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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">7dDtKCbfgZygXGtCRPZhvtN</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2021000500814</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20200420</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20200420</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Disautonomia: Uma Condi&#231;&#227;o Esquecida &#8211; Parte 1</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8975-1182</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Arrais</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1078-4104</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mehta</surname>
            <given-names>Niraj</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2339-8731</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>T&#225;vora-Mehta</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Zildany Pinheiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7204-8490</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Roncari</surname>
            <given-names>Camila Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8756-5519</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cidr&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Alan Alves de Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2947-3066</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Elias</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Cear&#225;</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cant&#237;dio</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Faculdade de Medicina da UFC</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cant&#237;dio da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC) - Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Faculdade de Medicina da UFC, Fortaleza, CE - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Cl&#237;nica de Eletrofisiologia do Paran&#225;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica de Eletrofisiologia do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Cear&#225;</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC), Fortaleza, CE - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Faculdade de Medicina da UFC</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Faculdade de Medicina da UFC, Fortaleza, CE - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>6</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Servi&#231;o de Eletrofisiologia do Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Vit&#243;ria</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Eletrofisiologia do Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital, Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Eduardo Arrais Rocha</bold> &#8226; Av. Padre Ant&#244;nio Tom&#225;s, 3535/ 1301. CEP <postal-code>60190-120</postal-code>, Fortaleza, CE - Brasil. E-mail: <email>eduardoarraisrocha@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Rocha EA; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados, Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual: Rocha EA, Mehta N, T&#225;vora-Mehta MZP, Roncari CF, Cidr&#227;o AAL, Elias Neto J; An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Elias Neto J; Rocha EA, Mehta N, T&#225;vora-Mehta MZP, Roncari CF, Cidr&#227;o AAL, Elias Neto.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Os autores declaram n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>16</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2021</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>116</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>814</fpage>
      <lpage>835</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2020</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo &#8211; Pontos Essenciais</title>
        <p>O termo disautonomia abrange um conjunto de condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas com caracter&#237;sticas e progn&#243;sticos distintos. Classificam-se em s&#237;ndromes reflexas, s&#237;ndrome postural ortost&#225;tica taquicardizante (SPOT), s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica, Hipotens&#227;o Ortost&#225;tica Neurog&#234;nica (HON) e a S&#237;ndrome da hipersensibilidade do seio carot&#237;deo. As s&#237;ndromes reflexas (vasovagal) n&#227;o ser&#227;o discutidas neste artigo.</p>
        <p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>As s&#237;ndromes reflexas (vasovagal) s&#227;o, na maioria das vezes, benignas, e ocorrem usualmente em pacientes sem doen&#231;a intr&#237;nseca do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA) ou do cora&#231;&#227;o. Por isso, geralmente s&#227;o estudadas separadamente.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O termo neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC) &#233; o mais utilizado na atualidade para definir as disautonomias com comprometimento do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo cardiovascular simp&#225;tico e/ou parassimp&#225;tico. Pode ser idiop&#225;tica, como a atrofia multissist&#234;mica ou a fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura, ou secund&#225;ria a patologias sist&#234;micas como diabetes mellitus, doen&#231;as neurodegenerativas, doen&#231;a de Parkinson, s&#237;ndromes demenciais, insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, amiloidose, podendo tamb&#233;m acometer idosos.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A presen&#231;a de neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC) implica em maior gravidade e pior progn&#243;stico em diversas situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (HO) &#233; um sinal tardio e significa maior gravidade no contexto das disautonomias, definida como hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica (HON). Deve ser diferenciada das hipotens&#245;es por hipovolemia ou medicamentosas, chamadas de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica n&#227;o neurog&#234;nica (HONN).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A HO pode decorrer de causas benignas, como a hipovolemia aguda, cr&#244;nica, ou ao uso de diversos f&#225;rmacos. Esses f&#225;rmacos podem, entretanto, apenas desmascarar quadros subcl&#237;nicos de disautonomia. Deve-se reavaliar todos os f&#225;rmacos de pacientes com quadros disauton&#244;micos.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O diagn&#243;stico preciso de NAC e a investiga&#231;&#227;o do envolvimento de outros &#243;rg&#227;os ou sistemas &#233; de extrema import&#226;ncia na suspeita cl&#237;nica de uma pandisautonomia.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>No diab&#233;tico, al&#233;m da idade e do tempo de doen&#231;a, outros fatores est&#227;o associados a maior ocorr&#234;ncia de NAC, como descontrole glic&#234;mico, hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia e obesidade. Entre os pacientes diab&#233;ticos, 38&#8211;44% podem evoluir com disautonomia, com implica&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas e maior mortalidade cardiovascular. Nas etapas iniciais da DM, a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica envolve o sistema parassimp&#225;tico, posteriormente o simp&#225;tico e mais tardiamente manifesta-se com hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Os testes de Valsalva, respirat&#243;rio e ortost&#225;tico (30:15) s&#227;o os m&#233;todos de padr&#227;o ouro para o diagn&#243;stico de NAC. Eles podem ser associados aos testes de variabilidade RR no dom&#237;nio do tempo, e principalmente da frequ&#234;ncia, para aumento da sensibilidade (protocolo dos 7 testes). Esses testes podem detectar altera&#231;&#245;es iniciais ou subcl&#237;nicas e avaliar a gravidade e o progn&#243;stico.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o (<italic>tilt test</italic>) n&#227;o deve ser o exame de escolha para investiga&#231;&#227;o de NAC em fase inicial, pois detecta casos em fases mais avan&#231;adas. A resposta no tilt com padr&#227;o disauton&#244;mico (queda gradativa da press&#227;o arterial sem aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca) pode sugerir NAC.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O tratamento dos pacientes em fases moderadas a avan&#231;adas das disautonomias &#233; bastante complexo e muitas vezes refrat&#225;rio, necessitando de avalia&#231;&#227;o especializada e multidisciplinar. N&#227;o h&#225; cura para a maioria das disautonomias em fase tardia.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Os pacientes com HON podem evoluir com hipertens&#227;o supina em mais de 50% dos casos, representando um grande desafio terap&#234;utico. O risco imediato e as consequ&#234;ncias da HO devem ter prefer&#234;ncia sobre os riscos mais tardios da hipertens&#227;o supina e valores maiores que 160/90 mmHg s&#227;o toler&#225;veis. Medidas como dormir com a cabeceira elevada (20&#8211;30 cm), n&#227;o levantar &#224; noite, uso de anti-hipertensivo de a&#231;&#227;o curta noturna para casos mais severos, como a losartana, captopril, clonidina ou adesivos de nitratos, podem ser necess&#225;rios e efetivos em alguns casos.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>As medidas preventivas como cuidados posturais, boa hidrata&#231;&#227;o, maior ingesta de sal, uso de meias e cintas abdominais compressoras, refei&#231;&#245;es fracionadas, atividade f&#237;sica supervisionada principalmente sentada, deitada ou exerc&#237;cios na &#225;gua s&#227;o etapas importantes no tratamento.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Diversos f&#225;rmacos podem ser usados para HON sintom&#225;tica, principalmente a fludrocortisona, a midodrina e a droxidopa. Esses &#250;ltimas n&#227;o est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis no Brasil. O risco de exacerba&#231;&#227;o ou desencadeamento de hipertens&#227;o supina deve ser considerado.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica representa uma forma de disautonomia e tem sido renomeada como doen&#231;a sist&#234;mica de intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, com novos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos: 1 - Fadiga inexplicada, levando a incapacidade para o trabalho por mais que 6 meses; 2 - Mal-estar ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio; 3 - Sono n&#227;o reparador; 4 - Mais um dos seguintes achados: comprometimento cognitivo ou intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica. V&#225;rias patologias na atualidade t&#234;m evolu&#237;do com fadiga cr&#244;nica, sendo denominadas de doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas associadas a fadiga cr&#244;nica.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A s&#237;ndrome postural ortost&#225;tica taquicardizante (SPOT), outra forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o das s&#237;ndromes disauton&#244;micas, &#233; caracterizada por eleva&#231;&#227;o sustentada da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) &#8805;30 bpm (&#8805;40 bpm se &lt;20 anos) ou FC &#8805;120 bpm, nos primeiros 10 minutos em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica ou durante o <italic>tilt test</italic>, sem hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica cl&#225;ssica associada. Pode ocorrer leve redu&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o arterial. Os sintomas manifestam-se ou pioram em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, sendo comuns a tontura, fraqueza, pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope, palpita&#231;&#245;es, al&#233;m de outros sintomas sist&#234;micos.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Disautonomia</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ncope</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipotens&#227;o Ortost&#225;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome da Fadiga Cr&#244;nica</kwd>
        <kwd>Amiloidose</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a de Chagas</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Neuropatia Auton&#244;mica Cardiovascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipersensibilidade do Seio Carot&#237;deo</kwd>
        <kwd>Diabetes Mellitus</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="12"/>
        <table-count count="14"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="119"/>
        <page-count count="22"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <boxed-text id="box1">
      <caption>
        <title>S&#237;ndromes Vasovagais x Disautonomia</title>
      </caption>
      <p>As s&#237;ndromes vasovagais s&#227;o situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas distintas das neuropatias auton&#244;micas cardiovasculares, pois n&#227;o representam doen&#231;as intr&#237;nsecas no sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA), sendo decorrentes de mecanismos reflexos, transit&#243;rios, benignos, tendo, portanto, progn&#243;stico favor&#225;vel.</p>
    </boxed-text>
    <sec>
      <title>Disautonomia: uma condi&#231;&#227;o frequente e subdiagnosticada</title>
      <p>O sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA) regula importantes fun&#231;&#245;es nos diversos sistemas org&#226;nicos como cardiovascular, digest&#243;rio, g&#234;nito-urin&#225;rio e sudomotor. Suas disfun&#231;&#245;es podem determinar diversas manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, algumas debilitantes e graves. Diversas patologias podem comprometer o SNA e determinar sintomatologia, aumentando os riscos de s&#237;ncope, quedas e de maior mortalidade cardiovascular. Em virtude das diferentes manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e da pouca familiaridade dos profissionais, a disautonomia costuma ser frequentemente subdiagnosticada, sendo reconhecidas em etapas mais avan&#231;adas, com sintomas j&#225; debilitantes, incapacitantes e com pior progn&#243;stico.</p>
      <p>O termo neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC) significa envolvimento do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, relacionado &#224;s fun&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares. A diabetes mellitus (DM) representa a forma mais comum e estudada das NAC e serve de modelo de compreens&#227;o e investiga&#231;&#227;o para diversas outras patologias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Na popula&#231;&#227;o diab&#233;tica, &#233; conhecida como neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular diab&#233;tica, tendo preval&#234;ncia de 20% em pacientes com DM, sendo de at&#233; 54% no tipo I (DM1) e 46% no tipo II (DM2), na faixa entre os 40 e 70 anos de idade. No diab&#233;tico, al&#233;m da idade e tempo de doen&#231;a, outros fatores est&#227;o associados a maior risco de NAC, como descontrole glic&#234;mico, hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia e obesidade. Nas etapas iniciais da DM, a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica envolve o sistema parassimp&#225;tico, posteriormente o simp&#225;tico e mais tardiamente, evoluem com hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
      <p>O sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo cardiovascular modula a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, os volumes diast&#243;lico e sist&#243;lico, o intervalo QT e a resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica. Seu comprometimento est&#225; relacionado &#224; maior morbimortalidade cardiovascular.</p>
      <p>O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; oferecer informa&#231;&#245;es relevantes das diferentes formas de disfun&#231;&#245;es auton&#244;micas, suas manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, metodologias diagn&#243;sticas, terap&#234;uticas e implica&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas. Enfatizamos a import&#226;ncia do diagn&#243;stico, de sua distin&#231;&#227;o das s&#237;ndromes reflexas vasovagais e a necessidade de maior difus&#227;o das informa&#231;&#245;es dessas patologias, j&#225; que &#233; pouco lembrada na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica geral. As s&#237;ndromes reflexas vasovagais n&#227;o ser&#227;o abordadas neste cap&#237;tulo.</p>
      <p>Foram consideradas para elabora&#231;&#227;o desta revis&#227;o, diversas diretrizes, como: Diretrizes de Neuropatia Auton&#244;mica Cardiovascular (NAC), Consenso de Hipotens&#227;o Ortost&#225;tica Neurog&#234;nica e Hipertens&#227;o Supina, Diretrizes de S&#237;ncopes, Diretrizes de NAC no Diab&#233;tico, Diretrizes de Testes Cardiovasculares em Neuropatia Auton&#244;mica, o Consenso de Investiga&#231;&#227;o de Disfun&#231;&#227;o Auton&#244;mica em Estudos de Pesquisa Humana, Consenso no Diagn&#243;stico e Tratamento da S&#237;ndrome Postural Ortost&#225;tica Taquicardizante e Taquicardia Sinusal Inapropriada, dentre outros estudos. Discuss&#245;es entre especialistas da Sociedade Brasileira de Arritmias Card&#237;acas foram inclu&#237;das, considerando a car&#234;ncia de grandes estudos em diversos t&#243;picos abordados neste trabalho.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Fisiologia do Sistema Nervoso Aut&#244;nomo</title>
      <p>O sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA) possui um papel importante no controle das fun&#231;&#245;es viscerais atrav&#233;s das subdivis&#245;es simp&#225;tica e parassimp&#225;tica.</p>
      <p>O SNA propicia ajustes neurovegetativos para a express&#227;o de comportamentos motivados ou respostas compensat&#243;rias frente a est&#237;mulos internos e externos para, juntamente com o sistema end&#243;crino, promover a manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase. O termo &#8220;sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo&#8221; foi proposto por Langley em 1898, uma vez que as nomenclaturas utilizadas at&#233; ent&#227;o tinham diferentes conota&#231;&#245;es e eram imprecisas quanto &#224;s fun&#231;&#245;es recentemente descobertas desse sistema.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Para facilitar a compreens&#227;o, o SNA &#233; comumente analisado quanto aos seus aspectos anat&#244;micos, neuroqu&#237;micos e funcionais. A organiza&#231;&#227;o b&#225;sica envolve dois grupos neuronais, arranjados em s&#233;rie e conectados por uma sinapse qu&#237;mica. O segundo neur&#244;nio dessa s&#233;rie est&#225; completamente fora do sistema nervoso central e o seu corpo celular est&#225; localizado nos g&#226;nglios auton&#244;micos, de onde partem proje&#231;&#245;es axonais, que v&#227;o inervar os &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, sendo denominados neur&#244;nios p&#243;s-ganglionares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
      <p>J&#225; os neur&#244;nios, que enviam as proje&#231;&#245;es axonais do sistema nervoso central para os g&#226;nglios, fazendo sinapse com os corpos celulares presentes nessas estruturas, s&#227;o denominados neur&#244;nios pr&#233;-ganglionares.</p>
      <p>A diferen&#231;a anat&#244;mica entre SNA simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico diz respeito &#224; localiza&#231;&#227;o dos corpos celulares dos neur&#244;nios pr&#233;-ganglionares, sendo que os neur&#244;nios pr&#233;-ganglionares simp&#225;ticos est&#227;o localizados nos segmentos tor&#225;cicos e lombares da medula espinhal, e os parassimp&#225;ticos, no tronco encef&#225;lico e nos segmentos sacrais da medula espinhal.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; neuroqu&#237;mica, todos os neur&#244;nios pr&#233;-ganglionares s&#227;o colin&#233;rgicos e usam acetilcolina como neurotransmissor. Embora haja algumas exce&#231;&#245;es, os neur&#244;nios p&#243;s-ganglionares parassimp&#225;ticos liberam acetilcolina no &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo, enquanto os simp&#225;ticos liberam noradrenalina.</p>
      <p>As c&#233;lulas da medula adrenal s&#227;o hom&#243;logas aos neur&#244;nios p&#243;s-ganglionares simp&#225;ticos e secretam principalmente adrenalina e, em menor propor&#231;&#227;o, noradrenalina diretamente na corrente sangu&#237;nea, em resposta &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o por neur&#244;nios pr&#233;-ganglionares simp&#225;ticos.</p>
      <p>Finalmente, o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e o parassimp&#225;tico divergem quanto &#224;s respostas desencadeadas nos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. Algumas poucas estruturas recebem inerva&#231;&#227;o &#250;nica, enquanto a maioria dos &#243;rg&#227;os recebem inerva&#231;&#227;o dupla. As respostas induzidas pela estimula&#231;&#227;o do SNA simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico podem ser antag&#244;nicas ou cooperativas.</p>
      <p>Como mostrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">figura 1</xref>, os vasos sangu&#237;neos sist&#234;micos s&#227;o inervados pelo SNA simp&#225;tico. A maior ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores &#945;<sup>1</sup>-adren&#233;rgicos pelo aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico ou libera&#231;&#227;o de adrenalina pela gl&#226;ndula adrenal causa vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o na maioria dos vasos sangu&#237;neos sist&#234;micos, especialmente nos vasos das v&#237;sceras abdominais, um importante leito de resist&#234;ncia com grande influ&#234;ncia sobre a determina&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial (PA).</p>
      <fig id="f1">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Inerva&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o e dos vasos sangu&#237;neos pelo SNA simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico. Os neur&#244;nios parassimp&#225;ticos est&#227;o representados em vermelho e os neur&#244;nios simp&#225;ticos, em verde. Nodo SA &#8212; nodo sinoatrial; nodo AV &#8212; nodo atrioventricular. Para facilitar a visualiza&#231;&#227;o, foi representado um &#250;nico segmento medular esquem&#225;tico e as imagens n&#227;o est&#227;o representadas na mesma escala gr&#225;fica.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      <p>Em contrapartida, a redu&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico ou dos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de adrenalina resultam em vasodilata&#231;&#227;o. Os vasos sangu&#237;neos coron&#225;rios particularmente expressam receptores &#946;<sup>2</sup> e sofrem vasodilata&#231;&#227;o em resposta &#224; adrenalina.</p>
      <p>O cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; inervado pelos sistemas simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). A inerva&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica card&#237;aca &#233; direcionada para os nodos sinoatrial (SA) e atrioventricular (AV) e a acetilcolina se liga aos receptores colin&#233;rgicos muscar&#237;nicos M<sup>2</sup>, expressos nas c&#233;lulas dos nodos, induzindo efeito cronotr&#243;pico negativo. Por outro lado, o SNA simp&#225;tico inerva tanto os nodos SA e AV quanto o m&#250;sculo ventricular. A noradrenalina induz efeitos cronotr&#243;pico e inotr&#243;pico positivos por a&#231;&#227;o em receptores &#946;<sup>1</sup>-adren&#233;rgicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Todas as c&#233;lulas card&#237;acas, em princ&#237;pio, apresentam a propriedade el&#233;trica de automatismo; no entanto, em condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas, as c&#233;lulas do nodo SA apresentam despolariza&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea em maior frequ&#234;ncia e assumem o controle dos batimentos card&#237;acos, sendo consideradas o marca-passo card&#237;aco.</p>
      <p>Ap&#243;s o bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico dos receptores muscar&#237;nicos e &#946;-adren&#233;rgicos, a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca intr&#237;nseca gerada pelo nodo sinoatrial &#233; de aproximadamente 100 batimentos por minuto, sugerindo que existe um predom&#237;nio da influ&#234;ncia parassimp&#225;tica sobre o cora&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Para ajustes da PA, o t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico para o cora&#231;&#227;o e vasos sangu&#237;neos s&#227;o frequentemente modificados pelo barorreflexo.</p>
      <p>A press&#227;o arterial (PA) &#233; constantemente monitorada pelos barorreceptores de alta press&#227;o (receptores de estiramento) presentes no arco a&#243;rtico e no seio carot&#237;deo, que enviam sinaliza&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s do nervo vago e glossofar&#237;ngeo, respectivamente, para o n&#250;cleo do trato solit&#225;rio (NTS), localizado na por&#231;&#227;o dorsomedial do bulbo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Em situa&#231;&#245;es de eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA, os barorreceptores s&#227;o mais ativados e, por mecanismos barorreflexos, ocorre um aumento do t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico e redu&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico para cora&#231;&#227;o e vasos sangu&#237;neos. O aumento dos disparos dos barorreceptores ativa o NTS que, por sua vez, ativa o n&#250;cleo amb&#237;guo (NA), n&#250;cleo bulbar onde se encontram os corpos celulares dos neur&#244;nios pr&#233;-ganglionares parassimp&#225;ticos, resultando em aumento do t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico. Paralelamente, o NTS tamb&#233;m ativa o bulbo caudal ventrolateral (BCVL), regi&#227;o que emite proje&#231;&#245;es inibit&#243;rias para o bulbo rostral ventrolateral (BRVL). Os neur&#244;nios do BRVL s&#227;o considerados pr&#233;-simp&#225;ticos, porque se projetam para a coluna intermediolateral da medula espinhal e fazem sinapse com os corpos celulares dos neur&#244;nios pr&#233;-ganglionares simp&#225;ticos. Assim, a maior atividade da BCVL resulta em inibi&#231;&#227;o da BRVL e consequente redu&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico.</p>
      <p>Por outro lado, a menor atividade dos barorreceptores durante queda da PA resulta em: 1) menor ativa&#231;&#227;o do NA e, portanto, redu&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico; e 2) menor ativa&#231;&#227;o do BCVL e, consequentemente, maior atividade do BRVL e aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico para o cora&#231;&#227;o e vasos sangu&#237;neos.</p>
      <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es no funcionamento normal do mecanismo barorreflexo podem desencadear condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas denominadas disautonomias, como a hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica, por exemplo. A mudan&#231;a da posi&#231;&#227;o supina para a ortost&#225;tica aumenta a resist&#234;ncia gravitacional ao retorno venoso, resultando em redu&#231;&#227;o do volume diast&#243;lico final e, consequentemente, do volume sist&#243;lico (VS), observada em diversas patologias.</p>
      <p>A PA &#233; diretamente proporcional &#224; resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica total e ao d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, sendo esse &#250;ltimo o volume de sangue bombeado pelo cora&#231;&#227;o por minuto, ou seja, VS multiplicado pela frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC).</p>
      <p>Assim, a redu&#231;&#227;o do VS ap&#243;s mudan&#231;a para a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica induz hipotens&#227;o. Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, essa hipotens&#227;o &#233; transit&#243;ria porque os mecanismos barorreflexos s&#227;o rapidamente ativados e causam aumento de for&#231;a de contra&#231;&#227;o e FC e vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, respostas compensat&#243;rias que normalizam a PA. J&#225; em indiv&#237;duos que apresentam disautonomia, pode ocorrer hipotens&#227;o prolongada, denominada hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica (HON).</p>
      <boxed-text id="box2">
        <caption>
          <title>Atrofia Multissist&#234;mica (AMS) - S&#237;ndrome de Shy-Dragger</title>
        </caption>
        <p>A s&#237;ndrome completa consiste em hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, incontin&#234;ncia urin&#225;ria e fecal, perda de sudorese, atrofia da &#237;ris, paralisia ocular externa, rigidez, tremores, perda de movimentos, impot&#234;ncia, achados de bexiga at&#244;nica e perda de t&#244;nus retal, fascicula&#231;&#245;es, atrofia de m&#250;sculos distais e evid&#234;ncia de les&#245;es neurop&#225;ticas. A data de in&#237;cio &#233; entre a 5 e a 7&#7491; d&#233;cada de vida.</p>
