinoid receptor, forming a complex that regulates the transcription of enzymes of fatty acids &#946;-oxidation and ETC, and inhibits pyruvate oxidation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> In this study, VD supplementation led to lower PGC-1&#945; expression. Studies have shown that TXNIP and Trx proteins regulate energy metabolism pathways,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> for example, modulating the PGC-1&#945;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> Transgenic mice that overexpress Trx in the heart presented increased expression of PGC-1&#945; and improvement of mitochondrial function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Our findings allow us to suppose that one of the mechanisms involved in metabolic and molecular alterations observed in animals supplemented with VD for two months are changes in the TXNIP/Trx complex.</p>
        <p>All these metabolic and molecular changes precede the changes in the structure and function of the heart.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> The animals supplemented with VD for two months showed no changes in cardiac structure and function. However, studies with prolonged supplementation are necessary to assess whether VD can lead to such changes.</p>
        <p>For most of the changes observed in our study, VD showed a dose-dependent response, and the intensity of these changes increased at the highest dose of VD.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limitations</title>
          <p>VD supplementation in this study was carried out for two months, which allowed us to observe only biochemical, cellular, and molecular changes. Studies with longer supplementation periods could show changes in cardiac structure and function, which is clinically more relevant.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>In conclusion, in our study, VD supplementation in non-hypercalcemic doses lead to early process of cardiac remodeling. The possible mechanism of cardiac changes by VD supplementation is by TXNIP and Trx modulation and consequently oxidative stress.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn2">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study was partially funded by FAPESP and CAPES.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis doctoral submitted by Priscila Portugal dos Santos from Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; UNESP.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>*Supplemental Materials</bold>
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          <p>For additional information, please click here.</p>
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