      </boxed-text>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Fisiopatologia e as apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</title>
      <p>Diversos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos t&#234;m sido descritos nas altera&#231;&#245;es do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA). Eles podem variar dependendo das etiologias espec&#237;ficas, como no diabetes ou na amiloidose. V&#225;rias situa&#231;&#245;es, entretanto, t&#234;m seus mecanismos causais desconhecidos.</p>
      <p>Apesar de outros neurotransmissores serem importantes na regula&#231;&#227;o das respostas cardiovasculares, a libera&#231;&#227;o de noradrenalina nas termina&#231;&#245;es nervosas p&#243;s ganglionares simp&#225;ticas &#233; o mais importante mediador da r&#225;pida regula&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular necess&#225;ria no equil&#237;brio press&#243;rico e perfus&#227;o cerebral. A hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica representa uma defici&#234;ncia na responsividade deste neurotransmissor &#224; mudan&#231;a postural.</p>
      <p>Diferente das s&#237;ndromes reflexas ou vasovagais, nos quadros de disautonomia, os reflexos de aumento na frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca precedendo o quadro cl&#237;nico e a bradicardia concomitante com a hipotens&#227;o n&#227;o s&#227;o observados.</p>
      <p>Na diabetes mellitus, ocorrem altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e vasculares que podem justificar o dano neurol&#243;gico. A hiperglicemia, o ac&#250;mulo de sorbitol, de frutose e de produtos finais da glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada, com liga&#231;&#245;es a receptores nas c&#233;lulas endoteliais e musculares lisas do <italic>vaso-nervorum</italic> das c&#233;lulas de Schwann e dos macr&#243;fagos, podem contribuir para o dano neurol&#243;gico. O estresse oxidativo levando &#224; deple&#231;&#227;o das enzimas antioxidantes celulares e ativa&#231;&#227;o da cascata de inflama&#231;&#227;o, com deteriora&#231;&#227;o de organelas celulares, principalmente a n&#237;vel mitocondrial, s&#227;o outros mecanismos que culminam em oclus&#227;o vascular, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e neuroinflama&#231;&#227;o, determinando toxicidade e morte neuronal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Nas sinucleinopatias, entidade que engloba a doen&#231;a de Parkinson, a dem&#234;ncia de corpos de Lewy, a fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura (s&#237;ndrome de Bradbury-Eggleston) e a atrofia multissist&#234;mica (s&#237;ndrome de Shy-Dragger) ocorrem o dep&#243;sito intracelular e a agrega&#231;&#227;o de uma prote&#237;na chamada alfa-sinucle&#237;na em diversas regi&#245;es do sistema nervoso central e perif&#233;rico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A atrofia multissist&#234;mica (AMS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> uma forma idiop&#225;tica mais grave e rara, descrita em 1960, apresenta-se sob duas formas: 1. Parkinsonismo, na qual observa-se rigidez muscular e bradicinesia (diferente da cl&#225;ssica doen&#231;a de Parkinson, na qual predominam tremores; 2. Cerebelar, cuja manifesta&#231;&#227;o &#233; a ataxia. Ambas as formas t&#234;m envolvimento do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> Imagens na resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica nuclear cerebral demonstram atrofia cerebelar, da ponte ou dos ped&#250;nculos cerebrais, ou hipersinal na ponte, conhecido como sinal da cruz, que pode ocorrer mais tardiamente. As dosagens de catecolaminas s&#227;o usualmente normais, por ser uma polineuropatia auton&#244;mica pr&#233;-ganglionar.</p>
      <p>Na fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura, de etiologia idiop&#225;tica, descrita em 1925 e conhecida como uma polineuropatia auton&#244;mica p&#243;s-ganglionar, os sintomas s&#227;o graduais, progressivos, podendo chegar a quadros severos e debilitantes, com importante comprometimento cardiovascular, hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica grave, com envolvimento dos sistemas g&#234;nito-urin&#225;rio, digest&#243;rio e sudomotor.</p>
      <p>Por n&#227;o apresentarem sintomas neurodegenerativos centrais, os exames de imagem cerebral na fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura s&#227;o normais e as dosagens de catecolaminas plasm&#225;ticas s&#227;o normais ou baixas, por&#233;m n&#227;o apresentam incremento adequado (&gt;50%) com a ortostase, devido &#224; denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica perif&#233;rica difusa.</p>
      <p>Algumas toxinas podem ser fatores causais, como intoxica&#231;&#245;es por chumbo, t&#225;lio, ars&#234;nio, ou uso de alguns f&#225;rmacos como quimioter&#225;picos da classe da cisplatina ou dos alcaloides da vinca, antiarr&#237;tmicos como amiodarona, ou defici&#234;ncias vitam&#237;nicas como a da vitamina B12.</p>
      <p>Casos raros de origem familiar podem ocorrer, como a neuropatia sensorial e auton&#244;mica heredit&#225;ria (HSAN). S&#227;o divididas em: HSAN tipo I, de forma mais leve, iniciando-se na vida adulta, com envolvimento sensorial e auton&#244;mico distal, com ulcera&#231;&#245;es nos p&#233;s; HSAN tipo II, mais rara, com in&#237;cio na inf&#226;ncia, com comprometimento mais difuso e severo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref></p>
      <p>As etiologias autoimunes podem justificar diversas apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas agudas e subagudas de pandisautonomias, com algumas similaridades com a s&#237;ndrome de Guillain-Barr&#233; (SGB). Entretanto, nas pandisautonomias agudas, as fibras som&#225;ticas s&#227;o geralmente poupadas, diferente da SGB. Algum grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica est&#225; presente tamb&#233;m na maioria dos casos da SGB.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Amiloidose</title>
        <p>A amiloidose pode se apresentar nas seguintes formas:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Na forma mais comum, conhecida como de cadeias leves (AL) ou amiloidose prim&#225;ria, observa-se uma prolifera&#231;&#227;o anormal clonal de c&#233;lulas plasm&#225;ticas. Inicialmente, ocorre uma neuropatia perif&#233;rica sensitiva distal, progredindo para fibras largas, com posterior fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os acometidos, como sistema digest&#243;rio, incluindo es&#244;fago e intestino, sudomotor, com anidrose alternada com sudorese compensat&#243;ria, envolvimento renal e s&#237;ndrome nefr&#243;tica e comprometimento card&#237;aco, com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, arritmias e morte s&#250;bita. Na avalia&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, pode-se constatar comprometimento dos sistemas simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Na forma da amiloidose familiar (AF), tamb&#233;m chamada de paramiloidose ou doen&#231;a de Corino Andrade,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> popularmente conhecida como doen&#231;a dos pezinhos, apresenta-se na forma autoss&#244;mica dominante, descrita originalmente pelo professor Portugu&#234;s Dr. Corino de Andrade, em 1952. Tem maior incid&#234;ncia entre os 20 e 40 anos, evoluindo para &#243;bito com 10&#8211;12 anos de evolu&#231;&#227;o.</p>
            <p>Tem fen&#243;tipo vari&#225;vel, dependendo da regi&#227;o geogr&#225;fica e da muta&#231;&#227;o. Foram descritas diversas formas como: a portuguesa (tipo I) ou de Andrade, a Rukovina ou tipo Indiana (tipo II), a de van Alien (tipo III) e o tipo Finland&#234;s (tipo IV). No Brasil, foram descritas algumas formas dessa patologia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
            <p>A muta&#231;&#227;o no gene da transtirretina (TTR) &#233; a mais conhecida e estudada, tendo diversas muta&#231;&#245;es descritas neste gene. Tem seu in&#237;cio com sintomas de neuropatia perif&#233;rica, podendo evoluir para graves manifesta&#231;&#245;es de disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica generalizada, al&#233;m de sintomas cardiol&#243;gicos, neurol&#243;gicos (polineuropatia perif&#233;rica sensitivo-motora), visuais, g&#234;nito-urin&#225;rios, renais e gastrointestinais. A detec&#231;&#227;o precoce &#233; extremamente importante, visando o tratamento e evitando a progress&#227;o. O transplante hep&#225;tico antes da doen&#231;a apresentar-se avan&#231;ada pode modificar a evolu&#231;&#227;o. Novas drogas promissoras t&#234;m sido lan&#231;adas como o Tafamidis (estabilizadoras da TTR), j&#225; dispon&#237;vel no Brasil, e o Inotersen.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>A forma secund&#225;ria (forma AA) decorre de patologias cr&#244;nicas como artrite reumatoide, osteomielite, tuberculose, insufici&#234;ncia renal, e seu quadro evolutivo depender&#225; do controle da doen&#231;a de base.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>A amiloidose card&#237;aca &#233; causada principalmente pela AL ou AF tipo transtirretina (ATTR) ou por deposi&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas transtirretina tipo selvagem (<italic>wild-type transthyretin protein),</italic> previamente chamada de amiloidose card&#237;aca senil. Dep&#243;sitos de TTR foram observados em 16% dos pacientes com estenose a&#243;rtica degenerativa e em at&#233; 17% dos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada. O progn&#243;stico ap&#243;s acometimento card&#237;aco &#233; ruim, com a sobrevida variando entre 2,5 e 3,6 anos. O ecocardiograma, com aumento importante da espessura da parede do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (&gt;14 mm), apesar da baixa voltagem no eletrocardiograma, pode sugerir o diagn&#243;stico, sendo complementado pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica nuclear card&#237;aca e a cintilografia com pirofosfato de tecn&#233;sio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref></p>
        <p>No estudo randomizado ATTR-ACT de avalia&#231;&#227;o da seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia do Tafamidis em pacientes com amiloidose card&#237;aca, foram observadas redu&#231;&#227;o de todas as causas de mortalidade e interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares ap&#243;s 30 meses de seguimento, passando a ser indicado nessa patologia para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca classe funcional (CF) I, II e III NYHA (<italic>New York Heart Association</italic>), principalmente nas fases precoces. Essa foi a primeira terapia a mostrar melhora na sobrevida desses pacientes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Em muitos casos de disautonomias, relatos de infec&#231;&#245;es virais recentes s&#227;o identificadas, principalmente por herpes-v&#237;rus, Epstein-Barr e Coxsackie. Autoanticorpos antirreceptores gangli&#244;nicos de acetilcolina (AChr) foram encontrados em 50% dos pacientes com FAP, em 7% dos pacientes com SPOT e em 0% nos controles. A aus&#234;ncia desses anticorpos n&#227;o afasta o diagn&#243;stico. Relatos de casos demonstraram sucesso terap&#234;utico com aplica&#231;&#227;o de imunoglobulinas em algumas dessas situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Nas s&#237;ndromes paraneopl&#225;sicas, mais comumente nos carcinomas de pequenas c&#233;lulas pulmonares, autoanticorpos, principalmente o anti-Hu ou ANNA-1, usualmente est&#227;o presentes, e as apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas costumam ser agudas ou subagudas.</p>
        <p>A teoria autoimune &#233; refor&#231;ada pelo aparecimento de sintomas ap&#243;s quadros virais, estados febris, ap&#243;s vacina&#231;&#227;o e em pacientes com doen&#231;as autoimunes pr&#233;vias, como tireoidite de Hashimoto, doen&#231;a cel&#237;aca e l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico.</p>
        <p>Estudos demonstraram que a teoria autoimune pode ser o mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico das formas &#8220;idiop&#225;ticas&#8221; de algumas s&#237;ndromes disauton&#244;micas, como a fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura (FAP), SPOT ou a s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Anticorpos antirreceptores colin&#233;rgicos nicot&#237;nicos tamb&#233;m foram descritos. Recentemente, autores demonstraram o mecanismo pelo qual os autoanticorpos causam vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e taquicardia. Esses achados podem ter implica&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas importantes. Na presen&#231;a de anticorpos antirreceptores de acetilcolina, o uso de f&#225;rmacos como a piridostigmina podem ser ben&#233;ficos. J&#225; na presen&#231;a de anticorpos adren&#233;rgicos, os betabloqueadores poderiam ser a melhor escolha.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Doen&#231;a de Chagas</title>
        <p>A disautonomia card&#237;aca est&#225; bem estabelecida na doen&#231;a de Chagas (DCh), na qual a denerva&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e anormalidades funcionais t&#234;m sido descritas em estudos <italic>in vivo, post mortem</italic> e experimentais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>-46</sup> Os trabalhos originais de Carlos Chagas j&#225; chamavam a aten&#231;&#227;o para a aus&#234;ncia de resposta cronotr&#243;pica &#224; atropina nos pacientes chag&#225;sicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Al&#233;m da denerva&#231;&#227;o, outras altera&#231;&#245;es no sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, como ganglionite, neurite, fibrose, atrofia e fragmenta&#231;&#227;o de fibras especializadas tamb&#233;m foram relatadas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O comprometimento parassimp&#225;tico pode ser detectado em todas as formas da DCh, incluindo a fase indeterminada e independente da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref> Esses dados foram corroborados por uma metan&#225;lise que incluiu sete estudos que avaliaram a modula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica card&#237;aca, usando a variabilidade R-R durante a manobra de Valsalva.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Estudos com metaiodobenzilguanidina I-<sup>123</sup> (<sup>123</sup>I-MIBG) detectaram disfun&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica em pacientes chag&#225;sicos com forma indeterminada e sem disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> A cintilografia com <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG tamb&#233;m foi utilizada para avaliar a presen&#231;a e magnitude da disfun&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular (FE&#8804;45%). Os autores observaram uma baixa na capta&#231;&#227;o de <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG, indicando uma disfun&#231;&#227;o dos receptores simp&#225;ticos e perda da integridade das fibras simp&#225;ticas pr&#233;-sin&#225;pticas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Um aspecto que demanda mais elucida&#231;&#227;o &#233; o papel dos mecanismos imunomediados na cardiopatia chag&#225;sica. De fato, v&#225;rios estudos demonstraram a presen&#231;a de anticorpos que reagem com os receptores M2 muscar&#237;nicos card&#237;acos e receptores adren&#233;rgicos B1 no soro de pacientes chag&#225;sicos assintom&#225;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Esses autoanticorpos poderiam desempenhar um papel na patog&#234;nese da miocardite chag&#225;sica, explicando a neuromiopatia card&#237;aca, descrita na fase indeterminada.</p>
        <p>Outro tema pouco avaliado na disautonomia chag&#225;sica &#233; a pesquisa de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. No estudo ELSA-Brasil, os pacientes com sorologia positiva para DCh apresentavam maior associa&#231;&#227;o com hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (OR=2,29&#8211;IC 95%: 1,2&#8211;4,2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref> Na verdade, existem discrep&#226;ncias nos resultados da avalia&#231;&#227;o do controle vascular em pacientes chag&#225;sicos. Em contraste com outros dist&#250;rbios com amplo envolvimento do SNA (por exemplo, DM e amiloidose), na DCh n&#227;o costuma ser descrita a presen&#231;a de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></p>
        <p>O comprometimento auton&#244;mico precoce na DCh sugere que a disautonomia cardiovascular possa estar associada a um aumento da morbimortalidade, arritmias card&#237;acas e morte s&#250;bita.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref> Ela poderia ser um dos pilares centrais em v&#225;rias manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, como a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e/ou sist&#243;lica, a dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular, as taqui e bradiarritmias e a morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> A disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica card&#237;aca deve ser um fator de risco fisiopatol&#243;gico determinante ou predisponente na g&#234;nese das arritmias. Observa-se maior vulnerabilidade arritmog&#234;nica nos casos com disfun&#231;&#245;es auton&#244;micas mais focais do que nos casos com les&#245;es mais difusas e significativas, em decorr&#234;ncia de maior grau de desconex&#227;o do sistema nervoso central, com menor susceptibilidade de interfer&#234;ncia do SNA nas propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas card&#237;acas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A observa&#231;&#227;o de taquicardia ventricular sustentada em pacientes com cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica, com fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular preservada e denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica mioc&#225;rdica regional (detectada pela cintilografia com <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG), bem como a sua ocorr&#234;ncia durante o estresse ortost&#225;tico em paciente com acometimento discreto da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e sem altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas basais significativas, favorecem a suposi&#231;&#227;o do papel da disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica na fisiopatologia dos dist&#250;rbios do ritmo na cardiopatia chag&#225;sica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></p>
        <boxed-text id="box3">
          <caption>
            <title>Hipotens&#227;o Ortost&#225;tica &#8211; Um Sinal Tardio e de Gravidade</title>
          </caption>
          <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica (HON) representa usualmente uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o tardia e de gravidade, correlacionada com pior progn&#243;stico. Portanto, n&#227;o se deve aguardar pela sua presen&#231;a para diagn&#243;stico de disautonomia. Pacientes com patologias conhecidas ou sintomas que comprometam o SNA devem ser investigados precocemente.</p>
        </boxed-text>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o das S&#237;ndromes Cl&#237;nicas</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Neuropatia Auton&#244;mica Cardiovascular</title>
        <p>Neuropatia Auton&#244;mica Cardiovascular (NAC) &#233; um termo muito utilizado pelas Sociedades de Diabetes e Neuropatia Auton&#244;mica para expressar o comprometimento do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo cardiovascular na vig&#234;ncia de diabetes mellitus, por&#233;m o termo n&#227;o se restringe a essa patologia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> A NAC engloba aspectos do envolvimento do SNA, desde a fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica, que pode ter implica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica, como na intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose ou pr&#233;-diabetes. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>)</p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Causas de disautonomia.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Fonte: elaborada pelo pr&#243;prio autor. A figura exemplifica diversas causas de disfun&#231;&#245;es auton&#244;micas agudas ou cr&#244;nicas, centrais ou perif&#233;ricas. Algumas patologias podem apresentar-se de formas diversas. SPOT: S&#237;ndrome Postural Ortost&#225;tica Taquicardizante.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A express&#227;o hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica, muito usada pelos arritmologistas e cardiologistas, vincula a necessidade da presen&#231;a de HO para defini&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico, situa&#231;&#227;o que, quando detectada, pode representar uma fase tardia e de maior gravidade, muitas vezes com irreversibilidade do quadro.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hipotens&#227;o Ortost&#225;tica Neurog&#234;nica (HON) e Hipertens&#227;o Supina</title>
        <p>A hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica &#233; definida pela presen&#231;a de redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial (PA) sist&#243;lica, de pelo menos 20 mmHg, ou da PA diast&#243;lica de 10 mmHg ou ambas, dentro de 3 minutos ap&#243;s posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica ativa ou durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Nos pacientes que apresentam HON, observa-se comprometimento do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, caracterizado pela incapacidade de proporcionar adequada vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e/ou aumento compensat&#243;rio adequado da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), suficientes para manter a PA ao se assumir a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. Essa disfun&#231;&#227;o &#233; atribu&#237;da, na maioria dos casos, &#224; libera&#231;&#227;o insuficiente de norepinefrina a partir dos nervos simp&#225;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Enquanto na HON a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o comprometida &#233; decorrente de um dano permanente na atividade eferente simp&#225;tica, na hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica n&#227;o neurog&#234;nica (HONN), ela inclui uma variedade de causas, como o uso de medicamentos, anti-hipertensivos, antidepressivos e agentes alfa-bloqueadores (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tabela 1</xref>), al&#233;m da deple&#231;&#227;o de volume e doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas que levam ao descondicionamento f&#237;sico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Medica&#231;&#245;es que podem causar hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica ou exacerbar sintomas de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Classe de Medica&#231;&#245;es</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Exemplos</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Dopamin&#233;rgicos</td>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Levodopa, agonistas da dopamina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Antidepressivos tric&#237;clicos</td>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Amitriptilina, nortriptilina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Anticolin&#233;rgicos</td>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Atropina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8595; pr&#233;-carga</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Furosemida, hidroclorotiazida, espironolactona</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Diur&#233;ticos</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Dinitrato de isossorbida</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Inibidores da fosfodiesterase</td>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Sildenafila, vardenafila</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Vasodilatadores <break/>Antagonistas alfa-1 adren&#233;rgicos <break/>Bloqueadores de Ca++ <break/>Vasodilatadores diretos</td>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Doxazosina, tansulosina <break/>Anlodipino, nifedipina <break/>Hidralazina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Inotr&#243;picos e cronotr&#243;picos negativos Betabloqueadores</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Propranolol, metoprolol, atenolol, bisoprolol, nebivolol, carvedilol</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio (n&#227;o dihidropirid&#237;nicos)</td>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Diltiazem, verapamil</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="left" valign="middle">Simpaticol&#237;ticos de a&#231;&#227;o central</td>
                <td style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" align="center" valign="middle">Clonidina, metildopa</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Antagonistas do sistema renina-angiotensina <break/>Inibidores da enzima conversora <break/>Bloqueadores da angiotensina</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Captopril, enalapril, perindopril <break/>Losartana, telmisartana, candesartana</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Fonte: Adaptada <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>&#201; importante diferenciar a HON da HONN devido ao pior progn&#243;stico da HON, com maior morbidade e mortalidade por todas as causas. Al&#233;m disso, estudos indicam que a presen&#231;a de HO em indiv&#237;duos de meia idade os predisp&#245;e a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> A incid&#234;ncia de HO aumenta com a idade, assim como a hipertens&#227;o, a diabetes e as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares ou degenerativas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Os pacientes que apresentam uma das cinco categorias abaixo apresentam maior risco de HON quando comparados com a popula&#231;&#227;o geral, e devem ser rotineiramente investigados: w</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Suspeitos ou diagnosticados com qualquer doen&#231;a degenerativa associada com disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, incluindo doen&#231;a de Parkinson, atrofia multissist&#234;mica, insufici&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura ou dem&#234;ncia por corpos de Lewy;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Hist&#243;ria de quedas inexplicadas ou s&#237;ncopes;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Presen&#231;a de neuropatia perif&#233;rica;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Idade &#8805;70 anos com alto grau de fragilidade ou uso de m&#250;ltiplas medica&#231;&#245;es;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Presen&#231;a de tonturas ou sintomas ortost&#225;ticos inespec&#237;ficos.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Ap&#243;s a identifica&#231;&#227;o do paciente com risco de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, &#233; importante a realiza&#231;&#227;o da medida da PA e da FC em posi&#231;&#227;o supina (ap&#243;s 5 minutos deitado) e no primeiro e terceiro minuto ap&#243;s a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, sendo este considerado o padr&#227;o ouro para diagn&#243;stico de HO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> Esses valores devem ser aferidos tamb&#233;m ap&#243;s 5 minutos de ortostase.</p>
        <p>Um m&#233;todo alternativo seria essa aferi&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o paciente ter ficado 5 minutos na posi&#231;&#227;o sentada e depois de 3 minutos em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. Muitos desses pacientes ainda apresentam hipertens&#227;o supina (PA sist&#243;lica &#8805; 140 mmHg e/ou &#8805; a 90 mmHg). Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, recomenda-se considerar HO se houver queda da PA sist&#243;lica &#8805;30 mmHg e/ou da PA diast&#243;lica &#8805;10 mmHg.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Medidas da FC tamb&#233;m variam da posi&#231;&#227;o supina (e/ou sentada) para a ortost&#225;tica e ajudam a diferenciar a HON da HONN.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> Em indiv&#237;duos com HO, espera-se uma eleva&#231;&#227;o compensat&#243;ria da FC de pelo menos 15 bpm dentro de 3 minutos na posi&#231;&#227;o de p&#233;. Se isso n&#227;o ocorrer, &#233; poss&#237;vel que a HO seja neurog&#234;nica (desde que n&#227;o haja uso concomitante de medica&#231;&#227;o cronotr&#243;pica negativa ou doen&#231;a do sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o ou paciente seja portador de marca-passo).</p>
        <p>Uma revis&#227;o dos medicamentos prescritos deve ser realizada com o intuito de se evitar efeitos sobre a resposta barorreflexa (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tabela 1</xref>), principalmente bloqueadores alfa- e beta-adren&#233;rgicos e agonistas alfa-2 de a&#231;&#227;o central.</p>
        <p>Alguns pacientes podem apresentar hipotens&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial, particularmente ap&#243;s refei&#231;&#245;es copiosas, ricas em carboidratos, e associadas com ingest&#227;o de bebida alc&#243;olica. Nessas condi&#231;&#245;es, medidas da PA em posi&#231;&#227;o supina e ortost&#225;tica devem ser realizadas antes e ap&#243;s a refei&#231;&#227;o, podendo ocorrer usualmente at&#233; 90 minutos ap&#243;s a refei&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Sintomas de intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica podem ocorrer em pacientes sem hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica detect&#225;vel ao exame cl&#237;nico devido ao comprometimento da vasorreatividade perif&#233;rica e do retorno venoso. Nesses casos, observa-se um volume sist&#243;lico reduzido durante a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica no teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. A resposta compensat&#243;ria da FC &#233; suficiente para manter a press&#227;o arterial em n&#237;veis aceit&#225;veis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref></p>
        <p>A investiga&#231;&#227;o complementar (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">tabela 2</xref>) &#233; aplicada para desvendar poss&#237;veis causas n&#227;o neurog&#234;nicas da HO.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Investiga&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (HO)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Testes Diagn&#243;sticos</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletrocardiograma</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar ritmo e dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o, hipertrofia, baixa voltagem</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemograma completo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Avaliar anemia e/ou infec&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Perfil metab&#243;lico (s&#243;dio, pot&#225;ssio, c&#225;lcio, creatinina, ureia, glicemia de jejum, hemoglobina glicada, bicarbonato); S&#243;dio urin&#225;rio em 24 h</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Deple&#231;&#227;o de volume (rela&#231;&#227;o ureia/creatinina &gt;20 mg/dl; disfun&#231;&#227;o renal ou diabetes ou dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">TSH, T4 livre, Cortisol, ACTH, vitamina B12</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Disfun&#231;&#227;o da tireoide, suprarrenal e defici&#234;ncia de vitamina B12</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Albumina s&#233;rica</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Desnutri&#231;&#227;o e doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Enzimas e fun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Em pacientes com perda de peso, suspeita de alcoolismo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo de autoanticorpos (ANNA-1; ANNA-2, Anti-AChr, LGI1, dentre outros) no liquor e/ou sangue</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">HO de in&#237;cio recente, suspeita de s&#237;ndrome paraneopl&#225;sica autoimune, insufici&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Eletroforese de prote&#237;nas s&#233;ricas e urin&#225;rias, Imunofixa&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas <break/>Bi&#243;psia de nervo, gordura abdominal com colora&#231;&#227;o vermelho-congo</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Em pacientes com neuropatia perif&#233;rica, suspeita de amiloidose</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Catecolaminas plasm&#225;ticas em dec&#250;bito e ap&#243;s ortostase</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sorologias para arboviroses (dengue), para COVID-19, <break/>Sorologia para HIV</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Pesquisas conforme a hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pesquisa para colagenoses (autoanticorpos como FAN, anti-DNA, anti-SM, anti-RNP)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Suspeita de colagenoses</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Fonte: Adaptada;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> Anti-AChr: Autoanticorpos antirreceptores gangli&#244;nicos de acetilcolina (AChr); ANNA: anticorpo antineuronal nuclear; anti-RNP: anticorpos antirribonucleoprote&#237;nas; HIV: v&#237;rus da imunodefici&#234;ncia adquirida. COVID-19: Infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus tem sido associada a formas de disautonomia como a s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica.</attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Se as medidas de press&#227;o arterial padronizadas para o diagn&#243;stico de HO n&#227;o forem eficazes para o diagn&#243;stico, outras condutas podem ser tomadas:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Orientar o paciente a medir a PA e a FC em casa em diferentes situa&#231;&#245;es:</p>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>Quinze minutos depois de se deitar, &#224; noite, ou antes de se levantar pela manh&#227;;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Tr&#234;s minutos depois de assumir a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, antes de tomar a medica&#231;&#227;o, ou ainda, sempre que apresentar sintomas;</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Realizar o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, que pode documentar uma HO precoce ou tardia;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Realizar a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da PA de 24 horas (MAPA) &#8212; o paciente deve fazer anota&#231;&#245;es sempre que se deitar e se levantar.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Quando confirmado o diagn&#243;stico de HO, &#233; importante estabelecer a severidade, que depende da magnitude da queda da PA sist&#243;lica, do tempo de toler&#226;ncia na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e da magnitude dos sintomas &#224;s atividades da vida di&#225;ria.</p>
        <p>Uma escala de gradua&#231;&#227;o de 1 a 4 (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">tabela 3</xref>) foi proposta como estratifica&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes. Havendo gradua&#231;&#227;o 3 e 4, &#233; aconselh&#225;vel o encaminhamento para um centro especializado em tratamento da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Escala de gradua&#231;&#227;o da severidade da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Grau</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas e Sinais</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">1</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas infrequentes/sem restri&#231;&#227;o para se manter de p&#233;, com 20 a 30 mm Hg de queda da PAS.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">2</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;30 mmHg de queda na PAS, num tempo de perman&#234;ncia em ortostase &#8805;5 min</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;30 mmHg de queda na PAS em um tempo de perman&#234;ncia em ortostase &lt;5 min ou severo impacto na atividade de vida di&#225;ria</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">4</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;30 mm Hg de queda na PAS em &lt;1 min de perman&#234;ncia em ortostase ou incapacidade funcional.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Fonte: Adaptada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref></attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica pode estar presente em apenas 30&#8211;50% dos pacientes com fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura e em 60&#8211;70 % com atrofia multissist&#234;mica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Pandisautonomia e Escores de Avalia&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Diversas patologias podem promover o envolvimento global do SNA, com comprometimento de diversos sistemas e &#243;rg&#227;os.</p>
      <p>Denomina-se pandisautonomia quando h&#225; comprova&#231;&#227;o de disautonomia sist&#234;mica: cardiovascular e de diversos &#243;rg&#227;os. Os pacientes com neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular e/ou hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica neurog&#234;nica devem ser questionados sobre sintomatologia espec&#237;fica em outros sistemas.</p>
      <p>Alguns question&#225;rios podem ser utilizados para melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, como o ASP (<italic>Autonomic Symptom Profile</italic>), que cont&#233;m 73 quest&#245;es e o COMPASS (<italic>Composite Autonomic Symptom Scale),</italic> que utiliza a escala anterior e quantifica a gravidade das altera&#231;&#245;es. A valida&#231;&#227;o desses question&#225;rios n&#227;o foi realizada em diversos contextos cl&#237;nicos. Entretanto, os itens que os comp&#245;em podem ser usados como triagem na suspeita de comprometimentos em outros &#243;rg&#227;os.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Mais recentemente, um novo escore SAS (<italic>Survey of Autonomic Symptoms)</italic> foi elaborado e validado, mostrando melhor sensibilidade em detectar neuropatias auton&#244;micas leves, n&#227;o necessitando de m&#233;todos complementares e podendo ser uma boa ferramenta cl&#237;nica para detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de neuropatia auton&#244;mica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t4">
        <label>Tabela 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Question&#225;rio SAS (Survey of Autonomic Symptoms) para diagn&#243;stico do envolvimento de diversos &#243;rg&#227;os e sistemas nas disautonomias</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="33%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Sintomas/Problemas de Sa&#250;de</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Voc&#234; teve algum destes sintomas nos &#250;ltimos 6 meses? 1- Sim; 2- N&#227;o</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Qual a severidade deste sintoma? Escala de 1 a 5 <break/>(utilizado se presen&#231;a de sintomas)</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">1 - Escurecimento visual</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">1 ou 2</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">1&#8211;5</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">2 - Boca Seca ou olhos secos</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3 - Palidez ou cianose</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">4 - Sensa&#231;&#227;o de frio em algumas regi&#245;es do corpo</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">5 - Sudorese dos p&#233;s reduzida em rela&#231;&#227;o ao resto do corpo</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">6 - Sudorese dos p&#233;s reduzida ou ausente ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cios ou em climas quentes</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">7 - Sudorese nas m&#227;os aumentada em rela&#231;&#227;o ao resto do corpo</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">8 - N&#225;useas, v&#244;mitos ou gases ap&#243;s alimenta&#231;&#245;es leves</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">9 - Diarreia (&gt;3 evacua&#231;&#245;es por dia)</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">10 - Constipa&#231;&#227;o persistente</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">11 - Perda de urina</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">12 - Dificuldade de ere&#231;&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <attrib>Fonte: Adaptada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> A presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s ou mais sintomas conferiu sensibilidade de 95% e especificidade de 65%, enquanto a presen&#231;a de sete ou mais pontos determinou 60% de sensibilidade e 90% de especificidade. Os sintomas gastrointestinais tiveram menor correla&#231;&#227;o com outros &#237;ndices.</attrib>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <boxed-text id="box4">
        <caption>
          <title>Import&#226;ncia do Diagn&#243;stico Precoce de Disautonomia</title>
        </caption>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico precoce de Disautonomia, antes das manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas ou na presen&#231;a de sintomas leves, pode trazer implica&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas e progn&#243;sticas importantes.</p>
        <p>Em pacientes portadores de diabetes mellitus, o tratamento &#233; mais efetivo com o uso de inibidores do cotransportador de s&#243;dio/glicose.</p>
        <p>Na amiloidose AF com muta&#231;&#227;o da transtirretina (ATTR), o Tafamidis e o Inotersen podem modificar a evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o precoce em patologias degenerativas melhora a qualidade de vida e promove redu&#231;&#227;o de quedas, fraturas e interna&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>Os testes espec&#237;ficos para avali&#231;&#227;o de disautonomia possibilitam o diagn&#243;stico antes da sintomatologia incapacitante.</p>
      </boxed-text>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>S&#237;ndrome da Fadiga Cr&#244;nica</title>
      <p>Atualmente, &#233; considerada uma doen&#231;a sist&#234;mica cr&#244;nica que afeta profundamente a qualidade de vida dos pacientes. Tem sido denominada fadiga cr&#244;nica ou encefalomielite mi&#225;lgica devido &#224; documenta&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es no sistema nervoso central e aut&#244;nomo. Essa s&#237;ndrome acomete cerca de 2,5 milh&#245;es de indiv&#237;duos nos EUA, de todas as idades, e reduz drasticamente a capacidade produtiva.</p>
      <p>&#201; uma doen&#231;a complexa que envolve desregula&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso central, do sistema imune, com disfun&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo da energia celular e do transporte i&#244;nico, al&#233;m de anormalidades cardiovasculares. &#201; caracterizada por fadiga ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio, persistente e recorrente, sem outra causa que explique a origem dos sintomas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 5</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
      <table-wrap id="t5">
        <label>Tabela 5</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Crit&#233;rios Cl&#225;ssicos para Diagn&#243;stico da S&#237;ndrome da Fadiga Cr&#244;nica</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="99%">
            <col width="1%"/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Cansa&#231;o extremo, persistente ou recorrente, sem causa justificada, com as seguintes caracter&#237;sticas:</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">1. In&#237;cio recente (isto &#233;, n&#227;o progressivo ao longo da vida) ou com gatilho espec&#237;fico</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">2. Dificuldade de exercer atividades habituais (profissionais, f&#237;sicas ou sociais)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">3. Preencher pelo menos 4 dos seguintes crit&#233;rios:</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3.1. Comprometimento da concentra&#231;&#227;o e da mem&#243;ria recente</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3.2. Dor na garganta</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3.3. Linfonodos cervicais ou axilares</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3.4. Dores articulares e musculares</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3.5. Cefaleia</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3.6. Sono n&#227;o reparador</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3.7. Mal-estar ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio, que permanece por per&#237;odo &gt;24 horas.</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <attrib>Fonte: Adaptada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref></attrib>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Os exames laboratoriais de rotina geralmente s&#227;o normais. O acometimento na regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica do sistema vascular &#233; comumente encontrado, principalmente na resposta deficiente ao assumir a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, resultando em alta associa&#231;&#227;o com disautonomia (Figuras <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">5</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="f3">
        <label>Figura 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Fluxograma para Avalia&#231;&#227;o e Seguimento das disautonomias ou neuropatias auton&#244;micas cardiovasculares (NAC)</title>
          <p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Ocorre de forma idiop&#225;tica como na atrofia multissist&#234;mica ou na fal&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica pura, ou em patologias como diabetes mellitus, doen&#231;as neurodegenerativas, Doen&#231;a de Parkinson, s&#237;ndromes demenciais, insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, amiloidose, algumas doen&#231;as neopl&#225;sicas e nos idosos.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Eletrocardiograma para avaliar frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e intervalo QT.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Testes neurol&#243;gicos como eletromiografia, resson&#226;ncia cerebral, testes cardiol&#243;gicos como Holter 24 h, avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia.</p>
                <p>Testes laboratoriais como hemograma completo, fun&#231;&#227;o renal, cortisol, ACTH, perfil glic&#234;mico, catecolaminas plasm&#225;ticas colhidas deitado e logo ap&#243;s ortostase, marcadores neopl&#225;sicos e de doen&#231;as autoimunes, dentre outros (vide se&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica).</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Conforme recomenda&#231;&#227;o das diretrizes internacionais no diab&#233;tico1,2,7.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>SGLT2 &#8212; Medicamentos para diabetes &#8211; inibidores da enzima cotransportadora de s&#243;dio-glicose, sendo usados para tratamento da diabetes.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Pacientes com extrass&#237;stoles muito frequentes, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, marca-passo card&#237;aco ou disfun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva avan&#231;ada n&#227;o conseguem ser avaliados por essa metodologia. Considerar que v&#225;rios f&#225;rmacos devem ser suspensos para o exame e os valores das medidas devem ser correlacionados com valores de normalidade para a idade e o sexo.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </p>
        </caption>
        <attrib>Fonte: elaborada pelo pr&#243;prio autor.</attrib>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      <fig id="f4">
        <label>Figura 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o com medidas hemodin&#226;micas, onde os valores do volume sist&#243;lico, d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica (RVP) foram corrigidos para a superf&#237;cie corporal, obtendo-se o &#237;ndice sist&#243;lico (IS), &#237;ndice card&#237;aco (IC) e &#237;ndice de RVP (IRVP). 4A. Paciente com diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico de fadiga cr&#244;nica. Logo ap&#243;s inclina&#231;&#227;o, observa-se redu&#231;&#227;o exagerada do IS (&gt;30%), compensada inicialmente por eleva&#231;&#227;o esperada do IRVP e da FC. Ap&#243;s 15 minutos de inclina&#231;&#227;o, observa-se maior redu&#231;&#227;o do IS, associada com redu&#231;&#227;o do IRVP, ao inv&#233;s de maior eleva&#231;&#227;o compensat&#243;ria esperada do IRVP, de modo que a compensa&#231;&#227;o para manter a PA est&#225;vel se faz &#224;s custas de maior eleva&#231;&#227;o da FC, que passa a apresentar um aumento exagerado (&gt;30 bpm), do que observado em posi&#231;&#227;o supina. Essa altera&#231;&#227;o ocorre mais tardiamente (ap&#243;s 10 minutos do in&#237;cio do exame), n&#227;o preenchendo os crit&#233;rios para SPOT. 4B. Paciente com diagn&#243;stico de SPOT. Observa-se, durante a inclina&#231;&#227;o, redu&#231;&#227;o do IS n&#227;o compensada pela eleva&#231;&#227;o do IRVP. H&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o ao inv&#233;s de eleva&#231;&#227;o no IRVP ao assumir a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. Desse modo, a press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia (PA) se mant&#233;m est&#225;vel, &#224;s custas de eleva&#231;&#227;o exagerada da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) em &gt;30 bpm ocorrendo nos primeiros 10 minutos de inclina&#231;&#227;o, associado com sintomas, preenchendo, portanto, crit&#233;rios para SPOT. A diferen&#231;a entre as duas entidades pode ser, em alguns casos, apenas temporal.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf04.tif"/></fig>
      <fig id="f5">
        <label>Figura 5</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o com medidas hemodin&#226;micas, onde volume sist&#243;lico, d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica (RVP) foram corrigidos para a superf&#237;cie corporal, obtendo-se &#237;ndice sist&#243;lico (IS), &#237;ndice card&#237;aco (IC) e &#237;ndice de RVP (IRVP). PA: press&#227;o arterial. 5A. Paciente com intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica. N&#227;o ocorre a eleva&#231;&#227;o esperada do IRVP, que apresenta redu&#231;&#227;o progressiva compensada por eleva&#231;&#227;o progressiva da FC at&#233; o final da inclina&#231;&#227;o, com redu&#231;&#227;o discreta da PA. Os sintomas ocorrem na vig&#234;ncia de d&#233;ficit na eleva&#231;&#227;o da RVP em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. 5B. Paciente com hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica tardia. Neste, tamb&#233;m se observa aus&#234;ncia de redu&#231;&#227;o do IS e redu&#231;&#227;o progressiva do IRVP durante inclina&#231;&#227;o. Ap&#243;s 10 minutos de inclina&#231;&#227;o, quando ocorre maior redu&#231;&#227;o do IRVP, que n&#227;o &#233; acompanhada de eleva&#231;&#227;o adicional da FC, observa-se hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, com sintomas. Nota-se que ap&#243;s 20 minutos ocorre recupera&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea do IRVP e da PA, com al&#237;vio dos sintomas.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      <p>A neuroinflama&#231;&#227;o pode ter diferentes fatores deflagradores: infec&#231;&#227;o cerebral (herpes-v&#237;rus cr&#244;nico), autoanticorpos, neurotoxinas ou estresse cr&#244;nico, e ainda por processos inflamat&#243;rios extracerebrais, incluindo o intestino. Baixos n&#237;veis de neuroinflama&#231;&#227;o deflagram altera&#231;&#245;es comportamentais protetoras, como a redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade, do apetite e aumento do sono.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Exames de resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica funcional em pacientes com fadiga cr&#244;nica demonstraram diferentes respostas aos est&#237;mulos visual e auditivo e aos testes de mem&#243;ria, assim como altera&#231;&#245;es de conectividade entre as regi&#245;es do c&#233;rebro. A tomografia com emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons demonstrou neuroinflama&#231;&#227;o generalizada e n&#237;veis elevados de lactato, que se correlacionam com os graus de fadiga. No l&#237;quido espinhal, h&#225; maior taxa de prote&#237;nas relacionadas com inj&#250;ria e reparo muscular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Tamb&#233;m t&#234;m sido descritas anormalidades metab&#243;licas, que resultam em comprometimento da gera&#231;&#227;o de energia celular de diferentes origens: oxig&#234;nio, a&#231;&#250;car, lip&#237;deos e amino&#225;cidos, com altos n&#237;veis de estresse oxidativo e de &#225;cido n&#237;trico. Muitos metab&#243;litos encontram-se em n&#237;veis inferiores ao normal. Esse quadro hipometab&#243;lico &#233; observado em alguns animais em estado de hiberna&#231;&#227;o e permite que animais sob amea&#231;a desacelerem o processo metab&#243;lico de consumo energ&#233;tico para preservar as fun&#231;&#245;es vitais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Entre as anormalidades do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, observam-se altera&#231;&#245;es da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e da press&#227;o arterial durante a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica prolongada, que n&#227;o s&#227;o suficientes para fazer diagn&#243;stico de SPOT, ou de hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, mas est&#227;o associadas com redu&#231;&#227;o do fluxo cerebral e provocam sintomas.</p>
      <p>Em testes provocativos de desafios f&#237;sicos, ortost&#225;tico e mental, observam-se variados tipos de sintomas, principalmente ap&#243;s 12&#8211;24 horas de atividade, conhecidos como &#8220;mal-estar ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio&#8221;. Os pacientes ainda apresentam dificuldade de extra&#231;&#227;o do oxig&#234;nio durante o esfor&#231;o, resultando em limiar anaer&#243;bico reduzido.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada, observou-se um alarmante aumento de pacientes com outras morbidades associadas, como a dor cr&#244;nica e comprometimento funcional.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Os mesmos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos podem ser aplicados: fadiga cr&#244;nica, dor cr&#244;nica incluindo cefaleia, dist&#250;rbios do sono, dist&#250;rbios do humor, mal-estar ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio, intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica e ao exerc&#237;cio e dificuldade de manter a capacidade funcional usual antes do in&#237;cio dos sintomas.</p>
      <p>A intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica &#233; definida pela presen&#231;a de tonturas, cabe&#231;a leve, turva&#231;&#227;o visual e pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope, que pioram ao se assumir a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e s&#227;o aliviadas com a postura horizontal.</p>
      <p>As doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas associadas com fadiga cr&#244;nica, assim como a fadiga cr&#244;nica isoladamente, tipicamente ocorrem ap&#243;s um evento deflagrador: infec&#231;&#227;o viral, bacteriana ou f&#250;ngica, cirurgia, acidente automobil&#237;stico, gravidez, vacina&#231;&#227;o ou ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo prolongado de estresse f&#237;sico ou mental. Recentemente, a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo novo coronav&#237;rus (COVID-19) tem demonstrado afetar v&#225;rias &#225;reas do sistema nervoso, sendo relatados casos suspeitos de fadiga cr&#244;nica, causando preocupa&#231;&#227;o pela possibilidade de aumento acentuado nessa entidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><sup>68</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Em alguns casos, nenhum fator precipitante &#233; identificado, mas pode haver hist&#243;ria familiar de sintomas semelhantes em membros de primeiro grau, sugerindo um componente gen&#233;tico. Muitos pacientes desenvolvem ansiedade e depress&#227;o secund&#225;ria &#224;s doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas ou como parte das altera&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas da doen&#231;a de base. Um n&#250;mero significativo de pacientes apresenta marcadores autoimunes e inflamat&#243;rios.</p>
      <p>Achados objetivos incluem: intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica ao teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o, disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica e neuropatia de pequenas fibras (nos testes de fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica), hipovolemia e anormalidade em testes funcionais de resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica (RMN), <italic>Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography</italic> (<italic>SPECT)</italic> ou <italic>Positron Emission Tomography</italic> (<italic>PET</italic> scan). A RMN convencional mostra apenas achados n&#227;o espec&#237;ficos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71"><sup>71</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Apesar das recentes descobertas, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; um m&#233;todo de alta sensibilidade e especificidade para o diagn&#243;stico preciso, assim como tamb&#233;m n&#227;o h&#225; um tratamento eficaz.</p>
      <p>Como parte do tratamento das doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas associadas com a fadiga cr&#244;nica, a psicoterapia, a terapia comportamental cognitiva e a terapia ocupacional podem melhorar o estado funcional e reduzir o sofrimento desses pacientes. Geralmente s&#227;o utilizadas medica&#231;&#245;es para cefaleia, dor neurop&#225;tica, tens&#227;o muscular, sintomas gastrointestinais e para dist&#250;rbios do sono. &#201; de extrema utilidade a separa&#231;&#227;o das diferentes etiologias de fadiga cr&#244;nica.</p>
      <p>A s&#237;ndrome de ativa&#231;&#227;o dos mast&#243;citos pode causar sintomas de fadiga cr&#244;nica ou SPOT. Nesse caso, anti-histam&#237;nicos podem ser &#250;teis. Nas doen&#231;as do tecido conjuntivo, anti-inflamat&#243;rios, terapia imunomoduladora como a cloroquina ou imunoglobulina intravenosa e corticoides podem ser utilizados para controle da dor articular e da fadiga.</p>
      <boxed-text id="box5">
        <caption>
          <title>S&#237;ndrome da Fadiga Cr&#244;nica &#8211; Novos crit&#233;rios<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref></title>
        </caption>
        <p>Recentemente, recomenda-se que a fadiga cr&#244;nica seja renomeada como doen&#231;a sist&#234;mica de intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, com novos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Fadiga inexplicada e consequente incapacidade para o trabalho por mais que 6 meses;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Mal-estar ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Sono n&#227;o reparador;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Comprometimento cognitivo ou intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </boxed-text>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>S&#237;ndrome Postural Ortost&#225;tica Taquicardizante (SPOT)</title>
      <p>&#201; definida como a resposta cronotr&#243;pica exagerada &#224; mudan&#231;a da postura horizontal para a ortostase, persistente e associada a sintomas de intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica (IO).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref> &#201; a causa mais comum de IO na popula&#231;&#227;o jovem. Afeta de 500.000 a 3.000.000 de indiv&#237;duos somente nos EUA, sendo a maioria mulheres (4:1), com idade entre 15 e 25 anos ou no in&#237;cio de sua vida profissional.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75"><sup>75</sup></xref> Observa-se eleva&#231;&#227;o sustentada da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) &#8805; 30 bpm (&#8805;40 bpm se &lt;20 anos) ou FC &#8805;120 bpm nos primeiros 10 minutos em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica ou durante o <italic>tilt test</italic>, sem hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica cl&#225;ssica associada. Pode ocorrer leve redu&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o arterial.</p>
      <p>Geralmente, identifica-se um ou mais fatores desencadeadores: estresse agudo na gravidez, cirurgia, infec&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via, vacina ou evento traum&#225;tico. Entre as infec&#231;&#245;es mais comuns est&#227;o: o v&#237;rus da mononucleose (18.6%), viroses respirat&#243;rias (18%) e gastrointestinais (11.4%).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><sup>76</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77"><sup>77</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial de pacientes com suspeita de SPOT, al&#233;m da hist&#243;ria e exame f&#237;sico, os sinais vitais devem ser obtidos em posi&#231;&#227;o supina e ortost&#225;tica. A hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica tem como objetivo investigar as poss&#237;veis causas de taquicardia ortost&#225;tica, incluindo os potenciais deflagradores. Os sintomas de SPOT geralmente s&#227;o exacerbados por exerc&#237;cio, calor, desidrata&#231;&#227;o e ingest&#227;o de &#225;lcool.</p>
      <p>O eletrocardiograma e a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial do ECG devem ser realizados para descartar poss&#237;veis causas prim&#225;rias de taquicardias e o ecocardiograma e o teste ergom&#233;trico para avaliar a presen&#231;a de cardiopatia estrutural e a resposta da frequ&#234;ncia ao esfor&#231;o. Testes de fun&#231;&#227;o da tireoide, assim como hemograma, devem fazer parte da rotina de investiga&#231;&#227;o para descartar causas secund&#225;rias de taquicardia.</p>
      <p>O teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica pode ser &#250;til para obten&#231;&#227;o de par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e da toler&#226;ncia &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. A avalia&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica ampliada, com an&#225;lise de v&#225;rios par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o, &#233; altamente recomend&#225;vel na investiga&#231;&#227;o e diagn&#243;stico diferencial etiol&#243;gico da SPOT.</p>
      <p>Sistemas de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nuos e n&#227;o invasivos da PA e ECG, associados a medidas de bioimped&#226;ncia, permitem a avalia&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico, da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica e do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, sendo poss&#237;vel identificar-se o tipo de dist&#250;rbio hemodin&#226;mico presente no paciente com SPOT (Figuras <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">5</xref>).</p>
      <p>A SPOT &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome heterog&#234;nea resultante de distintos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos n&#227;o excludentes. Ela pode ser classificada em cinco tipos, de acordo com o mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico predominante: neurop&#225;tico, hipovol&#234;mico, hiperadren&#233;rgico. Pode ser secund&#225;ria a altera&#231;&#245;es na noradrenalina ou ativa&#231;&#227;o dos mast&#243;citos, e relacionada &#224; hipermobilidade das articula&#231;&#245;es (s&#237;ndrome de Ehlers-Danlos).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><sup>76</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81"><sup>81</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Na forma neurop&#225;tica, o principal mecanismo &#233; o comprometimento da vasorreatividade perif&#233;rica por denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica predominante. Nestes casos, ocorre ac&#250;mulo do volume sangu&#237;neo nos membros inferiores ao se assumir a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica e a ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema simp&#225;tico resulta em taquicardia reflexa, nem sempre compensat&#243;ria. Cerca de 50% desses pacientes apresentam tamb&#233;m denerva&#231;&#227;o sudomotora perif&#233;rica, sugerindo denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica p&#243;s-ganglionar.</p>
      <p>Na forma hipovol&#234;mica, 70% dos pacientes apresentam hipovolemia decorrente de excessiva reten&#231;&#227;o de l&#237;quidos no compartimento inferior do organismo. H&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o no t&#244;nus, aumento da capacit&#226;ncia venosa e redu&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico durante o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o. Essa hipovolemia central resulta em ativa&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica pelos barorreceptores e taquicardia reflexa compensat&#243;ria exacerbada.</p>
      <p>Muitos pacientes desse grupo apresentam volume sangu&#237;neo total reduzido &#8212; tanto o volume plasm&#225;tico quanto de c&#233;lulas sangu&#237;neas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><sup>78</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref> Paradoxalmente, alguns desses pacientes apresentam baixos n&#237;veis de atividade da renina e aldosterona plasm&#225;tica e altos n&#237;veis de angiotensina II.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><sup>78</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Na forma hiperadren&#233;rgica, a excessiva ativa&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica provoca sintomas como palpita&#231;&#245;es, sudorese, tremores, ansiedade e at&#233; hipertens&#227;o desencadeada por atividade f&#237;sica ou est&#237;mulo emocional. A forma hiperadren&#233;rgica prim&#225;ria caracteriza-se por altos n&#237;veis de norepinefrina plasm&#225;tica devido a maior produ&#231;&#227;o (1000&#8211;2000 pg/ml), ocorrendo em 5 a 10% dos casos.</p>
      <p>Na forma secund&#225;ria, consiste num grupo heterog&#234;neo dividido em tr&#234;s categorias principais:</p>
      <list list-type="order">
        <list-item>
          <p>Depura&#231;&#227;o reduzida de norepinefrina sin&#225;ptica (muta&#231;&#227;o de perda da fun&#231;&#227;o);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Desordem de ativa&#231;&#227;o dos mast&#243;citos caracterizada pela presen&#231;a de metil-histamina urin&#225;ria elevada;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico do transporte da norepinefrina por f&#225;rmacos que inibem esse transporte, como antidepressivos tric&#237;clicos e outras drogas similares &#224; anfetamina, sendo esse &#250;ltimo o tipo mais frequentemente encontrado.</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <p>Na s&#237;ndrome de Ehlers-Danlos, uma doen&#231;a do tecido conjuntivo com hiperelasticidade da pele e hipermotilidade articular, 70% dos indiv&#237;duos apresentam SPOT e 18% dos pacientes com SPOT apresentam crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos para s&#237;ndrome de Ehlers-Danlos, considerado um mecanismo subjacente para a s&#237;ndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80"><sup>80</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Nos casos de pacientes com SPOT que apresentam a s&#237;ndrome de ativa&#231;&#227;o dos mast&#243;citos, um fator autoimune pode estar presente. Esses pacientes apresentam rubor da pele e hipertens&#227;o associada com a taquicardia ortost&#225;tica. Ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claro se a ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica causa degranula&#231;&#227;o dos mast&#243;citos ou se a ativa&#231;&#227;o dos mast&#243;citos causa a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80"><sup>80</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><sup>82</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Em pacientes refrat&#225;rios, uma avalia&#231;&#227;o extensa em centro especializado em testes auton&#244;micos deve ser considerada. As manobras de Valsalva com medida da PA batimento por batimento podem mostrar uma fase 4 exagerada, revelando excessiva atividade simp&#225;tica. A dosagem de epinefrina e norepinefrina plasm&#225;tica em posi&#231;&#227;o supina e ortost&#225;tica pode ser &#250;til para identificar os casos hiperadren&#233;rgicos, assim como a an&#225;lise do s&#243;dio urin&#225;rio nas 24 horas e os casos de deple&#231;&#227;o de volume.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Ansiedade e hipervigil&#226;ncia geralmente s&#227;o frequentes nos pacientes com SPOT. Entretanto, a eleva&#231;&#227;o da FC n&#227;o &#233; decorrente do estado de ansiedade, mas decorrente de uma anormalidade fisiol&#243;gica. Ainda assim, avalia&#231;&#227;o e acompanhamento psicol&#243;gicos podem ser &#250;teis no manejo cl&#237;nico desses pacientes.</p>
      <p>Comum a todas as formas de SPOT &#233; o estado de descondicionamento f&#237;sico. M&#250;ltiplos par&#226;metros associados com o descondicionamento est&#227;o presentes nesses pacientes: &#225;rea e massa card&#237;acas reduzidas (16%), volume sangu&#237;neo reduzido (20%) e pico do consumo de oxig&#234;nio (VO<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>) reduzido quando comparados com controles sedent&#225;rios. Tanto o repouso no leito quanto o descondicionamento reduzem a sensibilidade do barorreflexo em produzir vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Num estudo que realizou um registro internacional de SPOT, o condicionamento f&#237;sico progressivo demonstrou expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica e aumentou a &#225;rea card&#237;aca dos pacientes, resultando numa melhora significativa dos sintomas. Nesse estudo, 71% dos pacientes que completaram o programa de treinamento ficaram livres do diagn&#243;stico de SPOT. Em um pequeno grupo, que foi acompanhado por 6 a 12 meses, o resultado tamb&#233;m foi mantido.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83"><sup>83</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O protocolo consistia em oito meses de progressivo treinamento com exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico (tr&#234;s sess&#245;es por semana), associado com duas sess&#245;es semanais de exerc&#237;cio de fortalecimento muscular de baixa resist&#234;ncia, iniciando em posi&#231;&#227;o supina e progredindo para posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica. O exerc&#237;cio, quando comparado com betabloqueador, mostrou melhora na qualidade de vida e normalizou a resposta neuro-humoral, sendo considerado como classe IIa de indica&#231;&#227;o nas diretrizes internacionais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83"><sup>83</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84"><sup>84</sup></xref></p>
      <p>N&#227;o h&#225; nenhuma recomenda&#231;&#227;o classe I para o tratamento da SPOT. Medidas n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas incluem aumento da ingest&#227;o de l&#237;quidos para 2 a 3 litros/dia e de sal para 10 a 12 gramas/dia. Infus&#227;o de at&#233; 2 litros de soro fisiol&#243;gico &#233; recomendada para descompensa&#231;&#245;es agudas (classe IIb).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Se as medidas n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas n&#227;o forem efetivas, o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico pode ser institu&#237;do de acordo com o tipo do dist&#250;rbio identificado (Figuras <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">5</xref>) ou o algoritmo proposto por Bryarly et al. modificado (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref></p>
      <fig id="f6">
        <label>Figura 6</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Algoritmo de tratamento para portadores de SPOT.</title>
        </caption>
        <attrib>Fonte: adaptado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref></attrib>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf06.tif"/></fig>
      <boxed-text id="box6">
        <caption>
          <title>S&#237;ndrome da Fadiga Cr&#244;nica x S&#237;ndrome Postural Ortost&#225;tica Taquicardizante (SPOT)</title>
        </caption>
        <p>A S&#237;ndrome Postural Ortost&#225;tica Taquicardizante (SPOT) tem sido encontrada em 29% dos pacientes com a s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica, enquanto quase 50% dos pacientes com SPOT apresentam a s&#237;ndrome da fadiga cr&#244;nica.</p>
      </boxed-text>
      <p>A fludrocortisona pode ser &#250;til na expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica, mas o seu efeito ainda n&#227;o foi testado em grandes estudos cl&#237;nicos. A midodrina, com a&#231;&#227;o agonista alfa-1 adren&#233;rgico, age aumentando a contra&#231;&#227;o de veias e art&#233;rias. Essa medica&#231;&#227;o significativamente reduz a FC, mas em grau menor que a infus&#227;o salina. Apresenta tempo de a&#231;&#227;o e metaboliza&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pidos e deve ser utilizada tr&#234;s vezes ao dia, enquanto o paciente estiver em atividade, evitando poss&#237;vel hipertens&#227;o noturna.</p>
      <p>Medica&#231;&#245;es como midodrina associadas a baixa dose de betabloqueador n&#227;o seletivo (propranolol), fludrocortisona e piridostigmina s&#227;o &#250;teis nas formas disauton&#244;micas e hipovol&#234;micas da SPOT. Na forma hiperadren&#233;rgica, a clonidina ou alfa-metildopa podem ser eficazes (classe IIb).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A modifica&#231;&#227;o do n&#243; sinusal por radiofrequ&#234;ncia n&#227;o &#233; recomendada e pode ser prejudicial, pois elimina o mecanismo compensat&#243;rio do baixo d&#233;bito cerebral, que &#233; a taquicardia sinusal desencadeada pela a&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo.</p>
      <p>Sintomas concomitantes, como cefaleia e dist&#250;rbios do sono ou problemas gastrointestinais s&#227;o frequentemente observados na SPOT, devendo ser tratados adequadamente, assim como a terapia cognitiva comportamental deve ser considerada.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Hipersensibilidade do Seio Carot&#237;deo e a Cardioneuroabla&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia da hipersensibilidade do seio carot&#237;deo (HSC) varia com a idade, sendo extremamente incomum em indiv&#237;duos com idade &lt;50 anos, apresentando aumento exponencial com a idade. Em pacientes com s&#237;ncope e idade acima de 60 anos, tem sido observada uma resposta anormal do seio carot&#237;deo em at&#233; 22,3%. Portanto, &#233; um achado comum em pacientes idosos sem s&#237;ncope, especialmente se portadores de doen&#231;a cardiovascular. Por esta raz&#227;o, h&#225; um consenso de que para o diagn&#243;stico de s&#237;ndrome da hipersensibilidade do seio carot&#237;deo haja a reprodu&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas cl&#237;nicos durante a massagem do seio carot&#237;deo e hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de s&#237;ncope espont&#226;nea, sugestiva de origem reflexa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85"><sup>85</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86"><sup>86</sup></xref> A massagem do seio carot&#237;deo positiva, mas sem hist&#243;ria de s&#237;ncope, define apenas a hipersensibilidade do seio carot&#237;deo e n&#227;o a s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">tabela 6</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t6">
        <label>Tabela 6</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Defini&#231;&#227;o de Hipersensibilidade do Seio Carot&#237;deo</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="99%">
            <col width="1%"/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">DEFINI&#199;&#195;O</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Redu&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e/ou press&#227;o arterial (PA) em resposta &#224; massagem do seio carot&#237;deo:</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">1. Cardioinibit&#243;ria: pausa &#8805;3 segundos (usualmente &gt;6 segundos);</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">2. Vasodepressora: queda da PA &#8805;50 mmHg, sem bradicardia significante;</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">3. Mista: pausa &#8805;3 segundos associada com queda da PAS &#8805;50 mmHg.</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <attrib>Fonte: Adaptada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></attrib>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>A massagem do seio carot&#237;deo &#233; indica&#231;&#227;o classe I nas diretrizes internacionais para pacientes &gt;40 anos, com s&#237;ncope de origem desconhecida, compat&#237;vel com mecanismo reflexo (classe I).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> A massagem &#233; entretanto, pass&#237;vel de questionamento, j&#225; que pacientes assintom&#225;ticos podem apresentar altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas com sintomas durante a manobra.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref> No entanto, se a s&#237;ncope for de origem indeterminada e a resposta &#224; massagem do seio carot&#237;deo, na forma cardioinibit&#243;ria, reproduzir o sintoma cl&#237;nico, existe uma causa presuntiva da s&#237;ncope, pois o uso de marca-passo nesse grupo de pacientes melhorou os sintomas de s&#237;ncope em alguns estudos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Talvez a melhor maneira de confirmar a causa da s&#237;ncope nesse contexto seria por monitoramento com o ECG de longa dura&#231;&#227;o (<italic>looper</italic> externo ou implant&#225;vel). Apesar de mais precisa para diagnosticar os casos de hipersensibilidade do seio carot&#237;deo na forma cardioinibit&#243;ria, essa t&#233;cnica (<italic>looper</italic> externo ou implant&#225;vel), n&#227;o conseguiria identificar as formas vasodepressoras da hipersensibilidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A massagem do seio carot&#237;deo deve ser realizada preferencialmente com a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da PA e do eletrocardiograma cont&#237;nuo, batimento a batimento, sendo mais segura quando realizada no laborat&#243;rio de teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o. A manobra deve ser realizada com a face do paciente rodada lateralmente, em posi&#231;&#227;o supina e, se negativa, repetida em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, em cada lado, por no m&#225;ximo 10 segundos de compress&#227;o, na regi&#227;o de maior pulsa&#231;&#227;o carot&#237;dea, no &#226;ngulo formado pela mand&#237;bula, na cartilagem cricoide e na margem anterior do m&#250;sculo esternocleidomastoideo. Deve-se evit&#225;-la em pacientes com sopro carot&#237;deo antes de uma avalia&#231;&#227;o adequada.</p>
      <p>Embora complica&#231;&#245;es graves sejam raras (0,24%), o risco de ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio deve ser considerado, em especial para pacientes que tenham apresentado tal evento previamente, assim como acidente vascular cerebral, ou que apresentem estenose de art&#233;ria car&#243;tida &gt;70%, sendo essas as contraindica&#231;&#245;es para a manobra.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O seio carot&#237;deo &#233; um barorreceptor que responde ao estiramento da parede, como acontece com a eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, ocorre um aumento do t&#244;nus vagal e redu&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico. Do contr&#225;rio, quando ocorre uma redu&#231;&#227;o da PA e redu&#231;&#227;o da tens&#227;o na parede vascular, h&#225; uma redu&#231;&#227;o nos disparos do barorreceptor, resultando em atenua&#231;&#227;o da a&#231;&#227;o vagal. Os est&#237;mulos do barorreflexo s&#227;o enviados do seio carot&#237;deo para o n&#250;cleo do trato solit&#225;rio, onde fica um grande n&#250;mero de neur&#244;nios cardiovasculares.</p>
      <p>Embora a fisiologia do barorreflexo do seio carot&#237;deo seja razoavelmente bem compreendida, a fisiopatologia da HSC permanece obscura.</p>
      <p>Tr&#234;s principais mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos t&#234;m sido considerados:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94"><sup>94</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Aterosclerose: teoricamente, a redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia dos vasos poderia resultar em redu&#231;&#227;o no fluxo aferente do impulso barorreflexo. Contudo, tem sido demonstrado que a por&#231;&#227;o aferente do reflexo do seio carot&#237;deo se encontra intacta em indiv&#237;duos com HSC.</p>
      <p>Denerva&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo esternocleidomastoideo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92"><sup>92</sup></xref>: com a idade, ocorre denerva&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo esternocleidomastoideo (demonstrada por eletromiografia), reduzindo assim as informa&#231;&#245;es enviadas para o n&#250;cleo do trato solit&#225;rio, enquanto os barorreceptores do seio carot&#237;deo continuam enviando sinais adequadamente para o mesmo n&#250;cleo, gerando um desequil&#237;brio de informa&#231;&#245;es. Assim, o movimento da cabe&#231;a pode resultar em sinais aferentes somente do seio carot&#237;deo, sendo interpretado pelo n&#250;cleo do trato solit&#225;rio como aumento da PA, deflagrando uma redu&#231;&#227;o abrupta da PA e da FC.</p>
      <p>Disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica generalizada: mais recentemente, tem sido demonstrada atividade simp&#225;tica elevada em indiv&#237;duos com HSC, sintom&#225;ticos ou assintom&#225;ticos, o que sugere uma disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica generalizada.</p>
      <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas mais comuns da HSC s&#227;o s&#237;ncope, pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope ou tonturas durante manobras com mudan&#231;a de posi&#231;&#227;o da cabe&#231;a. Geralmente, a perda da consci&#234;ncia, assim como sua recupera&#231;&#227;o, ocorre de forma s&#250;bita. Desse modo, inj&#250;rias decorrentes das quedas s&#227;o comumente observadas.</p>
      <p>Paciente idosos podem referir epis&#243;dios como quedas recorrentes, sem causa aparente. Eles podem n&#227;o referir mudan&#231;as de posi&#231;&#227;o da cabe&#231;a durante a queda.</p>
      <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento da forma vasodepressora da HSC, estudos com midodrina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95"><sup>95</sup></xref> e fludrocortisona<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96"><sup>96</sup></xref> demonstraram melhora dos sintomas de s&#237;ncope e pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope em compara&#231;&#227;o com placebo. Contudo, para os pacientes com a forma cardioinibit&#243;ria, o implante de marca-passo definitivo tem sido o tratamento de escolha.</p>
      <p>A decis&#227;o de se implantar um marca-passo ap&#243;s um &#250;nico epis&#243;dio de s&#237;ncope vai depender da consequ&#234;ncia e da severidade da inj&#250;ria resultante desse epis&#243;dio. Alguns pequenos estudos observacionais e randomizados mostraram melhora dos sintomas cl&#237;nicos ap&#243;s o implante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Entretanto, estudos randomizados cegos, comparando marca-passo dupla c&#226;mara versus marca-passo dupla-c&#226;mara, sem estimula&#231;&#227;o ativa (desligados), n&#227;o mostraram melhora significativa nos pacientes com quedas sem explica&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97"><sup>97</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98"><sup>98</sup></xref> Tampouco existem estudos randomizados em larga escala testando o uso do marca-passo na forma cardioinibit&#243;ria, levantando questionamentos &#224;s recomenda&#231;&#245;es das diretrizes vigentes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97"><sup>97</sup></xref> Por outro lado, uma metan&#225;lise de tr&#234;s estudos demonstrou 9% de recorr&#234;ncia de s&#237;ncopes em pacientes com estimula&#231;&#227;o ativa versus 38% no grupo controle (sem marca-passo).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99"><sup>99</sup></xref> Essa metan&#225;lise e outros estudos de revis&#227;o s&#227;o a base de apoio para as recomenda&#231;&#245;es atuais de implante de marca-passo com n&#237;vel de indica&#231;&#227;o Classe IIa nas Diretrizes Americanas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> e Europeias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> de s&#237;ncope.</p>
      <p>A denerva&#231;&#227;o do seio carot&#237;deo por irradia&#231;&#227;o ou endarterectomia foi considerada no passado tamb&#233;m como uma op&#231;&#227;o de tratamento.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100"><sup>100</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao progn&#243;stico, n&#227;o tem sido observada diferen&#231;a de mortalidade entre os pacientes com e sem a HSC quando comparados com indiv&#237;duos de mesma idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101"><sup>101</sup></xref> Contudo, as consequ&#234;ncias de uma inj&#250;ria decorrente de uma queda num paciente idoso n&#227;o podem ser adequadamente estimadas. Portanto, os pacientes devem ser informados que o risco de s&#237;ncope recorrente deve reduzir, mas sintomas menores incluindo pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope podem persistir, mesmo com as terap&#234;uticas implementadas.</p>
      <p>Outra estrat&#233;gia de tratamento muito promissora para a s&#237;ncope reflexa decorrente de atividade vagal exacerbada &#233; a t&#233;cnica conhecida como cardioneuroabla&#231;&#227;o, que consiste na modifica&#231;&#227;o da atividade vagal pela t&#233;cnica de abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter, utilizando a energia de radiofrequ&#234;ncia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102"><sup>102</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Pachon et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103"><sup>103</sup></xref> observaram que as fibras nervosas, quando se misturam com as c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas, produzem altera&#231;&#227;o na sua condu&#231;&#227;o, de compacta (condu&#231;&#227;o uniforme com uma frequ&#234;ncia principal de 40 Hz, que ocorre na regi&#227;o de c&#233;lulas muito bem conectadas) para fibrilar (condu&#231;&#227;o com potenciais fracionados com frequ&#234;ncia maior que 100 Hz). Os autores utilizaram o padr&#227;o de mioc&#225;rdio fibrilar (encontrado principalmente na regi&#227;o do n&#243; sinusal e do n&#243; atrioventricular) como marcador da interface neuromioc&#225;rdio e dos s&#237;tios-alvo para cardioneuroabla&#231;&#227;o, obtendo melhora cl&#237;nica dos epis&#243;dios de s&#237;ncope.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103"><sup>103</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Resultados animadores com a t&#233;cnica de abla&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio fibrilar ao redor do n&#243; sinusal e do n&#243; atrioventricular t&#234;m sido descritos na literatura. Durante o procedimento de abla&#231;&#227;o, a obten&#231;&#227;o de desaparecimento dos potenciais de alta frequ&#234;ncia nessas regi&#245;es resultou em melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o sinusal e nodal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104"><sup>104</sup></xref></p>
      <p>A cardioneuroabla&#231;&#227;o j&#225; foi utilizada para tratar paciente com hipersensibilidade do seio carot&#237;deo, podendo ser uma alternativa ao implante de marca-passo, especialmente em indiv&#237;duos jovens que s&#227;o mais vulner&#225;veis &#224;s complica&#231;&#245;es a longo prazo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105"><sup>105</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106"><sup>106</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Em resumo, a abla&#231;&#227;o de plexos ganglionares pode promover significante redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade vagal, nos n&#243;s sinusal e atrioventricular, sendo efetiva em reduzir sintomas em pacientes com bradicardia acentuada neuromediada. Devido &#224;s diferentes t&#233;cnicas empregadas, estudos randomizados multic&#234;ntricos seriam necess&#225;rios para definir a efic&#225;cia, a melhor t&#233;cnica, a seguran&#231;a e a reprodutibilidade do m&#233;todo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107"><sup>107</sup></xref></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Taquicardia Sinusal Inapropriada (TSI)</title>
      <p>O primeiro caso de taquicardia sinusal inapropriada (TSI) foi descrito na literatura em 1939 por Codvelle e Boucher. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108"><sup>108</sup></xref> Atualmente, estima-se uma preval&#234;ncia de 1,2% na popula&#231;&#227;o geral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> &#201; considerada uma condi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica, mas pouco se sabe sobre sua evolu&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade. Seu mecanismo &#233; pouco compreendido,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109"><sup>109</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113"><sup>113</sup></xref> incluindo a automaticidade aumentada do n&#243; sinusal, hipersensibilidade beta-adren&#233;rgica, atividade parassimp&#225;tica reduzida e modula&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal prejudicada.</p>
      <p>O in&#237;cio das manifesta&#231;&#245;es geralmente est&#225; associado a evento de estresse, tais como um div&#243;rcio entre os pais de adolescentes, separa&#231;&#227;o ou outro evento familiar maior. Os sintomas geralmente encontrados s&#227;o: palpita&#231;&#245;es, tonturas e s&#237;ncopes, tamb&#233;m podendo ocorrer desconforto abdominal, sudorese, cefaleia, turva&#231;&#227;o visual, fadiga, ansiedade, intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, mialgia e dor tor&#225;cica.</p>
      <p>Hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e exame f&#237;sico devem ser realizados com o objetivo de identificar poss&#237;veis causas para a taquicardia, tais como: hipertireoidismo; medicamentos; uso de subst&#226;ncias ocultas; deflagradores psicol&#243;gicos; ataques de p&#226;nico e descartar SPOT, considerando que ambas entidades compartilham os mesmos sintomas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 7</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t7">
        <label>Tabela 7</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Causas que devem ser descartadas antes de se fazer o diagn&#243;stico de taquicardia sinusal inapropriada</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="33%">
            <col width="1%"/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Condi&#231;&#245;es M&#233;dicas</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#245;es Fisiol&#243;gicas</th>
              <th align="center" valign="middle">Drogas/Subst&#226;ncias</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Hipertireoidismo</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Cafe&#237;na</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Doen&#231;a de Cushing</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Estresse emocional</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">&#193;lcool</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Feocromocitoma</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Dor</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Tabaco</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Anemia</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Febre</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Catecolaminas</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Infec&#231;&#245;es</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Gravidez</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Vasodilatadores</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Desidrata&#231;&#227;o</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Deple&#231;&#227;o de volume</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Subst&#226;ncias com atropina</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Miocardiopatia</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Teofilina</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Ataque de P&#226;nico</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Drogas il&#237;citas</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Pericardite</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Descongestionantes</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Insufici&#234;ncia mitral ou a&#243;rtica</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Simpaticomim&#233;ticos</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle">Horm&#244;nios da tireoide</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica</td>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <attrib>Fonte: pr&#243;prio autor e adaptada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110"><sup>110</sup></xref></attrib>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Os pacientes devem ser investigados com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; hipovolemia, que pode ser observada em alguns casos. Entretanto, &#233; necess&#225;rio se descartar doen&#231;a card&#237;aca estrutural para o diagn&#243;stico de TSI. Na hist&#243;ria natural de pacientes com TSI, em geral, n&#227;o h&#225; piora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular decorrente da taquicardia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109"><sup>109</sup></xref> Raramente, no entanto, h&#225; descri&#231;&#227;o de casos isolados de taquicardiomiopatia, desafiando a no&#231;&#227;o de que TSI &#233; sempre condi&#231;&#227;o benigna.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111"><sup>111</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113"><sup>113</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114"><sup>114</sup></xref></p>
      <p>O teste de esfor&#231;o pode ser &#250;til em documentar uma taquicardia exagerada em resposta ao exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico. Os testes auton&#244;micos cardiovasculares, incluindo a resposta da FC tanto &#224; manobra de Valsalva quanto &#224; respira&#231;&#227;o profunda e &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, assim como &#224; variabilidade da FC e &#224; sensibilidade do barorreflexo, n&#227;o t&#234;m demonstrado utilidade cl&#237;nica, portanto n&#227;o devem ser rotineiramente empregados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
      <boxed-text id="box7">
        <caption>
          <title>Taquicardia Sinusal Inapropriada (TSI)</title>
        </caption>
        <p>&#201; definida quando a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em repouso &#233; superior a 100 bpm e a m&#233;dia da FC &#233; maior que 90 bpm no Holter 24 h em adolescentes e adultos jovens. Ocorre mais comumente em mulheres, sem causa que justifique. Est&#225; associada a diversos sintomas acentuados e &#224;s vezes debilitantes, sendo principalmente palpita&#231;&#245;es, tonturas e s&#237;ncopes.</p>
      </boxed-text>
      <p>Os portadores de TSI geralmente apresentam uma perda significativa da qualidade de vida. N&#227;o existem estudos cl&#237;nicos prospectivos, controlados com placebo, para as interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas utilizadas no tratamento, podendo alguns sintomas persistirem apesar do controle da FC.</p>
      <p>Existem algumas evid&#234;ncias de que a ivabradina, na dose de 5 a 7,5 mg, duas vezes ao dia, possa melhorar a qualidade de vida. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115"><sup>115</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116"><sup>116</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117"><sup>117</sup></xref> Al&#233;m disso, parece que a ivabradina pode trazer benef&#237;cios quando associada com o betabloqueador (metoprolol).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118"><sup>118</sup></xref></p>
      <p>Betabloqueadores, isoladamente, n&#227;o s&#227;o &#250;teis e podem causar efeitos colaterais. Outros tratamentos t&#234;m sido propostos, tais como: f&#225;rmacos como a fludrocortisona; clonidina; eritropoietina; medidas n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas, como as meias de compress&#227;o el&#225;sticas; os exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos e, raramente, a abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia, que pode trazer riscos de les&#227;o do n&#243; sinusal, necessitando de implante de marca-passo card&#237;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119"><sup>119</sup></xref> Os pacientes portadores de TSI geralmente requerem aten&#231;&#227;o especial e mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Observa&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A parte II desse artigo, com a descri&#231;&#227;o das manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, cardiovasculares, m&#233;todos de investiga&#231;&#227;o e tratamento, continuar&#225; nos pr&#243;ximos n&#250;meros da revista.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o contou com fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <p>
          <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
        </p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <p>
          <bold>S&#233;ries Cl&#237;nicas da Sociedade Brasileira de Arritmias Card&#237;acas - SOBRAC</bold>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Dysautonomia: A Forgotten Condition &#8212; Part 1</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8975-1182</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Arrais</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1078-4104</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mehta</surname>
            <given-names>Niraj</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2339-8731</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>T&#225;vora-Mehta</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Zildany Pinheiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7204-8490</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Roncari</surname>
            <given-names>Camila Ferreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8756-5519</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Cidr&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Alan Alves de Lima</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2947-3066</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Elias</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge</given-names>
            <suffix>Neto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Walter Cant&#237;dio da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC) - Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Faculdade de Medicina da UFC, Fortaleza, CE - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica de Eletrofisiologia do Paran&#225;, Curitiba, PR - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; (UFC), Fortaleza, CE - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff11">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Faculdade de Medicina da UFC, Fortaleza, CE - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff12">
          <label>6</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Vit&#243;ria</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Eletrofisiologia do Vit&#243;ria Apart Hospital, Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><bold>Mailing Address: Eduardo Arrais Rocha</bold> &#8226; Av. Padre Ant&#244;nio Tom&#225;s, 3535/ 1301. Postal Code <postal-code>60190-120</postal-code>, Fortaleza, CE - Brazil. E-mail: <email>eduardoarraisrocha@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Rocha EA; Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of the data, Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Rocha EA, Mehta N, T&#225;vora-Mehta MZP, Roncari CF, Cidr&#227;o AAL, Elias Neto J; Statistical analysis: Elias Neto J</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>The authors report no conflict of interest concerning the materials and methods used in this study or the findings specified in this paper.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract &#8212; Key Points</title>
        <p>Dysautonomia covers a range of clinical conditions with different characteristics and prognoses. They are classified as Reflex Syndromes, Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS), Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Neurogenic Orthostatic Hypotension (nOH) and Carotid Sinus Hypersensitivity Syndrome. Reflex (vasovagal) syndromes will not be discussed in this article.</p>
        <p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Reflex (vasovagal) syndromes are mostly benign and usually occur in patients without an intrinsic autonomic nervous system (ANS) or heart disease. Therefore, they are usually studied separately.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN) is the term most currently used to define dysautonomia with impairment of the sympathetic and/or parasympathetic cardiovascular autonomic nervous system. It can be idiopathic, such as multisystemic atrophy or pure autonomic failure, or secondary to systemic pathologies such as diabetes mellitus, neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson's disease, dementia syndromes, chronic renal failure, amyloidosis and it may also occur in the elderly.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>The presence of Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN) implies greater severity and worse prognosis in various clinical situations.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Detection of Orthostatic Hypotension (OH) is a late sign and means greater severity in the context of dysautonomia, defined as Neurogenic Orthostatic Hypotension (nOH). It must be differentiated from hypotension due to hypovolemia or medications, called non-neurogenic orthostatic hypotension (nnOH).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>OH can result from benign causes, such as acute, chronic hypovolemia or use of various drugs. However, these drugs may only reveal subclinical pictures of Dysautonomia. All drugs of patients with dysautonomic conditions should be reevaluated.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Precise diagnosis of CAN and the investigation of the involvement of other organs or systems is extremely important in the clinical suspicion of pandysautonomia.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>In diabetics, in addition to age and time of disease, other factors are associated with a higher incidence of CAN, such poor glycemic control, hypertension, dyslipidemia and obesity. Among diabetic patients, 38&#8211;44% can develop Dysautonomia, with prognostic implications and higher cardiovascular mortality. In the initial stages of DM, autonomic dysfunction involves the parasympathetic system, then the sympathetic system and, later on, it presents as orthostatic hypotension.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Valsalva, Respiratory and Orthostatic tests (30:15) are the gold standard methods for the diagnosis of CAN. They can be associated with RR Variability tests in the time domain, and mainly in the frequency domain, to increase the sensitivity (protocol of the 7 tests). These tests can detect initial or subclinical abnormalities and assess severity and prognosis.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>The Tilt Test should not be the test of choice for investigating CAN at an early stage, as it detects cases at more advanced stages. Tilt response with a dysautonomic pattern (gradual drop in blood pressure without increasing heart rate) may suggest CAN.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Treatment of patients at moderate to advanced stages of dysautonomia is quite complex and often refractory, requiring specialized and multidisciplinary evaluation. There is no cure for most types of Dysautonomia at a late stage.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>NOH patients can progress with supine hypertension in more than 50% of the cases, representing a major therapeutic challenge. The immediate risk and consequences of OH should take precedence over the later risks of supine hypertension and values greater than 160/90 mmHg are tolerable. Sleeping with the head elevated (20&#8211;30 cm), not getting up at night, taking short-acting antihypertensive drugs for more severe cases, such as losartan, captopril, clonidine or nitrate patches, may be necessary and effective in some cases.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Preventive measures such as postural care; good hydration; higher salt intake; use of compression stockings and abdominal straps; portioned meals; supervised physical activity, mainly sitting, lying down or exercising in the water are important treatment steps.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Various drugs can be used for symptomatic nOH, especially fludrocortisone, midodrine and droxidopa, the latter not available in Brazil. The risk of exacerbation or triggering supine hypertension should be considered.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome represents a form of Dysautonomia and has been renamed as a systemic disease of exercise intolerance, with new diagnostic criteria: 1 - Unexplained fatigue, leading to occupational disability for more than 6 months; 2 - Feeling ill after exercising; 3 - Non-restorative sleep; 4 - One of the following findings: cognitive impairment or orthostatic intolerance. Several pathologies today have evolved with chronic fatigue, being called chronic diseases associated with chronic fatigue.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), another form of presentation of dysautonomic syndromes, is characterized by sustained elevation of heart rate (HR) &#8805;30 bpm (&#8805;40 bpm if &lt;20 years) or HR &#8805;120 bpm, in the first 10 minutes in an orthostatic position or during the tilt test, without classical orthostatic hypotension associated. A slight decrease in blood pressure may occur. Symptoms appear or get worse in an orthostatic position, with dizziness, weakness, pre-syncope, palpitations, and other systemic symptoms being common.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Dysautonomia</kwd>
        <kwd>Syncope</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypotension Orthostatic</kwd>
        <kwd>Chronic Fatigue Disease</kwd>
        <kwd>Amyloidosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Chagas Disease</kwd>
        <kwd>COVID-19</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy</kwd>
        <kwd>Carotid Sinus Hipersensitivity</kwd>
        <kwd>Diabetes mellitus</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <boxed-text id="box8">
        <caption>
          <title>Vasovagal Syndromes x Dysautonomia</title>
        </caption>
        <p>Vasovagal syndromes are clinical situations that are different from cardiovascular autonomic neuropathies, as they do not represent intrinsic diseases in the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), resulting from reflex, transient, benign mechanisms, therefore having a favorable prognosis.</p>
      </boxed-text>
      <sec>
        <title>Dysautonomia: A frequent and underdiagnosed condition</title>
        <p>The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates important functions in various organic systems such as cardiovascular, digestive, genital-urinary and sudomotor systems. Its dysfunctions can determine several clinical manifestations, some of which are debilitating and serious. Various pathologies can compromise the ANS and determine symptoms, increasing the risk of syncope, falls and higher cardiovascular mortality. Due to the different clinical manifestations and the poor familiarity of professionals, Dysautonomia is often underdiagnosed, being recognized at more advanced stages, with debilitating and incapacitating symptoms and worse prognosis.</p>
        <p>The term cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) means involvement of the autonomic nervous system, related to cardiovascular functions. Diabetes mellitus (DM) represents the most common and studied form of CAN and serves as a model for understanding and investigating several other pathologies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In the diabetic population, it is known as Diabetic Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy, with a prevalence of 20% in patients with DM, up to 54% in type 1 (DM1) and 46% in type 2 (DM2), between 40 and 70 years. In diabetics, in addition to age and time of disease, other factors are associated with a greater risk of CAN, such as poor glycemic control, hypertension, dyslipidemia and obesity. In the initial stages of DM, autonomic dysfunction involves the parasympathetic system, then the sympathetic system and, later, it evolves to orthostatic hypotension.</p>
        <p>The cardiovascular autonomic nervous system modulates heart rate, diastolic and systolic volumes, QT interval and systemic vascular resistance. Its impairment is related to increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.</p>
        <p>The purpose of this review is to provide relevant information on the different forms of autonomic dysfunctions, their clinical manifestations, diagnostic and therapeutic methodologies, and prognostic implications. We emphasize the importance of diagnosis, of its distinction with vasovagal reflex syndromes and the need for greater dissemination of information on these pathologies, since it is little remembered in general clinical practice. Reflex vasovagal syndromes will not be addressed in this chapter.</p>
        <p>Various guidelines were considered in this review, including: Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN) Guidelines, Consensus Statement on Neurogenic Orthostatic Hypotension and Supine Hypertension, Syncope Guidelines, Guidelines on CAN in Diabetics, Guidelines on Cardiovascular Tests in Autonomic Neuropathy, Consensus Statement on the Investigation of Autonomic Dysfunction in Human Research Studies, Consensus Statement on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome and Inappropriate Sinus Tachycardia, and other studies. Discussions between specialists of the Brazilian Society of Cardiac Arrhythmias were included, considering the lack of major studies on various topics covered in this study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Physiology of the Autonomic Nervous System</title>
        <p>The autonomic nervous system (ANS) plays an important role in the control of visceral functions through the sympathetic and parasympathetic subdivisions.</p>
        <p>The ANS provides neurovegetative adjustments for the expression of motivated behaviors or compensatory responses to internal and external stimuli in order to promote the maintenance of homeostasis, along with the endocrine system. The term &#8220;autonomic nervous system&#8221; was proposed by Langley, in 1898, as the nomenclature used until then had different connotations and were inaccurate as to the recently discovered functions of this system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
        <p>For easier comprehension the ANS is commonly analyzed for its anatomical, neurochemical and functional aspects. The basic organization involves two neuronal groups arranged in series and connected by a chemical synapse. The second neuron in this series is completely outside the central nervous system and its cellular body is located in the autonomic ganglia, from where axonal projections come out, which will innervate the target organs; hence their denomination as postganglionic neurons.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The neurons that send axonal which send axonal projections from the central nervous system to the ganglia, making synapse with the cellular bodies present in these structures are called preganglionic neurons.</p>
        <p>The anatomical difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic ANS concerns the location of the cellular bodies of preganglionic neurons. Sympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal cord and the parasympathetic ones are located in the brain stem and in the sacral segments of the spinal cord.</p>
        <p>Regarding neurochemistry, all preganglionic neurons are cholinergic and use acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter. Despite some exceptions, parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release acetylcholine in the target organ, while sympathetic postganglionic neurons release noradrenaline.</p>
        <p>The adrenal medullary cells are homologous to the sympathetic postganglionic neurons nd primarily secrete adrenaline and, to a lesser extent, norepinephrine directly into the bloodstream, in response to stimulation by sympathetic preganglionic neurons.</p>
        <p>Finally, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems differ as to the responses triggered in the target organs. A few structures receive single innervation, while most organs receive double innervation. The responses induced by sympathetic and parasympathetic ANS stimulation can be antagonistic or cooperative.</p>
        <p>As shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">figure 1</xref>, systemic blood vessels are innervated by sympathetic ANS. Greater activation of &#945;<sup>1</sup>-adrenergic receptors through increased sympathetic tone or adrenaline release by the adrenal gland causes vasoconstriction in most systemic blood vessels, especially in the vessels of the abdominal viscera, an important vascular resistance bed with great influence on the determination of blood pressure (BP).</p>
        <fig id="f7">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Schematic representation of heart and blood vessels innervation by the sympathetic and parasympathetic ANS. Parasympathetic neurons are represented in red and sympathetic neurons are represented in green. SA node &#8212; sinoatrial node; AV node &#8212; atrioventricular node. For better viewing, a single schematic spinal segment was represented and the images are not represented on the same graphic scale.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>In contrast, reduced sympathetic tone or plasma levels of adrenaline results in vasodilation. Coronary blood vessels particularly express &#946;<sup>2</sup> receptors and undergo vasodilation in response to adrenaline.</p>
        <p>The heart is innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figure 1</xref>). Cardiac parasympathetic innervation is directed to the sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodes and acetylcholine binds to the M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors expressed in the nodal cells, inducing a negative chronotropic effect. On the other hand, sympathetic ANS innervates both the SA and AV nodes, as well as the ventricular muscle. Noradrenaline induces positive chronotropic and inotropic effects by acting on &#946;<sup>1</sup>-adrenergic receptors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref></p>
        <p>All cardiac cells, in principle, have the electrical property of automatism; however, under physiological conditions, SA nodal cells present spontaneous depolarization in a higher frequency and take control of the heartbeat, and are thus considered the cardiac pacemaker.</p>
        <p>Upon pharmacological blockade of muscarinic and &#946;-adrenergic receptors, the intrinsic heart rate generated by the sinoatrial node is approximately 100 beats per minute, suggesting that there is a predominance of parasympathetic influence on the heart.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> For BP adjustments, the sympathetic and parasympathetic tone for the heart and blood vessels are often modified by the baroreflex.</p>
        <p>Blood pressure (BP) is constantly monitored by high-pressure baroreceptors (stretch receptors) found in the aortic arch and carotid sinus, which send signaling through the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerve, respectively, to the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), located in the dorsomedial portion of the medulla.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref></p>
        <p>When BP is high, the baroreceptors are more activated and, by baroreflex mechanisms, there is an increase in parasympathetic tone and a reduction in sympathetic tone to the heart and blood vessels. Increased baroreceptor firing rate activates the NTS, which in turn activates the nucleus ambiguus (NA), the bulbar nucleus where the parasympathetic preganglionic neurons cellular bodies are located, resulting in an increase in parasympathetic tone. In parallel, the NTS also activates the caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM), which sends inhibitory projections to the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM). RVLM neurons are considered pre-sympathetic, because they project into the spinal cord intermediolateral cell column and synapse with the cellular bodies of sympathetic preganglionic neurons. Therefore, the greater activity of CVLM results in inhibition of RVLM and, consequently, reduction of sympathetic tone.</p>
        <p>On the other hand, the lower activity of baroreceptors when BP is decreased results in: 1) less NA activation and, therefore, reduction of parasympathetic tone; and 2) less CVLM activation and, consequently, greater RVLM activity and increased sympathetic tone to the heart and blood vessels.</p>
        <p>Changes in the normal functioning of the baroreflex mechanism can trigger pathological conditions called dysautonomia, such as neurogenic orthostatic hypotension, for example. The change from the supine to the orthostatic position increases the gravitational resistance to venous return, resulting in decreased end diastolic volume and, consequently, systolic volume (SV), observed in several pathologies.</p>
        <p>BP is directly proportional to total peripheral resistance and cardiac output, the latter being the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute, that is, SV multiplied by heart rate (HR).</p>
        <p>Thus, reduced SV on switching to the orthostatic position induces hypotension. In healthy individuals, this hypotension is transient as the baroreflex mechanisms are quickly activated and cause an increase in contractile force and HR and systemic vasoconstriction, compensatory responses that normalize BP. In individuals with dysautonomia, prolonged hypotension called neurogenic orthostatic hypotension (nOH), may occur.</p>
        <boxed-text id="box9">
          <caption>
            <title>Multiple system atrophy (MSA) &#8212; Shy-Dragger syndrome</title>
          </caption>
          <p>The complete syndrome consists of orthostatic hypotension, bladder and bowel incontinence, loss of sweating, iris atrophy, external eye paralysis, stiffness, tremors, loss of movement, impotence, fasciculations, distal muscle atrophy and evidence of neuropathic lesions. The onset is usually is the 5th&#8211;7th decade of life.</p>
        </boxed-text>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Pathophysiology and clinical presentations</title>
        <p>Various pathophysiological mechanisms have been described in autonomic nervous system (ANS) abnormalities. They may vary depending on specific etiologies, such as diabetes or amyloidosis. Several situations, however, have their causal mechanisms unknown.</p>
        <p>Although other neurotransmitters are important in the regulation of cardiovascular responses, the release of noradrenaline in sympathetic postganglionic nerve endings is the most important mediator of the rapid cardiovascular regulation required in blood pressure balance and cerebral perfusion. Neurogenic orthostatic hypotension represents a deficiency in the responsiveness of this neurotransmitter to postural change.</p>
        <p>Unlike reflex or vasovagal syndromes, in dysautonomia conditions, the reflexes of increased heart rate preceding the clinical picture and bradycardia concomitant with hypotension are not observed.</p>
        <p>In diabetes mellitus, metabolic and vascular abnormalities occur that can justify neurological damage. Hyperglycemia, accumulation of sorbitol, fructose and end products of advanced glycation, with bindings to receptors in the smooth endothelial and muscle cells of vasa nervorum Schwann cells and macrophages may contribute to neurological damage. Oxidative stress leading to depletion of antioxidant cellular enzymes and activation of inflammation cascade, with deterioration of cellular organelles, especially at the mitochondrial level, are other mechanisms that culminate in vascular occlusion, endothelial dysfunction and neuroinflammation, determining toxicity and neuronal death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Sinucleinopathy, a condition that involves Parkinson's Disease, Lewy body dementia, pure autonomic failure (Bradbury and Eggleston syndrome) and multiple system atrophy (Shy and Dragger syndrome), causes intracellular deposition and aggregation of a protein called alpha-synuclein in different areas of the central and peripheral nervous system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Multiple system atrophy (MSA),<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> a more severe and rare idiopathic form, described in 1960, comes in two forms: 1. Parkinsonism: muscle stiffness and bradykinesia are observed (it is different from the classical Parkinson's disease, in which tremors prevail) 2. Cerebellar MSA: ataxia symptoms. Both forms have involvement of the autonomic nervous system.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging of the brain reveal cerebellar, pons or peduncle atrophy, or hypersignal on the pons, known as the hot cross bun sign, which may occur later. Catecholamine dosages are usually normal, as it is a preganglionic autonomic polyneuropathy.</p>
        <p>In pure autonomic failure, of idiopathic etiology, described in 1925 and known as postganglionic autonomic polyneuropathy, the symptoms are gradual, progressive, and may involve severe and debilitating conditions, with severe cardiovascular involvement, severe orthostatic hypotension, with involvement of the genitourinary, digestive and sudomotor systems.</p>
        <p>Because they do not have central neurodegenerative symptoms, brain imaging tests in pure autonomic failure are normal and plasma catecholamine levels are normal or low, but do not show an adequate increase (&gt;50%) with orthostasis, due to diffuse peripheral sympathetic denervation.</p>
        <p>Some toxins can be causal factors, such as lead, thallium or arsenic poisoning, or use of some drugs such as chemotherapy drugs of the cisplatin class or vinca alkaloids, antiarrhythmic drugs such as amiodarone or vitamin deficiencies such as vitamin B12 deficiency.</p>
        <p>Rare cases of family origin may occur, such as Hereditary Sensory and Autonomic Neuropathy (HSAN). These are divided into: Type I HSAN, which is lighter and starts in adult life, with distal sensory and autonomic involvement, and foot ulcers; type II HSAN, rarer, starting in childhood, with more diffuse and severe impairment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Autoimmune etiologies can justify various acute and subacute clinical presentations of pandysautonomia, with some similarities with Guillain-Barr&#233; syndrome (GBS). However, in acute pandysautonomia, somatic fibers are generally spared, unlike GBS. Some degree of autonomic dysfunction is also present in most cases of GBS.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Amyloidosis</title>
          <p>Amyloidosis may occur in the following forms:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>In the most common form, known as light chain (AL) or primary amyloidosis, there is abnormal clonal proliferation of plasma cells. Initially, peripheral sensitive distal neuropathy progresses to broad fibers, with subsequent autonomic failure of multiple affected organs, such as the digestive system, including esophagus and intestine, sudomotor system with alternating anhidrosis with compensatory sweating, renal involvement and nephrotic syndrome and cardiac involvement, with heart failure, arrhythmia and sudden death. In the autonomic evaluation, impairment of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems can be found.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Familial amyloidosis (FA), also called paramyloidosis or Corino Andrade's disease,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> is found in the autosomal dominant form, originally described by Portuguese professor Dr. Corino de Andrade, in 1952. It has a higher incidence between 20 and 40 years of age, evolving to death at 10&#8211;12 years.</p>
              <p>It has a variable phenotype, depending on the geographic region and the mutation. Several forms have been described, such as: Portuguese (type I) or Andrade, Rukovina or Indiana (type II), van Alien (type III) and the Finnish type (type IV). In Brazil, some forms of this pathology have been described.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
              <p>Mutation in the transthyretin (TTR) gene is the best known and studied, with various mutations described in this gen. It begins with symptoms of peripheral neuropathy, which can progress to severe generalized autonomic dysfunction, in addition to cardiological, neurological (sensorimotor peripheral polyneuropathy), visual, genitourinary, renal and gastrointestinal symptoms. Early detection is extremely important, aiming at treatment and preventing progression. Liver transplantation before the disease is advanced can change its course. New promising drugs have been launched, such as Tafamidis (TTR stabilizers), available in Brazil, and Inotersen.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>The secondary form (AA form) is due to chronic pathologies, such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteomyelitis, tuberculosis, renal failure and its evolution depends on the control of the underlying disease.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Cardiac amyloidosis is mainly caused by AL or transthyretin-type FA (ATTR) or by deposition of wild-type transthyretin protein, once called senile cardiac amyloidosis. TTR deposits were found in 16% of patients with degenerative aortic stenosis and in up to 17% of patients with preserved ejection fraction heart failure. The prognosis after cardiac involvement is poor, with survival ranging from 2.5 to 3.6 years. On significantly increased left ventricular wall thickness (&gt;14 mm), despite its low voltage, electrocardiography may suggest the diagnosis, complemented by cardiac nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and technetium pyrophosphate scintigraphy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The randomized study ATTR-ACT, evaluating the safety and efficacy of Tafamidis in patients with cardiac amyloidosis, revealed a reduction in all causes of mortality and hospital admissions after 30 months of follow-up, so Tafamidis started to be prescribed in this pathology, for NYHA (New York Heart Association) functional class (FC) I, II and III heart failure, mainly in the early stages. This was the first therapy to show improved survival of these patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
          <p>In many cases of dysautonomia, reports of recent viral infections are identified, especially by herpesviruses, Epstein-Barr and Coxsackie. Autoantibodies to ganglionic acetylcholine receptors (AChr) were found in 50% of patients with PAF, in 7% of patients with POTS and 0% in controls. The absence of these antibodies does not rule out the diagnosis. Case reports have demonstrated therapeutic success with the application of immunoglobulins in some of these clinical situations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref><sup>-43</sup></p>
          <p>In paraneoplastic syndromes, more commonly in small-cell lung carcinomas, the presence of autoantibodies, especially anti-Hu or ANNA-1, is usually present and clinical presentations are usually acute or subacute.</p>
          <p>The autoimmune theory is reinforced by the appearance of symptoms after viral conditions, feverish conditions, after vaccination and in patients with previous autoimmune diseases, such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis, celiac disease and systemic lupus erythematosus.</p>
          <p>Studies have shown that the autoimmune theory may be the pathophysiological mechanism of the &#8220;idiopathic&#8221; forms of some dysautonomic syndromes, such as pure autonomic failure (PAF), POTS or chronic fatigue syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Anti-nicotinic cholinergic receptor antibodies have also been described. Authors have recently demonstrated the mechanism by which autoantibodies cause vasodilation and tachycardia. These findings may have important therapeutic implications. In the presence of anti-acetylcholine antibodies, the use of drugs such as pyridostigmine may be beneficial. In the presence of adrenergic antibodies, beta-blockers could be the best choice.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Chagas Disease</title>
          <p>Cardiac dysautonomia is well established in Chagas disease (ChD), in which anatomical denervation and functional abnormalities have been described in in vivo, post-mortem and experimental studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>-46</sup> Carlos Chagas&#8217; original studies already called attention to the absence of a chronotropic response to atropine in patients with Chagas disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> In addition to denervation, other autonomic nervous system abnormalities, such as ganglionitis, neuritis, fibrosis, atrophy and fragmentation of specialized fibers have also been reported.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Parasympathetic impairment can be detected in all forms of ChD, including the indeterminate and independent phase of left ventricular function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref> These data were corroborated by a meta-analysis that included seven studies that evaluated cardiac autonomic modulation, using R-R variability during the Valsalva maneuver.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Studies with metaiodobenzylguanidine I-<sup>123</sup> (<sup>123</sup>I-MIBG) have detected indeterminate form sympathetic dysfunction in Chagas disease patients without left ventricular systolic dysfunction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG scintigraphy was also used to assess the presence and magnitude of sympathetic dysfunction in patients with Chagas cardiomyopathy and ventricular dysfunction (EF&#8804;45%). The authors observed decreased <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG uptake, indicating dysfunction of sympathetic receptors and loss of integrity of the presynaptic sympathetic fibers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></p>
          <p>An aspect that requires further clarification is the role of immune-mediated mechanisms in Chagas cardiomyopathy. In fact, many studies have demonstrated the presence of antibodies that react with cardiac muscarinic M2 receptors and B1 adrenergic receptors in the serum of asymptomatic Chagas disease patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref></p>
          <p>These autoantibodies could play a role in the pathogenesis of Chagas myocarditis, explaining cardiac neuromyopathy, described in the indeterminate phase.</p>
          <p>Another topic that is poorly evaluated in Chagas dysautonomia is the investigation of orthostatic hypotension. In the ELSA-Brasil study, patients with positive ChD serology had a greater association with orthostatic hypotension (OR=2.29 &#8212; 95% CI: 1.2&#8211;4.2).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref> In fact, there are inconsistent results in the evaluation of vascular control in Chagas disease patients (8). In contrast to other disorders with wide ANS involvement (for example, DM and amyloidosis), the presence of orthostatic hypotension in ChD is not usually described.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Early autonomic impairment in ChD suggests that cardiovascular dysautonomia may be associated with increased morbidity and mortality, cardiac arrhythmia and sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref> It could be one of the central pillars in several clinical manifestations, such as diastolic and/or systolic dysfunction, ventricular dilation, tachyarrhythmia and bradyarrhythmia and sudden cardiac death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> Cardiac autonomic dysfunction must be a determinant or a predisposing pathophysiological risk factor in the genesis of arrhythmia. Greater arrhythmogenic vulnerability is observed in cases with more focal autonomic dysfunctions than in cases with more diffuse and significant injuries, due to a greater degree of central nervous system disconnection, with less susceptibility to ANS interference in cardiac electrophysiological properties.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref></p>
          <p>The observation of sustained ventricular tachycardia in patients with Chagas cardiomyopathy, with preserved ventricular function and regional myocardial sympathetic denervation (detected by <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG scintigraphy), as well as during orthostatic stress in a patient with mild impairment of ventricular function and no significant baseline electrocardiographic abnormalities lead to an alleged role of autonomic dysfunction in the pathophysiology of rhythm disorders in Chagas cardiomyopathy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref></p>
          <boxed-text id="box10">
            <caption>
              <title>Orthostatic Hypotension &#8212; A Sign of Late Stage and Severity</title>
            </caption>
            <p>The detection of neurogenic orthostatic hypotension (nOH) usually represents a late stage and severity, correlated with worse prognosis. Therefore, one should not wait for its presence for diagnosis of dysautonomia. Patients with known pathologies or symptoms that compromise the ANS should be investigated early.</p>
          </boxed-text>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Classification of Clinical Syndromes</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN)</title>
          <p>CAN is a term widely used by the Societies of Diabetes and Autonomic Neuropathy to express impairment of the cardiovascular autonomic nervous system in the presence of diabetes mellitus, but the term is not restricted to this pathology.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> CAN includes ANS involvement, from the pre-clinical stage, which may have prognostic implications, such as glucose intolerance or pre-diabetes. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figure 2</xref>)</p>
          <fig id="f8">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Causes of dysautonomia.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Source: prepared by the author. The image includes examples as different causes of acute or chronic, central or peripheral autonomic dysfunctions. Some pathologies can present in different ways. POTS: Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>The expression neurogenic orthostatic hypotension, widely used by arrhythmologists and cardiologists, links the need for the presence of OH to define the diagnosis, a situation that, when detected, may represent a late and more severe stage, often with irreversibility of the condition.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Neurogenic Orthostatic Hypotension (nOH) and Supine Hypertension</title>
          <p>Orthostatic hypotension is defined by the presence of reduced systolic blood pressure (BP) of at least 20 mmHg or diastolic BP of 10 mmHg or both, within 3 minutes after active orthostatic position or during the tilt test.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref></p>
          <p>In patients with nOH, impairment of the autonomic nervous system is observed, characterized by the inability to provide adequate vasoconstriction and/or adequate compensatory increase in heart rate (HR), sufficient to maintain BP in an orthostatic position. In most cases, this dysfunction is attributed to the insufficient release of norepinephrine from the sympathetic nerves.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
          <p>While in nOH impaired vasoconstriction is due to permanent damage in the efferent sympathetic activity, in non-neurogenic orthostatic hypotension (nnOH), it includes a variety of causes, such as the use of medications, antihypertensives, antidepressants, and alpha-blocking agents (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Table 1</xref>), in addition to volume depletion and chronic diseases that lead to physical deconditioning.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Medications that can cause orthostatic hypotension or exacerbate symptoms of neurogenic orthostatic hypotension</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Class of medications</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Examples</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dopaminergic drugs</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Levodopa, dopamine agonists</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Tricyclic antidepressants</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Amitriptyline, nortriptyline</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Anticholinergics</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Atropine</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8595; Pre-load <break/>Diuretics <break/>Nitrates <break/>Phosphodiesterase inhibitors</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, spironolactone <break/>Isosorbide dinitrate <break/>Sildenafil, vardenafil</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Vasodilators <break/>Alpha-1 adrenergic antagonists <break/>Ca++ blockers <break/>Direct vasodilators</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Doxazosin, tamsulosin <break/>Amlodipine, nifedipine <break/>Hydralazine</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Negative inotropes and chronotropics <break/>Beta-blockers <break/>Non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Propranolol, metoprolol, atenolol, bisoprolol, nebivolol, carvedilol <break/>Diltiazem, verapamil</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Central action sympatholytics</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Clonidine, methyldopa</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Renin-angiotensin system antagonists <break/>Converting enzyme inhibitor <break/>Angiotensin blockers</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Captopril, enalapril, perindopril <break/>Losartan, telmisartan, candesartan</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>Source: Adapted<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>It is important to differentiate nOH from nnOH due to the worse prognosis of nOH, with greater morbidity and mortality from all causes. Furthermore, studies point out that the presence of OH in middle-aged individuals predisposes to myocardial hypertrophy even in the absence of hypertension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> The incidence of OH increases with age, as well as hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular or degenerative diseases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Patients with one of the five categories below are at increased risk for nOH compared to the general population and should be routinely investigated (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figure 3</xref>):</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Suspected or diagnosed with any degenerative disease associated with autonomic dysfunction, including Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, pure autonomic failure or dementia by Lewy bodies;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>History of unexplained falls or syncope;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Presence of peripheral neuropathy;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Age &#8805;70 with a high degree of fragility or use of multiple medications;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Dizziness or unspecific orthostatic symptoms.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f9">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Flowchart of Evaluation and Follow-up of Dysautonomia or Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN)</title>
              <p>
                <list list-type="order">
                  <list-item>
                    <p>It occurs idiopathically, as in multiple system atrophy or pure autonomic failure, or in pathologies such as diabetes mellitus, neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson's disease, dementia syndromes, chronic renal failure, amyloidosis, some neoplastic diseases and in the elderly.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Electrocardiogram to assess heart rate and QT interval.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Neurological tests such as electromyography, brain resonance imaging, cardiological tests such as 24-h Holter, ischemia evaluation.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Laboratory tests including complete blood count, renal function, cortisol, ACTH, glycemic profile, plasma catecholamines collected lying down and immediately after orthostasis, neoplastic and autoimmune disease markers, and others (see specific section).</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>As recommended by international guidelines on diabetics.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>SGLT2 &#8212; Diabetes medications &#8212; sodium-glucose co-transporter inhibitors used to treat diabetes</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p>Patients with very frequent extrasystoles, atrial fibrillation, cardiac pacemaker and advanced cognitive dysfunction cannot be evaluated using this methodology. Consider that several drugs must be suspended for the examination and the values of the measurements must be correlated with normal values for age and sex.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </p>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Source: prepared by the author.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>After identifying that a patient is at risk for orthostatic hypotension, it is important to measure BP and HR in the supine position (after 5 minutes lying down) and in the first and third minutes after the orthostatic position, which is considered the gold standard for OH diagnosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> These values must also be measured after 5 minutes of orthostasis.</p>
          <p>An alternative method would be taking these measurements after the patient has been 5 minutes in the sitting position, then after 3 minutes in the orthostatic position. Many of these patients still have supine hypertension (systolic BP &#8805;140 mmHg and/or diastolic BP&#8805;90 mm Hg). In this situation, it is recommended to consider OH if there is a drop in systolic BP&#8805;30 mmHg and/or diastolic BP&#8805;10 mmHg.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
          <p>HR measurements also vary from supine position (and/or sitting position) to orthostatic position and help to differentiate nOH from nnOH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> In individuals with OH, a compensatory HR increase of at least 15 bpm is expected within 3 minutes in the standing position. If this does not occur, OH is possibly neurogenic (as long as there is no concomitant use of negative chronotropic medication or conduction system disease or patient with a pacemaker).</p>
          <p>A review of the prescribed drugs should be carried out in order to avoid effects on the baroreflex response (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">table 1</xref>), especially alpha- and beta-adrenergic blockers and centrally acting alpha-2 agonists.</p>
          <p>Some patients may have postprandial hypotension, particularly after large meals rich in carbohydrates, combined with alcoholic beverages. In these conditions, BP measurements in the supine and orthostatic position should be performed before and after the meal, which can usually occur up to 90 minutes after the meal.</p>
          <p>Symptoms of orthostatic intolerance may occur in patients without orthostatic hypotension detectable on clinical examination due to impaired peripheral vasoreactivity and venous return. In these cases, reduced stroke volume is observed during hemodynamic monitoring in the orthostatic tilt test. The compensatory HR response is sufficient to maintain blood pressure at acceptable levels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref></p>
          <p>Complementary investigation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">table 2</xref>) is applied to uncover potential non-neurogenic causes of OH.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
          <table-wrap id="t9">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Investigation of patients with orthostatic hypotension (OH)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Diagnostic tests</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle"/>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiography</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Evaluate rhythm and conduction disorders, hypertrophy, low voltage</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Complete blood count</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Evaluate anemia and/or infection</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Metabolic profile (sodium, potassium, calcium, creatinine, urea, fasting glucose, glycated hemoglobin, bicarbonate); Urinary sodium in 24 hours</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Volume depletion (urea/creatinine ratio &gt;20 mg/dl; kidney failure or diabetes or metabolic disorders</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">TSH, free T4, Cortisol, ACTH, vitamin B12</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Thyroid and adrenal dysfunction and vitamin B12 deficiency</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Serum albumin</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Malnutrition and chronic disease</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Enzymes and liver function</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">In patients with weight loss, suspected alcoholism</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Study of autoantibodies (ANNA-1; ANNA-2, Anti-AChr, LGI1, and others) in cerebrospinal fluid and/or blood</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Recent onset OH, suspected paraneoplastic syndrome, pure autoimmune autonomic failure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Serum and urinary protein electrophoresis, protein immunofixation <break/>Nerve biopsy, abdominal fat with Congo red stain</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">In patients with peripheral neuropathy, suspected amyloidosis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Plasma catecholamines in decubitus and after orthostasis</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Pure autonomic failure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Serology for arboviruses (dengue fever), for COVID-19, HIV serology</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Investigation according to clinical history</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Investigation for collagenoses (autoantibodies such as FAN, anti-DNA, anti-SM, Anti-RNP)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Suspected collagenoses</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>Source: Adapted;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> Anti-AChR: Autoantibodies to ganglionic acetylcholine receptors (AChR); ANNA: anti-neuronal nuclear antibodies; anti-RNP: anti-ribonucleoprotein antibodies; HIV: acquired immunodeficiency virus. COVID-19: Infection with the new coronavirus has been associated with dysautonomic forms such as the chronic fatigue syndrome.</attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>If the standardized blood pressure measurements for the diagnosis of OH are not effective for the diagnosis, other approaches can be taken:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Advise the patient to measure BP and HR at home in different situations:</p>
              <list list-type="alpha-lower">
                <list-item>
                  <p>Fifteen minutes after going to bed at night or before getting up in the morning;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Three minutes after taking an orthostatic position, before taking medication or whenever symptoms appear;</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Perform the orthostatic tilt test, which can document an early or late OH;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Perform 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) &#8212; the patient should take notes on lying down and getting up.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>When diagnosis of OH is confirmed, it is important to establish the severity, which depends on the magnitude of the drop in systolic BP, the time of tolerance in the orthostatic position and the magnitude of the symptoms to daily activities.</p>
          <p>A grading scale from 1 to 4 (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">table 3</xref>) was proposed as a stratification of these patients. For grades 3 and 4, it is advisable to refer the patient to a center specializing in the treatment of orthostatic hypotension.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref></p>
          <table-wrap id="t10">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Grading scale for the severity of neurogenic orthostatic hypotension</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Grade</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Signs and symptoms</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Infrequent symptoms/no restriction to stand upright, with 20 to 30 mm Hg drop in SBP</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">2</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;30 mmHg drop in SBP upon orthostasis time &#8805;5 min</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">3</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;30 mmHg drop in SBP upon orthostasis time &lt;5 min or severe impact on daily activities</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">4</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;30 mm Hg drop in SBP in &lt;1 min in orthostasis or functional incapacity.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <attrib>Source: Adapted.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref></attrib>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Orthostatic hypotension may be present in only 30&#8211;50% of patients with pure autonomic failure and in 60&#8211;70% with multiple system atrophy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Pandysautonomia and Evaluation Scores</title>
        <p>Many pathologies can promote the global involvement of the ANS, with impairment of various systems and organs.</p>
        <p>It is called pandysautonomia when there is evidence of systemic dysautonomia: cardiovascular dysautonomia and dysautonomia of various organs. Patients with cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and/or neurogenic orthostatic hypotension should be asked about specific symptoms in other systems.</p>
        <p>Some questionnaires can be used for better clinical evaluation, such as the ASP (Autonomic Symptom Profile), which contains 73 questions and the COMPASS (Composite Autonomic Symptom Scale), which uses the previous scale and quantifies the severity of abnormalities. Validation of these questionnaires has not been done in different clinical contexts. However, the items that comprise it can be used as a screening tool in the suspicion of impairment of other organs. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref><sup>.</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref></p>
        <p>More recently, a new Survey of Autonomic Symptoms (SAS) score was developed and validated, showing better sensitivity in detecting mild autonomic neuropathies, not requiring complementary methods, and it can be a good clinical tool for early detection of autonomic neuropathy (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t11">Table 4</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t11">
          <label>Table 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Survey of Autonomic Symptoms (SAS) questionnaire to diagnose the involvement of different organs and systems in dysautonomia</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Symptoms/Health Problem</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Have you had any of these symptoms in the last 6 months? 1- Yes; 2- No</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">How severe is this symptom? Scale of 1 to 5 (used if symptoms are present)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">1-Darkened vision?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">1 or 2</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">1 &#8211; 5</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">2-Dry mouth or dry eyes?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3-Pallor or cyanosis?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">4-Feeling cold in some regions of the body?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">5-Reduced feet sweating compared to the rest of the body?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">6-Reduced or absent feet sweating after exercising or in hot weather?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">7-Increased hand sweating compared to the rest of the body?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">8-Nausea, vomiting or gas after light meals?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">9-Diarrhea (&gt;3 bowel movements per day)?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">10-Persistent constipation?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">11-Loss of urine?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">12-Erection issues?</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Source: Adapted.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> The presence of 3 or more symptoms resulted in 95% sensitivity and 65% specificity, while the presence of 7 or more points determined 60% sensitivity and 90% specificity. Gastrointestinal symptoms were less correlated with other indexes.</attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome</title>
        <p>It is currently considered a chronic systemic disease that profoundly affects the quality of life of patients. It has been called chronic fatigue or myalgic encephalomyelitis due to the documentation of central and autonomic nervous system abnormalities. This syndrome affects about 2.5 million individuals of all ages in the USA and dramatically reduces productive capacity.</p>
        <p>It is a complex disease that involves deregulation of the central nervous system, the immune system, with dysfunction of the cellular energy metabolism and ionic transport, in addition to cardiovascular abnormalities. It is characterized by persistent and recurrent fatigue after exercise, with no other cause that explains the origin of the symptoms (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">table 5</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
        <table-wrap id="t12">
          <label>Table 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Classical Criteria for the Diagnosis of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="99%">
              <col width="1%"/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Extreme, persistent or recurrent tiredness, without a justified cause, with the following characteristics:</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">1. Recent onset (that is, non-progressive throughout life) or with specific trigger</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">2. Difficulty performing usual professional, physical or social activities</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">3. Meeting at least 4 of the following criteria:</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3.1. Impaired concentration and recent memory</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3.2. Sore throat</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3.3. Cervical or axillary lymph nodes</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3.4. Joint and muscle pain</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3.5. Headache</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3.6. Non-restorative sleep</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3.7. Post-exertional malaise persisting for &gt;24 hours</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Source: Adapted<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref></attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Routine laboratory tests are usually normal. Impaired autonomic regulation of the vascular system is commonly found, especially in deficient response to orthostatic position, resulting in high association with dysautonomia (figures <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">4</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">5</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f10">
          <label>Figure 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Tilt test with hemodynamic measurements, where systolic volume, cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance (PVR) were corrected for body surface, resulting in systolic index (SI), cardiac index (CI) and PVR index (PVRI). 4A. Patient with clinical diagnosis of chronic fatigue. Right after tilting, there is an exaggerated reduction in SI (&gt;30%), initially compensated by the expected increase in PVRI and HR. After 15 minutes of tilting, there is a greater SI reduction associated with a PVRI reduction, instead of the greater compensatory increase expected of the PVRI. Therefore, the compensation to keep the BP stable occurs at the expense of a greater HR increase, which then presents excessive increase (&gt;30 bpm), than in the supine position. This change occurs later (10 minutes after the beginning of the test), not fulfilling the criteria for POTS. 4B. Patient diagnosed with POTS. During the tilt test, an SI reduction is not compensated by a PVRI increase. PVRI decreases, rather than increases, in orthostatic position. Therefore, mean blood pressure (BP) remains stable due to an excessive increase in heart rate (HR) by &gt;30 bpm, occurring in the first 10 minutes of tilting, associated with symptoms, thus fulfilling the POTS criteria. The difference between the two conditions can be, in some cases, only time-related.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
        <fig id="f11">
          <label>Figure 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Tilt test with hemodynamic measures, where systolic volume, cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance (PVR) were corrected for body surface, resulting in systolic index (SI), cardiac index (CI) and PVR index (PVRI). BP &#8212; blood pressure 5A. Patient with orthostatic intolerance. There is no expected PVRI increase. Instead, it presents a progressive reduction compensated by a progressive increase in HR, until the end of tilting, with a slight reduction in BP. The symptoms occur in the presence of a deficit in PVR increase in an orthostatic position. 5B. Patient with late orthostatic hypotension. In this case, there no SI reduction and there is a progressive PVRI reduction during the tilt test. After 10 minutes of tilting, when there is a greater PVRI reduction, which is not accompanied by any additional HR increase, orthostatic hypotension is observed, with symptoms. After 20 minutes, spontaneous recovery of PVRI and BP occurs, with relief of symptoms.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Neuroinflammation can have different triggering factors: brain infection (chronic herpes virus), autoantibodies, neurotoxins or chronic stress, and extra-cerebral inflammatory processes, including the intestine. Low levels of neuroinflammation trigger protective behavioral abnormalities, such as reduced activity, reduced appetite and increased sleep.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Functional magnetic resonance imaging in patients with chronic fatigue demonstrated different responses to visual and auditory stimuli and memory tests, as well as abnormalities in connectivity between areas of the brain. Positron emission tomography demonstrated widespread neuroinflammation and high lactate levels, which correlate with degrees of fatigue. In the spinal fluid, there is a higher rate of proteins related to injury and muscle repair.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Metabolic abnormalities have also been described, resulting in impaired generation of cellular energy from different sources: oxygen, sugar, lipids and amino acids, with high levels of oxidative stress and nitric acid. Many metabolites are found to be below normal levels. This hypometabolic condition is observed in some animals in hibernation and allows animals under threat to slow down the metabolic process of energy consumption to preserve vital functions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Abnormalities of the autonomic nervous system include abnormal heart rate and blood pressure during prolonged orthostatic position, which are not sufficient to deliver diagnosis of POTS, or orthostatic hypotension, but are associated with reduced cerebral flow and cause symptoms.</p>
        <p>In provocative tests of physical, orthostatic and mental challenges, various symptoms are observed, especially after 12 to 24 hours of activity, known as &#8220;post-exertional malaise.&#8221; Patients still have difficulty extracting oxygen during exertion, resulting in reduced anaerobic threshold.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In the last decade, there has been an alarming increase in patients with other associated morbidities, such as chronic pain and functional impairment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> The same diagnostic criteria can be applied: chronic fatigue, chronic pain including headache, sleep disorders, mood disorders, post-exertional malaise, orthostatic and exercise intolerance and difficulty maintaining the usual functional capacity before the onset of symptoms.</p>
        <p>Orthostatic intolerance is defined by the presence of dizziness, light head, visual turbidity and pre-syncope, which get worse in orthostatic position and are alleviated with horizontal posture.</p>
        <p>Chronic diseases associated with chronic fatigue, as well as chronic fatigue alone, typically occur after a triggering event: Viral, bacterial or fungal infection, surgery, car accident, pregnancy, vaccination or after a prolonged period of physical or mental stress. Recently, infection with the new coronavirus (COVID-19) has been shown to affect several areas of the nervous system, with suspected cases of chronic fatigue being reported, causing concern about the possibility of a marked increase of this condition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><sup>68</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In some cases, no precipitating factor is identified, but there may be family history of similar symptoms in first-degree relatives, suggesting a genetic component. Many patients develop anxiety and depression secondary to chronic diseases or as part of the pathophysiological abnormalities of the underlying disease. A significant number of patients have autoimmune and inflammatory markers.</p>
        <p>Objective findings include: orthostatic intolerance to the tilt test, autonomic dysfunction and small fiber neuropathy (in autonomic function tests), hypovolemia and abnormality on functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) tests, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET scan). Conventional MRI shows only non-specific findings.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71"><sup>71</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Despite recent discoveries, there is no highly sensitive and specific method for an accurate diagnosis yet, as there is no effective treatment.</p>
        <p>As part of the treatment of chronic diseases associated with chronic fatigue, psychotherapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and occupational therapy can improve the functional state and reduce the suffering of these patients. Medications are generally used for headache, neuropathic pain, muscle tension, gastrointestinal symptoms and sleep disorders. It is extremely useful to separate the different etiologies of chronic fatigue.</p>
        <p>Mast cell activation syndrome can cause symptoms of chronic fatigue or POTS. In that case, antihistamines can be useful. In connective tissue diseases, anti-inflammatory drugs, immunomodulatory therapy such as chloroquine or intravenous immunoglobulin and corticosteroids can be used to control joint pain and fatigue.</p>
        <boxed-text id="box11">
          <caption>
            <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome &#8212; New criteria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref></title>
          </caption>
          <p>It has been recently recommended that chronic fatigue be renamed Systemic Exertion Intolerance Disease, with new diagnostic criteria:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Unexplained fatigue and consequent occupational disability for more than 6 months;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Post-exertional malaise;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Non-restorative sleep;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Cognitive impairment or orthostatic intolerance.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </boxed-text>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS)</title>
        <p>It is defined as an exaggerated chronotropic response to the change from horizontal posture to orthostasis, persistent and associated with symptoms of orthostatic intolerance (OI).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref> It is the most common cause of OI in the young population. It affects about 500,000 to 3,000,000 individuals in the United States alone, the majority of whom are females (4:1), aged 15 to 25 or at the beginning of their professional lives.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75"><sup>75</sup></xref> Sustained heart rate (HR) increase &#8805;30 bpm (&#8805;40 bpm if &lt;20 years old) or HR &#8805;120 bpm is observed in the first 10 minutes in an orthostatic position or during the tilt test, with no classical orthostatic hypotension associated. A slight decrease in blood pressure may occur.</p>
        <p>Generally, one or more triggering factors are identified: acute stress such as pregnancy, surgery, previous infection, vaccine or traumatic event. Among the most common infections are: the mononucleosis virus (18.6%), respiratory (18%) and gastrointestinal (11.4%) viruses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><sup>76</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77"><sup>77</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In a preliminary evaluation of patients with suspected POTS, in addition to history taking and physical examination, vital signs must be taken in a supine and orthostatic position. Clinical history aims to investigate the potential causes of orthostatic tachycardia, including potential triggers. POTS symptoms are usually exacerbated by exercise, hot weather, dehydration and alcohol intake.</p>
        <p>Electrocardiography and ambulatory ECG monitoring should be performed to rule out potential primary causes of tachycardia and echocardiography and exercise test to check for structural heart disease and heart rate response to exertion. Thyroid function tests, as well as blood count, should be part of the investigation routine, to rule out secondary causes of tachycardia.</p>
        <p>The orthostatic tilt test can be useful to obtain hemodynamic parameters and tolerance to orthostatic position. Extended autonomic evaluation, with analysis of various hemodynamic parameters during the tilt test, is highly recommended in the investigation and differential etiological diagnosis of POTS.</p>
        <p>Continuous and non-invasive BP and ECG monitoring systems, associated with bioimpedance measurements, allow to evaluate systolic volume, peripheral vascular resistance and cardiac output, making it possible to identify the type of hemodynamic disorder found in patients with POTS (Figures <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">4</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">5</xref>).</p>
        <p>POTS is a heterogeneous syndrome resulting from different non-excluding pathophysiological mechanisms. It can be classified into five types, according to the prevailing pathophysiological mechanism: Neuropathic, hypovolemic, hyperadrenergic, secondary to noradrenaline abnormalities or activation of mast cells, and related to joint hypermobility (Ehlers-Danlos syndrome).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><sup>76</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81"><sup>81</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In the neuropathic form, the main mechanism is impairment of peripheral vasoreactivity due to predominantly sympathetic denervation. In these cases, blood volume accumulates in the lower limbs in an orthostatic position and sympathetic system activation results in reflex tachycardia, which is not always compensatory. About 50% of these patients also have peripheral sudomotor denervation, suggesting post-ganglionic sympathetic denervation.</p>
        <p>In the hypovolemic form, 70% of patients have hypovolemia due to excessive fluid retention in the lower compartment of the body. There is reduced tone, increased venous capacitance and reduced systolic volume during the tilt test. This central hypovolemia results in adrenergic activation by the baroreceptors and exacerbated compensatory reflex tachycardia.</p>
        <p>Many patients in this group have reduced total blood volume, both in plasma and in blood cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><sup>78</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref> Paradoxically, some of these patients have low levels of plasma renin and aldosterone activity and high levels of angiotensin II.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><sup>78</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In the Hyperadrenergic form, excessive adrenergic activation causes symptoms that include palpitations, sweating, tremors, anxiety and even hypertension triggered by physical activity or emotional stimulation. The primary hyperadrenergic form is characterized by high levels of plasma norepinephrine due to higher production (1000&#8211;2000 pg/ml), occurring in 5 to 10% of the cases.</p>
        <p>The secondary form consists of a heterogeneous group divided into 3 main categories:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>reduced clearance of synaptic norepinephrine (mutation of loss of function);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>mast cell activation disorder &#8212; characterized by the presence of high urinary methylhistamine;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>pharmacological blockade of norepinephrine transport by drugs that inhibit this transport, such as tricyclic antidepressants and other amphetamine-like drugs, the latter being the most frequently found type.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>In the Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome, a connective tissue disease, with skin hyperelasticity and joint hypermotility, 70% of individuals have POTS and 18% of patients with POTS have diagnostic criteria for the Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, considered an underlying mechanism for the syndrome.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80"><sup>80</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In cases of patients with POTS with the mast cell activation syndrome, an autoimmune factor may be present. These patients have flushed skin and hypertension associated with orthostatic tachycardia. It is not yet clear whether sympathetic activation causes mast cell degranulation or whether mast cell activation causes vasodilation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80"><sup>80</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><sup>82</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In refractory patients, an extensive evaluation at a center specializing in autonomic tests should be considered. Valsalva's maneuvers with beat-to-beat BP measurement may show an exaggerated phase 4, revealing excessive sympathetic activity. Measurement of plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine in a supine and orthostatic position can be useful to identify hyperadrenergic cases, as well as analysis of 24-hour urinary sodium in cases of volume depletion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Anxiety and hypervigilance are often common in patients with POTS. However, HR increase is not due to an anxiety condition, but due to a physiological abnormality. Still, psychological assessment and follow-up can be useful in the clinical management of these patients.</p>
        <p>Physical deconditioning is common to all forms of POTS. Multiple parameters associated with deconditioning are present in these patients: reduced cardiac area and mass (16%), reduced blood volume (20%) and reduced peak oxygen consumption (VO<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref>), compared to sedentary controls. Both bed rest and deconditioning reduce the baroreflex sensitivity to produce vasoconstriction.</p>
        <p>In a study for international registration of POTS, progressive physical conditioning showed volume expansion and increased the cardiac area of patients, resulting in a significant improvement in symptoms. In this study, 71% of patients who completed the training program were free of POTS diagnosis. In a small group followed up for 6 to 12 months, the result was also maintained.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83"><sup>83</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The protocol consisted of 8 months of progressive training with aerobic exercise (3 sessions per week) associated with 2 weekly sessions of low-resistance muscle strengthening exercise, starting in the supine position and progressing to the orthostatic position. Compared to beta-blockers, exercise showed improved quality of life and normalized neurohumoral response, being considered class IIa of indication in international guidelines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83"><sup>83</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84"><sup>84</sup></xref></p>
        <p>There is no class I recommendation for the treatment of POTS. Non-pharmacological measures include increasing fluid intake to 2&#8211;3 liters/day and salt to 10&#8211;12 grams/day. Infusion of up to 2 liters of saline is recommended for acute decompensations (class IIb).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
        <p>If non-pharmacological measures are not effective, pharmacological treatment can be established according to the type of disorder identified (fFgures <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">4</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">5</xref>) or the modified algorithm proposed by Bryarly et al. (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figure 6</xref>).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref></p>
        <fig id="f12">
          <label>Figure 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Treatment algorithm for patients with POTS.</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Source: adapted.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref></attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-116-04-0814-00420-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
        <boxed-text id="box12">
          <caption>
            <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome x Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS)</title>
          </caption>
          <p>Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (SPOT) has been found in 29% of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, while almost 50% of POTS patients have chronic fatigue syndrome.</p>
        </boxed-text>
        <p>Fludrocortisone may be useful in volume expansion, but its effect has not yet been tested in large clinical studies. Midodrine is an alpha-1 adrenergic agonist that increases the contraction of veins and arteries. This medication significantly reduces HR, but to a smaller extent than saline infusion. It has fast action and metabolization time and should be used 3 times a day, while the patient is active, avoiding potential nighttime hypertension.</p>
        <p>Medications such as midodrine associated with a low dose of non-selective beta-blocker (propranolol), fludrocortisone and pyridostigmine are useful in the dysautonomic and hypovolemic forms of POTS. In the hyperadrenergic form, clonidine or alpha-methyldopa can be effective (class IIb).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Sinus node modification by radiofrequency is not recommended and may be harmful, as it eliminates the compensatory mechanism of low cerebral output, which is sinus tachycardia, triggered by the baroreflex action.</p>
        <p>Concomitant symptoms, such as headache and sleep disorders or gastrointestinal problems are often seen in POTS, and should be treated appropriately, as well as cognitive behavioral therapy should be considered.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Carotid Sinus Hypersensitivity and Cardioneuroablation</title>
        <p>The prevalence of carotid sinus hypersensitivity (CSH) varies with age. It is extremely uncommon in individuals aged &lt;50 and exponentially increases with age. In patients with syncope and age over 60, an abnormal carotid sinus response has been observed in up to 22.3%. Therefore, it is a common finding in elderly patients without syncope, especially if they have cardiovascular disease. For this reason, there is a consensus that for the diagnosis of carotid sinus hypersensitivity syndrome there is reproduction of clinical symptoms during carotid sinus massage and previous history of spontaneous syncope, suggestive of reflex origin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85"><sup>85</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86"><sup>86</sup></xref> Positive carotid sinus massage, but no history of syncope, only defines carotid sinus hypersensitivity and not the clinical syndrome (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t13">Table 6</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t13">
          <label>Table 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Definition of Carotid Sinus Hypersensitivity</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="49%">
              <col width="1%"/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">DEFINITION</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Reduced heart rate and/or blood pressure (BP) in response to carotid sinus massage:</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">1. Cardioinhibitory: pause &#8805;3 seconds (usually &gt;6 seconds);</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">2. Vasodepressor: drop in BP &#8805;50 mmHg, with no significant bradycardia;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">3. Mixed: pause &#8805;3 seconds associated with SBP drop &#8805;50 mmHg.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Source: Adapted<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Carotid sinus massage is a class I indication in international guidelines for patients &gt;40 years, with syncope of unknown origin, compatible with reflex mechanism (class I).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Massage is, however, controversial, as asymptomatic patients may present hemodynamic abnormalities with symptoms during maneuver.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref> However, if the syncope is of undetermined origin and the response to carotid sinus massage, in the cardioinhibitory form, reproduces the clinical symptom, there is a presumptive cause of syncope, as the use of a pacemaker in this group of patients improved the symptoms of syncope in some studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Perhaps the best way to confirm the cause of syncope in this context would be by long-term ECG monitoring (external or implantable looper). Although this technique (external or implantable looper) is more accurate to diagnose cases of carotid sinus hypersensitivity in the cardioinhibitory form, it would not be able to identify the vasodepressor forms of hypersensitivity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89"><sup>89</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Carotid sinus massage should be preferably performed with continuous beat-to-beat BP and electrocardiogram monitoring. It is safer when performed at the tilt test facility. Maneuver should be performed with the patient's face rotated laterally, in a supine position and, if negative, it must be repeated in an orthostatic position, on each side, for a maximum of 10 seconds of compression, at the site of greatest carotid pulsation, at an angle formed by the mandible, the cricoid cartilage and the anterior margin of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. It should be avoided in patients with carotid murmur before adequate evaluation.</p>
        <p>Although serious complications are rare (0.24%), the risk of transient ischemic attack must be considered, especially for patients who have previously experienced this event, as well as stroke or carotid artery stenosis &gt;70%, as these are contraindications for the maneuver.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
        <p>The carotid sinus is a baroreceptor that responds to wall stretching, as with high BP.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> In this situation, there is increased vagal tone and reduced sympathetic tone. Otherwise, on reduced BP and reduced vascular wall tension, there is a reduction in baroreceptor triggers, resulting in attenuation of vagal action. Baroreflex stimuli are sent from the carotid sinus to the solitary tract nucleus, where a large number of cardiovascular neurons are located.</p>
        <p>Although the physiology of the carotid sinus baroreflex is reasonably well understood, the pathophysiology of CSH remains unclear.</p>
        <p>Three main pathophysiological mechanisms have been considered:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94"><sup>94</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Atherosclerosis: theoretically, reduced vessel compliance could result in reduced afferent flow of the baroreflex impulse. However, it has been shown that the afferent portion of the carotid sinus reflex is intact in individuals with CSH.</p>
        <p>Sternocleidomastoid muscle denervation:<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92"><sup>92</sup></xref> with age, sternocleidomastoid muscle denervation (demonstrated by electromyography), thus reducing the information sent to the solitary tract nucleus, while the carotid sinus baroreceptors continue to send proper signals to the same nucleus, generating information imbalance. Thus, the head movement may result in afferent signals only from the carotid sinus, being interpreted by the solitary tract nucleus as an increase in BP, triggering an abrupt reduction in BP and HR.</p>
        <p>Generalized autonomic dysfunction: high sympathetic activity has been recently demonstrated in individuals with CSH, symptomatic or asymptomatic, which suggests a generalized autonomic dysfunction.</p>
        <p>The most common clinical manifestations of CSH are syncope, pre-syncope or dizziness during maneuvers with a change in head position. Loss of consciousness, as well as recovery, generally occur suddenly. Injuries resulting from falls are hence commonly observed.</p>
        <p>Elderly patients may refer to episodes as recurrent falls, with no apparent cause. They may not report changes in head position during the fall.</p>
        <p>Regarding treatment of the vasodepressor form of CSH, studies with midodrine<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95"><sup>95</sup></xref> and fludrocortisone<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96"><sup>96</sup></xref> showed improvement of syncope and presyncope symptoms compared to placebo. However, for patients with the cardioinhibitory form, definitive pacemaker implant has been the treatment of choice.</p>
        <p>The decision to implant a pacemaker after a single episode of syncope will depend on the consequence and severity of the injury resulting from this episode. Some small observational randomized studies have shown improvement in clinical symptoms after implantation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref></p>
        <p>However, randomized blinded studies comparing dual-chamber pacemakers versus dual-chamber pacemakers without active stimulation (off) did not show significant improvement in patients with unexplained falls.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88"><sup>88</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90"><sup>90</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97"><sup>97</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98"><sup>98</sup></xref> Neither do large-scale randomized studies testing the use of pacemaker in cardioinhibitory form, raising questions about the recommendations of the current guidelines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97"><sup>97</sup></xref> On the other hand, a meta-analysis of three studies showed 9% recurrence of syncope in patients with active stimulation, versus 38% in the control group (without a pacemaker).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99"><sup>99</sup></xref> This meta-analysis and other review studies are the basis of support for current recommendations for pacemaker implantation with Class IIa indication level, in American<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> and European<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> syncope guidelines.</p>
        <p>Carotid sinus denervation by irradiation or endarterectomy has also been considered in the past as a treatment option.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100"><sup>100</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Regarding the prognosis, there has been no difference in mortality between patients with and without CSH compared to individuals of the same age.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87"><sup>87</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101"><sup>101</sup></xref> However, the consequences of an injury resulting from a fall in an elderly patient cannot be adequately estimated. Therefore, patients must be informed that the risk of recurrent syncope should be reduced, but minor symptoms including pre-syncope may persist, even with therapies implemented.</p>
        <p>Another very promising treatment strategy for reflex syncope resulting from exacerbated vagal activity is a technique known as cardioneuroablation, which consists of modifying vagal activity by catheter ablation, using radiofrequency energy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102"><sup>102</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Pachon et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103"><sup>103</sup></xref> observed that when nerve fibers mix with myocardial cells, they produce changes in their conduction, from compact (uniform conduction with main frequency of 40 Hz, which occurs around very well-connected cells) to fibrillar conduction (conduction with fractional potentials with a frequency greater than 100 Hz). The authors used the fibrillar myocardial pattern (found mainly in the region of the sinus node and atrioventricular node) as a marker of neuromyocardial interface and target sites for cardioneuroablation and achieved clinical improvement of syncope episodes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103"><sup>103</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Exciting results have been described in the literature with fibrillar myocardial ablation around the sinus node and atrioventricular node. During the ablation procedure, the disappearance of high-frequency potentials in these areas resulted in improved sinus and nodal function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104"><sup>104</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Cardioneuroablation has been used to treat patients with carotid sinus hypersensitivity and can be an alternative to implanting a pacemaker, especially in young individuals, as these are more vulnerable to long-term complications.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105"><sup>105</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106"><sup>106</sup></xref></p>
        <p>In summary, ablation of ganglionic plexuses can promote a significant reduction in vagal activity, in the sinus and atrioventricular nodes, and is effective in reducing symptoms in patients with severe neuromediated bradycardia. Due to the different techniques employed, randomized multicenter studies would be necessary to define the effectiveness, the best technique, safety and reproducibility of the method.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107"><sup>107</sup></xref></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Inappropriate Sinus Tachycardia (IST)</title>
        <p>The first case of inappropriate sinus tachycardia (IST) was described in the literature in 1939 by Codvelle and Boucher.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108"><sup>108</sup></xref> A prevalence of 1.2% is currently estimated in the general population.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> It is considered a chronic condition, but little is known about its evolution and mortality. Its mechanism is poorly understood,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109"><sup>109</sup></xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113"><sup>113</sup></xref> including increased sinus node automaticity, beta-adrenergic hypersensitivity, reduced parasympathetic activity and impaired neurohormonal modulation.</p>
        <p>The onset of symptoms is usually associated with a stressful event, such as a divorce of parents of teenagers, separation or another major family event. The symptoms usually found are: palpitations, dizziness, and syncope. Abdominal discomfort, sweating, headache, visual turbidity, fatigue, anxiety, exercise intolerance, myalgia and chest pain may also occur.</p>
        <p>Clinical history and physical examination must be performed to identify the potential causes for tachycardia, such as: hyperthyroidism; medicines; use of hidden substances; psychological triggers; panic attacks, and to rule out POTS, considering that both conditions share the same symptoms (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">Table 7</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t14">
          <label>Table 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Causes that must be ruled out before diagnosing inappropriate sinus tachycardia</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col width="1%"/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Medical Conditions</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Physiological Conditions</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Drugs/Substances</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Hyperthyroidism</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Physical exercise</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Caffeine</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Cushing disease</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Emotional stress</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Alcohol</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Pheochromocytoma</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Pain</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Tobacco</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Anemia</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Fever</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Catecholamines</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Infections</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Pregnancy</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Vasodilators</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Dehydration</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Volume depletion</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Substances with atropine</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Cardiomyopathy</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Theophylline</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Panic attack</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Illicit drugs</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Pericarditis</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Decongestants</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mitral or aortic regurgitation</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Sympathomimetics</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Myocardial infarction</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Thyroid-stimulating hormones</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Orthostatic hypotension</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <attrib>Source: author and adapted.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110"><sup>110</sup></xref></attrib>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Patients should be investigated for hypovolemia, which is observed in some cases. However, it is necessary to rule out structural heart disease for the diagnosis of IST. In the natural history of patients with IST, in general, there is no worsening of ventricular function due to tachycardia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109"><sup>109</sup></xref> However, there are rare descriptions of isolated cases of tachycardiomyopathy, challenging the assumption that IST is always a benign condition.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111"><sup>111</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113"><sup>113</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114"><sup>114</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Stress testing can be useful in documenting exaggerated tachycardia in response to exercise. Cardiovascular autonomic tests, including HR response to Valsalva maneuver, deep breathing and orthostatic position, as well as HR variability and baroreflex sensitivity, have not shown clinical usefulness and, therefore, should not be routinely employed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
        <boxed-text id="box13">
          <caption>
            <title>Inappropriate Sinus Tachycardia (IST)</title>
          </caption>
          <p>It is characterized when the resting heart rate is greater than 100 bpm and the average HR is greater than 90 bpm on 24-h Holter in adolescents and young adults. It occurs more commonly in women, without a reasonable cause. It is associated with various severe and often debilitating symptoms, especially palpitations, dizziness and syncope.</p>
        </boxed-text>
        <p>People with IST usually experience a significant loss of quality of life. There are no placebo-controlled prospective clinical studies for the therapeutic interventions used in the treatment, and some symptoms may persist despite HR control.</p>
        <p>There is some evidence that ivabradine, at a dose of 5 to 7.5 mg, twice a day, can improve quality of life. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115"><sup>115</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116"><sup>116</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117"><sup>117</sup></xref> In addition, it appears that ivabradine may have benefits when associated with beta-blockers (metoprolol).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118"><sup>118</sup></xref></p>
        <p>Beta-blockers alone are not useful and can cause side effects. Other treatments have been proposed, such as: drugs such as fludrocortisone; clonidine; erythropoietin; non-pharmacological measures, such as elastic compression stockings; physical exercises and, rarely, radiofrequency ablation, which may pose risks of sinus node injury, requiring the implantation of a cardiac pacemaker.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119"><sup>119</sup></xref> Patients with IST usually require special attention and lifestyle changes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Note</title>
        <p>Part II of this article, which describes clinical and cardiovascular symptoms, methods of investigation and treatment, will continue in the next issues of the journal.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There was no external funding source for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <p>
            <bold>Study Association</bold>
          </p>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <p>
            <bold>Clinical Series of the Brazilian Society of Cardiac Arrhythmias</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
